iL.
PALEO-ARCHAIC BROAD SPECTRUM ADAPTATIONS
AT THE PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE BOUNDARY
IN FAR WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
by
JUDITH A. WILLIG
A DISSERTATION
Presented to the Department of Anthropology
and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
June 1989
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© 1989 Judith Ann Willig
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An Abstract of the Dissertation of
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il Judith A. Willig for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
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in the Department of Anthropology to be taken
Title: PALEO-ARCHAIC BROAD SPECTRUM ADAPTATIONS AT THE
June 1989
Approved:
PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE BOUNDARY IN FAR
Dr. C. Melvin Aikens
WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultural traditions,
archaeologically indexed by fluted (Clovis) and stemmed projectile point
complexes, represent the earliest human occupation documented in Far
Western North America. The temporal closeness of Western Clovis, dated
roughly from 11,500 to 11,000 B.P., to Western Stemmed complexes known as
early as 11,140 to 10,800 B.P., has generated debate over the age and
historical relationship of these cultures. The frequent co-occurrence of
fluted and stemmed points along the lowest strandlines in pluvial lake
basins has also led scholars to hypothesize an early development of the
characteristically "Archaic" lake-marsh adaptations known from later
periods.
Geoarchaeological research in the northern Alkali Lake Basin of
south-central Oregon has addressed these issues of cultural chronology
and economy by seeking data to test a paleoecological model of human land
use in the basin from 11,500 to 7,000 B.P. The model posits a late
Pleistocene Western Clovis settlement oriented to a small, shallow lake
yea
L
v
or pond, followed by an early Holocene Western Stemmed occupation around
a much larger lake and marsh fringe.
Data gathered through basin-wide site survey, stratigraphic studies,
and high-resolution mapping of lake features and artifacts, support the
model as proposed, and reveal a settlement pattern indicative of a
"tethered" focus on local lake-marsh habitats. Research also verifies the
horizontal separation of fluted and stemmed artifacts on different,
sequent shorelines, indicating that Western Clovis occupation precedes
Western Stemmed, although the two are close in time.
Data from Alkali Basin, and elsewhere, support the notion that Far
Western cultures developed broad-spectrum adaptations much earlier than
was once thought. This implies that the foundations of the Western
Archaic were already in place by 11,000 B.P. In keeping with the adaptive
flexibility embodied within the Desert Culture concept, environmental
data further suggest that this "paleo-Archaic" lifeway developed quickly,
not gradually, in response to punctuated climatic change and the emerging
mosaic of regional habitats which characterized the Pleistocene-Holocene
boundary, at a time when the desert as we know it was just coming into
being.
--------------------~~---~~~------------- -- r
-
vi
VITA
NAME OF AUTHOR: Judith Ann Willig
PLACE OF BIRTH: New Orleans, Louisiana
DATE OF BIRTH: October 5, 1953
GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED:
University of Southwestern Louisiana
University of Oregon
DEGREES AWARDED:
Master of Arts, 1980, University of Oregon
Bachelor of Arts, 1976, University of Southwestern Louisiana
AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST:
Geoarchaeology
Archaeological Sediments, Soils and Stratigraphy
Arid Lands Adaptations and Geomorphology
Paleoecology and Human Adaptation
Environmental and Cultural History of Western North America
at Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary
Reconstruction of Paleoenvironment, Human Settlement and Land Use
Patterns
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:
Instructor, University of Oregon Archaeological Field School,
Steens Mountain Prehistory Project, 1980
Archaeologist, Clearwater National Forest, Idaho, 1981
Graduate Teaching Fellow, Department of Anthropology, University
of Oregon, Eugene, 1981-1982
Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Anthropology,
University of Oregon, 1982-1983
•vii
Assistant Project Co-ordinator, Dietz Archaeological Project,
1984-1986
Director, University of Oregon Archaeological Field School, 1985
Graduate Teaching Fellow, Department of Anthropology, University
of Oregon, 1986-1987
Archaeologist, Boise District BLM, Idaho, 1987-1988
AWARDS AND HONORS:
Phi Beta Kappa, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1974
L. S. Cressman Award, Department of Anthropology, University
of Oregon, 1983
Pi Gamma MU, University of Oregon, 1986
Sigma Xi, University of Oregon, 1986
Homer G. Barnett Fellow, Department of Anthropology, University
of Oregon, 1987
PUBLICATIONS:
Willig, J. A. (editor)
1984 Geoarchaeology in the Northwest: Recent Applications and
Contributions. Tebiwa 21.
Willig, J. A.
1984 Geoarchaeological Research at the Dietz Site and the
Question of Clovis Lake-marsh Adaptation in the Northern
Great Basin. Tebiwa 21:56-69.
1988 Early Human Occupation and Lakeside Settlement Pattern in
the Dietz Sub-basin of Alkali Lake, Oregon. In, Early Human
Occupation in Far Western North America: The Clovis-Archaic
Interface, edited by J. A. Willig, C. M. Aikens and J. L.
Fagan. Nevada state Museum Anthropological Papers 21.
Carson City.
1989 Clovis Technology and Adaptation in Far Western North
America: Regional Pattern and Environmental Context. In,
Clovis: Origins and Human Adaptation, edited by R. Bonnichsen
and K. Fladmark. Center for the study of the First Americans.
Uni versity of Maine, Orono. In press .
viii
Willig, J. A., C. M. Aikens and J. I,. Fagan (editors)
1988 Early Human Occupation in Far Western North America: The
Clovis-Archaic Interface. Nevada state Museum Anthropological
Papers 21. Carson City.
Willig, J. A. and C. M. Aikens
1988 The Clovis-Archaic Interface in Far Western North
America. In, Early Human Occupation in Far Western North
America: The Clovis-Archaic Interface, edited by
J. A. Willig, C. M. Aikens and J. L. Fagan. Nevada state
Museum Anthropological Papers 21. Carson City.
-ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Research conducted since 1983 in the northern Alkali Lake Basin,
and at the Dietz site, has involved the support and contributions of a
multitude of students, faculty and friends, both amateur and
professional, who donated many hours of time in the field and lab.
Initial fieldwork at the Dietz site in May of 1983 was conducted as a
volunteer effort in response to the urgings of Dr. John L. Fagan, to
whom the site had been earlier reported by its discoverer, Dewey
Dietz. Volunteers came from the University of Oregon and Washington
state University, as well as various government agencies. The results
of initial testing at the site by this large and enthusiastic crowd
produced the data necessary to develop subsequent research proposals.
Much of the research was conducted under a cooperative agreement
between the University of Oregon Anthropology Department and the
Bureau of Land Management (BLM). William J. Cannon (Lakeview District
BLM Archaeologist) and Dr. Richard C. Hanes (BLM state Office in
Portland) were particularly instrumental in coordinating joint efforts
and support. Throughout the project, the BLM has provided much in the
way of logistical support: the Poor Jug trailer facility, vehicles,
radios, mapping instruments, and the equipment and personnel needed in
excavating all of the shoreline backhoe trenches. I am especially
grateful to Bill Cannon for the countless hours of his time, for his
endless enthusiasm and for his continuing support in the project.
xI would like to extend special thanks to the crew members of the
1984, 1985 and 1986 field seasons, and to the many friends and
volunteers who gave so much support and encouragement. In 1984, the
research benefited from the cheery, indefatigable field assistance of
Jane Benjamin, the mapping and survey expertise of Wayne R. Tucker,
and the clarity and knowledge of visiting scholar Dr. Jonathan O.
Davis. In 1985, University of Oregon Field School students and
volunteers bore the brunt of the final surface collections and shore
surveys in the basin. This motley crew of 10 was small but powerful
and included Ron L. Barrows, Richard L. Bland, Deborah Day, Dan
Flemmer, Lindley Keeney, William I. Morganti, Elaine Musselman, Amy
Townsend, Wayne R. Tucker and John Witherspoon, assisted by Robert R.
Musil. In fall of 1986, another small but powerful crew of three
assisted in the final mapping and survey efforts: Monique Cushing,
Kevin Donald and Wayne Tucker. Many other volunteers assisted on long
weekends throughout the project. Those who were virtually omnipresent
in the field include William Johnson and Carol J. Winkler. All of
these people displayed a remarkably high level of energy, enthusi.asm
and good humor, despite the most rigorous and trying of conditions.
This was their gift to me, and I owe them very much.
I am especially grateful for the kindness, interest and good
humor of local residents of the Wagontire area, especially Tom, Dot
and Doug Atwell, Jim and Barbara Ballance and Roger and Judy Chase.
These people were my lifeline and family of support during the
fieldwork. I also want to thank my family and my friends for sharing
in the maelstrom and for believing in me over the long haul. Those
xi
familiar with the madness are Patricia A. Dean, Susan Barry and Carol
Winkler, and, more recently, Velma Lemco and the Ferndale Drive gang.
I
Much gratitude is also due to the generosity of those who
contributed financially to the project. The Bowerman Foundation of
Eugene, Oregon provided seed money to the University of Oregon
Department of Anthropology for the first major research trip to the
site in 1983. Most of the research was supported by National Science
Foundation Grant BNS84-06447 and by NSF Dissertation Improvement Grant
BNS87-13659. Funds for artifact illustrations, radiocarbon dating and
other analyses were provided by the Association of Oregon
Archaeologists, by two Archaeological Research Trust Fund Grants
administered through the University of Oregon Anthropology Department,
and by the BLM, Lakeview District and State Offices. All artifacts
will be curated and housed at the Oregon State Museum of Anthropology,
Eugene. All artifact illustrations are the artistic products of
Wyndeth V. Moisan, and many field photographs were taken and donated
by Don Hunter of Eugene, Oregon.
A special tribute goes to Dewey Dietz, for making it all
possible, and to John Fagan for his continuing interest. I want, also,
to thank my brother, John Witherspoon, for showing me the power and
beauty of Wombly and the old ways. From an intellectual and tutorial
standpoint, I would like to thank Dr. Jesse D. Jennings for teaching
me so many good things. And finally, I am most especially indebted to
Dr. C. Melvin Aikens, for his continuing guidance, encouragement and
support over the years. I could not have had a better coach and
friend.
Chapter
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. CHRONOLOGY AND ADAPTATIONS OF WESTERN CLOVIS AND
WESTERN STEMMED CULTURES IN THE FAR WEST........... 1
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Definition of Terms................................ 7
Current Status of Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed Chronology............................... 15
The Problem of the Age and Historical Relationship
of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Economy.... 31
Current Data on Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed Economy.................................. 33
The Problem of Reconstructing the Adaptive Strategies
of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Cultures... 42
Research Needs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Alkali Lake Basin Research Design... 48
II. GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE ALKALI
LAKE BASIN......................................... 78
Regi.onal Environmental Setting..................... 78
Environmental Setting of the Dietz Site
in the Dietz Sub-basin........................... 91
Modeling Paleolandscape, Lake History and Human
Occupation Patterns in the Northern Alkali Lake
Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
III. LAKE HISTORY, PALEOLANDSCAPE AND EARLY HUMAN
OCCUPATION IN THE NORTHERN ALKALI LAKE
BASIN: RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS................... 119
Resul ts of Model Testing........................... 119
Alkali Basin Lake History Reconstruction........... 124
Stratigraphic and Geomorphic Contexts of Fluted
and Stemmed Artifacts in the Dietz Sub-basin..... 150
Descriptions of Lateral Sedimentary Facies
at the D:Letz Site................................ 160
Chapter
IV.
xiii
Page
Problem-oriented Basin-wide Archaeological
Si te Survey...................................... 170
Potential for Buried Occupation Surfaces
in the Dietz Sub-basin........................... 185
Clovis and Stemmed-era Paleolandscape and
Occupation Surfaces in the Northern
Alkali Lake Basin................................ 196
Chronology of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed
Occupation in the Northern Alkali Lake Basin..... 203
Summary of Lake History, Paleolandscape
and Human Occupation Patterns in the
Northern Alkali Lake Basin....................... 218
IMPLICATIONS OF ALKALI LAKE BASIN RESEARCH: REGIONAL
INTEGRATION AND CONCLUSIONS........................ 226
The Research Questions: Chronology
and Adaptations.................................... 226
Relative Dating of Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed Cultures................................... 227
Historical Relationship of Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed Cultures....................... 238
Age and Historical Relationship of Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed Cultures: Conclusions.......... 254
Reconstructing the Paleoeconomy and Adaptive
Strategies of Far Western Cultures at the
Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary...................... 255
Adaptive Strategies at the Pleistocene-Holocene
Boundary: Prospects and Ruminations................ 271
Paleo-Archaic Adaptations at the
Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary in Far Western
North America: A Model of Broad Spectrum Tethered
Foraging with a Mesic Focus..... 281
-
APPENDIX Page
A. STADIA SURVEY DATA................................... 286
B. ARTIFACT LAKE BASIN SITE DATA........................ 289
C. l\RTIFACT TLLUSTRATIONS FOR ALKALI LAKE
BASIN SITES........................................ 338
ENDNOTE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Txiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Major Western Clovis Sites in the Far West................. 10
2. Various Terms and Designations for Western Stemmed
Complexes in the Far West. 11
3. Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Southwestern
Clovis Sites............................................. 21
4. Radiocarbon Dates of Clovis Age in the Far West............ 22
5. Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Western Stemmed
Complexes in the Far West................................ 26
6. Comparison of Pluvial Lake Levels Recorded in the
Alkali Lake and Fort Rock Basins of Oregon... 125
7. Total Number of Western Stemmed Artifact Types (by Code)
Recovered in the Northern Alkali Lake Sub-basin........ 214
•xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Map of Far Western North America Showing locations
of Major Western Clovis and Western Stemmed
Archaeological Sites Discussed in Text.................. 2
2. Location and Topographic Setting of the Dietz
Site (35 LK 1529) in the Northern Sub-basin
of Greater Alkali Lake Basin, Oregon.............. 4
3. Sample of Western Clovis (Fluted) Points from
the Dietz Site.......................................... 5
4. Sample of Western Stemmed Artifacts from the
Dietz Si te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Western Stemmed Point Fragments from the Earliest
Level (Level 10) on Top of Basal Gravels at
Fort Rock Cave (35 LK 1)................................ 29
6. Complete and Near-complete Fluted Points from
the Dietz Site.......................................... 52
7. Complete and Near-complete Fluted Points from
the Dietz Site.......................................... 53
8. Complete (Miniature) Fluted Points and Fluted Point
Tip Fragments from the Dietz Site..... 54
9. Fluted Point Midsection Fragments from the Dietz
Site. I • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 55
10. Fluted Point Base-Midsection Fragments from the
Dietz Site.............................................. 56
11. Fluted Point Base-Midsection Fragments from the
Dietz Site.............................................. 57
12. Fluted Point Base Fragments from the Dietz Site........... 58
13. Fluted Point Base Fragments from the Dietz Site........... 59
14. Fluted Point Base Fragments from the Dietz Site........... 60
TFigure
xvi
Page
I
!
I ~
15. Clovis Artifacts Identified by Fagan (1988) from the
Dietz Site: Flute Flakes, Blanks and Preforms........... 61
16. Miscellaneous Stemmed Point Base Fragments (WS-1) and
Cougar Mountain Points (WS-2) from the Dietz Site.... ... 63
17. Parman (WS-3), Haskett (WS-5), Windust (WS-9) and
Cascade (CA) Points from the Dietz Site...... 64
18. Large (WS-6) and Small (WS-8) Transitional Stemmed
Points and Plano-like Square-based Forms (PS) from
the Dietz Site.......................................... 65
19. Crescent Tools from the Dietz Site........................ 66
20. Large Ground stone Slab (Metate) of Local Tuffaceous
Rock Found in Association with Stemmed Point
Clusters at the Dietz Site. 67
21. Unfluted, Concave-based, Points (CB) and Unique
(Untyped) Fluted or Basally-thinned Points from
the Dietz Site.......................................... 69
22. Unique (Untyped) Concave-based, Shouldered, Fluted or
Basally-thinned Points from the Dietz Site...... ..... ... 70
23. Unique (Untyped) Concave-based, Shouldered, Fluted or
Basally-thinned Points from the Dietz Site.............. 71
24. Miscellaneous Corner-notched (CN) and Untyped Eared
Points from the Dietz Site..... 72
25. Side-notched (SN) and Pinto Shouldered or Notched (PI)
Points from the Dietz Site................ 73
26. Humboldt Series Points (HU) from the Dietz Site........... 74
27. Map of Late Pleistocene Pluvial Lakes in the Great
Basin Showing Location of Alkali Lake Basin and
Other Major Lake Basins Discussed in Text............... 79
28. Location of the Dietz Site (35 LK 1529) in Alkali Lake
Basin, Oregon, in Relation to Other Early Human
Occupation Sites in the Adjacent Fort Rock Basin........ 80
29. Location of the Dietz Site (35 LK 1529) in the Northern
Sub-basin of Greater Alkali Lake Basin, and Locations
of Major Geographic Features Discussed in Text.......... 85
Figure
xvii
Page
30. Project Map for Northern Alkali Basin and Dietz Site
Research Showing Major Points of Reference Discussed
in Text: Major Sites, Collection Units, Grid Systems,
Datum Points, Trenches, Profiles, Lake Features and
Sub-basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
31. Aerial Photo of Northern Alkali Lake Basin and the Dietz
Site, Showing General Topography and Lake Features...... 87
32. Areal Extent of Pluvial Lakes at 1323 m Elevation in
Greater Alkali Lake Basin and the Three Major
Sub-basin Divisions: Northern, Central, Southern.... .... 88
33. Northwest-to-southeast Profile Across the Northern
Sub-basin, from the 1341 m Crest of the Dietz Hill
(A) to the Drainage Divide (A') at Point "Monique",
which Separates the Northern and Central Sub-basins
Below 1323 m Elevation......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
34. Hypothesized 1314.8 m Clovis-era Lake (Lake Koko) and
Marsh in the Dietz Sub-basin, in Relation to the
Distribution of Western Clovis (Fluted) Points at
the Dietz Site '...................... 95
35. Hypothesized 1316 m Stemmed-era Lake (Sand Ridge Lake) in
the Northern Sub-basin, in Relation to Some of the First
Western Stemmed Shoreline Sites Discovered in 1984... ... 96
36. Horizontal Distribution of Stemmed and Fluted Points
at the Dietz site, in Relation to the Lake Levels
Hypothesized During Western Clovis (1314.8 m) and
Western Stemmed (1316 m) Period Occupations............. 97
37. Closer View of Western Stemmed Artifact Distributions
at the Dietz site, in Relation to the Hypothesized
1316 m Lake Level (Sand Ridge Lake)..................... 98
38. Closer View of Western Clovis (Fluted Point)
Distributions at the Dietz Site, in Relation to
the Hypothesized 1314.8 m Lake Level (Lake Koko). 100
39. Closer View of the Dietz Site and Northern Alkali Basin
Project Map Showing Locations of Major Points of
Reference Discussed in Text: Collection Units, Grid
Systems, Artifact Distributions and Trench Profiles..... 106
40. West-east Shore Profile Across the Southern Cove of
the Dietz Site from the Dietz Hill Crest to the
Base of Terrace #2...................................... 129
----------------------- - _.-
---- ..._.- --_.- --
xviii
Figure Page
41. East-west Shore Profile Across the Upper Bench Area in
the Northeastern Sector of the Dietz Sub-basin.......... 131
42. North-south Profile Across the Chase Sub-basin from the
Crest of the Hilltop Site (Site No. 48) to the Crest of
Wayne's Terrace......................................... 132
43. West-east Shore Profile Across the Northern Cove of the
Dietz Site from the Crest of Flemmer's Spit to the
Playa Floor............................................. 134
44. South-North Shore Profile Across the Crescent Sub-basin
from the Crest of Monique's Terrace to the Crest of
Kevin's Terrace......................................... 135
45. North-south Shore Profile Across the Northern Sector
of the Dietz Sub-basin from the Crest of Wayne's
Terrace to the Playa Floor.... 138
46. South-north Shore Profile Across the Southern Sector
of the Dietz Sub-basin from the Crest of Kevin's
.Terrace to the Crest of Lake Koko's Shore Ridge... 140
47. Areal Extent of a Pluvial Lake at 1328 m Elevation in
Greater Alkali Lake Basin (Lake Spoon).................. 141
48. West-east Shore Profile Along the 150N Transect Acros~
the Center of the Dietz Sub-basin From the Sand Ridge
Terrace to the Eastern Crest of the 1314.8 m Shore
Ridge (Lake Koko) Associated with Clovis Occupation..... 145
49. Generalized Shore Profile Illustrating a Typical Lateral
Facies Sequence in a Closed Lake Basin.................. 153
50. Comprehensive West-east Profile Across the Dietz
Sub-basin Along 150N from the Dietz Hill Crest
to the Tucker Site (Site No. 65), Showing the
Horizontal and Vertical Distributions of Stemmed
and Fluted Points in Relation to Major Lake Levels,
Facies and Occupation Surfaces.......................... 155
51. Area Surveyed Archaeologically Along the Hypothesized
Stemmed-era (1316 m) Shoreline (Sand Ridge I,ake) in
the Chase, Dietz and Crescent Sub-basins................ 172
52. Area Surveyed Archaeologically Along the Hypothesized
Clovis-era (1314.8 m) Shoreline (Lake Koko) in the
Dietz Sub-basin......................................... 173
..
Figure
xix
Page
53. Area Surveyed Archaeologically Along the North-south
and East-west Transects in the Crescent, Dietz and
Chase Sub-basins, to Test for Non-lakeside Sites........ 174
54. Results of Archaeological Site Survey along the
Hypothesized Stemmed-era (1316 m) Shoreline... 176
55. Results of Archaeological Site Survey Along the
North-South and East-West Transect Surveys in the
Northern Sub-basin, and Along the Hypothesized
Clovis-era (1314.8 m) Shoreline (Lake Koko)............. 181
56. Stratigraphic Profile at Locality 1: East Shore Trench.... 187
57. Stratigraphic Profile at Locality 2: Tucker Site.......... 191
58. Stratigraphic Profile of Excavated Test Unit at
Locality 2 (Tucker Site) Showing Location of
Buried Paleosol and Occupation Surface. 192
59. Stratigraphic Profile Between Trench Segments #7 and
#9 at the Dietz Site's Southern Cove (Locality 3)
Showing Location of Buried Paleosol Hypothesized
as a Clovis-age Occupation Surface.... 194
60. Distribution of Dietz Site Fluted Points by Elevation..... 198
61. Distribution of Western Stemmed Artifacts and
Associated Ground Stone Tools by Elevation in
All Three Sub-basins (Uncorrected for Downslope
Transport and Erosion)......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
62. Distribution of Western Stemmed Artifacts and
Associated Ground Stone Tools by Elevation in the
Dietz Sub-basin (After Application of Correction
Factors for Downslope Transport and Erosion)............ 210
63. Distribution of Western Stemmed Artifacts and
Associated Ground Stone Tools by Elevation in All
Three Sub-basins (After Application of Correction
Factors for Downslope Transport and Erosion)............ 213
64. Comprehensive North-south Profile Across the Northern
Alkali Basin from the Crest of Hilltop Site (Site No.
48) in the Chase Sub-basin, to the Crest of Monique's
Terrace in the Crescent Sub-basin....................... 221
65. Radiocarbon Dates for Western Stemmed Complexes
Graphed in Chronological Order............... 242
Figure
xx
Page
66. Unique Fluted and Stemmed Point Forms from
Connley Cave #5B and the Glass Buttes Survey............ 249
67. Two-peak Shoreline Distribution of Western Stemmed
Point Types by Elevation at the Dietz Site....... 251
68. Location and Hydrological Setting of the Dietz Site in
the Northern Alkali Lake Sub-basin, Showing the
Location of the North-south Profile (A - A') in
Figure 69............................................... 262
69. Basin-wide North-south Profile Across Greater Alkali
Lake Basin, Showing Hydrological Setting of the Dietz
Site in the Northern Sub-basin as Compared to the
Central and Southern Sub-basins........... 263
1CHAPTER I
CHRONOLOGY AND ADAPTATIONS OF WESTERN CLOVIS AND
WESTERN STEMMED CULTURES IN THE FAR WEST
Introduction
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultural traditions,
archaeologically indexed by fluted (Clovis) and stemmed projectile
point complexes, represent the earliest human occupation accepted
without controversy in Far Western North America. Fluted and stemmed
point assemblages have been reported from a multitude of
archaeological sites throughout the Far West, where their first
appearance dates roughly from 11,500 and 10,800 B.P. The current
distribution of reported sites includes western Washington and the
Puget lowlands, southern British Columbia and the Columbia-Snake River
systems in the n.orth, as well as California and the entire Basin and
Range province in the south (Figure 1).
Despite this abundance of sites, the temporal and cultural
relationships of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultures have been
unclear. In addition, there remain unanswered questions about the
adaptive strategies and economic orientations of these early people at
the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in Far Western North America.
Investigation of the age, historical relationship~ economy and
adaptations of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultures has been
the major focus of the research presented here.
.
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FIGURE 1. Map of Far Western North America Showing Locations of
Major Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Archaeological
Sites Discussed in Text (Adapted from Aikens 1983b and
Jennings 1964). Numbers correspond to Site Locations
Listed in Tables 1, 4 and 5.
3Geoarchaeological research in the northern Alkali Lake Basin of
south-central Oregon, and at the Dietz site (35 LK 1529), has
addressed these issues of cultural chronology and economy by seeking
data to test a paleoecological model of human land use in the basin
from 11,500 to 7,000 B.P. (Figures 1 and 2). The northern Alkali Lake
Basin offered an excellent opportunity to test such a model because it
contained an unusually high abundance of Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed artifacts and sites, in close association with well-preserved
early postglacial landforms and lake stratigraphy. The Dietz site, in
particular, has produced one of the largest and most diversified
assemblages of fluted and stemmed points reported in the Far West.
The Dietz site is located 27 kilometers (km) southeast of the
town of Wagontire in Lake County, Oregon, in the northernmost sector
of a structural basin once occupied by Pluvial Lake Alkali (Figure 2).
The site is an extremely large lithic scatter which dominates a small
sub-basin of greater Alkali Lake Basin, and consists primarily of two
series of artifacts assignable to the Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed cultural traditions, respectively.
Since 1983, a continuing program of archaeological testing and
controlled surface collection at the Dietz site has yielded a large
diversified assemblage of early tools (Figures 3 and 4), including 60
fluted point fragments and 32 fragments of stemmed and shouldered
points (Fagan 1984a, 1984b, 1986, 1988; Willig 1984, 1985, 1986,
1988). In addition, five crescent tools and 14 ground stone artifacts
have been recovered in direct associ.ation with the Western Stemmed
tool clusters (see discussion below under Western Clovis and Western
.~ ? miles
.,S ? kilometers
Bcale
1:24,000
4
FIGURE 2. Location and Topographic Setting of the Dietz Site
(35 LK 1529) in the Northern Sub-basin of Greater
Alkali Lake Basin, Oregon
eM
FIGURE 3. Sample at Western Clovis (Fluted) Points tram the Djetz
Site (35 LK J529): a. #553--319; b. #553-2r.)8;
c. #553-435; d. #553-26~; e. #553-260; t. #553-241
6eM
FTGURE 4. Sample ot Western Stemmed A
rtHflcts from the Ojet-z
Site (35 LK 1529): a. #553-425; b. #553---286;
c. #553-45; d. #553-'423; e. #553-418
;
f. #553-415; and g. #553-29
7stemmed Occupation at the Dietz Site). Appendices A through C contain
site descriptions, mapping data, illustrations and proveniences for
all time-diagnostic artifacts documented in the research.
The major focus of geoarchaeological research in the northern
Alkali Lake Basin has been to reconstruct the Clovis and Stemmed-era
landscape and lake history, and to determine the precise distribution
and stratigraphic context of artifacts and sites upon that landscape.
Detailed reconstruction of settlement pattern, paleoenvironment and
artifact distributions has provided valuable inferences about
chronology and paleoeconomy, thereby increasing our knowledge and
understanding of these early cultures. The two major issues of concern
have been the age and historical relationship of Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed cultures, and the economic orientations which have
been hypothesized for these people. These interrelated issues and
questions are summarized below, in the context of the current data
base, after a brief definition of terms. This is followed by a
discussion of the significance of the Alkali Lake Basin research, as
it bears upon these major questions and hypotheses.
Definition of Terms
Discussions of Far Western prehistory between 11,500 and 7,000
B.P. are handicapped by a plethora of overlapping terms and labels for
regional phases, complexes, traditions, economies and time diagnostic
point styles (Willig and Aikens 1988). To simplify matters, the
following standardized terms and definitions for Far West, Western
Clovis, Western Stemmed, Paleoindian, and Archaic are presented.
---r-
•
8
Far west
In this discussion, the Far West includes that region of North
America extending west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast,
and from southern British Columbia to portions of northern Mexico
(sensu Carlson 1983). It includes the Great Basin and Plateau of the
Intermontane West, Desert West and Far West described by Daugherty
(1962), Jennings (1964) and Aikens (1983b), with the addition of
coastal areas in California, Oregon and Washington (Figure 1).
Geographically, it also includes those portions of southern Arizona
and New Mexico which fall within the Basin and Range province.
However, the southwestern data are well known as part of the "core
area" which fostered our original conception of Clovis-Llano culture
(Sellards 1952). Therefore, for purposes ot regional cross-comparison,
the Southwest is set apart here.
Western Clovis
Fluted points similar to Clovis-Llano types defined in the Plains
and Southwest were once considered rare in the Far West, but by 1960
the number of reported finds had greatly increased, indicating that
Clovis culture was well established here, as elsewhere on the
continent (Aikens 1978; Butler 1965; Clewlow 1968; Davis and Shutler
1969; Osborne 1956; Riddell and Olsen 1969; Shutler and Shutler 1959;
Strong 1959; Tuohy 1968, 1969).
Fluted points are now known from many sites throughout
California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Nevada and Utah. Some regional
-9
summaries are available (Aikens 1983b; Butler 1978; Carlson 1983;
Jennings 1986; Madsen et al. 1976; Moratto 1984; Tuohy 1974/ 1985/
1986; Wallace 1978; Willig et al. 1988). Most fluted point sites in
the Far West consist of single isolated points. Only seven localities
have produced major concentrations of undeniably Clovis artifacts (see
locations and references for major sites on Figure 1 and Table 1.
In tool kits, typology, and intra-site variation, Far Western and
Clovis-Llano fluted point assemblages compare closely. But the
paleoenvironmental context and settlement pattern of major sites in
pluvial lake basins suggests that Far Western complexes may represent
a regional, adaptational variant of the specialized big-game hunting
tradition implied by the term "Llano" (Willig 1989). Therefore, to
designate a Clovis-age cultural tradition uniquely adapted to Far
Western environments, the term "Western Clovis" is adopted here (sensu
Tuohy 1974:98).
Western Stemmed
Complexes characterized by large stemmed, shouldered and
lanceolate points, often associated with crescents and heavy core
tools, have been reported from many sites throughout the Far West
(Aikens 1978/ 1982/ 1983a, 1983b; Bryan 1965/ 1979/ 1980/ 1988;
Carlson 1983; 1988). These archaeological complexes have been
variously defined as phases, horizons, complexes, traditions, or
distinct regional styles. Figure 1 shows locations of major sites and
the various terminological designations are listed below in Table 2.
10
TABLE 1. Major Western Clovis Sites in the Far West
Site/Location+ No. of points References
California
1. China Lake 49
2. Tulare Lake 49
3. Borax Lake 20
and Clear Lake
Nevada
4. Mud Lake and 58
Tonopah Lake
5. Lake Hubbs 21
Sunshine Locality
Oregon
6. Alkali Lake 60
Washington
7. Richey-Roberts 14
Clovis Cache
Total no. points: 271
Davis 1967, 1975, 1978a, 1978b
Riddell and Olsen 1969
Wallace and Riddell 1988
Fredrickson 1973, 1974
Fredrickson and White 1988
Harrington 1948
Meighan and Haynes 1968, 1970
Campbell and Campbell 1940
Kelly 1978; Pendleton 1979
Tuohy 1968, 1969, 1988b
Hutchinson 1988; Tuohy 1988b
York 1975, 1976
Fagan 1984a, 1984b, 1986, 1988
Willig 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988
Mehringer 1988a, 1988b, 1989
+ Site locations plotted by number on Figure 1
If"
- - - - - - - --------------------
11
TABLE 2. Various Terms and Designations for Western
Stemmed Complexes in the Far West
i
i
i
i
,
i
1
Terms and Designations
Phases or Horizons
Windust
Cascade
Milliken
Fallon
Birch Creek
Mt. Moriah
Patterns
Borax Lake Pattern
Complexes
San Dieguito
Lake Mohave
Hascomat
Traditions (T.)
Western Lithic
Co-Tradition
Western Pluvial Lakes T.
Stemmed Point T.
Great Basin Stemmed T.
Intermontane Western T.
Distinct Regional Styles
Lake Mohave
Silver Lake
Parman
Cougar Mountain
Lind Coulee
Haskett
Windust
Cascade
Black Rock Concave Base
Great Basin Concave Base
Borax Lake Wide stem
Birch Creek
References
Leonhardy and Rice 1970; Rice 1972
Leonhardy and Rice 1970; Rice 1972
Borden 1960, 1975
Grosscup 1956
Swanson 1972
Bryan 1979, 1980, 1988
Fredrickson 1973, 197~
Rogers 1939; Warren 1967, 1968
Wallace 1962
Warren and Ranere 1968
Davis 1967; Davis et al. 1969
Bedwell 1970, 1973
Bryan 1980; Layton 1970
Layton 1979; Tuohy and Layton 1977
Daugherty 1962
Amsden 1937
Amsden 1937
Layton 1970, 1972, 1979
Cowles 1959; Layton 1970,1972, 1979
Daugherty 1956
Butler 1963, 1965, 1967
Rice 1972
Butler 1961, 1962
Clewlow 1968
Pendleton 1979
Fredrickson 1973, 1974
Swanson 1972
.,..
I
12
Similar stemmed and shouldered forms are reported from the
eastern U.S. (Kraft 1973; Mason 1962), especially the Great Lakes
region (Fitting et al. 1966; Mason 1981), and from Great Plains Plano
assemblages (Frison 1978; Frison and Stanford 1982). West of the
Rockies, however, are a distinctive range of styles indigenous to the
Far West. Within this broad pan-western distribution of stemmed and
shouldered points -- from southern British Columbia to northern Mexico
and from the Rockies to the Pacific Coast -- there is a certain
diversity of regional styles, but all complexes share similarities in
technology, typology, and implied settlement-subsistence patterns.
All of these stemmed point complexes can be seen as 'representing
a single cultural tradition, referred to here as "Western Stemmed".
The term is adapted from the technologically based concept of a
Stemmed Point Tradition (Bryan 1980; Layton 1970) but with added
implications for cultural-adaptational relationships as well. The word
"western" is added to distinguish Far Western complexes from those in
the Plains and Great Lakes regions, as well as from the Paijan, EI
Inga and Fell's Cave Fishtail point complexes of Central and South
America (Lynch 1983; Mayer-Oakes 1966, 1984, 1986). Overviews of
previously reported Western Stemmed sites have been published (Bryan
1965, 1980; Carlson 1983; Pendleton 1979; Willig et al. 1988), and
additional new data are summarized in this paper.
-13
Paleoindian
There are varied definitions of the term "Paleoindian". Some
consider both fluted and stemmed complexes to be Paleoindian (Aikens
1983b; Price and Johnston 1988). Others reserve the term for complexes
containing fluted points and extinct megafauna (Butler 1978, 1986;
Carlson 1988; Krieger 1964; Tuohy 1968, 1974; Wormington 1957:3),
implying the presence of a "Llano" big-game hunting lifeway (sensu
Sellards 1952). As Simms points out (1988), usage of the term
"Paleoindian" in conjunction with "Archaic" assumes an economic
contrast between the two, and a cavalcade of recent studies suggests
that this may not be the case (see discussion below under The Problem
of Reconstructing Adaptive Strategies).
Scholars wishing to avoid the attribution of undemonstrated
economic differences between Western "Paleoindian" and "Archaic" have
used terms like "proto-Archaic" (Krieger 1964) or "pre-Archaic"
(Elston 1982; Jennings 1986), but a significant contrast is still
implicit. There is some sentiment (Simms 1988) that both "Paleoindian"
and "Archaic" be dropped altogether in favor of regional
time-environmental definitions.
To avoid further complications and confusion, the term
"Paleoindian" is avoided in the following discussion in favor of more
regional cultural definitions -- an approach first used by Cellards
(1952) for the Plains Clovis-Llano cultures. Hopefully, older, more
general terms like "Paleoindian" will eventually be supplanted in
appropriate contexts by more specific regional definitions such as
14
Clovis-Llano, Folsom, Plano, Western Clovis and Western Stemmed.
Additionally, the term "paleo-Archaic" is proposed here, to advocate
the presence of broad spectrum (Archaic) adaptations among'the
earliest (paleo) occupants of the Far West.
Archaic
The term "Archaic" has also suffered from mUltiple definitions
and applications, having been defined variably on the basis of: (1) a
cultural level or "stage" first attributed to pre-ceramic,
non-horticultural shell midden complexes (Ritchie 1932, 1944) and
implying semi-sedentary foraging with diversified technology (Moratto
1984:277; Willey and Phillips 1958); (2) broad spectrum subsistence
based on hunting-gathering-fishing (Aikens 1983b:193; Caldwell 1958;
Harp 1983:121; Jennings and Norbeck 1955; Jennings 1964, 1974); (3)
food collecting over hunting (Culbert 1983:499); (4) everything that
follows specialized Paleoindian "big-game" hunting and precedes
sedentary life with pottery and agriculture (Carlson 1988; Funk
1983:316; Lipe 1983:433; Muller 1983:379); and (5) intensive wild
plant or seed processing (Aikens 1983b:165; Cordell 1984:123; Elston
1982), as marked by the appearance of milling stones which suggest a
broadening of the diet to include more plant foods.
The term "Archaic" in this discussion is equated (sensu Jennings
and Norbeck 1955 and Jennings 1964) with a broad-spectrum adaptive
strategy -- an economic pattern in which a wide range of locally
available plants and animals are exploited across regional
microenvironments by populations familiar with their distribution and
15
seasonality. The concept of "Archaic" as an adaptive strategy (rather
than a "stage" or "period") does not bespeak anyone particular tool
kit, technology, ecosystem, settlement pattern or time period, and
should not be equated with these except in the context of well known
and well dated local sequences. Simms (1988) suggests that the term be
abandoned altogether, but if specified as an economically-based
adaptive strategy unconstrained by specific time periods or
environmental conditions (Willig 1988), the term "Archaic" retains its
original value and explanatory power.
Current Status of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Chronology
Pre-Clovis Occupation in the Far West
Claims have been numerous for human occupation of the Far West
much earlier than the time range of 11,500 to 11,000 B.P. assigned to
Clovis assemblages in the Southwest and Great Plains (Haynes 1964,
1971; Haynes et al. 1984). But the evidence offered has always been
questioned as to age or context of association, or the human
workmanship of the specimens said to be artifacts (Aikens 1978, 1983b;
Dincauze 1984; Jennings 1986). A recent summary of the history of this
debate is provided by Willig and Aikens (1988).
One group of claims is comprised of "artifacts" or "features"
found in clearly ancient settings, but human agency or workmanship is
strongly questioned (Haynes 1973; Johnson and Miller 1958). Sites in
California like Manly Terrace (Clem~nts and Clements 1953), Texas
Street (Carter 1957, 1980) and Calico Hills (Leakey et al. 1972)
16
typify a larger number of "geofact" sites reported throughout the
west, where a "few specimens that could be tenuously construed as
artifacts of human workmanship have been selected from among thousands
upon thousands of stones broken and flaked by natural processes"
(Willig and Aikens 1988). Radiocarbon dates of 12,000 to 37,000 B.P.
have been reported from "hearths" on Santa Rosa Island and other
southern California sites (Carter 1957; Orr 1960, 1968), but natural
burning in these wildfire-prone areas offers a more likely explanation
for the observed "features" than does human agency (Cruxent 1962).
A second group of claims consists of artifacts of clearly human
workmanship, but whose ages are questioned on the basis of poor
context and on typological grounds. At the Scripps campus site (Carter
1957), the supposedly Pleistocene-age assemblage clearly resembled the
La Jolla complex of the early Holocene (Wallace 1955). It was once
thought that the Tule Springs site in Nevada had produced evidence of
human occupation prior to 28,000 B.P. (Harrington and Simpson 1961),
but subsequent research failed to produce artifacts demonstrably older
than 11,000 B.P. (Shutler 1967).
The "Acheulian-like" bifaces reported from sites in southwestern
Wyoming (Renaud 1940), Manix Lake, California (Simpson 1958, 1960) and
the Chapala Basin of Baja California (Arnold 1957) have been offered
as evidence for an ancient Old World Lower Paleolithic connection. But
the enormous gap in time and space between these specimens and the
youngest Acheulian assemblages in Asia makes the possibility of such
an ancient connection highly implausible (Willig and Aikens 1988).
Moreover, studies by Glennan (1976) and Sharrock (1966) have shown
,.....
•
17
that these tools are quite clearly the remnants of primary lithic
reduction activities.
The third group of pre-Clovis claims are comprised of undeniably
cultural artifacts from numerous dry cave sites, in apparent
association with extinct Pleistocene fauna and early radiocarbon
dates. But materials incorporated within cave deposits are plagued by
problems of stratigraphic disturbance, by both human and animal
occupants, and by the collection, modification and use of older raw
materials in the caves (bone, wood and tools) by later occupants at
these sites (Rozaire 1969; Thompson et al. 1987).
The lowest occupation levels in Gypsum Cave, Nevada (Harrington
1933) were once thought to be of Pleistocene age, having produced
atlatl darts and other tools in apparent association with the dung of
now-extinct giant ground sloth. But this early age was later dispelled
by a radiocarbon date of less than 3,000 B.P. on one of the atlatl
darts (Berger and Libby 1967). At the Falcon Hill site in Nevada, the
mandibles of Pleistocene-age shrub ox, incorporated within cultural
deposits containing textiles, produced dates between 1,900 and 4,000
B.P. (Hattori 1982).
At Fishbone Cave in Nevada, the lowest occupation level (Level 4)
produced an awl made from the splint bone of a now-extinct horse, as
well as a horse mandible, in apparent association with two large chert
knives, basketry fragments, and a human burial wrapped in juniper bark
matting (Adovasio 1986; Orr 1952, 1956, 1974). The bark burial
wrapping (L-245) produced two radiocarbon dates 10,900±300 B.P. and
11,250±250 B.P. and, for a long time, it was assumed that the burial
r-
18
and horse remains were contemporaneous. But a recent accelerator date
of 12,280±520 B.P. on the horse mandible (Thompson et al. 1987)
indicates that the burial probably took place well over 1,000 years
after the horse's death. The evidence suggests that the bone tool was
most likely manufactured by later occupants of the cave from fossil
materials already present in the deposits.
Unquestionable artifacts in buried sites yielding radiocarbon
dates earlier than the Clovis-Llano time horizon of 11,500 to 11,000
B.P. (Haynes 1964, 1969a, 1971; Haynes et al. 1984) are known in the
Far West from only three places. These include Wilson Butte Cave in
Idaho (Gruhn 1961, 1965), Fort Rock Cave in Oregon (Bedwell 1970,
1973; Bedwell and Cressman 1971), and Smith Creek Cave in Nevada
(Bryan 1979, 1980, 1988). In all three cases, doubt has been cast on
the association between artifacts and these earliest dates (Haynes
1969b, 1971; Irwin 1971). The dates from Fort Rock and Smith Creek
Caves are discussed in the following section, because the associated
tools closely resemble Western stemmed point forms.
Wilson Butte Cave in Idaho produced two early dates on bone from
cultural deposits of flakes, bifaces and/or modified bone said to be
associated with the remains of Pleistocene horse and camel: (1) a date
of 14,500±500 B.P. (M-1409) from stratum C; and (2) a date of
15,OOO±800 B.P. (M-1410) from stratum E (Gruhn 1965). But the cave
deposits were described as being heavily disturbed by rodent
activities, rendering the association of the dated bone and artifacts
questionable (Gruhn 1961, 1965).
F19
As demonstrated at sites like Gypsum Cave, Falcon Hill and
Fishbone Cave, and by Dansie's (1988) work at Pyramid Lake, the
co-occurrence of Pleistocene faunal remains with artifacts in the
often-disturbed or deflated deposits of western sites does not
necessarily mean they are of the same age. Therefore, only dates from
culturally associated charcoal or artifacts themselves should be
trusted (Dansie et al. 1988; Haynes 1988; Thompson et al. 1987).
stratigraphic Context of Western Clovis Sites
Most fluted point sites in the Far West occur as surface finds
which lack in situ buried context. Exceptions to this include: (1) the
newly discovered Richey-Roberts Clovis Cache in central Washington
where fluted points have been recovered in situ 70 em below the
surface, along with scrapers, bifaces and beveled bone shafts
(Mehringer 1988a, 1988b, 1989); and (2) the recent re-discovery of a
fluted point excavated from the "lowest levels" of Danger Cave by
Elmer Smith in 1941 (Holmer 1986:94-95; Jennings 1957:47) (see
discussion below).
Fluted points have been recovered from undated shallow depths (30
to 40 em) in disturbed or deflated alluvial fan, stream or beach
terrace deposits at four other sites in the Far West: Borax Lake
(Fredrickson and White 1988; Harrington 1948; Meighan and Haynes 1968,
1970) and the Henwood site in California (Douglas et al. 1988); the
Simon site cache in Idaho (Butler 1963; Butler and Fitzwater 1965;
Woods and Titmus 1985); and the Old Humboldt site (26 Pe 670) at Rye
Patch Reservoir in Nevada (Davis 1984; Rusco and Davis 1987).
,
,
I
L
20
At the Old Humboldt site in Nevada, both fluted and stemmed
points were recovered in situ in shallow, buried overbank alluvium
deposited on the highest terrace of the Humboldt River. However, Davis
notes that the tools were not found on a single contact surface or
bedding plane, but were spread throughout the 30 cm of alluvium which
had also been subjected to aeolian processes and animal burrowing
(Davis 1984; Davis and Rusco 1987:41). Therefore, the exact surface of
origin for the fluted and stemmed points is not clear.
Component 1 at the Henwood site (4-SBr-4966) in California's
Mohave Desert yielded one fluted point, two Lake Mohave points and a
hearth which produced two dates of 8,470±370 B.P. (AA-648) and
4,360±280 B.P. (AA-798) (Warren et al. 1989). The younger date has
been rejected as being contaminated (Douglas et al. 1988) while the
older date is accepted as being in accord with the time range known
for Lake Mohave complexes. But the association of the fluted point
with this Lake Mohave component has been questioned because
non-projectile tools characteristic of Lake Mohave and Pinto
assemblages were also recovered, and a second fluted point was
collected on the surface of the site (Douglas et al. 1988; Warren and
Phagan 1988).
Absolute Dating of Western Clovis Sites
The vast majority of Western Clovis sites consist of isolated
surface finds of single specimens which lack datable, buried context.
The time range of 11,500 to 11,000 -B.P. for Clovis occupation in the
Southwest is well-dated from sites like Lehner and Murray Springs in
21
from 11,840 to 10,640 B.P. (Haynes et al. 1984:188). Elsewhere, in the
Far west, there are a few radiocarbon dates indirectly associated with
fluted points, but still no dates that have been well documented as
coming from reliable stratigraphic contexts and clear associations
with fluted points. Available radiocarbon dates for the southwestern
Clovis sites are listed in Table 3, followed by a list of radiocarbon
dates of Clovis age from sites throughout the Far West (Table 4).
TABLE 3. Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Southwestern Clovis Sites
Site/Location+ Date (B.P.) Lab No. ** References
8. Lehner Site* ll,470±1l0 SMU-308 CH Haynes et al. 1984
Arizona ll,170±200 SMU-264 CH "
10,710± 90 SMU-340 CH "
10,700±150 SMU-297 CH "
10,620±300 SMU-347 CH "
ll,080±230 SMU-196 CH "
10,950±1l0 SMU-194 CH "
10,950± 90 SMU-290 CH "
10,860±280 SMU-164 CH "
ll,080±200 SMU-181 CH "
10,940±100 A-378 CH "
10,770±140 SMU-168 CH "
8. Murray Springs ll,190±180 SMU-18 CH Haynes et al. 1984
Arizona ll,150±450 A-805 CH "
ll,080±180 Tx-1413 CH "
10,930±170 Tx-1462 CH "
10,890±180 SMU-27 CH "
10,840±140 SMU-42 CH "
10,840± 70 SMU-41 CH "
10,710±160 Tx-1459 CH "
+ Site locations plotted by number on Figure 1
* Three groups represent three separate features sampled
** Type of material dated (CH = charcoal)
22
TABLE 4. Radiocarbon Dates of Clovis Age in the Far West*
Site/Location+ Date (B.P.) Lab No. ** References
9. Cougar Mt. 11, 950±350 Gak-1751 CH Bedwell 1970, 1973
Cave No.2 Bedwell and Cressman 1971
35LK55/A
Oregon
10. Jaguar 11 , 580±250 n.d. CH Butler 1978; Dort 1975
Cave Sadek-Kooros 1966
Idaho Wright and Miller 1976
II. Danger 11,453±600 C-609++ US Jennings 1957
Cave 10,270±650 M-202++ CH n
42T013
Utah
2. Witt Site 1l,380± 70 n.d. BN Wallace and Riddell 1988
CAKin32
California
12. Ventana
Cave
Arizona
13. Fishbone
Cave, NV
26Pe3e
1l,300±1200
11,200±250
A-203
L-245
CH Haury 1950
Haury and Hayden 1975
SS Orr 1956, 1974
Thompson et al. 1987
9. Connley 11,200±200
Cave #4B
35LK50/4B
Oregon
Gak-2141 CH Bedwell 1970, 1973
Bedwell and Cressman 1971
+ Site locations plotted by number on Figure 1
* Dates are listed in general order from oldest to youngest. Note
that only in the case of Danger Cave and the Witt Site are Clovis
points present at the site
** Type of material dated (CH = charcoal; SS = shell; BN = bone;
US = uncharred sheep dung)
++ Fluted points would be bracketed between these two dates
-23
Two fluted points were excavated from the "lowest levels" of
Danger Cave, Utah by Elmer Smith in 1941, but the points disappeared
before they could be examined (Jennings 1957:47). Recently, one of the
fluted points was rediscovered by Utah Museum of Natural History
staff, having been misplaced in an unrelated collection (Figure 4b in
Holmer 1986:95). Jennings (1957:47) cautions that precise one-to-one
correlation of Smith's excavation levels with those of later excava-
tions cannot be guaranteed; but six radiocarbon dates from the lowest
levels of Danger Cave (Level I: Sands 1 and 2) would bracket a fluted
point from these levels between 11,453±600 B.P. (C-609) and 10,270±650
B.P. (M-202).
One possibility of an early radiometric date for a Clovis
campsite in the Far West is a uranium series date (230Th) of 11,380±70
B.P. on human skeletal remains from the Witt site at Tulare Lake,
California (Wallace and Riddell 1988). The authors are cautious,
however, about the dating results and the association of the human
bones with Clovis points known from the site.
Other sites in the Far West have produced cultural deposits
dating within the Clovis time range documented at Southwestern sites,
but all of these lack the necessary association with Clovis type
fluted points (Table 4). At Ventana Cave in Arizona, the Ventana
complex from the lowest occupation levels in the volcanic debris layer
dates to 11,300±1200 B.P. (A-203) (Haury and Hayden 1975). No fluted
points were recovered, but the deposit produced remains of bison,
sloth, horse and tapir in association with a leaf-shaped point and an
unfluted concave based point (Haury 1950).
24
A hearth from Cougar Mountain Cave No.2 in Oregon was dated
11,950±350 B.P. (Gak-1751) (Bedwell and Cressman 1971:18) and cultural
charcoal from Connley Cave 4B dated 11,200±200 B.P. (Gak-2141)
(Bedwell 1970, 1973). At Jaguar Cave, Idaho, remains of extinct camel,
marten and arctic lemming were recovered from a deposit which also
produced a hearth date of 11,580±250 B.P. and a "flaked antler tine
with cut marks" (Butler 1978:61-62; 1986:128). As mentioned above,
Fishbone Cave, Nevada produced a date of 11,200±250 B.P. (L-245) on
twined juniper bark wrapped around a human burial in association with
basketry fragments and two large knives made of crypto-crystalline
silicate (CCS) material (Orr 1956, 1974).
Farther afield, four Folsom type fluted points were recovered at
Owl Cave (Wasden site) in eastern Idaho. Bone collagen from the
associated elephant bones produced two dates of 12,850±150 (WSU-1281)
and 12,250±200 (WSU-1259), and a later date of 10,920±B.P. (WSU-1786)
(Butler 1978, 1986; Miller and Dort 1978). The older dates are
questioned because of differences in NaOH pretreatment, and because
the bones on which they were obtained occurred stratigraphically above
the bone which produced the younger date of 10,920 B.P. Also, the
younger date is in accord with the known time range for Folsom on the
Plains (Butler 1978:59-61). The find is unique because, with the
exception of Idaho and the eastern Great Basin, Folsom fluted points
are curiously rare in the Far West and are generally associated with
bison, not elephant (Butler 1986; Hutchinson 1988; Titmus and Woods
1988; Tuohy 1985, 1986, 1988b; Willig 1989).
25
stratigraphic Context and Absolute Dating
of Western Stemmed Sites
Unlike fluted point sites, Western Stemmed assemblages have been
recovered in buried context from a number of sites throughout the Far
West. Most of the sites which have produced radiocarbon dates for
Western Stemmed occupation in the Far West have been cave sites (Table
5). This tabulation of radiocarbon dates, the most comprehensive
reported so far, shows that the dates for Western Stemmed complexes
are spread across a broad time range from 11/000 to 7,000 B.P. Because
of the potential problems of stratigraphic disturbance in western cave
deposits, only dates from buried components directly associated with
well defined stemmed and shouldered forms have been included in Table
5. The more generalized leaf-shaped points were not included, because
their temporal range is broader and much less secure.
There are numerous other sites in the Far West which have
produced radiocarbon determinations indirectly associated with Western
Stemmed points, or with the more nondescript lanceolate forms. Recent
work at Handprint Cave (26 HU 1836)/ Nevada has revealed a Western
Stemmed occupation in the shallow silt deposits of a hidden, interior
chamber whose walls are decorated with ochred pictographs (Gruhn and
Bryan 1988). Test excavations in the upper 30 em of deposits in this
chamber yielded much charred wood, bovid and human hair and a large
stemmed projectile point made of white CCS. The find is an intriguing
one but the charcoal date of 10/740±70 B.P. (Beta-21885) from 10 to 20
em depth can only provide a lower limit for the stemmed point since
the point was recovered from the level above (0 to 10 em).
26
TABLE 5. Radiocarbon Dates Associated with western stemmed
Complexes in the Far West
SitejLocation+ Date (B.P.) Lab No.
**
References
Oregon
9. Ft. Rock 10,200±230 Gak-2147 CH Bedwell 1970, 1973
Cave Bedwell and Cressman
35LKI 9,053±350 C-428 SH 1971
8,550+150 Gak-2146 CH II II II
9. Connley 9,540±260 Gak-1744 CH Bedwell 1970, 1973
Cave #5B 7,430±140 Gak-2135 CH II II
35LK50j5B
9. Cougar Mt. 8,510±250 UCLA-1l2 OG Radiocarbon 1962:111
Cave No.1
14. Dirty 9,500± 95 SI-1774 CH Aikens et ale 1977
Shame 8,905± 75 SI-1775 CH Hanes 1988a, 1988b
R.S. 8,865± 95 SI-2265 CH II II II
35ML65 8,850± 75 SI-2268 OG II II II
7,925± 80 SI-1768 OG II II "
7,880±100 SI-1773 CH " " II
7,850±120 SI-1771 CH II " "
15. Wildcat 10,600±200 Gak-1322 OG Cole 1965,1967,1968
Canyon 9,860±510 Gak-1325 OG Dumond &Minor 1983
35GM9 8,100±130 Gak-1324 OG II II II
7,370±190 Gak-1326 OG II II II
7,890±300 Gak-2240-43 CH II II "
16. Fivemile 9,785±220 Y-340 CH Cressman et al. 1960
Rapids 7,675±100 Y-341 CH "
35WS8
17. Harney 8,680± 55 USGS-461B OG Gehr 1980
Lake Greenspan 1985
+ Site locations plotted by number on Figure 1
** Type of material dated (CH = charcoal; SH = shell; OG = uncharred
organic materials; BN = bone; CD = charred dung; BA = basketry)
•27
TABLE 5. Western Stemmed Radiocarbon Dates (continued)
Site/Location+ Date (B.P.) Lab No. ** References
California
18. C.W.Harris
Site
SDi-149
19. Buena
Vista Lk.
Ker-1l6
9,030±350
8,490±400
8,490±400
8,200±400
8,200±400
7,600±200
A-722A
A-725
A-724
LJ-1357
LJ-1356
I-1928
CH/OG
CH/OG
CH/OG
SH
SH
SH
Warren 1967
"
"
Fredrickson and
Grossman 1977
"
Rice 1972
Sheppard et al. 1984
"
Washington
20. Mannes
R.S.
45FR50
10,640±300*
a.l0,810±300
b.l0,475±300
9,370±200*
a. 9,540±300
b. 9, 200±1l0
8,850±300*
a. 9,010±300
b. 8,700±300
7,850±300
7,550+300
WSU-363
WSU-366
Y-2210
Y-2482
W-2207
W-2208
WSU-211
WSU-120
SH
SH
SH
SH
SH
CH
SH
SH
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Borden 1960, 1975
II II
CH
CH
BN Daugherty 1956
BN Irwin &Moody 1978
BN " "
and 8,518±460)
S-l13
S- 47
21. Lind 8,700±400+ C-827
Coulee 8,720±200 WSU-1709
45GR97 8,600± 65 WSU-1422
(+ = average of two readings: 9,400±940
British Columbia
22. Milliken 9,000±150
Site 8,150±310
DjRi-3
utah
11. Danger Cave 9,789±630
42T013 8,960±340
C-611
C-640
CH
CD
Jennings 1957
"
23. Hogup Cave 7,815±350
42B036
GX-1287 OG Aikens 1970
24. Sevier 9,570±430
Desert 7,930±110
42MD300
Beta-l2987
Beta-12988
SH Simms 1986
SH Simms and Isgreen
1984
TABLE 5. Western Stemmed Radiocarbon Dates .( continued)
28
Site/Location+ Date (B.P.) Lab No. ** References
Nevada
25. Smith 11, 140±200 Tx-1637 CH Bryan 1979,1980,1988
Crk Cave 10,600±195* II II II
26WP46 a .10 , 740±130 Birm-702 CH II II II
b.l0,460±260 Gak-5444b CH II II II
10,330±190 Tx-1638 CH II II II
9,940±160 Tx-1420 CH II II II
26. Last 8,610±140* Layton &Davis 1978
Supper a.8,960±190 Tx-2541 CH Layton 1970, 1979
Cave b.8,260± 90 WSU-1706 CH II II II
26HU102 8,790±350 LSU 73-120 SH II II II
8,630±195 WSU-1431 SH II II II
27. Falcon Hill 9,540±120 UCLA-675 BA Hattor i 1982
Shinners 8,380±120 UCLA-672 BA II
Site A
26WA198
Idaho
28. Wasden 8,160±260 WSU-560 CH Butler 1968, 1978
Site, or 7,750±210 WSU-641 CH Miller and Dort 1978
Owl Cave 7,100±350 M-1853 BN II II II
10BV30
28. Bison R.S. 10,340±830 WSU-760 BN Swanson 1972
veratic 7,222±229 W5U-n.d OG II
R.S.(Birch Creek Sites)
29. Redfish 10,100±300 WSU-1396 CH Sargeant 1973
Lake 9,860±300 W5U-1395 CH II
Overhang 8,060±285 WSU-1397 CH II
10CS201
30. Beta R.S. 8,175±230 W5U-402 CH Swanson &Sneed 1966
Shoup Site
31. Hatwai I 10,820±140 Tx-3159 CH Ames et al. 1981
10NP143 10, 110±720 Tx-3160 CH II
9, 880±110 W5U-2440 CH II
9,850±870 Tx-3158 CH II
9,320±1830 Tx-3081 CH II
29
At Fort Rock Cave in Oregon (Bedwell 1970, 1973; Bedwell and
Cressman 1971) the controversial date of 13,200±720 B.P. (Gak-1738)
was obtained from charcoal embedded in basal Pleistocene gravels in
the lowest level (Level 10) of the cave. It appears to date a small
assemblage of flakes and flake tools, a mano fragment and two
fragmentary projectile points, one of which clearly resembles a
re-sharpened Western Stemmed form (Figure 5b). Bedwell had classified
second point as fluted and Folsom-like (Figure 5a), but this
identification was later demonstrated by Fagan (1975) to be a mistaken
one.
a.
b. E=7 eM
.....
FIGURE 5. Western Stemmed Point Fragments from the Earliest Level
(Level 10) on Top of Basal Gravels at Fort Rock Cave
(35 LK 1): a. Small, unfluted concave based point with
some basal thinning (#11-10/3-1); b. Re-sharpened Lake
Mohave or Cougar Mountain point (#11-10/3-2)
•30
For this earliest assemblage from Level 10 at Fort Rock Cave,
there is no specific documentation to either prove or disprove the
possibility of intrusive mixing of the artifacts and charcoal with
earlier or later levels in the cave's deposits. Thus, the validity of
the association of the Level 10 tools with the 13,000 B.P. date
remains open to question (Aikens 1982:143; Haynes 1971). Furthermore,
cultural charcoal from the overlying Level 8 produced a date of
10,200±230 B.P. (Gak-2l47) in undoubted association with Western
Stemmed artifacts (Table 5).
Five dates on culturally deposited hearth charcoal from Smith
Creek Cave, Nevada bracket the Mt. Moriah occupation zone between
9,940±160 B.P. (Tx-1420) and 11,140±200 B.P. (Tx-1637). This latter
date is the oldest one reported in the Far West in direct association
with Western Stemmed materials (Bryan 1979, 1980). Recently, Bryan
(1988) reports three dates of 10,840±250 B.P. (Riddl-795), 12,060±450
B.P. (Riddl-797) and 14,220±650 B.P. (Riddl-796) on bovid, camelid and
artiodactyl hair samples from the same occupation level. Previously
reported dates from the same zone, on non-hearth organics, range from
11,680 B.P. to 12,600 B.P.
Bryan (1979, 1980) contends that this set of pre-Clovis dates
demonstrates that stemmed points have an antiquity greater than fluted
points. But the cultural association of the hair samples cannot be
guaranteed, and pine needles from the sterile layer beneath the
Mt. Moriah zone are dated 12,600±170 B.P. (A-1565) (Bryan 1979,
1980:83). As demonstrated by the sites discussed above, the cave
deposits in the Far West are plagued by problems of stratigraphic
31
mixing of materials of different ages, and only materials directly
associated with cultural remains should be trusted (Dansie et al.
1988; Thompson et al. 1987).
The Problem of the Age and Historical Relationship of
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Cultures
The data discussed above indicate that the convincing occurrence
of clearly human traces in dated, buried deposits which are
demonstrably pre-Clovis in age is yet to be documented in the Far
West. The vast majority of fluted point sites in the Far West consist
of isolated surface finds lacking datable, buried stratigraphic
context. As a result, Western Clovis occupation is only roughly dated
from 11,500 to 11,000 B.P. based on typological comparisons to
well-dated Clovis-Llano complexes in the Southwest and Great Plains
(Aikens 1983b; Haynes 1964, 1969a, 1980; Willig 1989; Wormington
1957). The few radiocarbon dates indirectly associated with fluted
points in the Far West, limited as they are, do fall within the range
documented for the Clovis-Llano horizon (Table 4).
The time range generally assigned to the Clovis-Llano tradition
is 11,500 to 11,000 B.P., but the actual range of reported dates is
from 11,840 to 10,640 B.P. (Haynes et al. 1984) (Table 3). Dates on
Western Stemmed complexes from a number of western sites demonstrates
a time span extending as late as ;,000 B.P. -- a time long after the
Clovis-Llano horizon (Table 5). But the earliest stemmed points in the
Far West date from 11,140 to 10,60Q B.P., indicating an overlap at the
early end of their floruit with Western Clovis occupation.
p-
32
The geographic overlap and temporal closeness of Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed traditions in the Far West have led to conflicting
notions about the age and historical relationship of these early
cultures living at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. Scholars like
Aikens (1978, 1983a, 1983b) contend that the Western Stemmed tradition
postdates Western Clovis, but developed from a Clovis base. Others
believe that the two complexes represent quite distinct, contemporary
traditions (Bedwell 1970; Bryan 1979; Davis et al. 1969), and that
Western Stemmed is probably the more ancient of the two traditions
(Bryan 1979, 1980, 1988).
How much of a temporal overlap actually exists for Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed occupations in the Far West? Can it be
demonstrated, through stratigraphic superposition or other means of
relative dating, that the two are separated in time? Is there
sufficient evidence to demonstrate that Western Stemmed is the more
ancient of the two? Can it be conclusively demonstrated, through
technological and typological studies, that the two are
developmentally related? The available data suggest that, for the most
part, Western Stemmed occupation in the Far West postdates Western
Clovis, but that the two are close in time. This temporal precedence
remains to be demonstrated by securely dated materials in reliable,
buried stratigraphic context. In the absence of such direct dating,
the answers to these questions must be sought through relative dating
methods utilizing indirect data.
33
Current Data on Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Economy
Buried sites producing datable subsistence remains (seeds, bones
and shell) and perishable artifacts directly related to specific
economic pursuits (fishing hooks, nets, spears and traps) are
extremely rare in the Far Western archaeological record from 11,500 to
9,000 B.P. (Aikens 1983a). At present, there are no dated subsistence
remains from Western Clovis sites, although the faunal remains
recovered from the Old Humboldt Site in Nevada (discussed below) offer
intriguing possibilities (Rusco and Davis 1987).
Associations Claimed with Extinct Megafauna
The presence of kill sites and clear association of artifacts
with hunted Pleistocene megafauna, one of the major indices of the
Clovis-Llano horizon (Haynes 1964, 1969a, 1980; Sellards 1952), is yet
to be documented outside the Plains and Southwest. Many claims have
been made in the Far West for associations of early human artifacts
with extinct Rancholabrean fauna, such as mammoth, horse, camel, sloth
and bison. Reported sites include China Lake, California (Davis 1978a;
1978b), Wilson Butte Cave, Idaho (Gruhn 1961, 1965), and in Oregon,
the Willamette Valley (Cressman and Laughlin 1941) and Paisley Five
Mile Point Cave No.3 (Cressman 1966).
But in most cases, the associations have been questioned as being
too surficial or indirect to be confirmed (Heizer and Baumhoff 1970;
Jennings and Norbeck 1955; Jennings 1986). Only at Owl Cave (Wasden
site) in eastern Idaho are fluted points found in association with
tr
34
elephant remains (Butler 1978, 1986; Miller and Dort 1978). But the
points are Folsom tools, not Clovis, and the dates obtained from
elephant bone have been seriously questioped (Butler 1978:59-61).
Haynes (1988) critically evaluates the types of evidence advanced
to support human use of terminal Pleistocene mammalian taxa like
Mammuthus and Camelops. Based on taphonomic studies of natural bone
accumulations at African watering holes, he summarizes a list of
features which can "mimic" culturally induced cut marks and spiral
fracturing of bone. These features are the result of natural deaths
and/or post-mortem scavenging or trampling of bones, but are often
mistaken for evidence of cultural butchering and processing. This i.s a
sobering thought considering that the major Western Clovis and Stemmed
sites are located in lake basins which would have served as attractive
watering holes in periods of drought and lake recession at the
Pleistocene-Holocene boundary (Haynes 1988; Willig 1984, 1988, 1989).
Dansie stresses the need for careful microstratigraphic and
taphonomic studies in conjunction with dated lake histories in each
basin (Dansie et al. 1988). Co-occurrence and geographic overlap of
extinct faunal remains with early tools may indicate contemporaneity,
but it does not necessarily demonstrate behavioral relationships (see
also Meltzer 1988). Even contemporaneity cannot be assumed, as shown
by Dansie's careful study of articulated Pyramid Lake camel
skeletons.
Dansie's analysis of the taphonomy, stratigraphy and body
position (upright "sudden death" posture) indicated that the Pyramid
Lake camel bones were the result of natural lake edge deaths and quick
-"
35
post-mortem burial of drought-stressed animals drawn to the muddy
death traps for drinking water during periods of lake recession. The
presence of a Northern Side-notched point and other tools nearby might
have suggested an association with the camel, but Stafford's six
accelerator radiocarbon determinations on amino acids from the camel
bone produced an average date of 25,800 B.P. (Dansie et al. 1988).
Subsistence Data from Western Stemmed Sites
Like the Far Western Clovis record, direct subsistence data from
buried archaeological deposits prior to 9,000 B.P. continue to be
rare. Subsistence remains for the period from 8,500 to 7,000 B.P. have
been reported from numerous California, Great Basin and Plateau
sites (Aikens 1978, 1983b), and include a wide range of plant and
animal foods. Pioneering research at The Dalles, Oregon (Cressman et
al. 1960), Danger Cave, Utah (Jennings 1957) and Frightful Cave,
Mexico (Taylor 1966) produced some of the first evidence for early
broad spectrum adaptations in the Far West prior to 9,000 B.P.
Investigations in recent years have also contributed towards a rapidly
growing data base of early subsistence remains, from which some
dietary inferences may now be made (Willig and Aikens 1988).
At the Old Humboldt Site (26 Pe 670) along Rye Patch Reservoir in
Nevada, a small, highly diversified assemblage of mammals, birds, fish
and molluscs were recovered in association with one fluted point and
two stemmed points (Dansie 1984, 1987; Rusco and Davis 1987). The
fauna represented included bison, waterfowl eggshell, three species of
rabbits, 76 clams and one large Lahonton trout. As mentioned above,
-36
the exact surface of origin for the fluted and stemmed points within
the shallow alluvial deposits is not clear, and their direct
association with one another cannot be guaranteed (Davis and Rusco
1987:41). Nonetheless, the assemblage is one of the earliest and most
diversified of its kind and the tools are clearly documented in situ
within the buried deposit.
Dansie has identified shellfish remains from numerous other early
Holocene sites excavated in the vicinity of Rye Patch Reservoir
(Dansie 1987). Freshwater clams were utilized by the earliest western
Stemmed occupants at Last Supper Cave in Nevada, dated between 9,000
and 8,000 B.P. (Layton and Davis 1978; Layton 1970, 1979). On the
southern shore of Buena Vista Lake in the San Joaquin Valley of
California, excavations of a deeply buried midden site yielded the
remains of shellfish, birds, turtles, deer and a variety of fish
(Fredrickson and Grossman 1977:179). The associated western Stemmed
points resemble Lake Mohave forms and radiocarbon dates have placed
the occupation between 8,200 and 7,600 B. 'P. (Table 5).
The earliest levels of Danger Cave, Utah, dating from 11,000 to
10,000 B.P., contained quids of bulrush (Scirpus americanus) and bones
of antelope, mountain sheep, and bison (Jennings 1957:224). The
antelope remains were by far the most abundant of the three taxa.
Evidence for the hunting of mountain sheep by other early Holocene
groups in the Far West has been reported from Smith Creek Cave (Bryan
1979, 1980) and Hanging Rock Shelter (Thomas 1970) in Nevada.
In California, faunal assemblages from four Lake Mohave-Pinto
sites on Fort Irwin indicate a predominance of hunting, and represent
37
the first significant sample from sites of this antiquity in the
Mohave Desert (Douglas et al. 1988). Rabbit bones were dominant
" ;d~''v' ~ \ \")\',\ '\ c~ V" '"~'U'\.,,;~·-t -tv·,·~...
elements in all of the sites studied, but artiodactyls were most
prevalent in the earliest components (early Lake Mohave). Lizards and
tortoise dominate more recent sites (late Pinto). Consistent
preference for rabbits suggests cultural continuity through time, but
the change from an early focus on large mammals to a later emphasis on
tortoise can be explained by increasing aridity and differences in the
availability of various taxa at each site's location on the
paleolandscape (Douglas et al. 1988).
The earliest deposits at Hogup Cave, Utah (Aikens 1970), dating
as early as 8,400 B.P., have produced an abundance of wild plant
foods, especially pickleweed, and a diverse array of faunal remains,
including waterfowl, bison, pronghorn antelope, mule deer, mountain
sheep, hares, rabbits and small rodents. The abundance of milling
stones, plant macrofossils, and vegetal-rich coprolites clearly
reflects a diversity of plant and animal foods procured from the
lake-marsh habitat outside the cave (Aikens 1978).
At The Dalles Roadcut site on the southern bank of the Columbia
River in Oregon, the earliest occupation (Initial Early) level, dated
between 9,780 and 7,680 B.P., produced a limited assemblage of blades,
scrapers and bone tools (Aikens 1983b; Cressman et al. 1960). However,
the overlying cultural deposits (Full Early) produced an abundance of
faunal remains in direct association with Western Stemmed points,
edge-ground cobbles, grooved sinker'stones and a variety of bone and
antler tools. The faunal assemblage was remarkably diversified, and
..
-
38
included bones of elk, fish, birds, badger, marmot, fox, rabbit,
beaver, otter, muskrat, small rodents and literally thousands of
salmon vertebrae (Aikens 1983b:188).
Located on the interface of the Great Basin, Plains and Plateau,
excavations at Dirty Shame Rockshelter in Oregon also indicate an
early presence of broad spectrum subsistence (Aikens et al. 1977;
Grayson 1977; Hall 1977; Hanes 1988a). Food remains identified from
human feces and bone debris indicate a focus on the local, mesic
canyon habitat (Aikens et al. 1977). The earliest cultural deposits in
lower Zone VI, dated between 9,500 and 8,860 B.P., yielded crayfish,
mussel shell fragments and a variety of small, burned mammal bones.
These were recovered in association with Western Stemmed point styles,
including one Windust, one Cougar Mountain and eight leaf-shaped
lanceolates (Hanes 1988a, 1988b).
At the Lind Coulee site in south-central Washington (Daugherty
1956), the remains of bison, waterfowl and other small mammals were
recovered in association with Windust and other Western Stemmed
points, dating from 9,000 to 8,500 B.P. (Table 5). Results indicated
sequent seasonal occupation adjacent to a series of shallow lakes and
ponds, as evidence by the now-dry "coulee" (Ames 1988).
Excavations at numerous cave sites around the perimeter of
Winnemucca Lake Basin in Nevada have produced fishing gear and remains
of mammals, reptiles and fish that no longer inhabit the area (Hattori
1982; Orr 1952, 1974; Thompson et al. 1987; Tuohy 1974). At Fishbone
Cave, remains of fish, marmot, bird"bones were recovered from Level 4,
including numerous mummified fish wrapped in grass and laid in cache
39
pits (Orr 1956; 1974). These remains were found directly associated
with two chert knives, some basketry fragments and a human burial
wrapped in cedar bark which produced two radiocarbon determinations
(L-245) of 10,900±300 B.P. and 11,250±250 B.P. (Orr 1956).
Other cave sites around the perimeter of Winnemucca Lake have
yielded some of the earliest known basketry fragments in the Far West,
both open and closed twine, dating between 11,250 and 7,830 B.P.
(Adovasio 1986; Hattori 1982; Rozaire 1969, 1974; Thompson et al.
1987). In addition to those reported from Fishbone Cave, twined
baskets dating 7,940±610 B.P. (I-6874) have been reported from the
Nicolarsen site (26WA197) near Reno (Hester 1974; Roust 1958). Along
with the baskets were found numerous caches, burials and one complete
atlatl shaft. One of the Falcon Hill caves, Shinners Site A (26WA198),
produced two dates on basketry and matting in association with a
large, stemmed point: a date of 9,540±120 B.P. (UCLA-675) and a date
of 8,380±120 B.P. (UCLA-672) (Hattori 1982:17).
From the northwestern shore of Pyramid Lake, Nevada, Tuohy
(1988a) reports a date of 9,660±170 B.P. (Gx-13744) on what he
considers to be sagebrush bark fishing line, from a site situated on
one of the lowest lake levels recorded for the lake. In addition, Orr
(1974) has reported a date of 7,830±350 B.P. (L-289KK) on what he
describes as fish netting from the same level in Fishbone Cave that
contained the early burial mentioned above.
Abundant remains of similar perishables, like basketry and
fishing nets, are characteristic of "the lakeside fishing-gathering
industries of the Lovelock Culture so well documented in this area as
•40
early as 4,500 B.P. (Heizer and Krieger 1956; Heizer and Napton 1970;
Loud and Harrington 1929). Although not necessarily indicative of a
similar economic orientation, such items as ground stone and basketry
have long been considered the "hallmarks" of the Western Archaic
(Jennings and Norbeck 1955). Additionally, the proximity of these
sites to fossil shorelines of shallow lakes and marshes, at such an
early time, lends much support to the hypothesis of early lake-marsh
adaptations (Aikens 1978, 1983a; Tuohy 1988a).
In the Fort Rock Basin, less than 10 km northwest of Alkali Lake
Basin, faunal remains from excavated cultural deposits at a number of
early cave sites have been interpreted as evidence of specialized
lake-marsh oriented subsistence as early as 10,200 B.P. (Bedwell 1970,
1973). Even more importantly, these fauna suggest the presence, from
11,000 to 7,000 B.P., of habitats which were considerably more mesic
than present (Grayson 1977, 1979; also, see discussion in Chapter IV
under Implications of Alkali Basin Research). Sites producing food
remains and Western Stemmed assemblages dating between 10,600 and
7,240 B.P. included Fort Rock Cave, Cougar Mountain Cave No.2, and
the Connley Caves. Identified mammal bones from the pre-Mazama
deposits were by far the most numerous, and included rabbits, gophers,
pikas, ground squirrels, porcupines, skunks, deer. The presence of
other large, unspecified mammals were also indicated, possibly
representing elk and bison (Bedwell 1970:84-88).
The oldest fish remains reported in the Great Basin were those of
tui chub (Gila bicolor) recovered from Level 26 at Connley Cave SA,
above a level dating 9,800±250 B.P. (Gak-1743) (Greenspan 1985), also
41
in association with Western Stemmed artifacts (Bedwell 1970). The
remains of tui chub have been identified from Western Stemmed
occupation levels at Connley Cave 4B (Greenspan 1985). These levels
include: (1) Level 24, dating 9,670±180 B.P. (Gak-2142); (2) the
lowest portion of Level 26, dated at 7,240±150 B.P. (Gak-2140); and
(3) Level 31, dating between 6,800 and 7,240 B.P. by virtue of its
stratigraphic position above Level 26 and below the Mazama ash layer.
Numerous bones of waterfowl were also found, including those of ducks
and grebes (Bedwell 1970).
These data suggest that as early as 10,000 B.P., and perhaps even
earlier, people in the Far West were practicing a generalized economy
which encompassed a broad range of plant and animal foods across a
diversity of ecological zones and habitats, with a variable mix of
both hunting, fishing and plant gathering. This is contrary to the
majority of economic inferences which have been made for cultures at
the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in the Southwest, Plains and
elsewhere in North America. The early Clovis-Llano kill sites fostered
a belief in the dominance of big-game hunting for all cultural groups
prior to the onset of the "Archaic" period as we know it. But, as
indicated by the research presented here, studies of site
distributions and paleoenvironmental settings associated with these
early occupations in the Far West further support the strong
likelihood that Archaic-like broad spectrum adaptations were in place
by 11,000 B.P. (see concluding discussions in Chapter IV).
•42
The Problem of Reconstructing the Adaptive strategies of
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Cultures
There are three nested sets of questions to consider in
postulating adaptive strategies for cultures of the
Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in the Far West. The first question
involves the role, if any, of specialized big-game hunting in
determining the settlement-subsistence strategies of these early
occupants, especially Western Clovis groups. The second issue is the
hypothesis of early lake-marsh adaptations during the time of Western
Stemmed, and possibly Western Clovis as well. The third is the
question of the Clovis-Archaic Interface (sensu Willig et al. 1988),
which addresses the broader issue of the time depth and inception of
broad spectrum (Archaic) adaptations in the Far West.
Role of Early Big-game Hunting
The first major question relating to adaptive strategies is the
role of "big-game" hunting, particularly in relation to Western Clovis
economy. As discussed above, with the exception of Southwestern sites,
there are no sites in the Far West which have produced artifacts and
extinct fauna in direct, unambiguous association that clearly indicate
a cultural relationship. As reviewed above, several studies have
demonstrated the dangers of making hasty assumptions about apparent
association and contemporaneity of early artifacts with fossil
megafaunal remains (Dansie et al. 1988; Haynes 1988). This situation
has led a number of scholars to seriously question the existence of a
specialized "big-game hunting" strategy in the Far West (Aikens 1978,
•43
1983a; Clewlow 1968; Heizer and Baumhoff 1970; Jennings 1964; Jennings
and Norbeck 1955; Madsen 1982; Rozaire 1963; Simms 1988; Wilke et
al. 1974; Willig 1989).
How significant was the hunting of large terrestrial game in
determining the settlement and subsistence strategies of Western
Clovis and Western Stemmed people? How focused does an economic system
have to be to warrant the label of "specialized big-game hunters"
(Meltzer and Smith 1986; Meltzer 1988; Simms 1988)? One possibility is
that Western Clovis represents a regional adaptational variant of the
specialized big-game hunting tradition implied by "Llano" (Willig
1988, 1989).
But the presence of specialized "big-game" hunting strategies in
the Far West, and probably elsewhere as well, may be more a myth than
a reality (Meltzer and Smith 1986; Meltzer 1988; Willig and Aikens
1988; Willig 1988, 1989). Human reliance on the hunting of large game
may have been no more significant in the earliest period than it was
during later "Archaic" times. Is our data base for the early periods
refined enough to demonstrate such a distinction from later cultures
which have been labeled as "Archaic"? What kinds of indirect data,
from environmental studies, can be brought to bear upon this problem?
Role of Early Lake-marsh Adaptations
The second issue relating to paleoeconomy is the hypothesis of
early lake-marsh adaptations for the earliest occupants of pluvial
lake basins in the Far West. Sites producing Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed artifacts are widely distributed across a variety of
44
environments throughout the Far West, including coastal, montane and
lowland valley settings. Nevertheless, most reported sites containing
significant concentrations of fluted and stemmed points are located
along the lowest strandlines in western pluvial lake basins.
This frequent co-occurrence and unique distribution in relation
to fossil streamside, swamp edge and lake margin habitats has led a
number of scholars to postulate a "pre-Archaic" lake-marsh adaptation
in the Far West (Aikens 1978, 1983a; Bedwell 1970; Clewlow 1968; Davis
1967, 1978a, 1978b; Fredrickson 1973, 1974; Heizer and Baumhoff 1970;
Madsen 1982; Rozaire 1963; Wilke et al. 1974). This unique site
distribution was the basis for Bedwell's concept of the Western
Pluvial Lakes Tradition, often referred to as WPL or WPLT (Bedwell
1970, 1973). The WPL concept postulates the widespread, early presence
of a specialized economic adaptation geared to lake, marsh and
grassland resources which would have been abundant in these western
lake-marsh ecosystems.
There are several major problems embedded within the WPL concept,
which are discussed below (see discussion in Chapter IV under RoleJ2f
Early Lake-marsh Adaptations). One major question is just how
plausible are these early lake-marsh adaptations hypothesized for the
earliest occupants of pluvial lake basins in the Far West? How
significant was the role of lake-marsh resources in determining
settlement and subsistence strategies? Was the degree of human
reliance on these resources significant enough to warrant recognition
of such a specialized lake-marsh adaptation as implied by the concept
of a Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition (Bedwell 1970, 1973)?
,.
I
45
More specifically, does the documentation of a lake-marsh
settlement focus confirm the presence of so specialized an
adaptation? One possibility is that the lakeshore settings represent
the pivot points of flexible, wide-ranging, broad-spectrum strategies
"tethered" (sensu Taylor 1964) to mesic habitats which contained
reliable sources of food and water (see concluding discussions in
Chapter IV).
The Clovis-Archaic Interface: Myth or Reality?
The third and most important question to address about early
occupations is the issue of the Clovis-Archaic Interface and the time
depth of broad spectrum Archaic adaptations in the Far West. If
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed groups were not specialized
free-wandering big-game hunters (sensu Beardsley et al. 1956), and
practiced economies which were more diversified than was once thought,
then just how different were these cultures from the lifeways
described in later periods as Archaic? Warren and Phagan make the
excellent point that "before we can evaluate the Clovis-Archaic
interface, we must first locate that interface" (Warren and Phagan
1988). Is there really a Clovis-Archaic Interface? Or is the economic
contrast between the two an artificial one (Simms 1988; Willig 1989;
Willig and Aikens 1988)? It may be that "Clovis" and Archaic" are far
more alike than previously supposed.
46
Research Needs
The kinds of archaeological data which bear upon the age,
historical relationship and economies of Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed cultures include four major categories: (1) methods of
absolute and relative dating (radiocarbon, stratigraphy, typology,
obsidian hydration); (2) technological studies (lithic reduction
sequences, assemblage structure and diversity, hafting traditions);
(3) paleoenvironmental studies (reconstructions of paleolandscape,
resource constraints/potentials and environmental context); and (4)
studies of land-use patterns (based on lithic sourcing, subsistence
remains, site distribution, settlement patterns).
There are distinct limitations in the current Far Western data
base for answering the questions discussed above. This is especially
true in the lack of radiocarbon dates and direct subsistence-related
remains and artifacts which could demonstrate age or verify specific
economic pursuits. Nevertheless, there is evidence available to
establish a relative chronology of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed
occupations. There is also much that can be induced about these early
lifeways from a variety of indirect data provided by studies of
technology, typology, paleoenvironmental context, and settlement and
land use patterns.
, i
-----.------------- -----------
47
Establishing Relative Chronology
The available radiocarbon dates suggest that, for the most part,
Western Stemmed occupation in the Far West postdates Western Clovis,
but that the two are close in time. This temporal precedence must
ultimately be demonstrated by securely dated materials from reliable,
buried stratigraphic context; but in the absence of buried, datable
deposits and stratigraphic superposition, there are a number of
indirect avenues which can provide a strong relative chronology.
In particular, studies of artifact typology, site distributions,
stratigraphic cross-correlations and source-specific obsidian
hydration have been quite successful in this regard. If the elevation
and stratigraphic context of single-component occupation surfaces can
be matched with specific lake levels and paleo-land surfaces, then
radiocarbon dating of non-cultural materials from these deposits would
indirectly date the occupation. Any research which could more closely
circumscribe Clovis and Stemmed traditions in time, by means of
relative dating methods such as these, would be a useful contribution.
Reconstructing Adaptive Strategies
Current archaeological research displays a renewed focus upon the
concept of "adaptation" -- the human response to environmental change
(Aikens 1982, 1983a; Jennings 1986; Kirch 1980). Kirch (1980:102) has
called this a "robust concept" capable of integrating the eclectic and
disparate data so peculiar to the field of archaeology. In the absence
of direct economic data such as subsistence-related artifacts and food
--
48
remains, the most reliable data for reconstructing prehistoric
adaptive strategies are those generated from studies of technology,
trade and exchange, settlement pattern and land use. Especially useful
are studies of lithic sourcing and artifact context with respect to
the paleolandscape, and its resource potentials and constraints.
When supplemented by a knowledge of ecology and hunter gatherer
theory (Binford 1980; Kelly 1983), these data can provide the basis
for inferences about prehistoric economy and adaptation (Meltzer
1988). Any research which could incorporate a detailed study of human
land use and settlement pattern in relation to early postglacial
landforms and habitats would be a valuable contribution towards
building a fuller characterization of Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed lifeways.
Alkali Lake Basin Research Design
Introduction
The northern Alkali Lake Basin of south-central Oregon, and the
Dietz site (35 LK 1529) in particular, offered an excellent testing
ground for hypotheses about the age and economic orientations of early
cultures at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in the Far West, for
several reasons. The now-dry basin, once occupied by Pluvial Lake
Alkali, has produced unusually abundant and "pure" assemblages of
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed artifacts and sites. Most at the
fluted and stemmed points at the Dietz site and elsewhere in the basin
occurred in spatially discrete, single component clusters or sites,
-49
and there is a virtual absence of sites dating later than 7,000 B.P.
Secondly, unlike many other geographic settings, closed lake
basins such as Alkali Lake are excellent settings for reconstructing
paleoenvironment because their lake histories are so dependent on and
responsive to changing climatic conditions, and leave such visible
sedimentological records of those changes (Davis 1982a; Smith and
Street-Perrott 1983). Furthermore, unlike the case in many other
western lake basins, the record of late Pleistocene and early Holocene
landscape and lake levels in the northern Alkali Basin is remarkably
well preserved.
In most western lake basins, the record of late Pleistocene and
early Holocene sedimentation has been destroyed, by water levels
associated with late Holocene lakes or by major erosional processes
resulting from their desiccation. In the northern Alkali Lake Basin of
Oregon, this record has survived relatively intact, with only minimal
erosional gaps, primarily because the basin has remained essentially
dry since 7,000 B.P. (see concluding discussions in Chapter III).
Thus, the northern Alkali Lake Basin has produced an abundance of
early cultural remains in close association with well-preserved early
postglacial landforms and lake stratigraphy. This situation provided
an opportunity to record, in detail, the distribution and context of
early sites, offering a clear perspective on human land use in
relation to lake conditions and environmental change at the
Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in the Far West. Reconstruction of lake
levels and settlement patterns in the northern Alkali Lake Basin has
50
provided valuable insight on the effects of early postglacial climatic
change on early human occupations in the region.
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Occupation
at the Dietz Site
The Dietz site (35 LK 1529) is located in south-central Oregon,
in the northernmost portion of Alkali Lake Basin, 27 km southeast of
the town of Wagontire in Lake County (Figure 1). The site consists of
an extremely large lithic'scatter which is distributed along
low-relief fossil shorelines in a structural basin once occupied by
Pluvial Lake Alkali (Figure 2). There are primarily two series of
artifacts represented which are assignable, respectively, to the
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultural traditions.
The site WqS discovered in 1982 by Mr. Dewey Dietz of Redmond,
Oregon. Recognizing the importance of the Clovis artifacts, Dietz
reported the site to Dr. John L. Fagan, archaeologist for the Portland
District Office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Initial site
visits in 1983 by Dietz, Fagan and William J. Cannon (Lakeview
District BLM archaeologist) revealed a rich abundance of early tools
exposed on the surface, especially Clovis type fluted points (Fagan
1984a). The site was subsequently named in honor of Dietz, and has
been the focus of extensive research ever since (Fagan 1984a, 1984b,
1986, 1988; Willig 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989).
A continuing program of archaeological testing and controlled
surface collections at the Dietz site since 1983 has yielded 61 fluted
point fragments (Figures 6 through 14). These include 12 complete or
•51
nearly complete points, four tip fragments, eight midsections, eight
base and midsection fragments and 28 base fragments (Fagan 1988;
Willig 1988). Two fluted base and midsection fragments, found 100 m
apart from each other but at the same elevation, were fitted together
(Fagan 1988), so the actual count of fluted points totals 60, not 61
(see #553-195 and #553-267 on Figure 11). Seven of these 60 fluted
points (#553-1 through #553-7 and #553-319) were collected by Dietz
prior to 1983 and have no recorded provenience.
Of the 47 fluted point fragments collected and identified by
Fagan (1988), I have been able to examine and illustrate all but
five. The five fluted point fragments not examined or illustrated here
include: #553-32, #553-96, #553-138, #553-142, #553-238. Appendix C
includes a complete set of full size illustrations (reverse sides and
cross-sections) of all time-diagnostic artifacts collected from basin-
wide sites, including the Dietz site.
Fagan (1984b, 1988) considers an additional 52 items from the
Dietz site to be diagnostic Clovis artifacts. These include 25 blanks
and 27 flute flakes. A sample of these are illustrated in Figure 15. A
diversified assemblage of other tools has also been recovered in
association with the fluted and stemmed point clusters (Fagan 1984a,
1984b, 1988). These include scrapers, gravers, bifacial blanks,
preforms, knives, wedges, abrading stones, hammerstones, and a variety
of flake tools (see Appendix C for more details) .
a. b.
52
eM
c. d.
FIGURE 6. Complete and Near~complete Fluted Points from
the Dietz Site: a. #553-14; b. #553-260;
c. #553-262 and d. #553-421
a. b.
53
eM
c. d.
FIGURE 7. Complete and Near~complete Fluted Points from
the Dietz Site: a. #553-17; b. #553-411;
c. #553-319 and d. #553-258
a. b. c. d.
54
e. f.
eM
9.
tr
FIGURE 8. Complete (Miniature) Fluted Points and Fluted Point
Tip Fragments from the Dietz Site. Points include:
a. #553-271; b. #553-232; c. #553-33 and d. #553-241
Tips include: e. #553-433; f. #553-113; and g. #553-133
a.
55
b. c.
eM
d.
1.
e.
g.
FIGURE 9. Fluted Point Midsection Fragments from the Dietz Site:
a. #553-16; b. #553-115; c. #553-432; d. #553-416;
e. #553-245; f. #553-140 and g. #553-422
a.
d.
c·
b.
e.
56
eM
-
FIGURE 10. Fluted Point Base-Midsection Fragments from the
Dietz Site: a. #553-417; b. #553-435; c. #553-47;
d. #553-199; and e. #553-19
Fa.
c. d.
eM
57
-
FIGURE 11. Fluted Point Base-Midsection Fragments from the
Dietz Site: a. #553-195; b. #553-267; c. #553-295;
and d. #553-1. Note: Re-fitted base fragments
(a. and b.) were found 100 meters apart.
58
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.
h.
eM
FIGURE 12. Fluted Point Base Fragments from the Dietz Site:
a. #553-234; b. #553-268; c. #553-3; d. #553-6;
e. #553-188; f. #553-5; g. #553-412 and h. #553-7
g.
a.
c.
e.
9.
b.
d.
f.
h.
eM 59
FIGURE 13. Fluted Point Base Fragments from the Dietz Site:
a. #553-443; b. #553-100; c. #553-169; d. #553-39;
e. #553-99; f. #553-201; g. #553-404 and h. #553-4
a. b.
60
c. d.
e. 1.
9. h.
eM
i .
-
FIGURE 14. Fluted Point Base Fragments from the Dietz Site:
a. #553-2; b. #553-196; c. #553-18; d. #553-431;
e. #553-430; f. #553-239; g. #553-444; h. #553-144;
and i. #553-410
a. b.
61
eM
c.
d. e.
~f(J\~\~
FIGURE 15. Clovis Artifacts Identified by Fagan (1988) from the
Dietz Site. Flute Flakes: a. #553-143 and b. #553-243
Blanks or Preforms: c. #553-164; d. #553-244; and
e. #553-204
•62
The Dietz site has also produced a total of 32 stemmed and
shouldered points assignable to the Western Stemmed Tradition, of
which 18 were clearly identifiable as previously described types
(Figures 16 through 18). These types include: seven Cougar Mountain,
one Lake Parman, one Lake Mohave, one Haskett, three Windust, one
Cascade, and three Plano-like square-based stemmed points.
The remaining 14 Western Stemmed tradition artifacts recovered
include 11 miscellaneous stemmed point bases which most likely
represent the Cougar Mountain type, but are too fragmentary to be
certainly identified (Figure 16). Three other stemmed points were
categorized as small (N = 2) and large (N = 1) transitional forms
(Figure 18). In addition to the 32 stemmed point types described
above, five crescents, 12 ground stone slabs of local volcanic tuff
and two mano fragments have been recovered in direct association with
the Western Stemmed tool clusters (Figures 19 and 20). The economic
significance of the crescents and ground stone tools and the
chronological relevance of the so-called transitional forms are
further discussed in Chapter III under Sub-basin Correlations and in
Chapter IV under Relative Dating of Clovis and Stemmed Cultures.
Of the 39 stemmed, shouldered and lanceolate points collected and
identified by Fagan (1984b, 1988) at the Dietz site and at Site
No. 45, I have examined and illustrated all but fourteen. The fourteen
Western Stemmed artifacts not examined and illustrated here include:
(1) #553-27, #553-41, #553-76, #553-79, #553-90, #553-106, #553-119
and #553-120 from the Dietz site; and (2) #490-45-131 through
#490-45-137, and #490-45-139 from Site No. 45 .
63
, "
a. b. c. d.
, I
e· g.
I.
k
J.I.h.
\ ~
I'
, '
, '
FIGURE 16. Miscellaneous Stemmed Point Base Fragments (WS-l) and
Cougar Mountain Points (WS-2) from the Dietz Site.
WS-l include: a. #553-406; b. #553-408; c. #553-259;
d. #553-50; e. #553-426; f. #553-77; and g. #553-405.
WS-2 include: h. #553-51; i. #553-45; j. #553-168;
k. #553-68 and 1. #553-176
b.
64
eM
d. e.
-
FIGURE 17. Parman (WS-3), Haskett (WS-5), Windust(WS-9) and Cascade
Points (CA) from the Dietz Site. WS-3 includes:
a. #553-418. WS-5 includes: b. #553-60. WS-9 include:
c. #553-29 and d. #553-72. CA includes: e. #553-423
a. b. c.
65
eM
d. e. 1.
FIGURE 18. Large (WS-6) and Small (WS-8) Transitional Stemmed Points
and Plano-like Square-based Forms (PS) from the Dietz Site.
PS include: a. #553-109; -b. #553-211; and c. #553-300.
WS-6 includes: d. #553-61. WS-8 include: e. #553-415
and f. #553-289
b.
66
c.
eM
d.
FIGURE 19. Crescent Tools from the Dietz Site: a. #553-425;
b. #553-112; c. #553-434; d. #553-286 and e. #553-212
+a.
b.
67
FIGURE 20. Large Ground Stone Slab (metate) of Local Tuffaceous Rock(#553-86) from the Dietz Site, Found in Association with
Western Stemmed Point Clusters: a. Full View; b. Close-up
of worn surfaces. Specimen measures 30 cm by 17 cm.
68
In addition to the transitional Western Stemmed forms mentioned
above, the Dietz site has also yielded two unfluted concave based
points (#553-187 and #553-400) and 14 "odd" point types that defy
categorization and seem to be neither fluted, nor stemmed, or perhaps
a little of both (Figures 21 through 23). It can be hypothesized that
some of these so-called transitional point types represent temporally
and culturally intermediate forms between Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed, or between Western Stemmed and Humboldt/Pinto groups in the
basin.
Other time-diagnostic artifacts (N = 18) recovered at the Dietz
site include one small and three large corner-notched points, four
side-notched points, two Pinto stemmed and shouldered forms, seven
Humboldt series types (Figures 24 through 26). Most of these
non-fluted and non-stemmed artifacts occurred as scattered, isolated
finds not associated with the large, dense clusters of debitage
producing fluted and stemmed points. In particular, two
corner-notched points (#553-401 and #553-402) and one side-notched
point (#553-403) which clearly date to later time periods were found
conspicuously piled into a small cluster at a recently abandoned
hunting camp near the base of the Dietz Hill, probably discarded as
rejects by local artifact collectors. This modern camp, referred to as
"Juniper Pole Camp", is the only physical evidence of potential human
disturbance of cultural remains in the northern Alkali Lake Basin -- a
factor of significance in reconstructing site formation processes (see
discussion in Chapter III under Integrity of Deposits and
Post-occupation Processes).
a. b. c.
69
eM
d. e.
-
FIGURE 21. Unfluted Concave-based (CB) Points and Unique (Untyped)
Fluted or Basally-thinned Points from the Dietz Site.
CB include: a. #553-198; b. #553-407; and c. #553-187
Untyped include: d. #553-116 and e. #553-442
a.
c.
b.
70
e.d.
eM
FIGURE 22. Unique (Untyped) Concave Based, Shouldered, Fluted or
Basally-thinned Points from the Dietz Site: a. #553-145;
b. #553-153; c. #553-159; d. #553-193; and e. #553-174
eM 71
a. b.
d.
c.
e.
FIGURE 23. Unique (Untyped) Concave-based, Shouldered, Fluted or
Basally-thinned Points from the Dietz Site: a. #553-420;
b. #553-108; c. #553-118; d. #553-166 and e. #553-104
ra. b. t
'
, "
. \' \
eM
72
c. d. e.
•
FIGURE 24. Miscellaneous Corner-notched (CN) and Untyped Eared
Points from the Dietz.Site. Untyped Eared: a. #553-67.
Small CN: b. #553-402. Large CN: c. #553-69; d. #553-71;
and e. #553-401
73
~
a.
b. c. d.
e. f.
-
eM
FIGURE 25. Side-notched (SN) and Pinto Shouldered or Notched (PI)
Points from the Dietz Site. SN include: a. #553-403;
b. #553-409; c. #553-296; and d. #553-424. PI include:
e. #553-66 and f. #553-219
Fa. b. c.
74
d. e. 1. 9.
-
FIGURE 26. Humboldt Series Points (HU) from the Dietz Site:
a. #553-288; b. #553-43; c. #553-40; d. #553-58;
e. #553-413; f. #553-414 and g. #553-173
75
The other large corner-notched and side-notched points at the
site, along with the Humboldt and Pinto types (N = 15), strongly
suggest that the northern Alkali Lake Basin may not have been a place
of choice after about 7,000 or 6,500 B.P. (see concluding discussions
in Chapter III). These kinds of point types have generally been
assigned to the early-to-mid Holocene range (7,000 to 5,000 B.P.).
However, there is a growing consensus, based on a number of recent
studies, that Pinto, Humboldt and large notched forms actually occur
in two stages or periods of fluorescence in the Far West. The early
floruit ranges from 8,000 to 7,000 B.P., and even as early as 9,000
B.P.; and the later period occurs between 6,500 and 5,000 B.P.
(Ames et al. 1981; Hanes 1988a, 1988b; Holmer 1978, 1986; Layton 1970,
1972; Wilde 1985).
This two-stage temporal division of early and late Humboldt,
Pinto, and large notched forms has important bearing upon the results
of Alkali Lake Basin research. Although it was not discovered until
the very late stages of research, there is compelling evidence, both
cultural and environmental, for a two-stage Western Stemmed occupation
in the northern Alkali Lake Basin. The first period probably began
about 10,000 B.P. and continued to 8,600 B.P., while the later period
probably ranges from 8,000 to 7,000 or 6,500 B.P. (see concluding
discussions in Chapters III and IV). The data suggest that these early
Humboldt, Pinto and large-notched forms in the basin are much closer
in age and historical relationship to Western Stemmed people than was
previously thought. Such a close temporal and cultural overlap would
explain the high percentage of odd, transitional forms so common here.
76
Modeling Paleolandscape, Lake History and Early Human Land Use
in the Northern Alkali Lake Basin
The major focus of geoarchaeological research in the northern
Alkali Lake Basin, and at the Dietz site, has been to gather
archaeological and paleoenvironmental data to answer questions about
the age, historical relationship and economic adaptations of the
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultures represented there. In
particular, the research sought to reconstruct Clovis and Stemmed-era
landscape and lake history in the basin, and to determine the precise
distribution and stratigraphic context of artifacts and sites upon
that landscape. Detailed reconstructions of settlement pattern,
occupation surfaces and paleoenvironment have provided valuable
inferences about chronology and paleoeconomy, thereby increasing our
knowledge and understanding of these earliest inhabitants of the Far
West.
The primary research strategies were threefold: (1) to
reconstruct the Clovis-Stemmed era landscape, lake history and human
settlement pattern in the basin from about 11,500 to 7,000 B.P.; (2)
to determine the precise distribution and stratigraphic context of
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed artifacts and sites upon that
landscape -- in relation to each other and to sequent, datable fossil
water bodies; and thereby, (3) to establish a relative or indirect
dating of the Western Clovis and Western Stemmed occupations.
In 1983 and 1984, study of artifact distributions and fossil lake
features in the vicinity of the Dietz site led to the development ot a
testable model of lake history and human land use in the basin from
77
11,500 to 7,000 B.P. The model posited a terminal Pleistocene Western
Clovis occupation oriented to a small, shallow lake or pond, followed
by an early Holocene Western Stemmed settlement around a larger lake
and marsh fringe.
The main objectives of field research in 1985 and 1986 were: (1)
to gather archaeological and environmental data from elsewhere in the
northern sub-basin to test this model of lake history and human
occupation pattern as proposed; and (2) to further explore the
implications of this model for dating the Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed occupations. Data to test the model were gathered through
basin-wide site survey, stratigraphic studies, and high-resolution
mapping of lake features and artifacts.
Field methods used in gathering the research data included: (1)
large-scale piece-plotting of surface collected artifacts; (2) a
continuing program of map and air-photo research, followed by
geomorphic field survey of fossil lakeshore features at or below the
elevation of the Dietz site; (3) basin-wide archaeological site
survey; (4) "extensive sub-surface testing and stratigraphic study of
cultural deposits and fossil lake features; and (5) high resolution
topographic mapping of low-relief lake features and time-diagnostic
artifacts in the basin. These field methods are further discussed
below in Chapter II under Model Testing and Research Methods, in the
context of the environmental setting of the Dietz site.
-""------------------------------------- ---~
78
CHAPTER II
GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE ALKALI LAKE BASIN
Regional Environmental Setting
Greater Alkali Lake Basin
The Dietz site (35 LK 1529) is located in south-central Oregon in
the northernmost portion of a structural basin once occupied by
Pluvial Lake Alkali. Alkali Lake Basin is one of several major
structural basins of interior drainage in south-central Oregon
(Figures 1, 2, 27 and 28) which contained a long succession of pluvial
lakes during the late Pleistocene, as well as numerous smaller
Holocene lakes (Allison 1940, 1979; Baldwin 1981; Forbes 1973;
Mehringer 1977, 1986; Russell 1884,_ 1905). Geographically, this
portion of Oregon falls within the Basin and Range geographic province
of western North America (Baldwin 1981; Franklin and Dyrness
1973). Regional topography is dominated by multiple fault-block
mountains and ridges which trend north-northeasterly and
north-northwesterly, forming the margins of these closed lake basins.
As of 1983, when the Dietz site research was initiated, the
record of late Quaternary stratigraphy and lake history for greater
Alkali Lake Basin had not been studied in detail. The paleoenvironment
and geology of the surrounding region has been studied by numerous
geologists and Quaternary scientists (Allison 1940; Baldwin 1981;
T
I
50 100 150 200 MILES
--_.:===---====,
o 50 100 150 200 IOLOMITEl5
FIGURE 27. Map of Late Pleistocene Pluvial Lakes in the Great
Basin Showing Location of Alkali Lake Basin and
Other Major Lake Basins Discussed in Text (Adapted
from Wilde 1985:48)
79
~
Location of the Dietz Site (35 LK 1529) in Alkali Lake
Basin, Oregon, in Relation to Other Early Human
Occupation Sites in the Adjacent Fort Rock Basin
0:>
o~
Location Map
GJ
~6i
1\\
i Q --
. ~~
'}r{se Mtn
(2~8S
~
1: 500,000 scale
-I
lw
I
I
I
I
.
I ~ IIAI"'al" '))630
I Lake Basin C\Y"I
1 5 L Flo'Jre2 :10 -~ - -- - -----.J
I I I miles
C>
<",.._.~~'(,IlJB,-tlll ;1
\1
Cave
@ Dietz Site (35 LK 1529)
@ Cougar Mountain
Major Archaeological Sites of Early Postglacial Time
CD Fort Rock Cave
<l> Connley Caves
FIGURE 28.
681
Hansen 1942, 1947; Meinzer 1922; Mifflin and Wheat 1979; Peck 1961;
Peterson and McIntyre 1970; Phillips and Van Denburgh 1971; Russell
1884, 1905; Snyder et al. 1964; Walker and Repenning 1965; Walker et
al. 1967; Waring 1908).
The geology is characterized by tuffs, volcanic breccias,
basaltic lava flows and eroded remnants of volcanic plugs and
shields. Their formation and subsequent deformation are the result of
volcanic and tectonic activity throughout the Pliocene and early
Pleistocene (Allison 1979; Baldwin 1981). The late Pleistocene history
of the region is dominated by the sedimentation and erosional
processes associated with fluctuating pluvial lake levels, with some
recent basalt flows as well. The dominant local bedrock which would
have contributed parent material for prehistoric sediments and soils
includes Miocene basalts and rhyolitic flows, Pliocene flows, tuffs
and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks (Baldwin 1981). Reddish brown
tuffaceous bedrock is common in Alkali Lake Basin, and was used as a
source of camprock and ground stone tools by Western Stemmed groups in
the northern Alkali Basin.
Alkali Lake Basin is surrounded by four other pluvial lake basins
whose landforms and lake history have been the focus of numerous
geological and paleoenvironmental studies (Figure 27). Fort Rock
basin, located to the northwest, contained Pluvial Fort Rock Lake, of
which Silver Lake and Paulina Marsh are modern remnants (Allison
1966a, 1979; Davis 1982b, 1985; Forbes 1973; Greenspan 1985; Hampton
1964). Chewaucan Basin, located to the southwest, contained Pluvial
Lake Chewaucan, of which Summer Lake, Abert Lake and Chewaucan marsh
•82
are modern remnants (Allison 1945, 1966b, 1982; Davis 1982b, 1985;
Greenspan 1985). Warner Basin, located to the southeast of Alkali Lake
Basin, was the home of Pluvial Lake Warner, of which numerous small
lakes remain today (D. Weide 1975; M. Weide 1968). The Harney-Malheur
Basin, located to the northeast, contained Pluvial Lake Malheur, of
which Malheur, Harney and Silver Lakes are modern remnants (Gehr 1980;
Greenspan 1985).
These regional investigations in adjacent lake basins provided a
basis for comparison of the lake history as reconstructed in the
northern Alkali Lake Basin. Broader, long-distance comparisons can
also be made to environmental studies in the Lahontan Lake Basin of
Nevada (Benson 1978, 1981; Benson and Thompson 1987b; Dansie et al.
1988; Davis 1978, 1982a, 1983; Morrison 1964; Raven and Elston 1988;
Russell 1883, 1885; Thompson et al. 1986) and the Bonneville Lake
Basin of Utah (Currey and Oviatt 1985; Gilbert 1890). More general
summaries of these basins are provided by Benson and Thompson (1987a),
Broecker and Orr (1958) and Morrison (1965a). In particular, when
Alkali Basin data were compared to those of its nearest neighboring
basin (Fort Rock), the level of correspondence in lake level sequences
and elevations was too striking to be explained by mere coincidence
(Figure 28). The research strongly suggests that there is a long
history of groundwater connections between the Fort Rock and Alkali
Lake Basins. The implications of this are discussed further in Chapter
IV under Implications of Alkali Basin Research).
Alkali Basin is essentially dry today, with the exception of the
frequent, seasonal filling of highly chemical Alkali Lake in the
-83
southernmost portion of the basin. Other small lakes known to fill
briefly with water on a seasonal basis include Buckaroo Lake in the
northeast, and to some extent, North Alkali Lake in the center of the
basin. Local inhabitants speak of brief water stands in the northern
sub-basin, where the Dietz site is located, but these are always
characterized as shallow and short-lived (Figure 29).
The elevation of the Alkali Basin floor ranges from 1300 meters
(m) in the south to 1314 m in the north (Figure 29). There are at
least five prominent topographic features in the vicinity of Alkali
Lake Basin which rise from 400 to 700 m above the basin floor. In the
northwest, Horse Mountain peaks at 1672 m elevation. To the north and
northeast are Wagontire Mountain and Glass Buttes, at 1984 m and 1948
m elevation, respectively. Little Juniper Mountain rises to 1870 m in
the east, and Juniper Mountain dominates the southeast at 2020 m
elevation. Two of these prominences, Glass Buttes and Horse Mountain,
are known as sources of abundant obsidian, which have been utilized
heavily throughout the prehistoric period as quarries of raw material
for the production of lithic tools.
Within Alkali Basin itself, Pliocene and Pleistocene volcanic and
tectonic processes have formed numerous fault-block scarps, eroded
volcanic cones and basalt-capped ridges of moderate relief which rise
as much as 100 m above the basin floor in some places (Baldwin 1981).
The more prominent of these include Alkali Buttes and Grays Butte,
located in the southern portion of the basin. The Dietz site, located
in the northern sub-basin of greater Alkali Lake Basin, is situated
along the eastern flank of a basalt-capped ridge formed by uplift.
84
The Dietz Site within the Context of Greater Alkali
Lake Basin: The Northern Sub-basin
The Dietz site is located in the northern sub-basin of greater
Alkali Lake Basin (Figures 2, 28, 29, 30 and 31). The northern
sub-basin is one of three major sub-basins of greater Alkali Lake
Basin which contained terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene lake
levels at elevations below 1323 meters (Figure 32). The northern,
central and southern sub-basins form the basic units of comparison and
reference for late Quaternary lake levels existing before the Dietz
site was occupied (see discussion in Chapter III under Alkalj Basin
Lake History Reconstruction).
At 1323 m elevation and below, greater Alkali Lake Basin is
divided into three distinct sub-basins, separated from one another by
drainage divides of low-relief (7 m high) bars, terraces and spits
formed by previous lake stands (Figure 32). Once water levels fell
below 1323 m elevation, the northern, central and southern sub-basins
would have been hydrologically independent of each other, unless
connected by groundwater or near surface filtering.
The majority of the fluted and stemmed artifacts at the Dietz
site, dating roughly from 11,500 to 7,000 B.P., range from 1315 m to
1321 m elevation. This meant that the highest possible lake level
which could have existed at the time of the earliest occupation at the
site would have been at or below 1315 m elevation. Therefore, the lake
levels of relevance to early human occupation at the Dietz site would
have been contained within the confines of the northern sub-basin.
o 5 miles
l............I_..I...-....1.----L.---J1
1: 250,000
GEHorsea._ Mountain'1672
•:-:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::;:;:;:;:::::;:;. dry lake bed.........
~ intermittent lake
Wagontire
Mountain
'u~ray's Butte
c§81
~JUniP.r• Mountain20 0
85
FIGURE 29. Location of the Dietz Site (35 LK 1529) in the Northern
Sub-basin of Greater ~lkali Lake Basin, and Locations of
Major Geographic Features Discussed in Text
KEY
De = Point Debbie
Di = Point Dick
A = Point Amy
M = Point Monique
W= Point Wayne
K = Point Kevin
E = Point Elaine
R = Point Ron
B = Point Bob
J = Point John
C = Point Carol
H = Hilltop Site
F = Flemmer's Spit
U = Big Cut
"Umbrella"
Deposit
D = Dietz Site
@ Major Paints
.&of Reference
Major sites
=== Sub-basin
boundaries
.---. Major shore
profiles
° 1
.' ...' miles
0..., ...hma
lototion Map in
Oregon
D
86
•
FIGURE 30. Project Map for Northern Alkali Basin and Dietz Site
Research Showing Major Points of Reference Discussed
in Text: Major Sites, Collection Units, Grid Systems,
Datum Points, Trenches, Profiles, Lake Features and
Sub-basins
FIGURE 31. Aerial Photo of Northern Alkali Lake Basin and the
Dietz Site, Showing General Topography and Lake
Features: a. Place where Post-occupation (Big Cut)
Lake Deposits overlie Stemmed-era (Sand Ridge) Lake
Terrace; and b. Place where Sand Ridge Terrace
overlie Clovis-era Shoreline (Lake Koko)
87
Alkali Lake Basin:
Hypothesized 1323 m
Lake levels and
watersheds
(Dietz Site =;.)
Scale
5 0 'IL-I---'------'-----'-----'-'_I m I es
5L-1.......' """--,-.-.-J? kilameters
location Map
88
-
FIGURE 32. Areal Extent of Pluvial Lake Levels at 1323 m
Elevation in Greater Alkali Lake Basin (dotted
areas) and the Three Major Sub-basin Divisions
(dashed areas): Northern. Central. Southern
89
The relevance of these three sub-basin divisions to Dietz site
research is best illustrated by a northwest-to-southeast cross-section
from the top of the hill above the Dietz site at 1341 m elevation
(Point A on Figures 30 and 33) to the drainage divide near datum point
"Monique". The beach ridge at "Monique" serves as the drainage divide
which would have separated the northern and central sub-basins for all
lake levels below 1323 m elevation (Point A' on Figures 30 and 33).
Surface overflow needed to connect the two sub-basins would require a
lake level in excess of 1323 m elevation which, as can be seen on
Figure 32, would inundate the Dietz site by 8 to 9 m of water.
The Dietz Site within the Context of the Northern
Sub-basin: The "Dietz" Sub-basin
The Dietz site has been described as being situated within the
northern sub-basin of greater Alkali Basin (Willig 1984, 1985,
1986). Final results of map research further indicated that three
smaller basins actually existed within the northern sub-basin during
lake stands lower than 1320.8 m elevation. These subdivisions of the
northern sub-basin are referred to, in order from north to south, as
the "Chase", "Dietz" and "Crescent" sub-basins (Figure 30). At lake
levels of 1320.8 m elevation and below, the Chase, Dietz and Crescent
sub-basins would have been hydrologically independent of each other,
unless otherwise connected by groundwater or near surface filtering.
Lake levels of relevance to the occupational history of the Dietz
site are contained within the Dietz. sub-basin. But archaeological site
survey revealed the presence of 68 other sites located throughout the
northern sub-basin at or below 1320.8 m elevation. These included
Dietz Site Setting:
NW/SE Profile (A-A)
1341
1323
1311
A
.-. -.•.•••.. ~ ~':':.:.:.::::::::::::=::::;:-;"'-;.----0
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
. I1~23m _
divide-
at Monique's
Ter race
1 .5 a
horizontal: I I I kilometers
Dietz Site
1-.63 km-l
,Eley. I_~~~~~ . ~me erst
SCALE
100 50 a
vertical: I, I I I I I I I t I
(35x exaggeration)
feet
FIGURE 33. Northwest-to-southeast Profile Across the Northern
Sub-basin, from the 1341 m Crest of the Dietz Hill
(A) to the Drainage Divide (A') at Point "Monique" ,
which Separates the Northern and Central Sub-basins
Below 1323 m Elevation (See Figure 2 for Location
of A-A' Profile)
~
o
91
14 sites in the Chase sub-basin, four sites in the Crescent sub-basin
and 68 additional sites within the confines of the Dietz sub-basin.
Since the Chase, Dietz and Crescent sub-basins were effectively
separated at water levels below 1320.8 m elevation, the elevations of
time-equivalent lake levels and human occupation surfaces in each
sub-basin would not necessarily correspond. Therefore, the lake levels
and site distributions within each of these three smaller sub-basins
are referred to ,separately throughout the following discussion, but
within the context of the larger northern sub-basin.
Environmental Setting of the Dietz Site in the Dietz Sub-basin
The Dietz site is an extremely large lithic scatter which
dominates a smaller portion of the northern sub-basin, referred to
here as the "Dietz" sub-basin (Figures 2, 30 and 32). The
artifact-productive area of the site extends for 1250 m north-south on
low-relief remnant shorelines of now-dry Pluvial Lake Alkali, along
the eastern base of a steep, basalt-capped ridge referred to here as
the "Dietz hill" (Figure 2). The Dietz hill is a 3 km-long uplifted
ridge, or horst, which rises abruptly 27 m above the basin floor on
its eastern side and slopes gently towards the playa floor on its
western side. The east-west distribution of artifacts at the Dietz
site extends for 550 m from an elevation of 1314.5 m on the playa
floor east of the hill, to an elevation of 1341 m along the crest of
the Dietz hill to the west ..
The southern portion of the site is nestled within a small
embayment in the Dietz hill, referred to here as the "southern cove",
92
which was most likely formed by the wave-action processes of much
earlier and deeper lake levels in the basin. Two major beach terraces
are visible in this portion of the site. Terrace #1 is a well-defined
upper terrace visible as a distinct bench between 1330 m and 1332 m
elevation, just below the basalt caprock of the Dietz hill. The lower
terrace (Terrace #2), located between 1321.5 m and 1316.2 m elevation,
is not as steep and well defined as Terrace #1, but is readily
recognizable. It slopes gently to the east and gradually diffuses out
onto as a thin mantle of sand onto the exposed lakebed silts of the
playa floor. The lower sands of Terrace #2 are no longer visible at
1316.4 m elevation.
The northern portion of the Dietz site is situated within a
second embayment in the Dietz hill referred to here as the "northern
cove". The shoreline of the northern cove curves to the
north-northeast, where it splits, and subsequently blends into two
prominent lake-modified landforms. The first landform is a massive
wave-built hook bar or spit, referred to here as "Flemmer's Spit",
after the crew member who so diligently traversed its slopes in stadia
mapping.
Flemmer's Spit marks the northern boundary of the Dietz site just
north of its juncture with a second prominent lake form, an east-west
trending beach ridge referred to here as "Wayne's Terrace", after the
so-named survey datum established on its crest. Wayne's Terrace forms
the northern drainage divide of the Dietz sub-basin at 1321 m
elevation (see discussion in Chapter III under Alkali Basin Lake
History Reconstruction).
T93
The central portion of the Dietz site is disrupted by the
projection of a steep, rocky point in the Dietz hill, referred to here
as the "nose", which marks the place where the northern and southern
coves meet. In 1983, a permanent site datum was established near the
base of the Dietz hill at the southernmost extent of the lithic
scatter south of the southern cove. This site datum was designated as
o North/O East (ON/OE). From this point, a 1250-meter long baseline
was extended to the northernmost limit of the site at the base of
Flemmer's Spit (Figure 30). This baseline, and the key geomorphic
features just described, are the major points of reference in
following discussions of the context and distribution of artifacts at
the Dietz site.
Modeling Paleolandscape, Lake History and Human Occupation
Patterns in the Northern Alkali Lake Basin
The major focus of geoarchaeological research in the northern
Alkali Lake Basin, and at the Dietz site, has been to gather
archaeological and paleoenvironmental data to answer questions about
the age, historical relationship and economic adaptations of the
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultures represented there. The
primary research strategies were threefold: (1) to reconstruct the
Clovis-Stemmed era landscape, lake history and human settlement
pattern in the basin from about 11,500 to 7,000 B.P.; (2) to determine
the precise distribution and stratigraphic context of Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed artifacts and sites upon that landscape -- in
relation to each other and to sequent, datable fossil water bodies;
T•
94
and thereby, (3) to establish a relative or indirect dating of the
western Clovis and Western Stemmed occupations.
Model Formulation
In 1983 and 1984, initial study of artifact distributions and
fossil lake features in the vicinity of the Dietz site led to the
development of a testable model of lake history and human land use in
the northern sub-basin from about 11,500 to 7,000 B.P. The model
posited a western Clovis occupation oriented to a small, shallow lake
or pond with a wide marsh fringe in the center of the Dietz sub-basin
(Figure 34), followed by a western Stemmed settlement throughout much
of the northern sub-basin, oriented around a much larger, slightly
deeper lake and marsh fringe (Figure 35). Two major lines of evidence,
both archaeologic and geomorphic, led to the development of this
model. These factors were the differential distribution and
elevational position of fluted and stemmed artifacts at the site with
respect to two separate, sequent fossil shorelines observed.
Artifact Distributions
Although the stemmed and fluted point clusters at the Dietz site
were primarily surficial, results of 1983 and 1984 surface collections
and stadia mapping indicated that they occurred in spatially discrete
clusters in two distinct "zones" of concentration. Stemmed points
seemed to be confined to a zone above 1316 m elevation, from the base
of the lower terrace (Terrace #2), extending west up the slope of the
Dietz hill to about 1321 m elevation (Figures 36 and 37) .
,
.SOmiles
95
Northern sub-basin below
1322.8 m elevationmHypothesized lake/marsh
. ~ from 11-12,000 b.p.
~//i Distribution of fluted points
CD West shore trench
® Central trench
® East shore trench
I
FIGURE 34. Hypothesized 1314.8 m Clovis-era Lake (Lake Koko)
and Marsh in the Dietz Sub-basin, in Relation to
the Distribution of western Clovis (Fluted) at the
Dietz site
96
!
Northern sub-basin
below 1322.8 meters
. elevation
I -3 Hypothesized lake level
trom 8-10,000 bop.
I>;:~ Distribution ot Western
Stemmed Sites
.50mUel.25
SCALE
1
FIGURE 35. Hypothesized 1316 m Stemmed-era Lake (Sand Ridge Lake)
in the Northern Sub-basin, in Relation to Some of the
First Western Stemmed Shoreline Sites Discovered in 1984
-
.. ..
* •
•
.* •
•
•
...
••
97
--
-/'
/
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
DIETZ SITE:
(35lK1529)
• = fluted
* =stemmed
v = crescents
~ 1984@ex~avation
Unit
m
FIGURE 36. Horizontal Distribution of stemmed (stars) and Fluted
Points at the Dietz Site, in Relation to the Lake Levels
Hypothesized During Western Clovis (1314.8 m) and
Western Stemmed (1316 m) Period Occupations
~
DIETZ SITE
(35LK1529)
~ Dlatrlbutlon of WPL
~ DlagncMltlca
(w • crelC.nh)
~ Hypotn-tzed Iak....
(8-10.000 b.p.)
FIGURE 37. Closer View of Western Stemmed Artifact Distributions at
the Dietz Site, in Relation to the Hypothesized (1316 m)
Lake Level (Sand Ridge Lake)
\.0
00
h99
In contrast, fluted points were restricted to a zone below 1318 m
elevation, well beyond the base of Terrace #2, extending as far as 400
to 800 m eastward onto the playa floor, and as low as 1315 m elevation
(Figures 34 and 38). In addition, the surface distribution of the two
assemblages seemed to overlap slightly, within a zone about 80 m wide,
beginning just below the base of Terrace #2, between grid points DE
and 80E (Figure 30). This overlap offered some potential for
discovering buried deposits which might demonstrate a stratigraphic
separation of the two assemblages (see discussion in Chapter III under
Potential for Buried Deposits).
Fossil Shoreline Features
Results of initial air photo research, geomorphic field survey
and artifact mapping in 1983 and 1984 further indicated that the two
discrete distributions of fluted and stemmed artifacts at the Dietz
site had separate orientations along two apparently distinct
low-relief shoreline features in the Dietz sub-basin. The topography
and geometry of these two sets of lake features, and preliminary
stratigraphic studies, provided compelling evidence for the former
existence of at least two shallow water bodies in the basin which
probably related directly to two different early human occupations.
The majority of fluted points were concentrated below 1316 m
elevation, along the northwestern margin of a low-relief shoreline
(1 to 2 m high), in the west-central portion of the Dietz sub-basin.
The distribution of Western Clovis artifacts extended onto the playa
floor as far as 400 m to 800 m east and as low as 1315 m elevation,
•••
•
••
•
."
\
•
. ,. 7379.7
DIETZ SITE C35LK1529)
..., Distribution 01 Fluted Point
Lfi.I DtegnoaUca
1:\)[l4 Hnm~~ ~e-marSh
<D Weat shore trench
@ Central trench
@ Eat shore trench
FIGURE 38. Closer View of Western Clovis (Fluted) Point
Distributions at the Dietz Site, in Relation to
the Hypothesized 1314.8 m Lake Level (Lake Koko) f-'o
o
•101
well past and below the elevation of stemmed artifacts at the Dietz
site (Figures 34, 36 and 38). The highest density of fluted points
were found on the surface west of this shoreline feature, but not
occurring beyond it.
When traced around the center of the Dietz sub-basin, this
low-relief shoreline measured about 6 km in circumference and 2 to 4
square km in area, suggesting the former presence of a shallow lake or
pond (40 cm to 60 cm deep). The shore profile and depth of this small
but well-excavated feature on the basin floor indicated a lake of
substantial duration and stability, not just an ephemeral pond or
deflation basin. Furthermore, the slightly more elevated topography of
the Dietz sub-basIn's eastern sector also suggested that this shallow
lake or pond may have been flanked in the east by a marsh fringe about
500 m wide.
In contrast to the distribution pattern of the Clovis artifacts
around a low-elevation shoreline, the Western Stemmed artifacts were
concentrated around a slightly higher beach terrace just below 1316 m
elevation (Figures 35, 36 and 37). When this beach deposit was traced
laterally around the perimeter of the northern sub-basin, it was clear
that a lake at this elevation would occupy a much larger area than the
Clovis-era lake, occupying portions of the Chase, Dietz and Crescent
sub-basins as well.
The lake represented by this higher shoreline would have measured
about 30 km in circumference, 14 square km in area, and would have
held about 2 m of water. In addition, the topography of the three
sub-basin floors were relatively flat and smooth, especially those of
¥•
102
the Chase and Dietz sub-basins. This suggested that most of the
periphery of this hypothesized Stemmed-era lake would have included a
marsh fringe about 80 m wide.
Furthermore, air photo inspection suggested that the higher lake
proposed for the period of Western Stemmed occupation might be
transgressive, and therefore postdate the hypothesized Clovis-era
water body. This was confirmed in 1985 and 1986 by field inspection
and stadia survey of several places in the northern Alkali Lake
sub-basin where the two shorelines intersect one another. In
particular, about 150 m southeast of the OE/ON site datum in the Dietz
sub-basin, the loose sandy beach deposits of the higher lakeshore
partially bury and truncate the upper deposits of the hypothesized
Clovis-era shoreline at an elevation of 1315.5 m (see Figure 30 and
spot marked on Figure 31).
In general, the profile and morphology of the northern sub-basin
is well-suited for the development of marsh habitats. Relatively small
rises in water (50 cm or less) would cause large areas to be filled at
shallow levels. Considering the paucity of late-period artifacts
represented at the Dietz site, and elsewhere in the northern
sub-basin, it was considered very doubtful that either of these lower
shoreline features were "neo-pluvial" in age (see discussion in
Chapter III under Alkali Basin Lake History Reconstruction).
Ten years ago, the notion of an early Holocene, post-pluvial lake
transgression of this magnitude would have run contrary to the
generally accepted notion that pluvial lakes had continued to
gradually decrease in size after the last pluvial high stand in each
•103
basin (see discussion in Chapter IV under Implications of Alkali Basin
Research: Regional Lake History). The possibility of an early Holocene
transgressive lake level at the Dietz site, which post-dated terminal
Pleistocene desiccation in the basin, made the research all the more
intriguing (or dangerous as some might say). The confirmation of such
a late, transgressive lake level held much significance in its
potential to inform about cultural and environmental change at the
Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in the Far West.
The possibility of a basin-wide settlement by people of the
Western Stemmed culture, oriented to this higher lake level, seemed
even greater after the first full season of exploratory field work in
1984. This involved a geomorphic survey of the higher shoreline in
several places, in search of any natural profiles and exposures which
might inform about basin-wide stratigraphic correlations. During this
field survey, several other single-component Western Stemmed sites
were discovered, which appeared to be located at the same elevation as
the stemmed point clusters at the Dietz site.
Proposed Model of Lake History and Human Occupation
Based on these data, a testable model was proposed for two sequent
lakeside or marsh-fringe settlement patterns in the northern Alkali
Lake sub-basin, oriented to littoral habitats associated with two
sequent and quite distinct fossil shoreline features. The model
proposed, first, a terminal Pleistocene (Western Clovis) occupation at
the Dietz site concentrated on the northwestern shore of a small,
shallow lake or pond in the approximate center of the Dietz sub-basin .
rD
104
This shallow lake would have held about 40 to 60 em of water, flanked
in the east by a 500 m-wide marsh fringe (Figures 34, 36 and 38).
According to the model, the Clovis-era occupation was followed by
a dense basin-wide settlement by Western Stemmed groups during the
early Holocene. These people were oriented to a much larger, slightly
deeper lake (2 m deep) standing just below 1316 m elevation. This
larger lake would have filled a substantial portion of the northern
sub-basin, surrounded by a marsh fringe about 80 m wide (Figures 35,
36 and 37).
This model limited the possibilities for Clovis and Stemmed-era
habitats to four, which served as working hypotheses to guide the
remainder of the research. It was hypothesized that from 11,500 to
7,000 B.P., the habitats in the vicinity of the Dietz site would be
characterized by: (1) a small lake or pond with a wide marsh fringe;
or (2) a large lake with a narrow marsh fringe; or (3) a large marsh
with no true lake at all; or (4) no water body of any kind.
The main objective of 1985 and 1986 field work was to gather
archaeologic and stratigraphic data to test this model of lake history
and human occupation pattern in the northern sub-basin of the greater
Alkali Lake basin. Primary data to test the model were gathered
through basin-wide site survey, more intensive surface collections of
artifacts, stratigraphic studies, and high-resolution mapping of lake
features and artifacts. If the model was correct, these data would
verify the discrete distributions and stratigraphic contexts of the
fluted and stemmed artifacts, both horizontally and vertically, with
respect to the two hypothesized shorelines.
-105
Model Testing and Research Methods
Geoarchaeological field research in the northern Alkali Lake
Basin, and at the Dietz site, was completed in multiple phases from
1983 to 1986. Field methods used in gathering the research data
included: (1) large-scale point-plotting of surface collections of
artifacts in selected areas; (2) a continuing program of map and
air-photo research, followed by exhaustive geomorphic field survey of
fossil lakeshore features at or below the elevation of the Dietz site;
(3) large-scale problem-oriented archaeological site survey; (4)
extensive sub-surface testing and stratigraphic study of cultural
deposits and fossil lake features; and (5) high resolution topographic
mapping of low-relief lake features and time-diagnostic artifacts in
the basin. These research efforts are outlined below.
Initial Mapping and Surface Collections
Many of the diagnostic fluted and stemmed points and other
artifacts known from the Dietz site were collected prior to May of
1983 during initial visits by Dewey Dietz, John L. Fagan (1984a) and
William J. Cannon. The locations of artifacts collected were staked
and later recorded by transit. In May of 1983, a permanent site datum
was established near the base of the Dietz hill at the southernmost
extent of the lithic scatter. This site datum was designated as ON/DE
(Figures 30 and 39). From this point, a 1250 m long baseline was
extended northward, along a line oriented 13.5 degrees east of true
north, to the northernmost limit of the site. All subsequent artifact
..
106
•
tJ®
•
• •
• ••
•
•
•
KEY
1-4 = 1983 Collection Areas
C1-C2 = 1984 Collection Areas
LA-LE = 1985 Collection Areas
• = Fluted points
Al Stemmed points
~ Crescents
-.= Shore profiles at
~orthern /Southern Coves
•
FIGURE 39. Closer View of the Dietz Site and Northern Alkali Basin
Project Map (Figure 30), Showing Locations of Major
Points of Reference Discussed in Text: Collection Units,
Grid Systems, Artifact. Distributions and Trench Profiles
•107
collection units at the site were measured relative to this
north-south baseline.
In May of 1983, four large collection grids were placed relative
to the baseline in areas which had produced the majority of tools
previously collected during initial visits to the site. The four units
were mapped by transit relative to the site's baseline (Figures 30 and
39). Their locations and co-ordinates can be found in Appendix A.
Collection was controlled in quadrats of 10-meter squares (Areas
1-3) or 4-meter squares (Area 4). The locations of significant
specimens discovered, or previously collected, were plotted and the
boundaries of major concentrations of lithic debris were noted. Work
was supervised by John L. Fagan, C. Melvin Aikens, Don E. Dumond and
William S. Ayres; and the results have been reported elsewhere (Fagan
1984a; 1984b). These collections were not conducted as part of the
geoarchaeological research design discussed here, but they are
mentioned because they have relevance to the context and distribution
of artifacts at the site.
Point-plotted Surface Collections
A two-stage program of 100% point-plotted surface collection was
conducted in 1984 and 1985 in large blocks and linear transects across
the Dietz site, gridded in 5-meter quadrats. All artifacts and flaking
debris within each 5 x 5 meter quadrant were piece-plotted and
collected relative to the site baseline (Figures 30 and 39). The main
objectives were twofold: (1) to determine the distribution and precise
context of fluted and stemmed artifacts across the site -- with
108
respect to each other, and to observed near-surface sedimentary
facies; and (2) to ascertain whether the lithic clusters were primary
(exposed in situ) or secondary (re-deposited).
In 1984, these collections included two 10-meter wide linear
transects which ran across the site, beginning at the site datum of
OE/OW and extending east beyond the site and out onto the playa
floor. Collection Area #1 was placed in the southern portion of the
site between grid points 130N and 140N, and extended 800 m eastward
onto the playa floor. In 1985, this transect was extended even further
across the entire sub-basin to the established 1800 E datum on the far
eastern perimeter of the sub-basin. Collection Area #2 was placed at
the northern end of the site between grid points 850N and 860N, and
extended eastward for 400 m onto the playa floor (Figures 30 and 39).
In 1985, three large block collections were made at the northern
end of the site, between grid points 900N and 1100N. Localities A
through C were placed in areas which were thought to be primary Clovis
clusters on the playa floor beyond grid point 285 E. Locality D was
placed in a transitional zone between the two shorelines hypothesized
tor Clovis and Stemmed periods, in a zone where both stemmed and
fluted artifacts had already been recovered. Locality E was placed
above 1316 m elevation on the loose sandy surface of the higher
shoreline hypothesized for the Western Stemmed occupation. Exact
co-ordinates and locations for these collection units can be found on
Figures 30 and 39.
f109
Map and Air Photo Research
A continuing program of map and air photo research was essential
to all stages of investigation. The first step essential to
reconstructing lake history is the continuous lateral tracing of
shoreline features around the perimeter of a lake basin. This allows
the identification of a preliminary chronology and distribution of
lacustrine features at different elevations. This approach was most
heavily utilized in the initial stages of the lake history research --
to identify the broad parameters of the full pluvial lacustrine record
and to segregate major drainage divides and sub-basins critical to
pluvial lake levels near the elevation of the Dietz site.
It must be cautioned, however, that air photo inspection should
be considered preliminary until verified through field reconnaissance
and stratigraphic studies. This is mainly because air photos rarely
provide sufficient resolution to identify the more subtle, low relief
lake features such as those associated with the Dietz site below 1317
m elevation in the northern sub-basin (see Stadia Survey and Mappin~
below). The earliest full pluvial lakes in the Far West were large and
powerful enough to carve prominent features in bedrock, form
conspicuous wave terraces, and deposit large-scale, high relief gravel
bars and spits measuring up to three km long and 30 m high. Such
features are readily visible on maps and air photos.
In contrast, terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene lakes were
smaller, shallower, and lower in elevation with respect to their basin
floors. These later lakes re-worked existing sedimentary forms into
more subtle features of lesser relief and smaller scale. For example,
•110
the mid-Holocene "neo-pluvial" beach ridges described by Allison
(1979) and Forbes (1973) for the Fort Rock Basin are visible only as
subtle rises near the center of the basin floor. Because the degree of
resolution on aerial photos and topographic maps may not be sufficient
to identify some of these later lake features, this stage of research
must be augmented by field reconnaissance and stratigraphic studies.
Nonetheless, detailed air photo and map research was quite useful
in guiding the general direction of research for earlier lake levels,
in segregating the various drainage divides critical to lake history
reconstruction, and in providing an overall "big picture" of the late
Pleistocene and early Holocene paleolandscape.
Relying on comparisons in scale and form to pluvial lake features
identified and mapped in adjacent Fort Rock Basin (Allison 1979;
Forbes 1973), a careful air photo inspection of the entire perimeter
of greater Alkali Lake Basin was made for lakeshore features similar
in form and size. The location and elevation of all visible lacustrine
features were recorded and plotted, using topographic maps as a
cross-reference. The known range of elevation for the majority of
fluted and stemmed artifacts at the Dietz site was 1315 m to 1321 m,
therefore, particular attention was given to any visible features at
or below the elevation of the site.
Geomorphic Field Survey
Geomorphic field survey in the vicinity of the Dietz site began
in 1983 with careful pedestrian survey of site boundaries in relation
to visible lake terrace features and near-surface sedimentary facies
•111
yielding artifacts. In 1984, more extensive field reconnaissance was
made within the Dietz sub-basin, and around the entire perimeter of
the northern sub-basin. This portion of the Alkali Basin fieldwork was
conducted in conjunction with map and air photo research, sub-surface
testing and stratigraphic studies.
Multiple pedestrian transects across the Dietz sub-basin did
reveal the presence of small rises of ground in various places. But
vegetation was so dense, the area so large, and the relief so subtle
that coherent patterns were difficult to perceive on foot. In an
effort to increase survey height and field of vision, horses were
rented locally. Horseback survey allowed for more transects and
greater areal coverage in a much shorter time and led to the
successful identification of critical lake features below the
elevation of the Dietz site. Constant cross-reference was made from
observed features on the ground to air photos, and all subtle changes
in topography were flagged for later inspection and stadia survey.
stratigraphic Studies at the Dietz Site
Stratigraphic studies at the Dietz site were focused on
determining the stratigraphic context of fluted and stemmed artifacts
in relation to each other, and to the observed fossil lake features.
The major tasks were threefold: (1) locating the surfaces of origin
and sedimentary units upon or within which the artifacts were
deposited; (2) investigating the processes which may have buried or
altered those surfaces since occupation; and (3) determining if a
T•
112
buried context and stratigraphic separation of the two assemblages
could, in fact, be demonstrated.
Initial sub-surface tests at the Dietz site in May of 1983
involved a series of 12 shallow excavations, placed at 50 meter
intervals in two east-west transects across the site, perpendicular to
the baseline and lake terraces along the east flank of the Dietz
hill. The objective was to gain a preliminary assessment of the
stratigraphic context of fluted and stemmed artifacts in relation to
lake terrace deposits. Six shovel tests were dug between grid points
SOW and 200E, along the 600N line perpendicular to the central portion
of the Dietz hill. An additional six shovel tests were placed between
grid points SOW and 150E, along the 1150N line perpendicular to
observed lake terraces in the northernmost portions of the site.
More detailed examination of sub-surface stratigraphy at the site
was undertaken in September of 1983. With help from the Lakeview
District BLM, a total of 15 exploratory backhoe trenches, referred to
as numbered "Segments", were excavated in a series along two east-west
profiles across the Dietz site, also perpendicular to the baseline and
lake terraces observed. The Trench A profile consisted of 11 trenches
(Segments #1 through #11), averaging 5 m long, 1.5 m wide and spaced
5.5 m apart (Figures 30 and 39). This provided a 210 m long
cross-section of the lake terraces observed in the southernmost
portion of the site, beginning just below the basalt rimrock capping
the Dietz hill and extending out onto the playa floor for 200 m.
The Trench B transect consisted of four separate trenches
(Segments #1 through #4) spaced 10 to 20 m apart, which provided a 110
•113
m long cross-section of lake terraces in the northern portion of the
site (Figures 30 and 39). Two additional trenches were later excavated
in 1985: one located along the Trench A profile between Segments #10
and #11 (Segment #10A), and another positioned along the uppermost
beach terrace at the northern end of the site.
Basin-wide Stratigraphic Studies
In order to further examine the record of late Pleistocene and
early Holocene lake history in the Dietz sub-basin, five exploratory
backhoe trenches were excavated in 1984. Averaging 3 m wide and 35 m
long, three of these trenches were placed perpendicular to the
hypothesized Clovis-era shoreline and a fourth along the proposed
Stemmed-era shoreline (Figures 30 and 39). The fifth trench was placed
near the lowest spot in the center of the Dietz sub-basin, where the
most complete record of lake sedimentation was expected.
The stratigraphic profiles exposed in these trenches were
examined intensively. All sub-surface features, soils and sediments
were described in detail, and samples taken for laboratory
analysis. Samples were also taken of any materials which might be
useful in dating or in paleoenvironmental reconstruction, such as lake
microfossils, volcanic ash, charcoal flecks, bone or shell fragments .
114
Basin-wide Archaeological Site Survey
In 1985, a four-phase program of problem-oriented archaeological
site survey was conducted throughout the northern sub-basin, to test
the model of lake history and human occupation that had been
developed. The first two phases included survey of two shorelines
hypothesized as being correlative with Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed occupations, respectively. The last two phases followed two
linear transects across the entire northern sub-basin up to 1326 m
elevation. These north-south and east-west transects cross-cut the
full range of elevations and lakeshore features in the basin. Survey
methods and rationale are further discussed below in Chapter III under
Problem-oriented Basin-wide Archaeological Site Survey).
Stadia Survey and Mapping
The majority of lake and topographic features critical to the
interpretation of artifact context at the Dietz site were too subtle
to be identified on aerial photos and too low in elevation to be
recorded on topographic maps. The lowest contour line available on the
USGS topographic map of the Dietz sub-basin was 4320 feet, or 1316.67
meters (Figures 2 and 30). But most of the surface artifacts and low
relief shore features of interest were at least two meters below this
elevation. This necessitated the launching of an exhaustive program of
field survey in the sub-basin, which consumed major portions of the
field effort in 1985 and 1986. However, the rewards were great as this
portion of the research came to be a key element in the interpretation
of lake history, paleoecology and human occupation in the basin.
•115
The survey program utilized two different systems, namely, a
series of closed transit level loops, and multiple stadia shots with
an Electronic Laser Distance Meter (EDM). The two primary objectives
were: (I) to produce a high-resolution map of topography and lake
features in the northern sub-basin, at and below the elevation of the
Dietz site; and (2) to document the precise elevation and location of
all time-diagnostic artifacts recovered at the Dietz site, and other
sites discovered around the perimeter of the northern sub-basin, in
the Chase, Dietz and Crescent sub-basins.
Survey was accomplished in three phases. The first phase involved
tying in the Dietz site datum (ON/DE) to the "real world" through
cadastral survey and transit level loops to the two closest USGS
benchmarks. The first benchmark was located at 1324 m elevation in the
center of Section 9 (T28S/R23E), approximately 1.5 km southeast of the
Dietz site. The second was located at 1321 m elevation in the SW 1/4
of Section 25 (T27S/R22E) along the Christmas Valley road,
approximately 1.5 km north of the Dietz site. This latter benchmark,
near the Roger Chase residence, was designated as the elevational
datum for the project (Figure 30).
The second phase of mapping established an extensive network of
auxiliary datum points throughout the entire northern sub-basin. These
datum points were tied in elevation to the Dietz site datum and to
each other through multiple transit level loops and cross-checks.
Named after crew members, these served as primary stations from which
a series of localized stadia shots could be made of sites and lake
features too distant to be within the range of direct shots made from
-116
the Dietz datum. The location and position of all major datum stations
can be found in Figure 30.
The bulk of the mapping survey work was accomplished in the third
phase. A total of 1,810 EDM stadia shots were made of key lake
features, artifacts and sites throughout the northern sub-basin. Shots
were taken of the location and elevation of each site discovered
through archaeological survey, and of each time-diagnostic artifact
collected from these sites. At the Dietz site, stadia shots were also
made of all collection units, excavation pits, backhoe trenches and
any stakes marking previously collected artifacts. In addition, a
series of 24 topographic profiles were recorded perpendicular to
critical lakeshore features, both at the Dietz site and around the
entire perimeter of the northern sub-basin (Figure 30).
Subsequent to fieldwork, a grid system of north and east
co-ordinates, measurable in meters (m), was established for the entire
northern sub-basin oriented to true north and calibrated to historic
cadastral surveys in the area. This co-ordinate system allowed for
much simplified reduction and recording of the hundreds of stadia
values, and could be easily replicable in future research. It was not
oriented 13.5 degrees east of true north as was the site datum, but
was tied to the site datum with the same point of origin (ONjOE). All
stadia shots were reduced and assigned north (Y) and east (X)
co-ordinates within the established grid system, as well as
elevational (Z) values. Further details on the survey and mapping
techniques, including standards of error and rotational adjustments
made, are discussed in Appendix A.
Tb
117
Summary
Initial study of artifact distributions and fossil lake features
in the vicinity of the Dietz site led to the development of a testable
model of lake history and early human occupation patterns in the
northern Alkali Lake Basin from 11,500 to 7,000 B.P. The model
proposed two sequent lakeside or marsh fringe settlement patterns
oriented to the littoral habitats represented by two sequent, and
quite distinct sets of fossil shoreline features.
The model proposed, first, a terminal Pleistocene (Western
Clovis) occupation at the Dietz site concentrated along the
northwestern shore of a small, shallow lake or pond (40 to 60 em deep)
in the approximate center of the Dietz sub-basin, flanked in the east
by a 500 m-wide marsh fringe (Figures 34 and 38). According to the
model, the Clovis-era occupation was followed by a dense, basin-wide
settlement by Western Stemmed groups during the early Holocene. These
people were oriented to a much larger, slightly deeper lake (2 mdeep)
at or near 1316 m elevation, which would have filled a substantial
portion of the northern sub-basin, surrounded by a marsh fringe about
80 m wide (Figures 35 and 37).
The main objective of 1985 and 1986 fieldwork was to gather
archaeological and stratigraphic data on lake features, artifact
distributions and paleosurfaces elsewhere in the northern sub-basin to
test this model of lake history and human occupation pattern
formulated on the basis of Dietz site data. If the model was correct,
data from elsewhere in the northern sub-basin would verify the
discrete distributions and stratigraphic contexts observed for fluted
•118
and stemmed artifacts at the Dietz site -- both horizontally and
vertically -- with respect to the two hypothesized Clovis-age and
Stemmed-era shorelines. Results of model testing and data gathered in
the northern Alkali Lake Basin are presented below in Chapter III .
,
r•
119
CHAPTER III
LAKE HISTORY, PALEOLANDSCAPE AND EARLY HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE
NORTHERN ALKALI LAKE BASIN : RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS
Results of Model Testing
Results of high-resolution stadia mapping of lake facies and
artifact distributions, geomorphic and stratigraphic studies, and
basin-wide site survey and surface collections conducted in the
northern Alkali Lake Basin are presented below. Results of
geoarchaeological investigations verified the discrete, two-level
distribution and context of fluted and stemmed points at the Dietz
site, both vertically and horizontally with respect to each other
and to two separate, sequent shorelines in the basin, at 1314.8 m and
1316 m elevation respectively. The data produced in every sector of
the field work supported the model of lake history and human
occupation as proposed, with the following three modifications.
Modification #1: A Two-stage Western Stemmed Lakeside Settlement
Results supported the close association of fluted artifacts with
the western shore of a shallow lake and marsh in the center of the
Dietz sub-basin, represented by the low-relief shoreline at 1314.8 m
elevation in the center of the Dietz sub-basin. Research also
confirmed the close association of stemmed artifacts with the higher
-•
120
shoreline at or near 1316 m elevation, as first proposed in the
model. Additionally, there is compelling stratigraphic and
archaeological evidence in the Dietz sub-basin for a third lake level
(1315.4 m) -- intermediate in elevation between the hypothesized
Clovis and Stemmed-era lake levels (see Lake History below).
Apparently, the actual distribution of stemmed artifacts at the
Dietz site was split into two distinct levels, or groups. The majority
of stemmed artifacts were associated with a higher shoreline at 1316 m
elevation, but a smaller subset of stemmed artifacts was distributed
in close association with a slightly lower shoreline at 1315.4 m
elevation. Data produced by basin-wide stratigraphic studies and
stadia mapping of lake deposits and artifacts, suggested that Western
Stemmed occupation in the northern sub-basin actually consisted of a
two-stage settlement corresponding to a two-stage sequence of a
prograding (or possibly retrograding) lake .
•
If the two-stage lake sequence was a prograding one, it could be
hypothesized that initial Western Stemmed occupation at the Dietz site
(about 10,000 to 9,500 B.P.) was oriented to a lake level at 1316 m
elevation, followed by a recessional lake level during the later phase
of the Western Stemmed period (sometime after 8,500 and 8,000 B.P.).
It could further be stated that the cultural response to this
environmental change would have been to shift the settlement pattern
downslope and closer to the water's edge. If the two-stage lake
sequence was retrograding, or transgressional, the same events are
hypothesized, only in reverse chronblogical order (see Chronology of
Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Occupation below) .
T
I
I
i
•
121
Modification #2: A Post-occupation Transgressive Lake Level
Research revealed the presence of a post-occupation,
transgressive lake event, referred to as the Big Cut Lake, which
appears to have been of brief duration but massive proportions. This
later, transgressive lake level averaged 4 m in depth and clearly
truncated the deposits of the hypothesized Stemmed era lake level at
1316 m elevation (see discussion of Lake History below). The presence
of such a post-occupation lake did not directly affect the lake
history and human occupation model as proposed. But the
post-depositional effects of this later, higher lake level played a
critical role in the successful cross-correlation of lake levels and
occupation surfaces between the Chase, Dietz and Crescent sub-basins
(see Basin-wide Distribution of Artifacts and Sites below).
To refer to the above two lake levels as "modifications" to the
model is somewhat of a misnomer, actually. Neither of these lake
levels contradicts or nullifies the model of lake history and human
occupation pattern proposed for the northern Alkali Lake Basin. To the
contrary, they actually came to serve as useful sub-divisional
stratigraphic markers which were easily recognizable in the field.
Their presence added finer resolution to the relative sequence of
events, both cultural and environmental, in much the same way as an
increase in lines of measure on a ruler .
.....----._---- p
•
122
Modification #3: Hydrologic Independence of the Chase,
Dietz and Crescent Sub-basins
The basin-wide stadia mapping of the vertical (Z ~ elevation) and
horizontal (Y =north; X = east) positions of artifacts and lake
levels in the northern sub-basin produced an extremely fine-grained
data base, within which numerous internal cross-checks could be made
for accuracy and basin-wide congruency (see discussion of Standards of
Error in Appendix A). Basin-wide correlations of time-equivalent lake
levels and occupation surfaces throughout the northern sub-basin could
not be made until the very late stages of research, for several
reasons.
First of all, the majority of lake and topographic features
critical to the interpretation of artifact context at the Dietz site
were too subtle to be identified on aerial photos and too low in
elevation to be recorded on topographic maps (Figure 2). The lowest
contour line available on the USGS topographic map of the Dietz
sub-basin was 4320 feet (1316.67 m). But most of the surface artifacts
and low relief shore features of interest in the northern Alkali Basin
were at least two meters below this elevation. This fact became all
too clear during my first few hours of fieldwork in the basin in 1984,
filling me with great fear and dread during my first few weeks in the
field.
This lack of elevational data below 1316 m necessitated the
launching of an exhaustive program of field survey in the sub-basin,
which consumed major portions of the field effort in 1985 and
1986. The rewards of the efforts were great, as this portion of the
f•
123
research came to be a key element in the interpretation of lake
history, paleoecology and human occupation in the basin, but the
results were slow and the process very frustrating.
Secondly, all 1800 stadia values recorded in the field had to be
reduced, plotted, cross-checked and rotated, or calibrated, to correct
for any errors discovered. As discussed in Appendix A, this was no
small task. It involved multiple internal cross-checks to discover any
errors (and their source), followed by numerous rotational adjustments
to subsequently correct, if possible, any errors made in the field or
lab, by human or mechanical means. This required many long hours of
tedious, labor-intensive work, long after the fieldwork had been
completed.
Finally, due to the above factors, it was not until the final
stages of research that it became known to me that the Chase, Dietz
and Crescent sub-basins were hydrologically independent units,
effectively separated from one another at all water levels below
1320.8 m elevation (Figures 30 and 39). Moreover, their basin floors
were also quite different in elevation, the lowest points being 1314 m
in the Dietz sub-basin, 1316.8 m in the Chase sub-basin and 1316 m in
the Crescent sub-basin. These factors greatly complicated the process
of inter-basin correlations. It meant that the absolute elevation
values for prehistoric water levels and occupation surfaces in each
sub-basin would probably not correspond, and could not be used in
correlating time-equivalent occupation surfaces and lake levels
between sub-basins. The needed inter-basin cross-correlations were
achieved through other means (see Sub-basin Correlations below) .
•124
Alkali Basin Lake History Reconstruction
Introduction
The following reconstruction of terminal Pleistocene and early
Holocene lake history in the Alkali Lake Basin is based on the results
of air photo research, geomorphic field reconnaissance, stratigraphic
studies, distributions of time-diagnostic artifacts, and detailed
stadia mapping of lake features in the northern sub-basin of greater
Alkali Lake Basin. Hypothesized lake levels above 1341 m elevation
should be considered more tentative than those below 1341 m, since
this por~ion of the reconstruction was based only on air photo and map
research.
From the map and air photo research, it was possible to identify
a total of 71 lacustrine features distributed throughout greater
Alkali Lake Basin between 1320 m and 1384 m elevation, which consisted
primarily of lacustrine bars, spits and wave terraces (Table 6). As
mentioned in the above discussion of research methods in Chapter II,
air photo research is helpful in establishing the broad parameters of
lake chronology and in providing an overall direction for field
research. But results are tentative until verified through field
mapping, stratigraphic studies and, ultimately, radiocarbon dating of
lake deposits at each elevation.
The presence of actual lake stands associated with these
initially recognized features were subsequently confirmed, for all
elevations at or below 1341 m, by detailed mapping and geomorphic
studies conducted in the northern sub-basin. Furthermore, nearly all
125
TABLE 6. Comparison of Pluvial Lake Levels Recorded in the
Alkali Lake and Fort Rock Basins of Oregon
Alkali Basin Lake Levels Fort Rock Basin Lake Levels
Elevation No. of
(meters) Features
Reference
Names
Allison
(1979) Forbes(1973 )
1384*
1365*
1359
8
9+
4+
Lake Alkali 1384*
1378-1379
1366-1367*
1359-1361
1367*
1362
1356* 1356
1353*
1350
6+
1+
1353*
1350-1351
1353*
1352
1341*
1335-1338*
1330-1332*
1326-1328*
1323
1320-1322*
8
12
5
6
6
6
Lake Buffalo
Lake Spoon
Lake Bland
Lake Cannon
Lake Monique
Lakes Wayne/Kevin
1346-1347 1346
1341* 1341-1343*
1336-1338* 1337*
1329-1332* 1332
1326-1327*
1323-1324
1320-1322
-
* Recorded as a major (lengthy) highstand
+ Features not cross-checked by mapping or field reconnaissance
1337 m = Lake level just below the early Fort Rock Basin cave site
occupations (4440 feet) reported by Bedwell (1970, 1973)
1353 m = Tufa radiocarbon dated at 12,980 B.P., stratigraphically
below a date of 9,780 B.P. (Allison 1979).
•126
of the lake levels recorded in the basin, by air photo and in field
studies, were near identical matches to those recorded in the Fort
Rock Basin by Allison (1979) and Forbes (1973) (see Table 6 and
discussion in Chapter IV under Implications of Alkali Basin
Research: Regional Lake History).
The reconstruction of pre-occupation (pluvial) lake levels was
not the focus of the Alkali Basin research presented here. But many of
these levels were recorded in the northern sub-basin in the process of
gathering data for identifying the lake levels which were critical to
the prehistoric record of occupation in the northern sub-basin.
The lake levels reconstructed for elevations above 1321 m have no
direct relevance to the history of human occupation at the Dietz site,
except perhaps in demonstrating a close correspondence between Alkali
Lake Basin and Fort Rock Basin, in lake sequences and elevational
values. The data strongly suggest that a groundwater connection may
have existed for some time between the two basins (see Allison 1979
and concluding discussions in Chapter IV).
Nonetheless, these pre-occupation (pluvial) lake levels are
presented here, for the interest of Quaternary scholars of the
"full-pluvial" persuasion (Willig 1984). For ease of reference in
distinguishing the many lake features and sites identified through
stadia survey in the northern sub-basin, the lake levels recorded in
the vicinity of the Dietz site have been given names. These names
refer to crew members who were present, or to primary datum points,
similarly named, which were located throughout the northern sub-basin
(Figure 30) .
•127
Pluvial (Pre-occupation) Lake Levels
The 71 lake features recorded in map and air photo research
included the following elevations: six features between 1321 and 1322
m; six features at 1323 m; six features between 1326 m and 1328 m;
five features between 1330 m and 1332 m; 12 features between 1335 m
and 1338 m; eight features at 1341 m; one feature at 1350 m; six
features at 1353 m; four features at 1359 m; nine features at 1365 m;
and eight features just below 1384 melevation. These lake levels are
considered to represent major high stands of Lake Alkali prior to
11,500 B.P., before the Dietz site was occupied (Table 6).
Full Pluvial Lake Alkali (1384 m)
The highest lake terraces in the Alkali Lake Basin were
identified through air photo research and later verified through field
reconnaissance. They are located at or near 1384 melevation, just
below the 1387 m contour which divides Alkali Basin from the Fort Rock
and Chewaucan Basins. These basins are located within 10 km to the
northwest and southwest, respectively. The elevation of these
uppermost lake terraces (1384 m) is identical to that of the highest
pluvial lake level recorded in the Fort Rock Basin (Allison 1979;
Forbes 1973). This 1384 m lake level probably represents the maximum
high stand for Pluvial Lake Alkali as well .
...
•
128
Intermediate Pluvial Lakes (1365 m to 1350 m)
The lake features observed on air photos at elevations of 1365 m,
1359 m, 1353 m, and 1350 m elevation are not well known since they
were not field checked, nor were they mapped as part of the Dietz site
research. But three of them (1384, 1365 and 1353) correspond to major
still stands reported for Pluvial Lake Fort Rock (Table 6).
Lake Buffalo (1341 m)
A total of eight lake features were observed at 1341 m elevation
in the air photo and map research, suggesting that this elevation
represents a lengthy lake stand, referred to here as Lake Buffalo. In
addition, stadia mapping in the Dietz sub-basin also documented a
major lake stand at this elevation. Lake Buffalo is represented by
Facies Set #1 at the Dietz site's southern cove profile (Figure 40),
in particular, the wave-planed top of the Dietz hill at 1341 m
elevation. Both Allison (1979) and Forbes (1973) reported major
stillstands between 1341 and 1343 m elevation in the Fort Rock Basin
(Table 6).
Lake Spoon (1338 m)
Twelve lake features at a level at or near 1338 melevation were
observed in air photo and map research, and confirmed by stadia
mapping in the northern sub-basin. This 1338 m lake level, referred to
here as Lake Spoon, is represented by the 1338 mwave-cut at the
base of the basalt caprock of the Dietz hill at the southern cove
(Lake Big Cut)
® ~ PALEOSOL
. .
Ihoc: _ 1320.8 (Lake Kevin)
.
. .. ..
r.Jl:1 _TRENCH
t!tJ - SEGMENT
®
. . .
. . . .
... . ,
. . . .
. . . . ...
. • : 1316 m (Sand Ridge Lake)
., .. . '. :. . . . . " ~/0- 1 /';~.4 m (La~;l~~~a~nc)~~/~ - (Lake Kaka)DISTRIBUTION OF FLUTED POINTST# .. TERRACE
@
-FACIES
-SET
~ 1341 m (Lake Buffalo)
--~~1339 m (Lake Spoon)
2 1332 m
I::'::·;:, /'~":" (Lake Bland)·{V·~t·~·~··::' ~330 ~326 m (Lake Cannon)
T 1322.8 m (Lake Monique)
1321.5 m (Lake Wayne)
FIGURE 40. West-east Shore Profile Across the Southern Cove of
the Dietz Site frolll the Dietz Hill Crest to the Base
of Terrace #2
f-'
tv
~
-130
profile (Figure 40), and corresponds to the top of Facies Set #2 at
the Dietz site (see Lateral Facies Descriptions below). Lake Spoon is
also represented by the wave-cut base of the hill on the east shore of
the Dietz sub-basin (Figure 41). A major lake level was reported from
1336 m to 1338 m elevation in the Fort Rock Basin by both Allison
(1979) and Forbes (1973) (Table 6).
Lake Bland (1332 m to 1330 m)
Air photo research and stadia mapping confirmed the presence of a
major lake level between 1332 m and 1330 melevation, referred to here
as Lake Bland. The paired set of readings at these two elevations
correspond to what would have been the upper (erosional) wave-cut line
and the lower (constructional) wave-deposits. These paired readings
are associated with the top and bottom of distinct benches recorded by
stadia mapping in the northern sub-basin. The highest level of Lake
Bland (1332 m) is represented by the top of the uppermost bench
(Terrace #1) at the Dietz site's southern cove at 1331.9 m (Figure
40), which corresponds to the top of Facies Set #3 here. Lake Bland is
also recorded by the top of a similar bench on the northeast shore of
the Dietz sub-basin at 1332.8 m (Figure 41). This lake is also
represented at 1331 m elevation by the wave-planed crest of the hill
at the Hilltop Site (Site No. 48 on Figure 30) in the Chase sub-basin
(see Figure 42 and discussion below under Results of Basin-wide
Archaeological Site Survey).
1317.74
1321. 60
1323.14
Upper Bench
1332. '16
1329.66
1324.82
. .-
60 meters
FIGURE 41. East-west Shore Profile Across the Upper Bench Area in
the Northeastern Sec10r of the Dietz Subbasin
f--'
W
f--'
Wayne's Terrace
1319.32
1318.S0
1318 1317
/
Site No. 48
Hilltop Site
1320.86
FIGURE 42. North-south Proine Across the Chase Sub-basin trom the
Crest of the Hilltop Site (Site No. 48) to the Crest of
Wayne I sTerrace
f-'
W
10
•133
The lowest level of Lake Bland is represented by the bottom of
Terrace #1 (upper portion of Facies Set #3) at 1329.7 m elevation at
the Dietz site's southern cove profile (Figure 40). Likewise, the
bottom of the highest bench on the northeast shore of the Dietz
sub-basin (1329.5 m elevation on Figure 42) also corresponds to the
lower level for Lake Bland. Both Allison (1979) and Forbes (1973) have
reported a major lake stand between 1329 m and 1332 m elevation in the
Fort Rock Basin (Table 6).
Lake Cannon (1328 m to 1326 m)
There were six lake features identified in map and air photo
research between the elevations of 1328 m and 1326 m, and stadia
mapping in the northern sub-basin confirmed the presence of lake
features at these elevations. This 1328 to 1326 m lake level, referred
to here as Lake Cannon, is represented at numerous places throughout
the northern sub-basin. There is a distinct wave-cut feature at
1325.97 m in the mid portion of Facies Set #3 at the Dietz site's
southern cove (Figure 40). Most of the wave-planed top of Flemmer's
Spit measures from 1325 m to 1326 m elevation (Figure 43). This 1326 m
elevation is considered to be the lower level of a lake stand at 1328
m elevation.
The 1328 m water level of Lake Cannon would have been responsible
for depositing a portion of the basal sands on the prominent beach
ridge at the southern end of the northern sub-basin. This southernmost
beach terrace is referred to as "Moriique's Terrace" after the so-named
datum established on its crest (Figures 30 and 44). The elevation at
F] emmer's :;pi t 1326.60
Ll22.60
FIGURE 43. West--east Shore Profile Across the Northern Cove of the
Dietz Site from the Crest of Flemmer's SpH to the Playa
Floor
I--'
W
*'"
Monique's Terrace
Kevin's Terrace
13]9.60
Site No. 29
1316.58
]322.22
I \
1316.00
1311 .14
1311 .64
/
SHe No. 48
120 meters
FIGURE 44. South--north Shore Profile Across the Crescent: Sub--basin
trom the Crest of Monique's Terrace to the Crest of
Kevin's Terrace
f--'
W
V1
136
point "Monique" is 1325.98 m, but most of the surface of Monique's
Terrace is wave-planed at 1323 m elevation by the Lake Monique
(discussed below). The 1328 ill lake level is represented at two places
in the northern sub-basin. There is a subtle bench between 1328.1 m
and 1326.3 m elevation at the Hilltop Site (Figure 42), and a break in
slope at 1327.3 melevation on the east shore profile (Figure 41) in
the Dietz sub-basin.
Lake Monique (1322.8 m)
The postulated lake level at 1322.8 m elevation, referred to here
as Lake Monique, was observed at six locations in greater Alkali Lake
Basin during the air photo and map research. It is a major facies
marker in the northern sub-basin, and has been recorded at the
following locations: (1) a major cut at 1322.8 m in the lower portion
of Facies Set #3 at the Dietz site's southern cove (Figure 40); (2) a
major wave-cut at 1322.7 m at the base of the hill at the Hilltop site
(Figure 42); (3) a major wave-cut at 1322.6 m at the Dietz site's
northern cove (Figure 43); (4) a break in slope at 1322.6 m on the
northeast shore profile in the Dietz sub-basin (Figure 41); and (5)
most of the wave-planed top of Monique's Terrace measures 1322.75 m
(Figure 44).
The 1322.8 m lake level is considered to be responsible for the
deposition of the majority of the sand deposit comprising Monique's
Terrace. Once formed, this southern terrace served as the drainage
divide separating the northern and central sub-basins for all lake
levels below 1323 m elevation. This 1323 m lake level would also have
+•
137
deposit the basal sands of Wayne's Terrace, Kevin's Terrace, and
Terrace #2 at the Dietz Site. Allison (1979) reports a lake stand
between 1323 m and 1324 m elevation in the Fort Rock Basin (Table 6).
Lake Wayne (1321.5 m)
There were six lake features observed between the elevations of
1320 m and 1322 m during air photo and map research, and Allison
(1979) reports a lake stand between these same elevations in Fort Rock
Basin (Table 6). But on-ground stadia mapping in the northern
sub-basin recorded two distinct sets of features within this range:
one at 1321.5 m, referred to here as Lake Wayne, and another at 1320.8
m, referred to as Lake Kevin (see discussion below).
The lake level elevation of 1321.5 m for Lake Wayne has been
recorded at numerous places in the northern sub-basin: (1) the top of
Terrace #2 and Facies Set #4 (1321.5 m) at the Dietz site's southern
cove (Figure 40); (2) the 1323.3 m crest on Wayne's Terrace at point
Wayne (Figure 45); (3) the 1321.6 m break in slope on the northeast
shore profile in the Dietz sub-basin (Figure 41); and (4) a prominent
1321.5 m wave-cut scarp just below the older dune sands at the Hilltop
site (Figure 42).
Lake Kevin (1320.8 m to 1319.1 m)
The 1320.8 m lake level, referred to as Lake Kevin, is also a
prominent marker in the northern sub-basin, represented at the
following locations: (1) a break in slope at 1320.8 m on Terrace #2 at
the Dietz site's southern cove (Figure 40); (2) a break in slope at
~
Wayne's Terrace ]3]9.32
Playa Floor
1317 .02
1314.86
1314.58 /
] J] 8.30
I 1
40 meters
FIGURE 45. North--south Shore Profile Across the Northern Sector otthe Dietz sub-basin trom the Crest ot Wayne's Terrace
to the Playa Floor
I--'
W
OJ
139
1320.6 m above the uppermost dune sands at the Dietz site's northern
cove (Figure 43) and the northeast shore profile (Figure 41); and
(3) the lower bench at 1320.8 m at the Hilltop site (Figure 42). The
\1319.1 m contour is considered to be the lower level of the 1320.8 m
lake stand of Lake Kevin. This lower level is represented by the
majority of the wave-planed surfaces of Wayne's Terrace (Figure 45)
and Kevin's Terrace (Figure 46).
Lake Kevin is the lowest in elevation of all the pre-occupation
(pluvial) lake features recorded in Alkali Basin. The stratigraphy and
lithology associated with Lake Kevin also suggest that it was the last
major pluvial highstand in the basin. Lake Kevin would have deposited
the coarse grey sands which form the basal portion of Terrace #2 at
the Dietz site. These coarse sands comprise what would have been the
dry, hillslope surface during Clovis occupation. The data suggest
that, after Clovis occupation of this paleosurface, these sands were
partially buried by aeolian processes prior to Stemmed-era occupation,
and further modified and, cemented by soil formation processes after
Stemmed-era occupation (see discussion below under Paleolandscape and
Occupation Surfaces).
Greater Alkali Basin : Lake Levels and Drainage Divides
Pluvial lakes pre-dating Dietz site occupation were much larger
and deeper than those present between 11,500 and 7,000 B.P. This is
best illustrated on Figure 47, which depicts what would have been the
areal extent (dotted area) of a pluvial lake at 1338 m elevation in
greater Alkali Lake Basin and the drainage area, or watershed, which
Kevin's Terrace
Site No. 44
1316 ,
:;:
I I
1315.50
1314.80
200 meters
FIGURE 46. South-north Shore Profile Across the Southern Sector of
the Dietz Sub-basin trom the Crest of Kevin's Terrace
to the Crest of Lake Koko's Shore Ridge
141
~ , 9miles
~ I I ,? kilometers
,r"\
,..-..,) ,
,J \
( -'"Alkali Lake Basin: (".,J "
,.. "".,J ,
t-.. \,.' r:."
1338 meter J ",
Lake level and ~ '\
, >
watershed I I( I
(Dietz Site.;') ( ...1 ,
> \
(' \ ..
J \r~ )
, ~
, ~J
r - ....~).... r~( ~,( ,
.......,\ \ \( , , I
\ '".,J ('
'--, \, ,
\ I, \
I 'I t;~ \
/r' r--) ~j
( r~
\ ,
\ ;0' I,... , ,
, ~
" )
" ) ,,"""
"'\,J r-"- Location Map
• I
. I
)
SCALE ,J
IFi.l
FIGURE 47. Areal Extent of a Pluvial Lake Level at 1338 m Elevation
in Greater Alkali Lake Basin (Lake Spoon). The Dietz
Locality is Represented by a Triangle .
•
•142
would have contributed to its water supply (dashed lines). This 1338 m
lake would have filled the greater part of Alkali Lake Basin, whose
boundaries are broadly outlined in Figure 47 by the 1372 m contour.
Although the pluvial lake level at 1338 m elevation would have
pre-dated any cultural presence in the Alkali Lake Basin, the location
of the Dietz site in the northern sub-basin is also included in Figure
47 for the purpose of reference. The site is shown as a triangle -- a
shape which closely approximates its actual configuration on the
landscape. This 1338 m lake corresponds to a series of lake features
identified with Lake Spoon (discussed below), which would have
inundated the Dietz locality by 21 m of water, lapping up against the
Dietz hill just below the base of the basalt flow which caps the hill.
At 1323 m elevation, three distinct sub-basin lakes are formed
within greater Alkali Lake Basin. These can be described as follows:
(1) a broad lake about 23 m deep in the southern sub-basin; (2) a
broad lake about 16 m deep in the central sub-basin; and (3) a
tri-lobed water body in the northern sub-basin, which would have
covered the Dietz site locality by 8 to 9 m of water (Figure 32).
At 1323 m elevation and below, greater Alkali Lake Basin is
divided into these distinct sub-basins, referred to as the northern,
central and southern sub-basins. These sub-basins were separated from
one another by low-relief bars and terraces formed by previous lake
levels. As discussed in Chapter II under Regional Environmental
Setting, the lake levels of relevance to early human occupation at the
Dietz site would have been contained within the northern sub-basin .
•143
Post Pluvial (Clovis and Stemmed Era) Lake Levels
Results of air photo research, geomorphic and stratigraphic
studies, basin-wide site survey and detailed mapping of artifacts and
lake features in the northern Alkali Lake Basin strongly support the
model of lake history and human occupation patterns as proposed. In
addition, data indicate the presence of two additional post-pluvial
lake levels of relevance to the occupation history at the Dietz site.
Primarily, these include: (1) the recognition of a two-phase
prograding (or retrograding) lake sequence associated with Western
Stemmed occupation in the northern sub-basin, one at 1316 m elevation
and a second lake stand at 1315.4 m elevation; and (2) the recognition
of a very large but short-lived transgressive lake level in the
northern sub-basin whose deposits truncate and partially bury the
terrace sands of the 1316 m lake hypothesized for Stemmed period
occupation. These lake levels are further described below, followed by
a detailed discussion of the stratigraphic context of fluted and
stemmed artifacts in relation to the land surfaces and lake levels
which are hypothesized as being co-eva1 with human occupation.
Western Clovis Lake and Marsh: Lake Koko (1314.8 m to 1314.6 m)
The lake level between at 1314.8 and 1314.6 m elevation (Lake
Koko) hypothesized for the period of Western Clovis occupation is
strongly supported by the bulk of data gathered. The stratigraphic and
geomorphic evidence for this shallow lake in the center of the Dietz
sub-basin, referred to here as Lake Koko, has been recorded and
•144
cross-checked through mapping and trenching of shoreline profiles,
four of which are illustrated in Figures 30, 39, 43, 45, 46, and 48.
The crest of Lake Koko's shore ridge ranges from 1314.8 m to 1315
m elevation, with a sharp lakeward break in slope at 1314.6 m,
continuing down to 1414.4 m elevation. The water level during Clovis
occupation is estimated between 1314.6 m and 1314.8 m elevation,
indicating a depth of 30 to 50 em above the 1314.3 m sub-basin
floor. These elevational values are topographically represented at the
following locations: (1) a break in slope between 1314.4 and 1314.8 m
on the profile north of Kevin's Terrace (Figure 46); (2) a tripartite
break in slope between 1314.86, 1314.58 and 1314.5 m on the profile
south of Wayne's Terrace (Figure 45); (3) a break in slope at 1314.85
m at the eastern base of the Dietz site's northern cove profile
(Figure 43); and (4) paired wave-cut scarps between 1314.85 and 1314.6
m elevation on profiles of the west and east shore ridges in the
center of the Dietz sub-basin (Figure 48).
The subsurface deposits associated with Lake Koko have been
studied in detail in the stratigraphic profile of the East Shore
Trench (see discussion below under Potential for Buried Occupation
Surfaces). The Clovis-period occupation surface could have included
the entire terraced slope along the base of the Dietz hill (Facies
Sets #1 through #4), since this surface would have been above water
and available for occupation. However, the major focus of occupation
seems to have been between 1314.8 m and 1315.4 m, as indicated by the
major peak in fluted point distribution (see discussion below under
Basin-wide Distribution of Artifacts and Sites) .
fDIETl BASIN PROflU
Stemmed arlilach
-~ - - - - -- - - ----
-,. Fluted or.i'Qdl I No a,ti'ods I
only I
St.mmedr-and 'lutwdI o"ilo<"
!
..,
Stemm.d wli'Q(h
100
»1 _-:-Sand'~ ~_h_~_-- ----=-==-=-=-: H h_ -- -------'--,~/~
1315 ITrltnCh.. 5-111 to . ~ _,_ . ,l". "IIl.......... .- ....
I tOO 1$0 200 250 .)QQ 3:10:....:700 150 800
t1 ! ~ ea._ shot. Trench
13"
11__1-
1321
FIGURE 48. West-east Shore Protile Along the IS0N Transect Across the
Center of the Dietz Sub-basin trom the Sand Ridge Terrace
to the Eastern Crest of the 1314.8 10 Shore Ridge (Lake
Koko) Associated with Clovis Occupation
t---'
*'"U1
•146
Western Stemmed Lake Stage I: Sand Ridge Lake (1316 m)
The first stage of the hypothesized Stemmed-era lake sequence,
referred to here as the Sand Ridge Lake, stratigraphically corresponds
to Subset #1 of Facies Set #5 (see Lateral Facies Descriptions
below). The Sand Ridge Lake, excavated a distinct wave-scarp into
existing shore terraces in the Dietz sub-basin at 1316.2 m and
deposited 50 to 70 em of coarse sands which typify the "Sand Ridge"
terrace recorded at 1316 m around the perimeter of the Dietz
sub-basin.
This paired set of wave-cut (1316.2 m) and wave-built (1316 m)
features are represented at, but not limited to, the following profile
locations in the Dietz sub-basin: (1) a cut scarp at 1316.2 m just
below the base of Terrace #2 at the Dietz site's southern cove
profile, and the Sand Ridge Terrace at 1316 m (Figure 40); (2) a cut
scarp on the northern cove profile below Flemmer's Spit (Figure 43);
(3) a 1316 m break in slope on the northern flank of Kevin's Terrace
(Figure 46); and (4) the uppermost 50 to 70 cm of silt deposits on the
surface of the Clovis-era east shore ridge may have been deposited by
the Sand Ridge Lake (Figure 48).
The majority of stemmed artifacts in the Dietz sub-basin were
recovered at or just above 1316 m elevation, suggesting that the human
occupation surface ranged from 1317.3 to 1321 meters. Correlative
occupation surfaces and lake levels are present in the Chase and
Crescent sub-basins, although at different absolute elevations (see
discussion below under Sub-basin Correlations) .
•147
The sandy beach deposit of the Sand Ridge Lake was traced
laterally around the perimeter of the northern sub-basin. At one point
in particular, at 1315.5 m elevation, about 150 m SE of the ON/DE site
datum, these sand deposits of the Sand Ridge Lake partially bury the
upper surface of the Clovis-era beach ridge (Figure 30). This
superposition is clearly visible in stereo viewing of air photos for
the Dietz site (Figure 31), and seems to be confirmed by the stadia
profiles placed across this area in several places. The strata exposed
in the Sand Ridge Trench suggests a similar superposition, but the
trench is positioned too far north of the point of overlap to contain
the necessary strata which would verify this. The available data
suggest that this higher elevation Stage I Stemmed-era lake at 1316 m
postdates the Clovis occupation at the Dietz site (see concluding
discussion in Chapter IV).
Western Stemmed Lake Stage II: Lake Delaine (1315.4 m)
The second stage in the hypothesized Stemmed-era prograding lake
sequence is postulated as a brief, recessional stage at 1315.4 m
elevation. It is referred to here as Lake Delaine, so-named for the
two datum points ("Debbie" and "Elaine") which record its elevation
(Figure 30). The sub-surface (stratigraphic) deposits of Lake Delaine
are represented in several of the shoreline trenches examined, and it
corresponds to Subset #2 of Facies Set #5 (discussed below under
Lateral Facies Descriptions).
In contrast, the topographic (~urface) expression of Lake Delaine
is extremely subtle and not readily apparent during fieldwork. In
T•
148
fact, the presence of Lake Delaine was discovered only after all of
the detailed stadia shots were analyzed and profiled in the Dietz
sub-basin. However, once recognized, it was possible to identify this
subtle break in slope at 1315.4 m elevation on every shore profile
that in the Dietz sub-basin that included this elevation.
Major locations include: (1) a subtle break in slope between
1315.4 m and 1315.3 m elevation just below the Sand Ridge on the Dietz
site's southern cove profile (Figure 40); (2) a similar set of slope
breaks at 1315.3 m and 1315.45 m on the Dietz site's northern cove
profile (Figure 43); (3) two breaks in slope at 1315.48 m and 1315.13
m on the profile of the southern flank of Wayne's Terrace (Figure 45);
and (4) a similar two-break sequence on the profile of the northern
flank of Kevin's Terrace (Figure 46). Lake Delaine also cut a fresh
scarp into the east shore profile of the Clovis-age Lake Koko, as can
be seen along the central sub-basin profile (Figure 48).
The second distribution group of stemmed artifacts, although
small in number, is closely associated with the Lake Delaine shoreline
-- at the Dietz site and at five other sites in the northern
sub-basin. The paleosurface associated with this occupation is
considered to range between 1315.5 m and 1318 m elevation, with a
definite peak at 1316 m elevation (see discussion below under
Basin-wide Distribution of Artifacts and Sites).
Post-occupation Lake: Big Cut Lake (1318 m to 1316.6 m)
This lake level, referred to as the Big Cut Lake, is represented
by a prominent wave-scarp between 1318.3 m and 1316.6 m elevation
149
which was traced around the entire perimeter of the northern
sub-basin. This major scarp is best visible at, but not limited to,
the following profile locations: (1) between 1318.3 m and 1316.6 m
elevation at the base of Terrace #2 at the Dietz site's southern cove
(Figure 40); (2) a distinct strandline cut at 1317.9 m and a
near-surface stratigraphic break at 1316.5 m elevation at the Dietz
site's northern cove profile (Figure 43); and (3) two slope breaks at
1318 m and 1317.7 m on the northern flank of Kevin's Terrace (Figure
46) .
There is evidence to suggest that the higher elevation Big Cut
Lake at 1318 to 1316.6 m elevation is a transgressive one which
postdates Western Stemmed and Western Clovis occupations in the
northern sub-basin. In the southwestern sector of the Dietz sub-basin,
about 350 m due southwest of the southern tip of the Dietz hill (see
spots marked on Figures 30 and 31), the coarse sand-gravel deposits of
the Big Cut Lake conspicuously bury and partially truncate the beach
terrace deposited by the Sand Ridge Lake. This massive, sandy-gravel
deposit left by the Big Cut Lake is referred to as the "Umbrella
Handle", so-named for its characteristic shape.
This superposition of the Big Cut Lake's "Umbrella" deposits over
those of the Stemmed-era Sand Ridge Lake is clearly visible in stereo
viewing of the air photos for the sub-basin (Figure 31). The data
indicate that this higher Big Cut Lake postdates both Clovis and
Sterr~ed-era occupations in the northern sub-basin, and their
associated lake levels (see concluding discussions in Chapter IV under
Implications of Alkali Basin Research: Regional Lake History).
T•
150
stratigraphic and Geomorphic Contexts of Fluted and
Stemmed Artifacts in the Dietz Sub-basin
Cross-correlation of Lateral Sedimentary Facies: Methodology
The stratigraphic contexts of fluted and stemmed points at the
Dietz site, and elsewhere in the Dietz sub-basin, are described below
-- in relation to each other and to the reconstructed paleolandscape
and lake history sequence hypothesized for the Dietz sub-basin. The
paleo-occupation surfaces reconstructed for the Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed occupation periods were traced laterally across the
Dietz sub-basin, in relation to several sets of time-equivalent
sedimentary units, or lateral facies sets, which form the near-surface
deposits in the basin.
In particular, the unique two-level distribution of fluted and
stemmed points in the basin (horizontally and vertically), are
described in relation to the hypothesized lake levels which correspond
to each time-equivalent set of lateral facies. This discussion is
followed by the results of basin-wide archaeological site survey,
stadia mapping and stratigraphic studies conducted in the northern
Alkali Lake Basin.
In the absence of buried context or materials suitable for
radiocarbon dating, it is possible to establish a relative chronology
for surface artifacts and sites. This can be accomplished through
landscape reconstruction and stratigraphic cross-correlations of
prehistoric occupation surfaces to temporally distinct sets of lateral
facies in the near-surface deposits. A most useful method for relative
151
sequencing of surface artifacts and sites, is the method of
cross-correlating lateral sedimentary units, and subsequent mapping of
the vertical and horizontal positions of all time-diagnostic artifacts
onto that landscape.
Conditions for successfully achieving this kind of relative
sequencing are most favorable when there is an abundance of
typologically "pure" single component clusters of dated point types,
and a well-preserved stratigraphic record of the paleolandscape, both
during and after human occupation. These conditions were fully met at
the Dietz site, and elsewhere in the Dietz sub-basin, which had
produced a unique abundance of single component clusters of western
Clovis and Western Stemmed artifacts, in direct association with
remarkably well-preserved paleolandforms and lake stratigraphy.
The precise horizontal locations (X = east; y = north) and
vertical positions (Z = elevation) of each time diagnostic artifact
were carefully plotted in relation to the near-surface sedimentary
units, or facies, deposited laterally across the site by sequent
fossil lake levels at the site and the fossil lake levels they
represented. This method is known as stratigraphic cross-correlation
of lateral sedimentary facies.
In lake basin environments, the lithology and character of
sedimentary units, or facies, deposited by a single lake level will
vary laterally across the original surface of deposition (Friedman and
Sanders 1978; Mintz 1977; Morrison 1965b). The variations are a result
of different depositional environments which existed laterally across
the lake environment from shoreline margins to central lake
•152
bottom. The sediments along this continuum generally 'range from coarse
gravelly-sands deposited in high energy beach zones, to intermediate
silt-sand deposits in near-shore breaker bars and slopes, to
fine-grained silts and clays deposited on the central lake bottom.
Figure 49 illustrates a typical lateral facies sequence in a closed
lake such as Alkali Basin, with terrestrial hillslope facies gradually
interfingering lakeward with beach facies, which in turn interfinger
lakeward with central lake bottom facies.
Cross-correlation of paleosurfaces and lateral facies is based on
the assumption that each suite of lacustrine facies is (more or less)
synchronously deposited by the same lake level. Thus, careful lateral
tracing of key marker beds across the original surface of deposition
can establish time equivalence for that set of facies. It must be
cautioned that all lateral facies in a given depositional environment
are not automatically contemporaneous. The sedimentary record of basin
lakes can be complicated by multiple transgressions and regressions of
lake levels. Thus, establishing time-equivalence of key strata across
the facies profile should be carefully cross-checked with elevational
data, stratigraphic studies and, ultimately, verified by radiocarbon
dating.
Cross-correlation of Artifacts and Occupation Surfaces with
Facies and Lake Levels in the Dietz Sub-basin
The cross-correlation of certain time-equivalent lateral facies
sets and their associated lake levels, with artifacts and their
original occupation surfaces in the Dietz sub-basin, was based on
Nos. = Time-equivalent Facies
~
~
Terrestrial
EJ··· ..... ...· ....·. .,· .....
Beach
§
Lakebed
1
FIGURE 49. Generalized Shore Profile IllustraUng a 1'ypical LateralFacies Sequence in a Closed Lake Basin
I--'
V1
Lv
.,....
•
154
results of intensive basin-wide stadia mapping of artifacts and their
original occupation surfaces. Additional fine-grained temporal
resolution was provided by the abundance of single-component clusters
of time-diagnostic artifacts, at the Dietz site and at 47 other sites
discovered throughout the northern sub-basin through problem-oriented
site survey (see discussion below under Problem-oriented Basin-wide
Archaeological Site Survey).
From the research, it was possible to reconstruct the vertical
position of fluted and stemmed artifacts in relation to the lateral
sedimentary facies which form the near-surface deposits in the
basin. The distributions of fluted and stemmed artifacts with respect
to fossil lake features and near-surface sedimentary facies in the
Dietz sub-basin are illustrated in the west-east profiles of Figures
48 and 50. The elevational data for these profiles were compiled from
three major stadia transects across the Dietz site. These ranged from
grid points 160W to 1800E along the lS0N line, from grid points 180W
to OE along the 3S0N line, and from grid points OE to 100E along the
ON line (Figures 30 and 39).
The discrete, though slightly overlapping, surface distributions
of fluted and stemmed points across the Dietz site were first revealed
through the artifact mapping and collections across the east-west
basin profile at 150N (Collection Area #1). These distributions were
the basis for developing the model of la~e history and human
occupation pattern proposed for the basin from 11,500 to 7,000 B.P.
Briefly, the model proposed a termirial Pleistocene (Western Clovis)
occupation oriented to a small, shallow lake or pond in the center of
iDIETZ PROJECT
NORTHERN SUB-BASIN PROFILE
WEST- TO-EAST
.-- Hypothesized lake level ,
at 8000·10000 b.p.
i lIypothesized lake level at .11000-12000 b.p. I
Iw'84
1800
__________ilimeters
• " rabbltbrueh
~=tall eage
ALONG 150N LINE
1310 ,~
laos..;"
_.Ill'!, ~ ,:", .~o!o~
Lstem~/A fluted 1 L Jpoints~---points~ no artifacts rtifacts L- no artifacts
FIGURE 50. Comprehensive West-east Profile Across the Dietz Sub-basin
Along 150N from the Dietz Hill Crest to the Tucker Site
(Site No. 65), Showing the Horizontal and Vertical
Distributions of Stemmed and Fluted Points in Relation to
Major Lake Levels, Facies and Occupation Surfaces (For
more details, refer to profiles in Figures 40-46 and 48)
I---'
U1
U1
•156
the Dietz sub-basin at or below 1315 melevation, followed by an early
Holocene (Western Stemmed) settlement around a much larger lake and
marsh fringe at or above 1316 m elevation.
Basin-wide Surface Distributions of Fluted and Stemmed
Artifacts in the Dietz Sub-basin
The significance of the two-level fluted and stemmed artifact
distributions in relation to the model proposed is best illustrated by
the east-west profile which was staked and stadia mapped across the
entire Dietz sub-basin along 150N line, illustrated in Figures 48 and
50. This east-west profile is referred to as the 150N Profile, but it
also corresponds to Collection Area #1 which was surface collected in
1984. Artifacts and flaking debris·of Western Stemmed clusters seemed
to be confined above 1316 m elevation (80E) and extended west up the
terraced slope of the Dietz hill to 1322 m elevation (35W).
In contrast, the distribution of fluted points was limited to a
zone below 1318 m elevation (lOW) and extended out onto the playa
floor as far as 280E, at or below 1315.5 m elevation. In a zone about
90 meters wide, at the base of the lower terrace (Terrace #2) at the
Dietz hill, the surface distributions of fluted and stemmed artifacts
overlap, between lOW and 80E, and between 1318 m and 1316 m
elevation. Below 1316 m elevation, fluted points clearly dominate
surface distributions; and for a distance of 160 meters, beginning at
120E (1315.4 m) and continuing up to 280E (1314.8 m) to the crest of
the hypothesized Clovis shore ridge, only fluted points are
recovered .
Ttr
157
The basin floor within the confines of the postulated Clovis-era
water body, between 300E and 800E, is completely devoid of any
artifacts. As one nears the eastern shore scarp of the Clovis-era lake
at 800E, positive evidence of artifacts in the form of blanks, biface
fragments and flaking debris begins to appear on the surface (see Site
Mos. 64 and 91 on Figure 30). East and downslope of the Clovis shore
scarp, from about 900E to 1800E, the slightly more elevated eastern
basin floor is also devoid of artifacts of any kind. Again, positive
evidence of flaking debris, large bifacial blanks and ground stone
tools begins to be appear by about 1680E, at or near 1315.4 m
elevation (Figure 50).
Geomorphic Survey of the 150N Profile Across the Dietz Sub-basin
The entire length of the 150M Profile was traversed carefully on
foot, and detailed notes were made on subtle changes in slope,
vegetation or surface sediments. These changes were then plotted along
the profile relative to the established grid. It is interesting to
note that changes in vegetation, surface deposits, slope and elevation
correspond very well with the hypothesized lake levels and artifact
distributions (Figures 48 and 50), lending further support to the lake
history and human occupation model as proposed.
For instance, the near surface deposits at the western and
eastern margins of the hypothesized 1316 m Stemmed-era lake (Stage I)
were characterized by loose, well-drained sandy substrates dominated
by tall sage and a high degree of plant diversity: from 35E to 85E
(1322 m to 1316.2 m) in the west; and from 1760E to 1800E (1316.3 m to
ftr
158
1317.8 m) in the east (Figure 50). These sandy deposits in this
general zone, between 1322 m and 1316 m elevation, actually correspond
to the base of a series of prominent beach terraces (like Terrace #2
at the Dietz site) which form the boundaries of the Chase, Dietz and
Crescent sub-basins.
These major beach terraces have been mapped in profile at points
Monique, Kevin and Wayne, for whom the terraces are named. They have
also been mapped in detail at the northern and southern coves of the
Dietz site. The slope, lithology and profiles of these terraces are
remarkably similar, and from 1323 m elevation and above, their
sequences of lake level features are nearly identical (see discussion
below under Cross-correlation of Facies and Sub-basins).
Changes in vegetation and surface sediments along the margins of
the hypothesized Clovis-era lake level also correspond in similar
ways. For instance, the surfaces of the basin floor near the
hypothesized centers of the Clovis lake (in the west) or marsh (in the
east) are characterized by hard-packed, poorly drained, silty playa
sediments dominated solely by a dense stand of rabbitbrush (Figure
50) .
This change in vegetation, from a greasewood/sage mix along the
northwestern shoreline of the Clovis lake, to an extremely dense stand
of rabbitbrush on the hard playa floor, is very abrupt and distinct.
In fact, so distinct that in spring, the entire area once covered by
the now-dry Clovis lake can be clearly seen from as far away as 2 km,
conveniently outlined by the bright- yellow blossoms on the tops of the
rabbitbrush.
T•
159
Other intra-lake features are less distinct and more difficult to
identify. There is a recurring value of 1314.6 m elevation associated
with the Clovis-era water level. This is based on many stadia shots in
the Dietz sub-basin which mark a break in slope or an actual wave-cut
at or near this elevation. Along the 150N profile in the more elevated
eastern sector of the Dietz sub-basin, the Clovis era water level of
1314.6 melevation falls within a zone between the grid points of
880E-I000E and 1400E-1480E (Figure 50).
According to the model proposed, these 1314.6 m elevation zones
would have formed the margins of the Clovis-era pond or marsh fringe
which would have filled the 500-m wide zone east of the actual
lakeshore scarp with 40 em of water. Field inspection of these margins
along the 150N profile revealed the presence of discrete zones of
loose, sandy substrate outlined by narrow dense bands of tall sage,
which stand out conspicuously above the nearly barren playa floor. In
fact, the presence of a mid-marsh ridge, or island of sorts, is
indicated by a third zone of sand and tall sage at 1314.5 m elevation,
between 1180E and 1220E (Figure 50). This subtle, narrow feature may
represent a remnant of an earlier low stand previous to the Clovis
lake-marsh, or may represent a single, short-lived lake recession
during Clovis time.
The major point of this discussion is that there is a broad range
of small, but useful data sets which can be brought to bear on
reconstructing time-equivalant paleosurfaces in closed lake
basins. The sediments and paleosurfaces of even the most subtle and
indistinct of low-relief lakeshore features, if they still exist, can
r•
160
be identified and cross-correlated through careful mapping, field
reconnaissance and stratigraphic studies.
Cross-correlation of Artifacts and Occupation Surfaces with
Facies and Lake Levels at the Dietz Site
As elsewhere in the northern sub-basin, the cross-correlation of
lateral facies with artifacts at the Dietz site was based on intensive
stadia mapping and detailed stratigraphic studies. From the research,
it was possible to reconstruct the vertical position of fluted and
stemmed artifacts in relation to the lateral sedimentary facies which
comprised the near-surface deposits in the basin. By cross-correlating
the elevation (vertical position) and spatial distributions
(horizontal position) of artifacts with respect to time-equivalent
facies on the paleolandscape, it was possible to reconstruct the
original surfaces of deposition for fluted and stemmed points across
the Dietz site.
Descriptions of Lateral Sedimentary Facies at the Dietz Site
The near-surface sedimentary facies of relevance to the context
of Clovis and Stemmed period occupation surfaces at the Dietz site are
described below, beginning at the uppermost lake terrace below the
crest of the Dietz hill (Figures 40 and 50). The associated lake
levels mentioned by name correspond to the postulated sequence of
Alkali Basin lake history discussed above.
It should be noted that these IlFacies Sets" described below
actually represent a series of time-equivalent lake deposits, each
f•
161
with its own depositional origin and age. The specific time-equivalent
lake levels and occupation surfaces relevant to the periods of Stemmed
and Clovis occupations in the basin include different subsets of these
lateral facies. For example, the beach sands deposited by pluvial Lake
Kevin (1320.8 m) served as the dry, hillslope occupation surface for
Western Clovis occupation. Likewise, the coarse beach sands deposited
by the Sand Ridge Lake during the first phase of Western Stemmed
occupation later came to be the dry land surface occupied by the
second phase of Stemmed-era occupation. These paleolandscape
occupation surfaces are further discussed below under Paleolandscape
and Occupation Surfaces.
Facies Set #1: Non-lacustrine Hilltop
The top of the Dietz hill is a wave-planed, boulder-studded
surface which averages 1341 m elevation. The steep eastern edge of
this uplifted hill, or horst feature, drops off sharply at 1339 m
elevation, near the edge of the basalt flow which caps the ridgetop.
The lateral, horizontal range of Facies Set #1, relative to the site's
north-south running baseline, is from grid points 160W to 120W.
Associated Lake Levels
The wave-planed top of the Dietz hill at 1341 m elevation
corresponds to the prominent pluvial lake level referred to above as
Lake Buffalo .
•162
Artifacts
The top of the Dietz hill is generally devoid of artifacts, but
would have been above water and available for occupation throughout
the late Pleistocene and into the Holocene. One base and midsection of
a fluted point (#553-47) was found at 1329.33 m elevation, and one
stemmed point base (#553-50) was found at 1329.96 melevation.
Facies Set #2: Wave-modified Hillslope Colluvium
This uppermost hillslope deposit consists primarily of angular
basalt boulders and cobbles, infilled by a gravel-sand matrix. The
unit begins at the base of the basalt caprock near the top of the
Dietz hill at 1337.5 m to 1338 m elevation, and continues downward to
the beginning of Terrace #1 at 1331.5 m elevation. In relation to the
site baseline, the horizontal range of Facies #1 is from grid points
120W to 84W.
Associated Lake Levels
There is one lake level associated with Facies Set #2. The
wave-cut base of the basalt caprock at 1337.5 m to 1338 m elevation
corresponds to the hypothesized Lake Spoon.
Artifacts
No fluted or stemmed artifacts have been recovered along the
surface of Facies Set #2. Like Facies Set #1, this facies would have
been dry and available for use anytime after about 12,000 B.P., but it
•163
is very steep and rocky and would most likely be considered unsuitable
as an occupation surface.
Facies Set #3: Wave-modified Hillslope Colluvium
This lower hillslope deposit consists of materials similar to
Facies Set #2, but it is less steep and rocky, with more sandy matrix
and fewer boulders. It extends from the top of Terrace #1 at 1331.5 m
elevation, to the top of Terrace #2 at 1321.5 m elevation. The
horizontal range is from grid points 84W to 32W, between backhoe
trench Segments #1 through #4.
Associated Lake Levels
There are three lake levels associated with Facies Set #3, all of
which pre-date the earliest occupation at the Dietz site. The
prominent lake level from 1331.5 m to 1329.5 m elevation, represented
by the top and base of Terrace #1, corresponds to the above mentioned
Lake Bland. The distinct, intermediate break in slope at 1325.9 m
elevation corresponds to Lake Cannon. The lower break in slope at
1322.8 m elevation, just above Terrace #1, corresponds to the
hypothesized Lake Monique.
Artifacts
No fluted or stemmed artifacts have been recovered on the surface
of Facies Set #3. Like Facies Sets #1 and #2, Facies Set #3 would have
been a dry (terrestrial) surface available for occupation well before
and after the earliest occupation at the Dietz site. The unit is not
164
as steep and rocky as Facies Set #2, but is still quite rough and
seems highly unsuitable as an occupation surface.
Facies Set #4: Wave-modified Lacustrine Beach Terrace
This facies comprises the majority of Terrace #2 at the site,
ranging in elevation from 1321.5 m at the top of the terrace, to
1316.2 m at its base. The lateral extent of Facies Set #4 can be
traced lakeward from the top of Terrace #2 at 40W, to 40E -- an area
covered by backhoe trench Segments #4 through #10A. This
constructional lake terrace consists of loose, fine-to-coarse,
well-sorted, well-rounded beach sands of varying lithologies.
Initially deposited by Lake Monique, a lake level represented at the
top of Terrace #2, these beach sands show evidence of having been
moderately re-worked by wind. Terrace #2 is the lateral equivalent of
the sandy terraces which comprise Wayne's Terrace, Kevin's Terrace,
and Monique's Terrace (Figure 30).
Below 1317.5 m elevation, the loose surface sands which comprise
Terrace #2 begin to thin considerably, and by 1316.4 m elevation,
these sands are no longer visible. The eroded, lower portion of
Terrace #2 gently slopes lakeward below the 1316.6 m cut scarp at 35E
to the terrace base at 45E. Its surface is characterized by
alternating patches of shallow, loose sandy deposits and exposed
lakebed sediments.
165
Associated Lake Levels
There are three lake levels associated with Facies Set #4. The
first is a major stillstand at 1321.5 melevation, represented by
Terrace #2, which corresponds to the above mentioned Lake Wayne. The
second lake level is another prominent lake stand from 1320.8 m to
1319.1 m elevation, which corresponds to the above mentioned Lake
Kevin. The third lake level is the transgressive water body
hypothesized for the period after Western Stemmed occupation at the
Dietz site, referred to above as the Big Cut Lake. This lake level is
represented by a prominent wave-scarp between 1318.3 m and 1316.6 m
elevation, which has been traced around the entire perimeter of the
northern sub-basin.
Artifacts
The westernmost surface distribution of Western Stemmed artifacts
coincides with the beginning of this facies at grid point 32W. Stemmed
points are first visible on the surface at 1322 m elevation (top of
Facies Set #4 and Terrace #2). These upper sands of Terrace #2, from
1311 m to 1320 m elevation correspond to the peak in distribution of
the largest Western Stemmed occupation, associated with the 1316 m
lake level.
In contrast, the first surface finds of fluted points occur 20 m
east and downslope of the first surficial stemmed points, at lOW to
12W. This westernmost distribution of fluted points coincides
precisely with the upper wave-cut scarp near 1318 melevation, four
•166
meters below the first visible stemmed points upslope. With the
exception of a single fluted point outlier found at 1318.67 m
elevation in the far southern corner of the site, no fluted points
occur above 1318 m elevation on the terraced slope of the Dietz hill.
Overlap Zone for Fluted and Stemmed Artifacts
In the lower portions of Facies Set #4, from lOW to 45E, and from
1317.5 m to 1316.2 m elevation, the surface distributions of fluted
and stemmed points begin to overlap, with 13 stemmed artifacts
co-occurring with seven fluted point fragments in this zone. This
vertical and horizontal overlap hold exciting implications for future
discovery of a buried, Clovis-era occupation surface at the site which
might demonstrate a vertical superposition of stemmed and fluted
assemblages (see discussion of Locality 3 below).
Facies Set #5: Two-stage Beach-Lakebed Sequence
Facies Set #5 consists of two intergrading sub-sets of beach and
lakebed deposits which are directly associated with the majority of
Western Stemmed artifacts at the Dietz site and at 27 other stemmed
point sites around the perimeter of the northern sub-basin. The
evidence suggests that the lake deposits of Facies Set #5 represent a
two-phase sequence of prograding lake levels at 1316 m (Sand Ridge
Lake) and 1315.4 m elevation (Lake Delaine), which directly relate to
Stemmed-era occupation in the basin (see discussion above) .
•167
Subset #1: The Sand Ridge Lake
The lateral extent of the upper sub-set of Facies Set #5 can be
traced from grid point 45E, near the Segment #11 backhoe trench,
downslope to grid point 120E. Its surface slopes gently lakeward from
a gradual break in slope between 1316.2 m and 1316 melevation (below
the base of Terrace #2), to a second, lower break in slope at 1315.4 m
elevation. The lower break in slope at 1315.5 melevation marks the
upper boundary of the second sub-set. Scattered patches of deflated
lakebed sediments are common throughout this zone. This is the
hypothesized first stage of the two-stage Stemmed era lake, referred
to above as the Sand Ridge Lake.
The Sand Ridge
The 1316 melevation marks the western edge of a sandy,
low-relief beach facies referred to as the "Sand Ridge". The Sand
Ridge is a prominent 35-meter wide zone of unconsolidated,
coarse-to-medium sands which have been heavily modified since
deposition, by both lacustrine and aeolian processes. It can be traced
lakeward from grid point 85E to 120E, where it ends abruptly at the
1315.5 m wave-cut scarp.
It is possible that portions of the Sand Ridge were initially
deposited as an offshore bar, by higher elevation lake levels at
1321.5 m or 1316.6 m. This breaker bar feature would have been further
modified by the active wave zone wave of the 1316 m lake, and
subjected to aeolian processes in the interim. The position of the
168
Sand Ridge at the juncture of several overlapping lake levels renders
its history more complex than other features in the basin.
Subset #2: Lake Delaine
The lower sub-set of Facies Set #5 begins at grid point 120E, at
the 1315.5 m break in slope below the Sand Ridge. From here it slopes
gently lakeward to the crest of a prominent 1314.8 m shoreline at grid
point 285E. This is the hypothesized second stage of the two-stage
Stemmed era lake, referred to above as Lake Delaine. The sediments
along this surface consist largely of friable silts and fine sands
which have been modified post-depositionally by a variety of
lacustrine and wind processes. This has produced an irregular
substrate of near continuous silt mounds or hummocks, referred to in
the field as the zone of "puffy" silt.
Artifacts
Below 1316 m elevation, surface distributions are dominated by
fluted points. The few stemmed points found below 1316 melevation
were in close association with the lower 1315.5 m lake level
hypothesized for the two-phase Stemmed-era lake. Effectively, no
stemmed points have been recovered at elevations below the lower lake
level at 1315.5 m elevation. The only anomalies included six stemmed
artifacts recovered below 1314.8 m elevation at the north end of the
Dietz site. But closer inspection revealed that these six artifacts
are restricted to a zone between grid points 600N-900N and 20E-150E.
(•
169
This zone consists of a small, but well-defined deflation area south
of the dunes in the northern portion of the Dietz site.
Facies Set #6: Lacustrine Shoreline
The lowest lakeshore terrace in the Dietz sub-basin, from 1314.8
m to 1314.6 m elevation, represents the lake level hypothesized for
the Clovis period, referred to here as Lake Koko. Its lateral extent
is limited between 285E and 800E, within the confines of the shoreline
crest at 1314.8 m elevation. The crest and lakeward slope of this
terrace consist of soft, friable silts and some fine sands. Below the
scarp, at 1314.3 m elevation, the now-dry basin floor is dominated by
·playa lakebed sediments, consisting of highly compact, calcareous
fine-grained silts and clays, with some fine sands.
Horizontal and Vertical Separation of Fluted and Stemmed
Artifacts in the Dietz Sub-basin
Based on a program of detailed stadia mapping of artifacts and
near-surface sedimentary facies at the Dietz site, it has been
possible to identify a relative sequence of four distinct (sequent)
lake levels at the Dietz site. The near-surface sediments of each
sequent lake level were traced laterally across the site, in relation
to surface (horizontal) distributions and elevational (vertical)
positions of fluted and stemmed points. The original surfaces of
deposition (occupation surfaces) for fluted and stemmed artifacts were
then cross-correlated to separate lake levels, thereby separating the
assemblages in relative time (discussed below) .
•170
The investigations verified that fluted points had a separate
context and distribution relative to the first (1314.8 m) lake level
in the sequence. Stemmed points at the Dietz site were found to have
two discrete distributions and stratigraphic contexts, both vertically
and horizontally, with respect to two separate but closely sequent
shorelines in the basin at 1314.5 m and 1316.2 m elevation
respectively.
Problem-oriented Basin-wide Archaeological Site Survey
Survey Methodology and Rationale
The initial archaeological data used to test the model were
derived from basin-wide systematic survey for sites and diagnostic
artifacts within zones which the model predicted as having high or low
potential for sites yielding fluted or stemmed points. The high
potential zone for Western Clovis would be areas adjacent to the lower
1314.8 m shoreline, whereas the high potential zone for Western
Stemmed occupation would be the higher 1316 m shoreline.
If lakeside or marsh-fringe orientations existed during either
occupation, then areas which were well above and away from the
hypothesized shorelines, or below the elevation of the lake levels
proposed, would not contain sites. These areas were considered low
potential zones, and were surveyed in order to account for the null
hypothesis, i.e. that lakeside or marsh-fringe habitats were not the
focus of settlement .
tr
111
The first phase of testing involved archaeological survey of the
two hypothesized shorelines (Figures 51 and 52). To avoid biased
testing, the survey path followed was 400 mwide, covered in transects
spaced 20 to 30 m apart. It was felt that this path was wide enough to
span across two adjacent non-lacustrine zones, from the rocky slopes
along the flank of the rimrock above the highest shoreline at 1326 m
elevation, down to the flat playa floor at 1314 m elevation. In this
way, if any sites existed in low potential zones along the hilltops or
on the playa floor below the proposed lake levels, they would also be
discovered.
To further test the null hypothesis, the second phase of testing
involved archaeological survey along a 12 km-long north-south transect
across the lowest, central portion of the northern sub-basin. This
transect began at the southernmost drainage divide on Monique's
Terrace at 1323 m elevation, and extended north to 1372 m elevation,
just below the northernmost drainage divide of the northern sub-basin
(Figure 53).
In addition, a two km-long east-west transect across the Dietz
sub-basin had been surveyed in great detail in 1984, as part of
basin-wide point-plotted surface collections of artifacts. This
east-west line, from grid points 1800E to 180W along the 150N line,
spanned the sub-basin from the east shore divide at 1323 m elevation,
to the crest of the Dietz hill in the west. This east-west·transect
was later extended 2.5 km to the west, from the crest of the Dietz
hill to western divide of the northern sub-basin up to 1371 m
elevation (Figures 50 and 53).
1316 m shore survey,
1985
o
, miles
? i kms
Loc:ation Map in
Oregon
D
172
•
FIGURE 51. Area Surveyed Archaeologically Along the Hypothesized
Stemmed-era (1316 m) Shoreline (Sand Ridge Lake) in
the Chase, Dietz and Crescent Sub-basins
1314.8 m shore survey,
1985
? miles
? ?kms
Location Map in
Oregon
D
173
FIGURE 52. Area Surveyed Archaeologically Along the Hypothesized
Clovis-era (1314.8 m) Shoreline (Lake Koko) in the
Dietz Sub-basin .
North - south and
east-west
survey transects
1985
SCALE
o
! mile II
9 ikma
Location Map in
Oregon
D
174
•
FIGURE 53. Area Surveyed Archaeologically Along the North-south and
East-west Transects in the Crescent, Dietz and Chase
Sub-basins, to Test fnr Non-lakeside Sites
'f
•
175
Artifact collections at each site were aimed at obtaining a
sample of time-diagnostic tools present. They do not represent the
complete tool inventory at each site, although an effort was made to
collect small numbers of non-diagnostic tools such as scrapers,
blanks, preforms and ground stone. All lithic scatters encountered
were recorded and searched for time diagnostic artifacts. Samples of
each kind of point style or tool type were collected and staked so
that they could be shot in later by transit to record their precise
location and elevational position.
Except at the Dietz site (35 LK 1529) and the Tucker Site (Site
No. 65), no subsurface testing was undertaken. The boundaries of each
site were determined by direct observation of surface artifacts, and
by the extent of the surface scatters. With few exceptions, the lithic
scatters encountered displayed discrete boundaries and were easy to
define. Specific data on the location, artifact density, vegetation,
geomorphic setting, surface deposits, and cultural affinity of each
site are included in Appendix B, and a complete set of artifact
illustrations are included in Appendix c.
Results of Basin-wide Archaeological Site Survey
Survey of the Hypothesized Stemmed-era Shore: Sand Ridge Lake (1316 m)
Survey along 18 km of the 1316 m shoreline (Sand Ridge Lake)
hypothesized for Stemmed-era occupation (Figure 51) revealed the
presence of 68 sites, which included 53 lithic scatters and 15
isolated finds (Figure 54). The 15 isolated finds included two
•Results of
shore survey
....sites
£:Sites of special
note
? miles
9 ikms
Location Map in
Oregon
176
FIGURE 54. Results of Archaeological Site Survey Along the
Hypothesized Stemmed-era (1316 m) Shoreline. Sites
of Special Note are Shown by Number
I
hr
177
crescents, and the following 12 point types: six large corner-notched,
one large side-notched, one Pinto, one Cougar Mountain, one Cascade,
one large "transitional" stemmed point form (WS6), and two concave
based points, one of which may represent a fluted point preform.
Of the 53 lithic scatters, 30 sites (57%) did not contain time
diagnostic point types which might assign them to a cultural
period. Of the 23 sites which did contain diagnostic types, only four
sites consisted of mixed components. Site No. 19, directly across the
sub-basin from the Dietz site, produced a small contracting stem point
and what appears to be a heavily re-worked and re-used fluted point
fragment (#490-19-12). Site No. 23 produced a large corner-notched
point (#490-23-26) along with two stemmed point types which are
referred to here as large transitional (WS6) stemmed points (see
discussion in Chapter IV under Typology of Western Stemmed Points).
Another mixed component site is Site No. I, just north of the
Dietz site scatter, which yielded a small stemmed point base and a
fluted point base. In addition, Site No. 13 produced an early style
Humboldt concave base point in association with a Cascade point. Both
of these latter types could readily be assigned a time range of 8,000
to 7,000 B.P., which actually overlaps with the final period of
Western Stemmed occupation in the Far West (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
Of the 19 lithic scatters producing single components, 16 sites
(84%) contained Western Stemmed point styles. Of the remaining three
sites, one site (5%) produced a large corner-notched point, and two
sites (10%) contained early types of Humboldt concave base points and
•178
large side-notched forms, which could also date as early as 8,000 to
7,000 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
Thus, results of survey along the higher shoreline hypothesized
as having existed during Western Stemmed time produced a total of 68
sites, of which 34 contained single-component assemblages with
time-diagnostic artifacts. Western Stemmed sites constituted 68% of
these sites (N = 23). Although collection procedures aimed at
representative, rather than complete, sampling, the general pattern is
clear: 68% of the sites containing diagnostic tools along the higher
1316 m shoreline throughout the basin produced Western Stemmed point
styles in recurring associations with crescents, large blanks and
preforms, scrapers and, less frequently, minimally used ground stone
slabs and manos made from local volcanic tuff. Of the 122 time
diagnostic tools recovered, a total of 106 point types (87%) were
assignable to the Western Stemmed cultural period.
In the course of the survey, two fluted points (2%), referable to
the Western Clovis period were discovered, as were two large concave
based points (2%). These latter points could be assigned a time range
between Western Clovis and Western Stemmed. Another group of points (N
= 5) included Pinto, Humboldt concave base and large, early forms of
side and corner-notched points (4%). These types probably date from
8,000 to 7,000 B.P., a period which overlaps with Western Stemmed
(Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986). Thus, 95% of the 122 point types recovered
(N = 116) represent the period from 11,500 to 7,000 B.P. Six
corner-notched points (5%) represent the only types discovered which
might be referable to periods later than 7,000 B.P .
.....
+
•
179
In addition, with the exception of two points found on mixed
component sites, all of the non-fluted and non-stemmed artifacts
occurred as isolated finds, and did not follow any particular
shoreline or pattern. Most of the late period isolates were directly
associated with small blowouts in front of dunes, suggesting brief,
sporadic occupation in areas which probably contained ephemeral ponds
during the mid-to-late Holocene. Other late style points were found in
the bare center of the playa floor, as if dropped by passers-by
through the basin in later prehistoric times.
This dense lakeside distribution of predominantly Western Sten~ed
sites and artifacts in the northern Alkali Lake Basin represents a
significant human presence there during the early Holocene. It
strongly suggests that there must have been a fairly stable, or at
least seasonally productive, ecological situation in the basin during
this time that made it attractive to these people. These data, along
with the conspicuous lack of evidence for later periods of occupation
in the basin, lend much support to the cultural-environmental model
proposed, and reaffirm the fact that the Alkali Lake Basin was not a
place of choice after about 7,000 B.P. It is also very unlikely that
the basin experienced lake rises during the so-called "Neo-pluvial"
period (sensu Allison 1979, 1982) from 3,500 to 2,000 B.P. (see
discussion in Chapter IV under Implications of Alkali Basin Research:
Regional Lake History) .
--
f
tr
180
North-south Transect Survey
Survey along the north-to-south transect across the sub-basin
(Figure 53) revealed the presence of nine lithic scatters lacking
time-diagnostic points, and eight isolated point finds, four of which
were not associated with either of the two shorelines (Figure 55). The
isolated points included two corner-notched, one miscellaneous stemmed
base, one large transitional stemmed, one Plano-like concave base, one
fluted point (just north of the Dietz site), one Humboldt concave base
and a large keeled crescent exquisitely made of white CCS. Western
Stemmed points occurred at 50% of the sites producing time diagnostic
tools.
Six of the lithic scatters consisted of small clusters of primary
workshop debris of unknown age, situated in concentric patterns
following higher elevation, older Pleistocene beach ridges well north
of the Chase Sub-basin at 1327 m to 1341 m elevation. These sites were
characterized by a high percentage of core flakes and core fragments,
in association with obsidian nodules weathering out of these older
beach ridges. This indicated that the sites represent opportunistic
miniature quarry reductiqn stations, where obsidian nodules were
occasionally reduced into blanks and carried away.
East-West Transect Survey
Point-plotted artifact collections made in 1984 within Collection
Area #1 included a two km-long 10 meter wide east-west transect across
the Dietz sub-basin, from grid points 1800E to 180W along the 150N
Results of north-south
survey transect,&
and 1314.8 m
shore survey m
• =sites
® = isolated finds
o
, miles
9 ikma
Location Map in
Oregon
181
'.
FIGURE 55. Results of Archaeological Site Survey Along the
North-south and East-west Transect Surveys in the-
Northern Sub-basin; and Along the Hypothesized
Clovis-era (1314.8 m) Shoreline (Lake Koko)
+•
182
line. The differential distributions of fluted and stemmed artifacts
along this 150N transect across the Dietz sub-basin proved to be key
elements in the lateral cross-correlation of artifacts and
near-surface facies at the Dietz site (see discussion above under
Basin-wide Surface Distribution of Stemmed and Fluted Artifacts).
In 1986, this east-west transect was extended 2.5 km to the west,
from the crest of the Dietz hill to western divide of the northern
sub-basin up to 1371 m elevation (Figure 53). The survey failed to
reveal the presence of any sites at these higher elevations or along
the more elevated basin floor west of the Dietz hill.
Survey of the Hypothesized Clovis-era Shore at 1314.8 m: Lake Koko
Survey conducted along the 7 km of hypothesized Clovis period
shoreline at 1314.9 m elevation in the center of the Dietz sub-basin
(Figure 52) did not reveal the presence of fluted point concentrations
other than the Dietz site. However, the survey did reveal the presence
of two Western Stemmed period sites along the Clovis shore ridge (Site
Nos. 64 and 66; Figure 55) at elevations of 1315.4 to 1315.8 m. Site
No. 64 produced surface finds of a Cougar Mountain and Haskett point
in association with ground stone slabs and a large keeled crescent.
Site No. 66 yielded a Plano-like square-based point fragment.
The discovery of two sites yielding surface finds of Western
Stemmed period tools as low as 1315.5 m elevation on the east shore of
the hypothesized Clovis-age lake seemed troublesome at first. The
Stemmed-era lake level was hypothesized at or above 1316 m elevation,
which was 1.5 m higher in elevation (Figure 55). But continued stadia
•183
mapping in the Dietz sub-basin confirmed the presence of a
second-stage distribution of Western Stemmed sites associated with a
lower shoreline at 1315.4 m elevation, which was spatially and
vertically distinct from the Clovis distributions (see discussion
above under Results of Model Testing). The evidence from mapping and
stratigraphic studies suggests that these Western Stemmed period
sites, like Site Mos. 64 and 66, represent a brief, second-stage of
Stemmed period occupation associated with this lower lake level of
1315.4 m elevation in the northern sub-basin.
A second sparse scatter was found in the vicinity of the East
Shore Trench (see discussion below under Locality 1). This site (Site
Mo. 91) produced large blanks and preforms, a scraper and a large
biface fragment but no time diagnostic tools. But, like Site No. 64,
its elevational position and stratigraphic context strongly suggests
that it represents the same brief period of Western Stemmed occupation
associated with the second stage lake level at 1315.4 m elevation.
Survey along the hypothesized Clovis-era shoreline (and the newly
discovered second stage Stemmed-era shore) produced only two sites
(Mos. 67 and 34) were discovered which did not relate to either
Western Clovis or Western Stemmed occupation in the basin. Site No. 67
is located immediately to the east of Site No. 66, along the
northwestern portion of the hypothesized Clovis-era shoreline,
situated along the edge of a small shallow deflation basin. This site
produced two large, probably early forms of Northern Side-notched
points, and one small contracting stem point identical to the one
associated with the fluted preform at Site Mo. 19 on the east
-184
shore. It seems to represent a brief, early-to-mid Holocene campsite
associated with what would have been a shallow, pond within this small
deflation zone.
In a similar vein, Site No. 34 consists of a sparse, discrete
lithic scatter situated in the center of a deflated portion of the
playa floor in the southwestern sector of the Clovis-shoreline. This
site produced a small Desert Side-notched point and represents the
youngest artifact type recovered in the field research. No other sites
or artifacts were found along the hypothesized Clovis-era shoreline.
However, it is interesting to note that, as in the north-south
transect survey, 50\ of the time-diagnostic tools recovered in
association with the second-stage (1315.4 m) Stemmed-era lake level
were Western Stemmed artifacts.
Summary of Basin-wide Archaeological Site Survey
The results of the 1985-1986 basin and shore survey revealed the
following:
(1) The only Western Clovis site in the northern sub-basin is the
Dietz site, suggesting that only the western portion of the
1314.8 m shoreline was favored, for whatever reasons.
(2) Except for a few small, nondescript quarry-related lithic
scatters at higher elevations, no sites with diagnostic tools or
substantial lithic scatters were found below or beyond the two
hypothesized shorelines for the Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed occupation periods. The only exceptions were the three
lithic scatters recovered in association with the newly
f•
185
discovered second-stage Stemmed-era lake level at 1315.4 m
elevation -- a shoreline which coincided with the 1314.8 m
Clovis-era shoreline in the center of the Dietz sub-basin
(Figures 30, 39 and 48).
(3) Late-style points occur in small numbers, mostly as isolates or
on the fringe of stemmed sites and do not follow any particular
shoreline. They are most often associated with small, deflation
zones which probably contained shallow ponds on a seasonal basis
during the mid-to-Iate Holocene, and possibly slightly earlier.
(4) A total of 23 sites (68%) containing diagnostic materials were
assignable to the Western Stemmed period. These sites represent a
sizeable cultural presence in the northern sub-basin concentrated
around the two-stage lake levels hypothesized at 1316 m and
1315.4 m elevation. Together, they strongly suggest the presence,
from about 10,000 to 8,000 B.P., of an attractive, stable
ecological situation in the northern sub-basin during the early
Holocene.
Potential for Buried Occupation Surfaces in the Dietz Sub-basin
Although the bulk of fluted and stemmed artifacts has been
recovered from shallow depths (30 to 40 cm) or surface contexts in the
Dietz sub-basin, results of basin-wide site survey and mapping of
artifacts in relation to near-surface sediments suggested that buried
deposits might potentially exist at several localities in the Dietz
sub-basin. The stratigraphy and contexts of artifacts at three of
these localities are described below .
•186
Locality 1: East Shore Trench
At Locality I, along the east shore of the Clovis-era lake,
stemmed artifacts, crescents and ground stone were recovered from the
surface at 1315.5 m elevation, associated with the lower, second-stage
Stemmed-era shore scarp (see Figures 30, 48, and 50, as well as above
discussion of Site Nos. 64, 66 and 91). The discovery of a lower,
second-stage Stemmed-era shoreline, which partially coincided with the
previously occupied Clovis-age shore scarp, held much potential for
identifying places where a stratigraphic separation of fluted and
stemmed assemblages and a possible buried Clovis-period occupation
surface might be demonstrated.
In 1985, an exploratory backhoe trench of 53 m length was placed
perpendicular to the east shore in 1984, ranging from the eastern head
of the trench at its highest point, extending to the west (lakeward)
onto the flat playa floor at 1314.3 m elevation. The stratigraphic
sequence represented here is illustrated in Figure 56, and consists of
a basal sterile unit (Unit 1) of massive, blocky, diatom-rich silts
and clays representing relatively deep-water pluvial lake bottom
deposits.
Unit 1 is overlain by a fossiliferous, grey ashy loam (Unit 2) of
variable thickness which represents a period of lake regression
shortly after the last pluvial high stand in the basin, probably
related to the volcanic event which deposited the ash particles. The
layer is very ash-rich and was examined in the field for potential
tephrochronological dating by Dr. Jonathan O. Davis (Desert Research
Dietz Project
East Shore Trench: West Portion
Key West - to - East Profile
sandy clay/loam
2.5
~---'--'------~,.2.0
orOrganlca lbon... "Ish &calesI
f = Flake Imbedded In eoll ped
-1.5
O ~02 ~01 .Grev BBhy loam '10o ~ 3 ~..__ ~. ~_ 6 4 . ···:::{t~0:~7.$':'J..... ~ ~~~~:~ ~ ._I' ,r ,J,_~ J J ----- " iow!'-'."--'.",,"'.-,••' -'«~-'~'~""'H'*'~'t-7""~ 5
.o-.·..<./....t ...· -- ~b: ....:::: :,r:.------ P "".;;~'~:z:;:'~..- : BI~ cia;···..',:·:·, •
, i i 0
10 15 ~O 25 30 35 40 45 50 53
meters
I.W. '84
FIGURE 56. Stratigraphic Profile at Locality 1: East Shore Trench
I-'
00
-.J
•188
Institute, Reno). The field assessment by Davis indicates that the ash
is not a primary deposit and is heavily mixed with other sedimentary
detritus. The stratigraphic data suggest that this grey ashy deposit
(Unit 2) probably dates to a period just before Clovis occupation, and
after the last pluvial lake levels documented in other basins by
13,000 and 11,000 B.P.
Unit 2 is overlain by 70 to 120 cm of coarse silts, interrupted
by brief dry periods evidenced by thin loess-like lenses and
conformities Unit 3), which probably represents the shallow lake
bottom silts deposited by the 1314.8 m Clovis-era lake, and similar
lake deposits associated with the two subsequent Stemmed-era lakes at
1316 m and 1315.4 m, respectively. Unit 3 is capped by Unit 3, which
represents the modern soil sequence of the upper 30 cm of deposits,
including a 10-20 cm thick vesicular A horizon and 5-10 cm of loose
windblown silts and sands.
The lithology and geometry of the grey ashy loam layer (Unit 2)
was carefully plotted laterally across the entire length of the 53-m
long east shore profile. It is fairly thick (25-30 cm) at the head or
eastern end of the trench, and gradually pinches out shoreward. At the
westernmost terminus of the profile, the grey ashy loam interfingers
and merges with the more exposed, deflated lakebed deposits of Unit 1,
where it mixes with playa deposits in small lenses and swirls.
In 1985, a one x one meter test unit placed along the east shore
trench revealed a buried, flake-bearing deposit, separated from the
surficial Western Stemmed artifacts by 60 to 75 cm of sterile
materials. The stratum just below this buried flake-bearing unit
T•
189
(Unit 3) was found to contain numerous ostracode shells, fish scales,
and bones of fish, small and large mammals and amphibians. Some of
these faunal remains have been identified as representing frog, two
species of fish (Gila bicolor and Chasmistes breviroseris and
generalized grazing ungulates (see discussion and references in
Chapter IV under Paleoenvironmental Context).
The stratigraphic, artifactual and mapping data suggest the
following sequence of events. The first stage stemmed-era lake level
at 1316 m elevation would have inundated most, if not all, of the
1314.8 m shoreline ridge occupied during Clovis times. But the second,
(reg~essional) stage of the stemmed-era lake at 1315.4 m elevation
would have exposed portions of the previously occupied Clovis
shoreline, making this land surface available once again for
occupation, if only seasonally, during the later phases of Stemmed-era
occupation in the basin.
No fluted points have yet been recovered from the buried
occupation zone at Locality 1. Trace charcoal flecks submitted for
radiocarbon accelerator dating were too small to be registered, but
in-process accelerator pates recently submitted bone and shell samples
may prove these deposits to be Clovis in age. While it is true that a
few buried flakes do not a Clovis site make, it is clear that an
archaeological model sensitive to lake history has significantly
narrowed down the basin-wide possibilities for finding buried
materials .
-190
More intensive excavations in localities such as this one could
be very productive. In fact, during the 1985 field season,
re-examination of artifact distributions, aerial photos and the
elevational position and stratigraphy of critical shore trenches
suggested the presence of two other localities which might demonstrate
such a stratigraphic separation. These two additional localities are
described below.
Locality 2: The Tucker Site
The second locality considered to have potential for producing
buried deposits was the Tucker site, located on the far eastern margin
of the Dietz sub-basin. In 1984, large bifaces, blanks, core flakes
and flaking debris were found actively eroding out of buried deposits
here, beneath the Big Cut Lake wave-cut scarp at 1318 m elevation.
A one x one meter test unit at the Tucker site in 1984 produced
flaking debris, burned bone and charcoal flecks in buried context from
90 to 150 em below the surface (Figures 57 and 58).
This cultural debris was incorporated within a bioturbated
soil-altered zone of mottled sandy loam suggestive of a buried A2
horizon (paleosol). Archaeological excavations are needed to recover
time-diagnostic tools in situ, but the stratigraphic context suggests
that the site represents a Western Stemmed campsite whose occupation
surface was subsequently buried by loess or dune deposits, and later
exposed by the transgressive rise in lake level (Big cut Lake) which
cut the 1318 m scarp.
~
OmW
location of 1 x1 m
test unit on wave-cut
&carp 15m to south
West to Easf ProfJIe
TUCKER SITE STRATIGRAPHY
w••t .. I ~ .. e.t.~ ~·.·.::·:~~:·~·:·:··········:·.ifti~:~·.:·.:.<:<:~:>: : :: .. >::. ::. 6'. :::" :: ~ \ ~~~~;':~::.
4.5mW ~LL·A·~l1 'II . '0' .. d'" .. -= ... tl.. ll.:;jll D~9 oa fin 0 '\l V p Sl 0 () V' Sl~~----'r'\A ~ ()iJ?1a:t1'1\13 _ V .!? C) 00.0 lJ ? __.Q..~__••.:.p~~~...r . • IT ~ V-'7r'?,.-.-,rj l· C&L.l \\ ll_ l.- I /\~) l ;(~)" l J 1 \ ) .'",~) -. /\ ~ ~lrueS ..;~a~-;\ \)
'- / ' I / ) I ) 1 I I "'-/ I ) r /", I ...- -.:- - I I I "-/ \ '7.~. \ \~\.;:~c\·.:<> ....·.• ·~f£·.:·.~ ..(.\<·.·;~:·;;;;':,.,; .. ::c::j;-''':~:'}/::j::';::';;'';~'';'':;::::~{;;::c ..:..' '?::·\}i.':.'··:;:::,;~:??,·;;::}})};t:\:(.:>~::~{i:V};'.:}}·:·S~:N;(e,;.ti~:
iw'SS
G - _.ropod .hell
F - Ii"" _ ••brae
C =,00,,:001
•••t~~.:::.".;\:.""AU.:;;O.I.:';·.~.,.%'.\",.::;'li!l
y.llowi.h
.ilt loam
~ '--'_.~'.•. ~.,
~ded.and5
-';;';::.-.r:o:"
.....:o~.~..·.::5~~
>1~)~t'-)()--'I'--;I/,r/,)/ r 'v r· .. ·· .... '.' .. k ...= ......./~" ' ~._:..:.:.~ .__..~ ~_ ,:.;.e:."..'O'.
FIGURE 57. Stratigraphic Protile at Locality 2: The Tucker Site
.....
\0
.....
TUCKER SITE TEST UNIT
North wall profile
1meter
no flakes
below this
20
10
• 1-30cm ~
• =charcoalA = in situ flakes
.pumice
zone
mottled
zone
jwt85
FIGURE 58. stratigraphic Profile of Excavated Test Unit at Locality 2
(Tucker Site), Showing Location of Buried Paleosol and
Occupation Surface
I--'
\0
N
-------------------------------- +
193
Locality 3: Buried Paleosurface at the Dietz Site
The third locality is the Dietz site itself, where data recovered
thus far suggest that fluted artifacts may be eroding out of a buried
hillslope surface or paleosol observed 50 to 75 cm below the modern
surface in 5 of the 11 backhoe trenches placed along Terrace #2
(Segments #5 through #9). It is hypothesized that the heavy zone of
overlap in fluted and stemmed points at the Dietz site, between 1318 m
and 1316 m elevation, was most likely created by the erosional wave
zone of the transgressive Big Cut Lake, which cut into an older
(Clovis age), hillslope deposit buried beneath the surface sands of
Terrace #2 (see profile of southern cove area in Figure 40).
This erosive action would have exposed the fluted artifacts and
caused them to mix with stemmed artifacts, whose origin is probably in
the overlying sands of Terrace #2. In 1984, a large bifacial thinning
flake was found embedded within a heavily cemented, buried colluvial
(hillslope) deposit at 40 to 70 cm depth in backhoe Segment #7. In
this portion of the Dietz site, Western Stemmed points have been
recovered within the loose sandy surface deposits of Terrace #2.
This buried colluvial surface, or paleosol is heavily cemented,
probably by silica, and was traced beneath the surface from Segment #5
downslope for over 70 m to Segment #9 where it begins to pinch out at
1318 m elevation, the same elevation as the wave-cut scarp of the Big
cut Lake. Closer inspection of the top 80 cm in each of these backhoe
trenches revealed the presence of a-dozen or more small obsidian
flakes weathering out of the unit along its entire length (Figure 59).
STRATIGRAPHIC PROFILE DIETZ SITE TERRACE
t-'
\C
~
-: •••°4 "C?1~~--:i~:.~:::;~::;".
I =
I
L..
. Trench 8 ~
FIGURE 59.
t---_Trench 7 I
5 10 14 meters
Stratigraphic Profile Between Trench Segments #7 and #9
at the Dietz Site's southern Cove (Locality 3), Showing
Location of Buried Paleosol Hypothesized as a Clovis-age
Occupation Surface
o
1317
--1318~~~~~~
Elevation (m I
I
Stemmed
artifacts
'!P.'.··::"~t':!i: _, •
•195
The basic stratigraphic sequence at Locality 3 can be described
as follows:
Unit 1
Unit 1 consists of loose wind-worked cover sands originating as
beach sands deposited with Terrace #2. These sands contain heavy
concentrations of stemmed artifacts, crescents and ground stone.
Unit 2
Unit 2 is represented by the vesicular (Av) horizon of the upper
soil profile, which is capped by Unit 1.
Unit 3
Unit 3 consists of the platy (B) horizon of the upper soil
profile, which includes Unit 2.
Unit 4
The buried surface in question is that represented by Unit 4. It
consists of a 50 em thick grey sandy loam deposit which is massive,
very cemented (probably by secondary silica). It was observed to
contain small obsidian flakes and possible charcoal flecks. This unit
has a wavy, weathered unconformable upper boundary, is riddled with
cicada burrows and other paleosol features. It seems to represent a
truncated B horizon of a paleosol formed on buried hillslope deposits.
Unit 4 is overlain by Units 1 through 3 which represent the upper soil
profile .
•196
Units 5 through 7
Unit 5 is a massive, friable (C) horizon of beach sands 30 cm
thick. It overlies the basal (C Horizon) deposits below it -- an
imbricated layer (4 cm thick) well-rounded, discoidal beach cobbles of
basalt, representative of an earlier lake level. Unit 7 represents the
basement bedrock of salmon-colored welded tuff.
Although diagnostic fluted artifacts have not been recovered from
this depth, they do not occur above the level of Unit 4
(above). However, fluted points do occur at the surface 30 m downslope
from Segment #9, where they seem to be eroding out of this same
buried, colluvial unit (Unit 4), probably dissolved by the
transgressive lake level rise documented by the 1318 m wave-cut scarp
of the Big Cut Lake.
Clovis and Stemmed-era Paleolandscape and Occupation Surface~
in the Northern Alkali Lake Basin
Clovis-era Paleolandscape
The Clovis-era land surface included all surfaces above 1314.8 m
elevation along the west shore of Lake Koko, extending to the west
(landward) up the terraced slope of the Dietz Hill to its crest at
1341 m elevation. It is now evident that one section of that
paleosurface occurs in buried context, and that a second portion is
now missing as a result of three transgressive, post-occupational
lakes (Sand Ridge Lake, Lake Delaine and Big Cut Lake) (Figures 30 and
50). The Clovis-age land surface now visible includes all the ground
-197
surface from the top of the Dietz hill to the top of Facies Set #4
(top of Terrace #2) at 1321.5 m elevation.
The pattern displayed when fluted artifacts are plotted by
elevation (Figure 60) suggests a former distribution which was evenly
spread across the ground surface up the terraced slope of the Dietz
hill from 1315 m to 1318 m elevation, but which has been subsequently
"sliced" into by the wave processes of the three lake levels which
followed in time, at 1316 m, 1315.4 m and 1318.3 m, respectively. At
this point, until more charcoal flecks can be retrieved from the
buried colluvium which is hypothesized as a now-buried paleosurface
for Clovis folk, the above suggestions remain just that, but the
patterns are intriguing all the same. This is an area which should be
further explored in future research at the site.
Below 1320.8 m elevation, beginning at a point midway between
Segments #4 and #5, the Clovis paleosurface is buried 40 cm to 70 cm
below. the modern surface, as discussed above under Locality 3. This
now buried surface represents the beach sands laid down by the last
pluvial lake in the basin, i.e. Lake Kevin.
Research indicates that Clovis folk were living on the coarse,
grey beach sands deposited by Lake Kevin, which can be traced from a
point midway between Segments #5 and #6, downslope to a point midway
between Segments #9 and #10, i.e. across most of Facies Set
#4. Throughout Facies #4, the buried Clovis-age unit is represented by
the silica-cemented, flake-bearing paleosol discussed above, which
averages 40 cm in thickness (Figure 59). The upper surface of this
paleosol consistently occurs 40 em below the present surface, overlain
1320
1318
1316
1314
Elev.
1m)
198
FIGURE 60. Distribution of Dietz Site Fluted Points by Elevation
,...
•
199
unconformably by the Stemmed-era paleosol (platy B-horizon and buried
Av) which is described below. The upper Clovis surface can be traced
from Segment #6 at 1319.6 m elevation, downslope to Segment #9 at
1318.1 m elevation. Its upper surface is wavy, unconformable, and
heavily eroded, indicating that a substantial period of time passed
before the first Western Stemmed folk arrived. Because there is no
evidence for a later lake in the basin after Big Cut Lake (1318 m),
it is most likely that the paleosurface 'erosion was caused by wind
processes during a very dry period sometime between 11,000 and 10,000
B.P.
This same eroded surface, between 1319.6 m and 1318.1 m
elevation, marks the lower base of all of the large dunes throughout
the basin (see discussion below under Summary of Lake History,
Paleolandscape and Human Occupation Patterns). It can therefore be
postulated that a long period of aridity and active dune-building
followed the end of Clovis occupation. The Clovis paleosurface can no
longer be traced below the level of the Big cut Lake at 1318 m, or
across most of Facies Set #5, which comprises the deposits of the
two-stage Stemmed-era lakes. This would be expected since the active
beach margins of all three of these lakes, presumably post-dating
Clovis time, would have contributed to the erosion of the Clovis
surfaces.
The only other possible place where the Clovis surface may have
survived, other than Locality 1 discussed above, would be the
interface of Facies Sets #5 and #6, somewhere between 200E and 280E
(Figures 48 and 50). In this area, there may be a Clovis surface
.,...
I
I
200
buried by the shallow silts of the two Stemmed era lakes in quiet
water zones located at a safe distance from their beaches.
Stemmed-era Paleolandscape
The Stemmed-era paleolandscape consists of two closely sequent
terrestrial-beach facies sets relating to the two-stage lake sequence
discussed above, which occurs across most of Facies Set #5. If the
two-phase lake sequence was a prograding one, the oldest occupation
surface would have been all land surfaces uplsope from the beach
deposits of its first shoreline at 1316 m elevation. This is the
entire surface of Facies Set #4 (Figures 40 and 48). Like the Clovis
paleosurface, the Stemmed-era surface is also buried for a short
distance between Segments #6 and #9, where it overlies the eroded
surface of the Clovis paleosol.
Throughout this zone between Segments #6 and #9, the wavy, eroded
upper surface of the buried Clovis-age paleosol is overlain by the
Stemmed-era paleosol -- a platy B-horizon formed in wind-deposited
pebbly, brown sandy loam occurring between 30-40 cm below the
surface. It is overlain by a heavily compressed, buried Av horizon
occurring 20-30 cm below the surface, which may represent the upper
surface of the Stemmed-era paleosol. The Stemmed-era paleosol is then
overlain by the modern soil horizon, consisting of a recent Av horizon
and 20 cm of loose, windblown surface sands.
The Stemmed-era paleosurface relating to the second, regressional
lake level at 1315.4 m elevation (Lake Delaine) included the
additional land surface above 1315.4 m and upslope to the old 1316 m
+•
201
beachline and· beyond. Additionally,. Western Stemmed folk during this
second phase also camped on the surface of the now-exposed eastern
shoreline of the Clovis lake (Lake Koko). As discussed above under
Locality 1, the east shore ridge contains surface assemblages of
Western Stemmed artifacts at or near 1315.5 m elevation, which overlie
60-75 cm of sterile lake silts. Beneath these sterile lake silts, is a
flake-bearing surface between 1315.1 m and 1314.8 m elevation, which
probably represents a Clovis-age land surface.
Overall Integrity of Deposits: Post-occupation Processes Affecting
Artifact Density, Distribution and Transport
Human Disturbance
Alkali Lake Basin is currently managed by the Lakeview District
of the USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) as seasonal rangeland, and
was also the focus of some sheep-herding in historic time
(W. J. Cannon, personal communication 1986). Besides recent cattle
grazing, the major form of human disturbance in the basin since
prehistoric time involves amateur collecting of surface artifacts. It
is difficult to say just how much damage to archaeological sites has
occurred as a result of amateur collecting. It is a well-known fact
that, despite federal and state laws protecting cultural resources,
artifact collecting is considered a way of life in Lake County by many
local people. But it is also a local amateur (Dewey Dietz) who first
took professional archaeologists to the Dietz site.
Some of the archaeological sites present in the northern Alkali
Lake Basin have probably been surface collected to some degree by
202
amateurs over the years. But the presence of large quantities of
points which could be considered highly "collectable" by amateurs,
from sites like Site Nos. 40 and 48, suggests that certain sites may
have been overlooked by local collectors. Furthermore, most of these
surface sites have produced a sizeable inventory of time-diagnostic
tools, and none of them show physical signs of subsurface disturbance.
Natural Disturbance
Erosion by wind and water have no doubt affected all of the sites
in the northern sub-basin to some degree. In fact, many of the east
shore sites would not have been discovered if they were not in the
process of eroding out of the base of dune deposits, as a result of
the post-occupational, transgressive lake level rise associated with
the Big Cut Lake. The 1318 m wave-cut scarp formed by the roughly
7,000 year-old Big Cut Lake truncated and exposed the occupation
surfaces of many of these Stemmed-era sites.
The evidence suggests that this transgressive lake level was the
only major disturbance affecting sites in the basin since the time of
occupation. The reconstructed environmental history of the basin
presented below suggests that there has not been enough water to cause
much erosion of sites since 7,000 B.P. (see discussion below under
Summary of Lake History, Paleolandscape and Human Occupation
Patterns). Surface sites as old as 9,000 B.P. (dated on typological
grounds) have remained discrete, well contained lithic scatters
showing little signs of serious movement or disruption. Taking these
human and natural disturbances into account, therefore, it seems
-203
reasonable to conclude that these late Pleistocene and early Holocene
archaeological sites in the northern Alkali Lake Basin have maintained
their integrity throughout the last 7,000 to 11,500 years, and show
little signs of disturbance of any kind.
Summary of Stratigraphic Studies
To summarize, there are now several excellent possibilities for
demonstrating the presence of diagnostic stemmed artifacts in
sediments overlying a weathered Clovis-period surface. Verification of
this apparent vertical superposition will require radiocarbon dating
of materials recovered from the lower flake-bearing paleosurfaces, or
finding a place where the artifact density of these buried surfaces is
sufficient to allow recovery of buried diagnostic fluted points in
situ. Only further excavation in these localities in the Dietz
sub-basin will provide the answers.
Most importantly, the program of mapping and stratigraphic
cross-correlation has documented a clear vertical and horizontal
separation of Western Clovis occupation surfaces from Stemmed-era
sites. The data provide the strongest case yet reported for separating
the two assemblages in relative time.
Chronology of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Occupations
in the Northern Alkali Lake Basin
Basin-wide Distributions of Artifacts and Sites
The data gathered from basin-wide site survey and mapping, in
conjunction with stratigraphic studies, provide strong support for the
Trbz
204
model of lake history and human occupation as proposed. Survey along
the two shorelines hypothesized for Stemmed and Clovis time periods,
and along the north-south transect within the archaeological district,
revealed the presence of 93 sites, of which 83 sites (89%) are
directly associated with the fossil shorelines.
There is a rich abundance of Western Stemmed sites along higher
shorelines in all three northern sub-basins (Chase, Dietz and
Crescent) (Figure 54). Clovis artifacts have a unique distribution
distinctly associated with the 1314.85 m shoreline of Lake
Koko. Artifacts dating to time periods later than 7,000 B.P. were
rare, and most often occurred as isolates, not associated with any
particular shoreline. They were most often associated with small
deflation blowouts in front of dunes which would have held ponded
water, suggesting only brief, sporadic occupation during the
mid-to-late Holocene.
Only ten sites (11%) were not associated with the two
hypothesized fossil shorelines. These included: (1) seven nondescript
quarry-related sites (#57 through #63) in the far northern sector of
the basin; and (2) three late-period isolates (#78 through #80). In
addition, two lithic scatters (#55 and #56) and an isolated crescent
(#88) found in the south-central portion of the Chase basin were first
thought to be unrelated to the hypothesized Stemmed era shoreline. But
results of sub-basin cross-correlations and mapping now indicate that
these three spots are adjacent to the second stage lake level in the
Chase Basin at 1317.8 m elevation (discussed below under Sub-basin
Correlations) .
205
Of the 93 sites discovered, 48 sites (52%) produced
time-diagnostic artifacts which could typologically date them. Of the
total number of sites recorded, only nine sites (10%) dated to periods
later than 7,000 B.P. These included eight isolated finds of
corner-notched points, and one Desert Side-notched lithic scatter
located on the deflated southwestern corner of the Clovis shoreline.
A total of 45 sites (48%) could not be assigned to a cultural period
due to a lack of surface diagnostic tools.
Of the 48 sites producing time-diagnostic tools, 30 sites (63%)
represent the Western Stemmed cultural period, containing diverse
assemblages suggestive of a wide variety of campsite activities and
functions. Together, they represent a sizeable, cohesive cultural
presence in the northern sub-basin, oriented to the shores of two
shallow (probably prograding) lakes and marshes -- Sand Ridge Lake and
Lake Delaine -- and tied to what must have been an attractive, stable
ecological situation during the early Holocene.
Further support for the model was provided by the elevational
positions and distributions of all time-diagnostic points recovered
through basin-wide site survey. The distribution of Humboldt,
Side-notched and Pinto points, although a very small sample, ranges
from 1315 m to 1316 m elevation. Corner-notched points have a wide
distribution from range from 1315 m to 1323 melevation follow no
particular shoreline or pattern.
The stemmed artifacts were definitely concentrated around the
higher two shorelines (1316 m and 1315.4 m) postdating Clovis, and
ranged from 1315.4 m to 1326 m elevation, with a distinct peak at 1318
•206
m, which would be about two meters above the elevation of the
hypothesized water level during the first stage of Stemmed-era
occupation. This 1318 m elevation coincides with a series of broad
sandy platforms which fringe the fossil shorelines of the northern
sub-basin, such as those represented by the top of Terrace #2, Wayne's
Terrace, Kevin's Terrace and Monique's Terrace (Figure 30).
Sub-basin Correlations of Lake Levels and Occupation Surfaces
Results of the stadia mapping revealed that the prehistoric water
bodies in the Chase, Dietz and Crescent sub-basins had different basin
floor elevations and were effectively separated below 1320.8 m
elevation. This meant that the absolute elevational values for lake
levels and human occupation surfaces in each sub-basin would probably
not correspond and could not be used in correlating time-equivalent
occupation surfaces and lake levels between sub-basins. The needed
inter-basin cross-correlations were achieved through other means.
This independence of sub-basins below 1320 m played a critical,
and dangerously tardy, role in the final interpretation and testing of
the model of lake history and human occupation as proposed. In order
to avoid false interpretations based on inaccurate cross-correlations,
a series of tedious, multiple cross-checks were made on the elevations
of key lake strata and occupation surfaces. Also useful were the
distributions of time-diagnostic artifacts by elevation. Another
factor considered was the effect of post-occupational lake levels on
the movement of surface artifacts down the slopes of steeper
terraces. In the end, the position and elevation of ground stone
+207
artifacts at the Dietz site, and certain single-component Western
Stemmed sites, turned out to be the most valuable aid in making
successful correlations of time-equivalent surfaces across the
northern sub-basin.
When the initial distributions, by elevation, of time diagnostic
artifacts were plotted for Western Stemmed sites discovered in the
Chase, Dietz, and Crescent sub-basins, the match was very poor between
the sub-basins (Figure 61). Even within each sub-basin, there were
problems. At the Dietz site, the fluted artifacts clearly "peaked" in
association with the hypothesized 1314.8 m shoreline of Lake Koko
(Figure 60). But there was only a hint of correspondence between the
stemmed artifacts and their prospective two-stage shorelines (Sand
Ridge Lake and Lake Delaine). However, it was noticed that the
distributional pattern of ground stone at the Dietz site was basically
identical to that of the stemmed points, but was offset from the
lithics by about 1.5 m in elevation (Figure 61).
Since most of the Western Stemmed artifacts at the Dietz site
were concentrated on a steep slope at the base of Terrace #2, it was
hypothesized that the post-occupational Big Cut Lake had been
responsible for transporting stemmed artifacts downslope within the
wave-zone along its shore. It could logically be assumed that the
ground stone artifacts "belonged" with the stemmed tools because they
were found with single component clusters of stemmed points 1 to 2 m
upslope of the Big Cut in discrete "pure" single-component
clusters. It was further assumed that the ground stone clusters, being
+208
D
c
--- Ground stone tools
Western Stemmed
artifacts
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"'..."
...
B
1318
1314
A
1316
1320
1322
Elev.
Iml
E'IGURE 6.1. Distribution of Western Stemmed Artifacts and Associated
Ground Stone Too.ls by Elevation in all Three Sub-basins
(Uncorrected for Downslope Transport and Erosion)
A. Dietz Site; B. All other Sites in Dietz Sub-basin;
C. Chase Sub-basin; and D. Crescent Sub-basin
+I
209
heavier and less subject to transport, would have remained more or
less in their original position on the terrace sands upslope.
To test this downslope transport model, the elevational
distributions of all time-diagnostic artifacts at the Dietz site
occurring within the 1.4 m wave-cut zone of the Big Cut Lake (between
1316.6 and 1318 m elevation) were adjusted upslope until their peak
and pattern of distribution matched that of the ground stone. This
required an upslope correction factor of 1.2 meters, and the result
was a nearly identical overlay of the projectile point distribution
pattern over that of the ground stone tools (Figure 62). Using the
Dietz site as a yardstick for the test, the same correction factor of
1.2 m was applied to all other stemmed sites in the Dietz sub-basin.
The Dietz sub-basin was hydrologically a single unit, meaning
that the Big Lake Cut occurred at the same elevation throughout the
sub-basin. In addition, the angle of slope near the wave cut (in
positions similar to the Big Lake cut scarp at the Dietz site) were
also similar throughout the Dietz sub-basin. Fortunately, there were
also a number of single-component Western Stemmed sites that had
produced clusters of ground stone in the Dietz sub-basin, and even
more fortunately, their elevations had been mapped by stadia survey. A
quick glance at these sites producing ground stone also indicated a
similar (upslope) offset in the distributions of ground stone compared
to stemmed points (Figure 61).
If the hypothesized model of post-occupation downslope transport
reflected the results of a real process, then regular application of
the 1.2 m correction factor to all stemmed sites in the Dietz
210
,
"•
•,)
I
•
........-------
.......
i",
r'
I
I
•
1318
1316
1320
1314
A
Elev.
[m J
FI GURE 62. Dist.r ibution of West.ern stemmed Artifacts and Associ at.ed
Ground stone Tools by Elevation in the Dietz Sub-basin
(After Application of Correction Factors for Downslope
Transport and Erosion)
6 ~--~------- ----
211
sub-basin should produce a closer match between the stemmed point and
ground stone distributions. This factor was applied with amazing
success (Figure 62), and results verified that a very real process of
downslope transport had in fact occurred as a result of the later,
transgressive lake level. The artifact distributions at the Dietz
site, and all other stemmed sites in the Dietz sub-basin, now
displayed a clear two-level distribution which was already
well-supported by stratigraphic evidence for a two-stage lake levels
documented at 1316 m and 1315.4 m elevation, respectively.
The demonstration of two closely sequent lake levels (Sand Ridge
Lake and Lake Delaine) associated with two discrete populations of
Western Stemmed sites in the Dietz sub-basin held exciting
implications for establishing a finer temporal resolution in relative
dating of occupations within the Stemmed-era period. If the
hypothesized two-stage prograding lake sequence of Western Stemmed
times had really occurred, then the distributions of stemmed artifacts
around the rest of the northern sub-basin would also exhibit a similar
two-stage distribution with respect to a lower and higher shoreline,
although not necessarily at the same absolute elevations. This
hypothesis was put to the test by plotting the basin-wide distribution
and elevation of stemmed artifacts, and comparing the patterns to
those established at the Dietz site.
Once the process of downslope transport had been identified and
tested successfully in relation to artifact distributions in the Dietz
sub-basin, it was further hypothesized that this ground
stone-to-projectile point adjustment in elevation would serve as a
T212
means to correlate, in time, the lake levels and occupation surfaces
in all three sub-basins, despite their hydrological independence. The
application of the model to the Chase and Crescent sub-basins met with
great success (Figure 63), and all three sub-basins now displayed a
clear two-level distribution of artifacts to two sequent lake levels.
Even though the absolute elevations of the two lakes were
different in each basin their relative positions with respect to
stemmed artifacts and sites and their were nearly identical. In
addition, the elevational difference of 60 cm which existed between
the stage I (1316 m) and stage II lakes (1315.4 m) in the Dietz
sub-basin was also the same for the Chase and Crescent sub-basins.
The presence of two closely sequent lake stages (Sand Ridge Lake
and Lake Delaine) for Western Stemmed occupation in the basin, now
cross-correlated in all three sub-basins, afforded a unique
opportunity to test the hypothesis of so-called transitional
projectile point forms which had been identified. It was hypothesized
that these transitional point types represented forms intermediate in
time between the final stages of Western Stemmed occupation and the
earliest stages of occupation represented by Humboldt, Elko, Pinto and
Northern Side-notched points (see discussion in Chapter IV under
Relative Dating of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Cultures).
Results of basin-wide archaeological site survey produced a rich
abundance of Western Stemmed sites along higher shorelines in all
three northern sub-basins (Chase, Dietz and Crescent) (Figures 29 and
42). Of the 122 time diagnostic tools recovered, a total of 106 points
(87%) were assignable to the Western Stemmed cultural period. Many of
213
1322
1320
1316
Elev.
Iml
1324
1322
1318
B
Ground stone tools
Western Stemmed
artifacts
c
-
FIGURE 63. Distribution of Western Stemmed Artifacts and Assocjated
Ground Stone Tools by Elevation in all Three Sub-basins
(After Application of Correction Factors for Downslope
Transport and Erosion) A. Dietz Sub-basin; B. Crescent
Sub-basin; and C. Chase Sub-basin
214
these points displayed signs of re-sharpening and/or re-working. The
various types represented are listed below and were coded as
follows: Cougar Mountain (WS2), Parman (WS3), Lake Mohave (WS4),
Haskett (WS5), large transitional forms (WS6), crescents (WS7), small
transitional forms (WS8), Windust (WS9), Silver Lake (WS10), Cascade
(CA), Plano-like concave base (PC) and Plano-like Square base (PS).
TABLE 7. Total Number of Western Stemmed Artifact Types (by Code)
Recovered in the Northern Alkali Lake Sub-basin
Code No. Artifact Type Comments
WS1 24 Miscellaneous
stemmed bases* 1 re-sharpened
WS2 9 Cougar Mountain 1 re-sharpened
WS3 5 Parman
WS4 18 Lake Mohave
WS5 13 Haskett 8 re-sharpened
WS6 12 Large transitional
WS7 12 Crescents Both rounded and keeled
WS8 6 Small transitional
WS9 4 Windust 4 re-sharpened
WSI0 2 Silver Lake 2 re-sharpened
CA 3 Cascade
PC 4 Plano-like Concave Base
PS _2_ Plano-like Square Base
Total: 114
* Most of these are probably Cougar Mountain or Parman base fragments
but the specimens are too fragmentary to be identified with
certainty
Results indicated that some artifacts of each type were recovered
at both the 1316 m and 1315.4 m lake levels relating to Stemmed-period
occupation (Sand Ridge Lake and Lake Delaine). There was a greater
density of artifacts on the higher shoreline, but representative
f215
samples of all point types were still represented on the lower
shoreline as well, albeit in fewer numbers. The only exceptions were
Parman and Cougar Mountain types, which were exclusive to the higher
shoreline. If the hypothesis of a prograding lake sequence is correct,
then Cougar Mountain and Parman types have been demonstrated to be
earlier in time in the Dietz sub-basin. Thus, the hypothesis of
transitional forms was not verified, but some finer temporal
resolution was provided for other Western Stemmed point types.
Additionally, there was a slightly higher number of Windust
points along the lower shoreline, suggesting that these may be later
in time. Other research in the northern Great Basin has also indicated
that Windust points are later than other stemmed point types. Examples
include the work of Layton (1970, 1979), work at Dirty Shame
Rockshelter (Hanes 1988a, 1988b), and work at Skull Creek Dunes
Locality #1, or Site 35 HA 412 (Beck 1984; Jones 1984; Wilde 1985).
The implications of these data for typological studies are further
discussed in Chapter IV under Relative Dating of Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed Cultures).
Radiocarbon Dating of Western Stemmed Occupation
In the process of examining the numerous stratigraphic shore
trenches and test excavation units throughout the northern Alkali Lake
Basin, many small trace samples of charcoal, soil organics, shell and
bone were sampled as hopeful candidates in producing radiocarbon
determinations for both the natural and cultural deposits present.
T216
From Locality 1 (East Shore Trench), tiny bone fragments and
charcoal flecks were submitted to the Arizona Radiocarbon Laboratory
for accelerator dating. Both the bone and charcoal samples proved to
be too small to register a reading. However, several larger, though
heavily permineralized, bone fragments were recently submitted in an
effort to acquire a radiocarbon date for Locality 1 (Figures 48 and
56). The silica-cemented paleosol at the Dietz site (Locality 3) also
holds some promise for producing trace charcoal flecks, and further
laboratory screening and dissolution of this critical deposit may bear
fruit (Figures 40 and 59).
Several samples of culturally charred bone fragments and charcoal
flecks were also sampled from Locality 2 (Tucker Site Trench) on the
east shore of the Dietz sub-basin (Figures 57 and 58). As discussed
above, the 40-meter long backhoe trench here provided excellent
stratigraphic control for cross-correlating the buried paleosol (A2
Horizon) with the artifacts in Test Unit #1 and with those actively
eroding out of the Big Cut wave-scarp at 1316 m elevation at this site
(Site No. 65).
The artifacts exposed along the Tucker site wave-cut scarp
included large bifaces, heavy blanks, preforms and knives, scrapers,
large flakes and several ground stone fragments (one mano and two
metates). No time-diagnostic artifacts have been recovered from the
Tucker Site, but the tool assemblage represented is identical to that
recovered from all of the other single-component Western Stemmed sites
in the northern sub-basin. Additionally, the elevational and
stratigraphic context of the site is also identical to many of the
217
other Stemmed-era sites -- i.e. eroding out of the interface of mid-
to-late Holocene dunes and early Holocene lake-marsh deposits between
1316 m and 1317 m elevation.
Because the Tucker site occupation is associated with the higher
(1316 m) shoreline hypothesized as the Stemmed-era Stage I lake (Sand
Ridge Lake), it was postulated that the site would date to the earlier
of two early Holocene lake developments recorded in this region, at
9,600 to 9,800 B.P. and 8,600 to 8,400 B.P., respectively (see
discussion in Chapter III under Implications of the Alkali Basin
Research: Regional Lake History).
This hypothesis has now been confirmed, in part, by a radiocarbon
date on trace charcoal embedded within the mottled paleosol (A2
Horizon) associated with the cultural deposits at the Tucker site. The
charcoal fleck (#08b) was sampled directly from the paleosol in the
backhoe trench at 2.92 m west of the trench datum and 1.66 m below the
surface, and produced an accelerator date of 9,610±100 B.P. (AA-3932).
More work is planned to recover a larger sub-surface sample from the
Tucker site which might produce a time-diagnostic Western Stemmed
tool. But the dated charcoal provides compelling support for a
temporally distinct two-stage Stemmed occupation in the basin,
beginning with the 1316 m lake level (Sand Ridge Lake). Basin-wide
chronology is further discussed in Chapter IV under Age and Historical
Relationship of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed Cultures.
+218
Summary of Lake History, Paleolandscape and Human Occupation
Patterns in the Northern Alkali Lake Basin
There is much data from lakeshore sediments, soils, artifact
context and site distributions in the northern Alkali Lake Basin to
support the proposed model: (1) a terminal Pleistocene (Western
Clovis) occupation centered around the west shore of a shallow lake
and marsh; followed by (2) a substantial lakeside settlement of
Western Stemmed groups in the early Holocene, oriented to two slightly
deeper lakes in a two-stage prograding sequence.
The Dietz site is the largest and most complex site in the
northern Alkali Lake Basin and the reason behind the extensive
research which has been conducted there. The data suggest the site was
occupied in three distinct phases: (1) from 11,500 to 10,000 B.P.
during Western Clovis; (2) from 10,000 to 9,000 B.P. during the first
stage of Western Stemmed occupation; and (3) from 8,500 to 7,000 B.P.
during the later phase of Western Stemmed occupation.
Results of problem-oriented basin-wide site survey produced a
rich abundance of Western Stemmed sites along the 1316 m shoreline in
the Dietz sub-basin (Sand Ridge Lake), and along its elevational
equivalents in the Chase and Crescent sub-basins (Figures 54 and 63).
Sites later than 7,000 B.P. are rare, do not follow any particular
shoreline, and'seem to be associated with small deflation zones which
probably held ponded water in the mid-to-late Holocene.
The high percentage of shoreline sites discovered (88%) in
associated with a nearly-exclusive settlement of early Holocene
campsites in the basin lends much support to the model of lake history
f219
and human settlement as proposed. These sites represent a series of
lakeshore and marsh-fringe campsites and activity areas oriented to
three separate shallow water bodies active in the northern sub-basin
between 11,500 and 7,000 years ago.
Clovis-type fluted points have a unique distribution distinctly
associated with the 1314.85 m shoreline of Lake Koko (Figure 60). It
also now seems highly likely that buried remnants of Clovis-age
occupation surfaces may have survived and may be demonstrable at
several localities in the basin, overlain by tools diagnostic of the
Western Stemmed culture.
There is now good evidence for the reconstruction of at least
four distinct sets of lakeshore features which are directly associated
with these human occupations. These late Pleistocene and early
Holocene water bodies include: (1) Lake Koko, a shallow lake with a
possible marsh fringe, located just below the 1314.85 m shoreline
associated with fluted point concentrations; (2) the Sand Ridge Lake,
a higher elevation (1316 m) shoreline associated with the majority of
the Western Stemmed sites in the northern sub-basin, most likely
during the earliest period of Western Stemmed occupation between
10,000 and 9,500 B.P.; (3) Lake Delaine, a second-stage Stemmed era
lake recession at 1315.4 m elevation which probably closely followed
the Sand Ridge Lake in time; and (4) the Big Cut Lake, a
post-occupation, transgressive lake level at 1318.3 m elevation.
Research in the northern Alkali Lake Basin has offered a unique
opportunity to increase our knowledge of the temporal relationship and
paleoeconomy of these two early cultural traditions in the Far West.
T
220
Results demonstrate how successful an archaeological model can be in
pluvial lake basins if designed to be sensitive to local lake history.
The data suggest that application of survey-based predictions from the
northern sub-basin to the central and southern sub-basins would
probably be just as successful (Willig 1986).
A Narrative of Lake History and Human Settlement
Based on the data presented above, the following narrative of
lake history and human occupation is offered for the northern Alkali
Lake Basin (see Figures 50 and 64). This section is meant to summarize
the larger picture of things as concluded from the data presented in
this chapter. Chapter IV focuses upon regional integration of the
Alkali Basin data as it relates the current data base of Far Western
prehistory, and explores the implications of the research for
addressing the major research questions and issues which were
described in Chapter I.
Western Clovis Occupation: Lake Koko
It can be hypothesized that a small group of Western Clovis
people occupied the northwestern shore of a shallow lake (Lake Koko)
with a marsh fringe in the center of the Dietz sub-basin sometime
between 11,500 and 11,000 B.P., or maybe slightly later. They would
have camped on the soft silty sands of the northwestern shore, at
1314.8 m elevation, deposited by the last pluvial lake level (1320.8
m) in the basin (Lake Kevin).
Hilltop Site Monique's Terrace
1323.00
1317 .60
~
~4J
1316.60
CRESCENT SUB-BASIN
Kevin's Terrace
1314.30
1321. 50
~vayne's Terrace
1317.80
1318.40
B
1 2
'''-----
CHASE SUB-BASIN
133] .00
DIETZ SUB-BASIN
FIGURE 64. Comprehensive North-south Profile Across the Norlhern
Al kaJt Basin from the Crest of the Hilltop SHe (SHe
No. 48) in the Chase Sub-basin 10 the Crest of Monique's
Terrace in the Crescent Sub-basin. K: Lake Koko; B: Big
Cui Lake; J: Sand Ridge I.ake; and I.: l.ake Delaine
N
N
I--'
222
Sometime after 11,000 B.P. and before 10,000 B.P., Lake Koko and
its east-flanking marsh disappeared. After this, the basin remained
very dry, long enough for dune sands to begin accumulating at 1320.8 m
elevation throughout the northern sub-basin -- moderately re-working
the upper portion of Terrace #2 sands. During this time, the more
pronounced east shore scarp of the now-deserted Clovis shoreline was
further modified by wind. Thin layers of aeolian silts were deposited
on its crest, scoured from the Dietz sub-basin floor to the southwest.
Stage I of Western Stemmed Occupation: Sand Ridge Lake
About 10,000 to 9,500 B.P., water again returned to the northern
Alkali Lake Basin, filling a much larger portion of the northern
sub-basin with a lake about 2 m deep at 1316 m elevation. This water
body covered most of the old Clovis shoreline with water, and buried
portions of it under shallow beach sands. It can be hypothesized that
this first lake (Sand Ridge Lake) existed during the early phase of
Western Stemmed occupation in the basin, about 10,000 to 9,500 B.P.,
and remained for quite some time (about 500 to 1,000 years).
The Sand Ridge Lake must have remained long enough for a sizeab]e
beach deposit to accumulate at the Sand Ridge, and long enough for a
number of Western Stemmed campsites to become well-established along
the entire perimeter of the 1316 m shoreline. The high density of
stemmed artifacts and sites associated with the higher, more prominent
scarp at 1316 m suggests a lengthier stillstand which would relate to
one of two lengthy periods of increased moisture reported in other
lake basins between 9,500 and 8,500 B.P. (Currey and Oviatt 1985;
223
Gehr 1980; Greenspan 1985). By 8,500 B.P., this lake had receded to
the level of 1315.4 m elevation (Lake Delaine).
stage II of Western stemmed Occupation: Lake Delaine
Through time, with increasing aridity, the 1316 m lake level fell
to 1315.4 m elevation sometime between 8,500 and 8,000, and probably
remained here for a brief time (about 250 to 500 years). The
stratigraphy and geomorphology of Lake Delaine's shoreline suggest
that water remained at this elevation only briefly, but long enough
for a few scatters of Western Stemmed sites to accumulate along the
shore. The low density of stemmed artifacts and sites associated with
this more subtle, lower elevation lake level, and the typology of
stemmed points associated with it, suggests that the second stage of
the lake was probably a relatively short-lived event, occurring
sometime in the later period of Western Stemmed occupation in the Far
West, lasting from about 8,500 and 8,000 B.P.
Throughout this later phase of Stemmed occupation, after 8,000
B.P., environmental conditions became increasingly arid. During the
period from about 7,500 to 7,000 B.P., small groups of people
manufacturing Humboldt concave based points, large side and
corner-notched points and Pinto style points occasionally wandered
through the Dietz sub-basin and camped on the northwestern shore of
the old Clovis shoreline, perhaps when it filled seasonally with
shallow ponds.
T224
Post-Occupation Events and Processes
By 7,000 B.P., the northern Alkali Lake Basin was again dry, and
the once-occupied shores of Lake Koko (1314.8 m), the Sand Ridge Lake
(1316 m) and Lake Delaine (1315.4 m) lay deserted around the now-dry
perimeter of the basin. The basin remained dry, and was certainly dry
at the time of the eruption of Mt. Mazama 6,800 years ago. No
water-laid (primary) deposits of Mazama ash have been found in the
northern Alkali Lake Basin, and no substantial lenses of redeposited
(secondary) Mazama ash and pumice have been found on the lee side of
dunes in the basin. With no water to capture deposits of primary
Mazama ash airfall, the small pumice pebbles would have "bounced
around like popcorn as they fell" (as Jonathan Davis has so aptly
described it), to be carried away by winds shortly after their
deposition.
After 6,800 B.P. but before the onset of fully Altithermal
conditions at 5,000 B.P., the northern Alkali Lake Basin was once more
filled by a very large, powerful and short-lived lake (Lake Big Cut).
Fed by water entering the Dietz basin through a deep stream channel
located two km southwest of the Dietz site, this large and powerful
lake rose to a level of 1318.3 m, and perhaps as high as 1319 m
elevation. This water level averaged 4 m in elevation above the basin
floor -- covering the previously occupied shore of the earlier
Stemmed-era lake level (Sand Ridge Lake) by 2.5 m of water.
The coarse gravelly sediment loads of the Big Cut Lake,
consisting primarily of obsidian-rich gravel and sands carried down
225
from the upper reaches of Horse Mountain, scoured the stemmed-era
shoreline at 1318 m elevation. At a place southwest of the Dietz hill,
the coarse "Umbrella-handle" shaped deposits of Big Cut Lake bury and
partially truncate the Stemmed Period Sand Ridge Lake terrace at 1316
m elevation, suggesting that the Big Cut Lake must postdate Western
Stemmed occupation, after 7,000 B.P. At present, the absence of
buried, primary Mazama ash deposits indicates that the basin was dry
when Mazama fell at 6,800 B.P., suggesting further that this later,
transgressive lake must have occurred after Mazama, but before the
onset of fully Altithermal conditions at 5,000 B.P.
The geomorphology of the Big Cut Lake wave scarp and "Umbrella"
deposits suggest that the rise in water was fast, powerful, erosive
and short-lived. When this lake receded, soon after it came, the basin
remained as ephemerally dryas it is today. In late prehistoric time,
occasional passers-by left Elko or Desert Side-notched points
scattered throughout the basin, but no one claimed the territory
(Blyth 1938; Kelly 1932; Stewart 1938, 1939; Whiting 1950).
In the last 10 or 20 years, renewed precipitation and erosional
processes began cutting through the beach terrace south of Flemmer's
Spit, just north of the Dietz site. Dune-building winds began to carve
small deflation basins in the playa floor which held scattered patches
of standing water on a seasonal basis. As erosion by wind and water
increased, the fresh edges of Clovis fluted points, buried just
beneath the silts and sands of the playa floor, began to appear along
the now exposed surface of an old shoreline -- at 1315 m elevation.
+-
226
CHAPTER IV
IMPLICATIONS OF ALKALI LAKE BASIN RESEARCH: REGIONAL
INTEGRATION AND CONCLUSIONS
The Research Questions: Chronology and Adaptations
The major focus of research conducted in the Northern Alkali Lake
Basin was the context and distribution of Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed artifacts and sites in relation to each other, and to the
paleoenvironment. Specifically, the research sought to reconstruct the
Clovis and Stemmed-era landscapes and lake history, and to determine
the precise distribution and context of artifacts and occupation
surfaces upon that landscape.
The major issues of concern have been the age and historical
relationship of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultures, and the
economic orientations which have been hypothesized for these people.
Alkali Lake Basin research has addressed these hypotheses through
stratigraphic cross-correlation studies, paleolandscape reconstruction
and basin-wide site survey and mapping of artifacts, lake levels and
paleosurfaces. These major issues and hypotheses are briefly reviewed
below, in the context of the research results.
¥-
227
Relative Dating of Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed Cultures
Buried sites producing radiocarbon dates are rare for the period
between 11/500 and 7/000 B.P. in Far Western North America. In the
absence of such direct data, there are three main prospects for
placing Far Western fluted and stemmed points in a relative time frame
include: 1) typological comparisons of Western Clovis fluted points to
dated Clovis assemblages in the Southwest and Plains which currently
have a range of 11/840 B.P. to 10/620 B.P. (Haynes et al. 1984); 2)
typological comparisons of Western Clovis fluted points to dated
fluted points in the East which now are said to date from 10/600
B.P. to 10/200 B.P. (Haynes et al. 1984; Meltzer 1988); and 3) local
typological, stratigraphic and obsidian hydration studies of Western
Clovis and Western Stemmed point complexes which often co-occur at
sites in the Far West. Western Stemmed complexes are currently known
to date within a very broad range between 11/000 and 7/000 B.P. (Table
5; Willig and Aikens 1988).
Stratigraphic Studies
Alkali Lake Basin Research
At the Dietz site in the northern Alkali Lake Basin, Oregon, the
horizontal distributions and stratigraphic context of fluted and
stemmed artifacts provide compelling evidence for a Western Clovis
occupation which clearly precedes that of Western Stemmed groups.
Fluted and stemmed point assemblages have separate surface
-228
distributions on two sequent fossil shorelines (Willig 1984, 1985,
1986, 1988), indicating a definite spatial (horizontal) separation. In
addition, a vertical separation of fluted and stemmed artifacts was
documented by cross-correlating Clovis and Stemmed period occupation
surfaces with time-equivalent lake deposits across the paleolandscape.
This stratigraphic cross-correlation was achieved through
detailed studies of stratigraphy, geomorphic lake features and an
intensive, basin-wide program of stadia mapping and site survey.
Fluted points at the Dietz site are oriented around an early, low
elevation shoreline at 1314.8 m elevation. In contrast, Western
Stemmed points at the Dietz site and 27 other single-component sites
in the basin are confined to a higher zone associated with two later
shorelines at elevations of 1316.2 m and 1315.4 m, respectively.
Furthermore, a vertical superposition of Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed occupation may yet be demonstrable at two localities
in the basin which contain buried, flake-bearing paleosols occurring
40 to 70 em below stemmed point clusters on the surface. No diagnostic
fluted points have yet been recovered from these buried paleosols, but
in-process radiocarbon samples of bone, charcoal and shell from the
lower deposits may yield dates of Clovis age.
other Research
At the Turrialba site in Costa Rica (Snarskis 1979), numerous
Clovis-type fluted and stemmed (Fishtail) points have been recovered
from river terrace deposits of late. Pleistocene and early Holocene
!
age. The shallow terrace deposits are undated but fluted and stemmed
f•
229
points can be separated on the basis of horizontal stratigraphy
because they occur on separate, sequent river terraces. All of the
fluted points resembling northern styles were found exclusively on the
uppermost terrace which dates somewhere between 12,000-10,000 B.P. The
single fluted Magellan point was found on the third or lowest terrace
(Snarskis 1979).
Strikingly similar evidence for horizontal separation was noted
long ago by the Campbells for Pleistocene Lake Owens in California
(Campbell 1949) and the Tonopah and Mud Lake area of Nevada (Campbell
and Campbell 1940; Pendleton 1979). Future studies should incorporate
basin-wide programs of detailed mapping of artifacts and site
distributions across the paleolandscape.
Results of the Alkali Lake Basin research strongly support the
case for temporal precedence of Western Clovis over Western Stemmed
occupation in the Far West. More importantly, there is still no
evidence for the occurrence of Western Stemmed points in dated
stratigraphic contexts which clearly precede Western Clovis, just as
there are no sites in the Plains which have produced Folsom points
stratigraphically below Clovis assemblages (Haynes 1987; Haynes et
a1. 1984).
Obsidian Hydration Studies
Numerous problems still limit the effectiveness of obsidian
hydration dating, but great strides have been made in recent years to
improve control over the precision, accuracy and reliability of this
dating technique (Michels and Tsong 1980). Source-specific hydration
•230
measurements, when used in conjunction with typological and
stratigraphic studies, hold great potential for placing assemblages
into relative sequences. Ongoing work with multiple, source-specific
obsidian hydration measurements is greatly refining our chronological
control of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed surface sites (Basgall
1988; Bettinger 1980; Fredrickson and White 1988; Hughes 1984, 1986;
Jenkins and Warren 1984; Layton 1972; Meighan 1981, 1983).
The Komodo site in Long Valley, California has produced 41
concave-based obsidian points ranging from basally thinned to fluted
forms (Figure 2 in Basgall 1988). Of these, 20 are chemically
attributed to the immediately adjacent Casa Diablo source. Primary
hydration measurements on most tools ranged from 8 to 12 microns and
averaged 2.6 microns greater than the oldest known Pinto/Little Lake
series points in Long Valley (6 microns) which date to about 6,000
B.P.
The Komodo site measurements in the 8-12 micron range were
translated into a radiocarbon age range of 7,000 to 9,000 B.P. based
on curvilinear hydration rates recently developed for local Casa
Diablo obsidian, and comparisons to micron values of other time
diagnostic point types made from the same volcanic glass in Long
Valley. The source-specific hydration analysis and typological
comparisons were both consistent with an early Holocene age.
Recent work at the Borax Lake obsidian flow in the Clear
Lake-Borax Lake area of California (Fredrickson and White 1988)
suggests that human use of this quarry did not occur until the time
represented by 11 microns. Fluted points and crescents from Borax Lake
F•
231
display hydration rinds averaging 9 microns, while wide-stemmed points
had hydration readings averaging 7.2 microns. Hydration measurements
of flakes from a nearby buried midden lacking time diagnostic tools
(Lak-510) consistently fell between 8.4 and 10.2 microns, well within
the range for Borax Lake fluted points.
At the Mostin site near Clear Lake, obsidian hydration readings
have continued to place assemblages into a credible relative sequence
despite initial discrepancies in radiocarbon dates (Fredrickson and
White 1988). Dates on hearths and human bone collagen ranged from
7,700 to 11,000 B.P., yet hydration readings of 6 microns suggested a
time range of 3,500 to 6,300 B.P., which was consistent with the
recovery of Pinto style points from the site. It was later discovered
that fossil carbonates feeding into Clear Lake were responsible for
radiocarbon dates which were about 4,200 years too old, and this
correction factor moves the site into the same time range indicated by
the obsidian hydration readings and Pinto points.
Obsidian hydration studies by Layton (1970, 1972) indicate that
the large stemmed points associated with Western Stemmed complexes in
the Far West have a temporal range of 10,880 to 7,900 B.P. This range
is well supported by available radiocarbon dates in the Far West
(Table 5), and by results of various typological studies (discussed
below).
Obsidian hydration studies of fluted and stemmed artifacts at the
Dietz site are still in progress (Fagan 1988), but the site holds
tremendous potential for verifying the model of lake history and human
occupation as proposed. This paleoecological model has been tested by
F•
232
other indirect data in the research presented here. If the model is
correct, we should expect to find that the hydration readings for
Clovis (fluted) points at the Dietz site to fall into a distinct
population clearly separable from those of stemmed artifacts in the
northern Alkali Basin.
Similarly, if the proposed lake history reconstruction is
correct, there should be a noticeable difference in the hydration
values for stemmed artifacts located on the stage I shoreline (Sand
Ridge Lake) and Stage II Lakeshore (Lake Delaine). Furthermore, if
some of the other early Holocene sites in the basin are really as
close in time to Western Stemmed as proposed, then the hydration
values of the Cascade, Pinto, Humboldt and large side-notched and
corner-notched points recovered should fall in closely with the values
of stemmed artifacts located on the Stage II (Lake Delaine) shoreline.
Typological Comparisons of Western Clovis Points
to Clovis-Llano Forms
Most Western Clovis sites consist of single isolated specimens
and only seven localities in the Far West have produced major
concentrations of identifiably Clovis artifacts (see Figure 1 and
references in Table 1). These include: (1) 49 points from China Lake,
California; (2) 49 specimens from Tulare Lake, California; (3) 20
points from the Borax Lake and Clear Lake area of California; (4) 58
specimens from the Tonopah Lake and Mud Lake area of Nevada; (5) 21
points from the Sunshine Locality, Nevada; (6) 60 specimens from the
+•
233
Dietz site in Alkali Basin, Oregon; and (7) 14 points from the
recently discovered Richey-Roberts Clovis cache in central Washington.
It must be remembered that no one set of eyes has yet looked upon
all known fluted points recovered from the Far West. However,
published illustrations and technological studies suggest that Western
Clovis points compare favorably with Clovis-Llano types from the
Southwest and Plains in form, size, degree of edge and basal grinding,
channel scratching and refinement of pressure flaking (Haynes 1987).
There is considerable variation in size in Western Clovis points, and
the degree of fluting grades from singly to multiply fluted to basally
thinned, but this falls easily within the expected range of variation
documented for Clovis fluted points elsewhere (Haynes 1982; Wormington
1957) .
One of the major hallmarks which certifies inclusion into the
"Clovis-Llano" complex (Haynes 1980; Sellards 1952) is the presence of
the diagnostic Clovis fluted point. This type has been characterized
by: 1) long, relatively narrow longitudinal flakes removed from both
sides of the biface from a specially prepared platform at the base; 2)
parallel or slightly convex sides and concave bases; 3) flutes usually
extending halfway up the point from base to tip; and 4) lengths
ranging from 4 to 12.5 centimeters (cm), but averaging 7.5 cm (Haynes
1982; Wormington 1957:263). But the presence of variation has always
allowed for much latitude in the definition, including: 1) flutes
removed from only one side, 2) multiple flutes instead of single
channel flakes; 3) flutes extending. the full length of the point; 4)
points made on blades rather than bifaces; and 5) differences in
I~
234
shape, size, edge-grinding and other attributes (Haynes 1982;
Wormington 1957).
Fluted points in North America display a wide range of
variability in size and shape, and the width, length and number of
flutes vary from multiple to single fluting to basally thinned.
Fluting occurs on concave and straight based points, and even stemmed
and shouldered points dating to later time periods. This range in
variation, along with distinct regional styles, has been reported for
assemblages as far distant as interior Alaska (Clark 1984, 1989), the
Maritimes and Great Lakes regions of the Northeast (Keenlyside 1989;
Storck 1984, 1989), Central America (Snarskis 1979; Willey 1966) and
South America (Lynch 1983), and in the Far West as well (see
discussion below).
The range of intra-site variation visible at the Clovis type site
Blackwater Draw, New Mexico -- and at Arizona sites like Naco and
Lehner (see Figures 89 and 90 in Hester et al. 1972:98-99; Figures 3
and 6 in Warnica 1966:349-350; Figures 6-7 in Haury et al. 1953:8-9;
Figures 12-13 in Haury et al. 1959:16-17) can also be seen in fluted
specimens illustrated from 14 Far Western sites (Figures 2 through 5
in Davis and Shutler 1969:164-167). Like other regions, Western Clovis
assemblages need to be firmly dated and large samples studied before
this variation can be properly assessed. But with the exception of the
eared, waisted forms so characteristic of the eastern U.S. (Mason
1962; Meltzer 1988; Willey 1966), most of the observed intra-regional
differences in fluted point assemblages fall within the expected range
of variation for a single pan-continental Clovis cultural complex.
¥235
studies of fluted point collections from Texas, Colorado, New
Mexico, Arizona, California and Virginia reveal that the morphological
variation within individual collections is as great as the variation
between collections (Haynes 1964:1408) . In a recent study by Carl
Phagan, attributes of seven. fluted points from Fort Irwin in the
Mohave Desert, California were subjectively compared to Clovis points
from the Plains, Rocky Mountains and Great Basin. All seven fell
easily within the known range of variation for the Clovis type fluted
point, especially those from the west (Warren and Phagan 1988).
At the Dietz site in the Alkali Lake Basin of Oregon, 60 fluted
point fragments have been recovered, including 12 relatively complete
points, eight midsections, eight base-midsection fragments, four tip
fragments and 28 base fragments (Fagan 1988; Willig 1988). There is a
wide range in size among the 60 point fragments recovered (Figures 3
and 4, Figures 6 through 14). Richard Hughes has noted (1988, personal
communication) that this variety probably reflects the range of
functional or individual variation to be expected from such a large
sample. The measurable length on 14 fluted point fragments from the
Dietz site has a wide spread of 2.7 to 8.5 cm, while basal width
measured from 43 specimens ranges from 1.6 to 4.7 cm, averaging 2.9 cm
wide.
The same wide range in size is visible in specimens reported from
Borax Lake (Harrington 1948) and Tulare Lake in California (Figures 1
and 2 in Riddell and Olsen 1969:121-122) and from the Tonopah and Mud
Lake areas of Nevada (Campbell and Campbell 1940:8; Pendleton 1979;
Figure 3 in Tuohy 1968:30 and Figures 6-7 in Tuohy 1969:172-173). The
•236
range in size is visible in other large assemblages like those
reported from Borax Lake (Harrington 1948) and Tulare Lake in
California (Figures 1 and 2 in Riddell and Olsen 1969:121-122; Wallace
and Riddell 1988) and from Tonopah and Mud Lakes in Nevada (Campbell
and Campbell 1940:8; Pendleton 1979; Figure 3 in Tuohy 1968:30 and
Figures 6 and 7 in Tuohy 1969:172-173).
Recent attribute analysis by Titmus and Woods (1988) of 12 fluted
points from various southern Idaho sites, including the five specimens
from the Simon site cache (Figure 3 in Butler 1963:29; Butler and
Fitzwater 1965; Woods and Titmus 1985), revealed a wide range in
size. There was a definite bimodal distinction in length between the
Simon points (over 18.2 cm long) and all others. The authors suggest
that the large size of these fluted points may reflect their possible
function as grave goods for a Clovis burial, as seems to be the case
at the Anzick site in Montana (Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974). A similar
interpretation may also be made for the Richey-Roberts Clovis cache in
central Washington, where 14 of the largest fluted points known in
North America were recovered, with lengths ranging from 10 to 23 cm
(Mehringer 1988a:500-503, 1989 and Figure 1 in Mehringer 1988b).
Typological Comparisons of Western Clovis Points
to Eastern Fluted Forms
Western Clovis fluted points do not compare well with the more
eared, waisted forms reported from eastern North America. In the
1960's, Mason (1962) and Willey (1966) noted the presence of two
distinct regional styles in North American fluted points, with eared,
237
waisted forms more characteristic in the east, as opposed to the
Clovis-Llano type forms described from the Southwest and Plains.
The evidence suggests that this east-west variation in fluted
point forms is temporally based -- since most fluted points in the
eastern U.S. are relatively late, dating from 10,600 B.P. to 10,200
B.P. (Haynes et al. 1984; Meltzer 1988). Fluted points reported from
Mexico', Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Ecuador display clear affinities to
the waisted, eared eastern North American forms, suggesting that they
are of equal age or even slightly younger (Lynch 1983; Snarskis 1979;
Willey 1966).
Typology of Western Stemmed Points
The large stemmed, shouldered and lanceolate points
characteristic of Western Stemmed complexes include a number of
defined styles such as Windust, Lind Coulee, Birch Creek, Haskett,
Lake Mohave, Silver Lake, Parman, Cougar Mountain, Mt. Moriah, Borax
Lake Wide Stem, and Black Rock or Great Basin Concave Base (see
references in Table 2). Despite this diversity of regional styles,
assemblages from places as distant as northern Mexico and central
Washington share strikingly similar point forms, tool kits and
technology. This suggests that all of these stemmed point complexes
represent one closely related, widespread Western Stemmed cultural
tradition present throughout the Far West from 11,000 to 7,000 B.P.
Alkali Lake Basin research has produced one of the largest,
"purest", and most diverse collections of Western Stemmed point forms
yet reported in the Far West. A total of 91 sites have been found,
238
most of which are located on a higher shoreline which postdates Clovis
occupation at the Dietz site. Of the 48 sites containing time
diagnostic point styles, 30 sites (63%) produced assemblages which are
assignable to the Western stemmed cultural tradition.
A total of 114 classifiable Western Stemmed points have been
recovered which are illustrated here (Figures 16 through 23, and
Appendix C). The major point types, listed on Table 7 in Chapter III,
include Cougar Mountain, Parman, Windust, Lake Mohave, Silver Lake,
Haskett, Cascade, Plano-like concave and Plano-like square-based
points.
In addition, many of the non-projectile point tools represented
at Western Stemmed sites in the northern Alkali Basin are strikingly
similar to those reported from the C. W. Harris site (SDi-149) -- the
type site for San Dieguito (Warren 1967). The variety of scrapers
(ovoid, beaked, flake, end and side), knives, blanks and preforms in
the Dietz sub-basin closely resemble those illustrated by Warren
(1967) and Moratto (1984:98). Recent studies of Western Stemmed
complexes in numerous western lake basins similar to Alkali Lake
suggest that these people were related on a pan-western scale (Willig
et al. 1988).
Historical Relationship of Western Clovis
and Western Stemmed Cultures
Technological Distinctions
In recent years, scholars conducting technological studies in the
Far West have reported distinguishing fluted from stemmed assemblages
bz
239
based on differences in tool kits (assemblage structure and
variability), reduction sequences and flaking techniques. Work in this
area at the Dietz site has been conducted and reported by Fagan
(1984a, 1984b, 1986/ 1988). The research involved comparative
technological analysis of tools and debitage sampled from separate
lithic clusters at the site which have produced Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed artifacts.
Fagan concluded that tool kits, manufacturing techniques and
methods of platform preparation for biface production were strikingly
different for fluted and stemmed point clusters, suggesting that
cultural, and possibly temporal, differences exist between the two
assemblages (Fagan 1984a, 1988). Pendleton (1979) has reached similar
conclusions from analysis of Lake Tonopah materials.
Pendleton's analysis of fluted and unfluted concave based points
and stemmed forms from Lake Tonopah revealed marked differences in
reduction sequences and manufacturing techniques between the two
assemblages. Concave based points exhibited a higher degree of
refinement in every stage of manufacture, with a greater degree of
pressure flaking and technological control. Techno-morphological
comparisons were made of seven fluted points and 40 Lake Mojave/Silver
Lake points from Fort Irwin, California by Warren and Phagan (1988)/
especially regarding flake scar attributes. In all observations, the
fluted points displayed production technologies which were
substantially different from those of the stemmed points, suggesting
different cultural development.
bs
240
These distinctions have been interpreted by Bryan (1979, 1980,
1988) as support for the contention that the Western Stemmed tradition
is distinct from, but contemporary with Clovis, and that Western
Stemmed may be the more ancient of the two. Wallace and Riddell (1988)
have recently stated that the observed differences in style and
technology between Clovis, Lake Mohave and Pinto assemblages from
Tulare Lake, California suggest three separate immigrations of
unrelated cultures from outside the lake basin.
An alternative explanation would be that Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed assemblages represent similar cultural and
technological patterns at two different points in time. This latter
interpretation is best supported by the archaeological, stratigraphic
and paleoenvironmental data recovered through Alkali Basin research.
In order to make possible an informed choice between these
alternatives, the temporal and functional relationship of the Western
Clovis and Western Stemmed complexes must be demonstrated by other
means.
A Continuum of Radiocarbon Dates: The Significance of
Temporal Overlap
Western Stemmed assemblages have been recovered in buried context
from a number of cave sites throughout the Far West, and most of these
have produced radiocarbon dates. The compilation of dates presented in
Table 5 for Western Stemmed sites, the most comprehensive so far, was
based on a rigorous selection of the available dates, to avoid
potential problem of stratigraphic disturbance. Only dates from buried
241
features or materials directly associated with well defined stemmed
and shouldered points have been included.
The dates in Table 5 indicate that Western Stemmed complexes are
spread across a broad time range from 11,140 to 7,000 B.P.; and when
the dates are graphed in chronological order, rather than by site,
their distribution through time is remarkably even (Figure 65).
Furthermore, when the dates for Southwestern Clovis points (Table 3)
are graphed together with those for Western Stemmed points (Table 5),
the temporal overlap of Western Stemmed and Clovis is striking.
If Western Clovis and Western Stemmed complexes are indeed
historically related, a certain amount of temporal overlap would be
inherent (Carlson 1988; Willig 1989). The earliest Western Sten~ed
date (11,140 B.P.) from Smith Creek Cave (Bryan 1979) is about 500
years older than the youngest Clovis date of 10,620 B.P. from the
Lehner site (Haynes et al. 1984), and 350 years older than the date of
10,810 B.P. from Marmes Rockshelter (Tables 3 and 5; Figure 65).
There is a narrow temporal overlap documented between Clovis and
Folsom complexes in the Plains (Haynes et al. 1984), indicating that
the transition from Clovis to Folsom must have been brief (Haynes
1964:1410). The above dates suggest that this temporal overlap is also
present in the Far West between Clovis and Stemmed occupations. The
stratigraphic context of fluted and stemmed points in the northern
Alkali Basin strongly suggest that Western Stemmed complexes follow
directly from, and soon after, Western Clovis complexes in the Far
West.
7K IITTd-
12K~---- II
9K I
I _TTl
___~:--ftl¥tII
11K I I .tIfT IHUHHILIllllf: Inli --------------iI~------10K ';'
l"lGllRE: 6~. Radiocarbon Dates tor Western Stemmed CompJexes Graphed in
ChronologicaJ Order. Dates to right ot dashed Jine trom
TabJe 5. Dates to lett ot dashed line trom Table 3,
except tor starred dates which are trol1l Table 4.
(K = 1'housands ot Years Ago)
tv
"""tv
...
243
A Continuum of Typological Change: The Significance of
Transitional Fluted and Stemmed Point Forms
at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary
The technological studies discussed above, in conjunction with
the available radiocarbon dates (Tables 3, 4, 5 and Figure 65),
suggest that fluted and stemmed point complexes are separable in time,
and that Western Stemmed most likely developed out of Western Clovis
-- indicating a historical relationship that is further supported by
typology. The typology of early Far Western fluted and stemmed
assemblages could be interpreted as representing a complete temporal
continuum of forms, with fluted Clovis grading into fluted and
unfluted basally thinned, concave based and stemmed and shouldered
styles of later Archaic periods (Aikens 1978; Willig 1989).
As mentioned above, many scholars have reported a wide variation
in size in western fluted point assemblages, with the degree of
fluting grading from singly to multiply fluted, to basally thinned.
As pointed out by Aikens (1978), this "continuum" of gradual blending
from fluted into stemmed points and later forms is well documented
from dated sequences in the Plains and Southwest (Frison 1978; Frison
and Stanford 1982; Haynes 1964, 1980), where Clovis gives rise to
Folsom and Plano forms. Such temporally significant transitional forms
are exemplified by the Goshen complex on the Plains (Frison 1978,
1989) .
Keenlyside (1989) has reported the gradual blending of styles in
the transition between the Pa1eoindian and Archaic periods in the
Maritimes region. In Great Lakes region, Storck (1984, 1989) has
244
proposed a similar sequence with the Gainey-Parkhill-Crowfield
complexes, based on technological and stylistic comparisons,
thermoluminescence dating and geological associations. Similar
gradational continuua have been noted by scholars in Central and South
America, where fluted points often co-occur with both fluted and
unfluted versions of stemmed fishtail or Magellan points which have a
time range of 11,000-10,000 B.P. (Lynch 1983).
The fluted point forms from many sites in Central and South
America seem to grade into the stemmed forms, with many transitional
forms occurring inbetween (Figures 3.5 and 3.6 in Lynch 1983; Figures
2 and 3 in Snarskis 1979). Of the 18 fluted points recovered from the
Turrialba site in Costa Rica, some resemble western Clovis (Type 2:
Figure 2a,c), some resemble the waisted, eared Eastern forms (Type 1:
Figures 2d, 2e, 3b) and one resembles a fluted version of stemmed
fishtail or Magellan points.
If Western Clovis and Stemmed complexes in the Far West are
historically related and slightly overlap in time, in the same way as
Clovis-Folsom-Plano points do on the Plains, we should expect to find
"transitional forms" which would reflect this (Carlson 1988; Willig
1989). As a matter of fact, many early Far Western complexes are rich
in examples of intermediate forms which might reflect a historical
continuum (see Figures 21 through 23).
Carlson (1988) suggests that more detailed typological studies be
undertaken to explore this hypothesis and discusses three point forms
in particular which could mark this· transition in the Far West. One of
these includes Black Rock Concave Based forms in the west (Clewlow
.,..
245
1968) and a second category includes specimens that are both fluted
and stemmed. In fact, many of the unnamed forms described above could
be considered transitional types between fluted and stemmed, or
between stemmed and later forms.
Pendleton's (1979) analysis of 108 fluted and unfluted
concave-based and stemmed points from Lake Tonopah revealed that they
ranged in a continuum from typical fluted Clovis forms to unfluted
basally thinned forms, with many transitional forms in between. All of
the points studied were basally thinned while only 38 (35%) were
fluted. Similar continua can be deduced from other major fluted point
assemblages in the west. Of the 30 Tulare Lake points described by
Riddell and Olsen (1969), 12 are unifacially fluted, eight are
bifacially fluted and seven are basally thinned. Of the 20 Borax Lake
finds, 14 are bifacially fluted and two are unifacially fluted
(Fredrickson and White 1988; Harrington 1948; Meighan and Haynes
1970) .
Some, if not most, of the "basally thinned" concave based points
from the Komodo site in California closely resemble fluted points
reported in the Far West. Of the 45 points, 88% are edge ground, 55%
are basally ground and 77% are basally thinned -- 16% unifacially and
61% bifacially (Basgall 1988). A similar gradational continuum of
fluted into stemmed forms seems to be present in a large assemblage
described from Coyote Flat, Oregon (Figures 3 and 4 in Butler
1970:46-47) .
246
Testing the Hypothesis of Transitional Forms
in the Alkali Lake Basin
In the Alkali Lake Basin, data produced by basin-wide
stratigraphic studies and stadia mapping suggested that Western
stemmed occupation in the northern sub-basin actually consisted of a
two-stage settlement corresponding to a two-stage sequence of a
prograding (or possibly retrograding) lake. The majority of Western
stemmed artifacts are associated with a higher shoreline at 1316.2 m
elevation, but a smaller subset of stemmed artifacts are distributed
in close association with a slightly lower shoreline at 1315.4 m
eJevation. It was not certain whether there was a prograding
(lakeward), or retrograding (shoreward) lake sequence involved. But
regardless of the direction in time, there was still sequent time
represented.
The demonstration of two sequent lake stages for Western Stemmed
occupations throughout the northern Alkali Lake Basin, clearly
post-dating Clovis occupation there, afforded a unique opportunity to
test the hypothesis of transitional projectile point forms at the
Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. Two basic groups of transitional forms
were identified: (1) those forms intermediate between Western Stemmed
and early stages of Humboldt, Pinto, Elko-eared and Side-notched
occupations; and (2) those forms intermediate between fluted and
stemmed points at the Dietz site.
r247
Transitional Forms Between Western Stemmed and Early Stages of
Humboldt/Pinto Occupation in the Alkali Lake Basin
One group of points in the northern Alkali Lake Basin, referred
to as small (WS-8) and large (WS-6) transitional stemmed points
(Figures 18 and Appendix C) displayed affinities with early forms of
Pinto, Elko eared and Northern Side-notched points (Figures 24 through
26 and Appendix C). Although~the sample was small, all of the
~~-
so-called late-period points recovered in the basin seemed to lean
more towards "early-late".
These Humboldt/Pinto and large notched forms most resemble what
is now referred to as the early stage in these point types (8,000 to
6,000 B.P.) as opposed to the later stage (such as 6,000 to 4,500
B.P.) (Hanes 1988a, 1988b; Holmer 1978, 1986; Layton 1970). This
possibility was supported at one site (Site No. 13) by the presence of
a Cascade point a type dated from 8,000 to 7,000 B.P. on the
Plateau (Leonhardy and Rice 1970; Rice 1972) in association with
several of the above-mentioned "early" forms of side-notched points.
Transitional Forms Between Fluted and Stemmed Points in the Alkali
Lake Basin
As suggested by Carlson (1988), one of the best candidates for a
transitional category between Western Clovis and Western Stemmed point
types is the Black Rock Concave Base point (Clewlow 1968), and several
of these have been found at the Dietz site (Figure 21 a-c). Likewise,
a second group of points recovered from the Dietz site could be
interpreted as somewhat fluted points, or as somewhat stemmed points.
248
This situation is well-illustrated by the two points shown in
Figure 66. The clearly fluted but distinctly shouldered point (Figure
66b) reported by Mack (1975:79) from the Glass Buttes survey,
conducted just a few miles north of Alkali Basin is, an intriguing
form intermediate between a fluted and stemmed Windust point and a
weakly shouldered Clovis type. Bedwell (1970, 1973) has identified
several concave-based, basally-thinned points from the Fort Rock cave
sites as being "fluted" (Figure 5).
The base fragment illustrated in Figure 66a was recovered from
Level 29 of Connley Cave #5B (Figure 6 in Bedwell 1970:266; Figure 16
in Bedwell 1973:78) and defined by Bedwell as a multiply fluted point
b/'
type (P-14). The Dietz site has produced some multip~y fluted base
!
fragments like this (Figures 13a and 14i; also #553-3 and #553-6). But
forms like these could also represent Windust bases, as suggested by
the slight shoulders on the base fragment in Figure 66a.
Since seeing is believing, I have included in this report a
full-scale illustration of every potentially time-diagnostic point
type recovered through the Alkali Basin research. In particular, the
reader should refer to Figures 22 through 23 and Appendix C. These
show excellent examples of point forms intermediate between Western
Clovis and Western Stemmed.
~
I
249
a.
eM
b.
FIGURE 66. Unique Fluted and Stemmed Point Forms: a. Base
Fragment from Level 29 of Connley Cave #5B
(35 LK 50/5; 513-29/3-1); and b. Fluted and
Shouldered Point Recovered in the Glass Buttes
Survey (35 LK 326/1)
250
Results of Testing Transitional Forms in the Alkali Basin
The Alkali Lake Basin was an excellent opportunity to test the
hypothesis of transitional forms because the sample of early Holocene
point types was so "pure" and so large. In addition, detailed
comparisons could be made of the basin-wide distribution and elevation
of key artifacts -- in relation to each other, and to the sequent lake
levels and occupation surfaces established by the research. Western
Stemmed assemblages were by far the best represented in the basin,
providing a large sample of previously described types, as well as
numerous candidates for "transitional" forms.
When the location and elevation of the various Western Stemmed
point types were plotted and compared, results indicated that some
artifacts of each type were represented at both of the lake levels
(Sand Ridge Lake and Lake Delaine) reconstructed for the time of
Stemmed-period occupation (Figure 67). There was a greater density of
artifacts on the higher shoreline at 1316 m elevation, but
representative samples of all point types were still represented on
the lower shoreline at 1315.4 m elevation as well.
This was true even for the small (WS-8) and large (WS-6)
transitional stemmed forms that had been separately grouped for the
test. The only exceptions were Parman and Cougar Mountain types, which
were exclusive to the higher shoreline. If the hypothesis of a
prograding lake sequence is correct, then Cougar Mountain and Parman
types have been demonstrated to be earlier in time than other Western
Stemmed points in the Dietz sub-basin. The hypothesis of transitional
~ .
CAWS8 PSPC
WS7WS6WS4WS9WSSWS1
131
WS2/3
1321
1319
Elev.(ml ~'IGURE 67: 'l'wo-peak Shorel:ine Distr ibution of Western stemmed
Point Types by Elevation at the Dietz Site t'~
(J;
j---'
/252
forms was not really verified in this case, but some finer temporal
resolution was provided for certain Western Stemmed point types.
Three lanceolate, concave base points, referable to Black Rock
Concave Base type (Clewlow 1968) were distributed across the full
range of possible occupation surfaces at the Dietz site (Figure 21
a-c). One point in particular (#553-187), displayed the classic shape
and form of a fluted point, but was unfluted. It is strikingly similar
to the one recovered from the lowest occupation levels in Ventana
Cave, Arizona which has been dated to 11,300±1200 B.P. (A-203) (Haury
and Hayden 1975).
Haury notes that the Ventana Cave point is made of material which
would not have permitted successful fluting, and that its manufacture
from a thin flake may have been a way to make up for this deficiency
(Haury 1950:180). However, the possibility still exists that these
concave-based forms belong to Western Stemmed assemblages or may be
transitional forms which fall between Clovis and Stemmed. At the Dietz
site, the Ventana look-alike was found in the very center of the zone
of overlap between fluted and stemmed points.
Finally, all three Windust points recovered at the Dietz site
(#553-27, #553-29, #553-72) were found along the lower Stemmed period
shoreline (Lake Delaine), suggesting that Windust may be later in time
(Figure 17 c-d). Results of other research in the northern Great Basin
suggest that Windust points are generally later than other stemmed
point types. This is indicated by the work of Layton (1970, 1979), by
excavations at Dirty Shame Rockshelter, Oregon (Hanes 1988a, 1988b)
253
and by excavations at Skull Creek Dunes Locality #1 (35 HA 412) in
Catlow Valley, Oregon (Beck 1984; Jones 1984; Mehringer and Wigand
1986; Wilde 1985).
A Continuum of Technological Change: A Hafting Tradition Model
The hafting tradition model first suggested by Bryan (1980), and
developed along different lines by Musil (1988), offers a compelling
explanation for the observed technological changes through time from
Western Clovis to Western Stemmed, based on functional efficiency of
haft element designs. Musil presents a model of three major,
sequential hafting traditions for North America: (1) the fluted and
lanceolate point, hafted by a split-shaft technique; (2) the stemmed
point, hafted by a socketing technique; and (3) the notched point,
hafted by a split-shaft technique.
The model proposed by Musil is based on the supposition that each
new point form was part of a hafting tradition which offered distinct
advantages over preceding forms. The improvements rendered the tools
more efficient as killing implements, minimized point damage, allowed
for more efficient re-use of broken points, and minimized damage to
the most "expensive" item the wooden shaft.
From this perspective, changes in point forms through time from
fluted to stemmed to notched types are not seen as representing
different cultural traditions or unique environmental adaptations, but
rather as changes in haft element designs which were functionally more
efficient than preceding forms (Musil 1988). This model also offers an
explanation for the presence of striking similarities in assemblages
l254
which are far distant in space or time, without invoking direct
cultural contact.
Age and Historic Relationship of Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed Cultures: Conclusions
There is much we still do not know about Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed cultures in the Far West, but the technological
studies discussed above indicate that fluted and stemmed complexes are
separable. Alkali Basin research has addressed these issues through
stratigraphic cross-correlation studies, paleolandscape reconstruction
and basin-wide site survey and mapping of artifacts (Chapter III). The
detailed mapping and stratigraphic studies of fluted and stemmed
points recovered in the Alkali Lake Basin (Chapter III) and other
western lake basins (Campbell 1949; Campbell and Campbell 1940;
Pendleton 1979) have demonstrated that the two complexes have separate
horizontal and vertical distributions on sequent lake terraces. The
data strongly suggest that Western Clovis occupation precedes that of
Western Stemmed in Far Western North America, although the two follow
closely in time.
The available radiocarbon dates in the Far West, in conjunction
with obsidian hydration studies, (Tables 3, 4, 5 and Figure 65)
further suggest that this separation is temporally based. The implied
historical relationship between Clovis and Stemmed cultures is further
supported by typological studies, which suggest that Far Western
complexes at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary represent a complete
..
255
temporal continuum between Western Clovis (fluted) and the gradually
diversifying forms of Western Stemmed and early Archaic complexes.
/
oVBaselon these data, it can be hypothesized that the earliest
Western Stemmed complexes, appearing about 11,000-10,000 B.P., are
local developments out of a brief but ancestral Western Clovis
presence. A similar sequence can be seen with Folsom and Eastern
fluted points, dating from 11,000-10,000 B.P., developing out of an
earlier pan-continental Clovis presence dating from 11,500-11,000 B.P.
This sequence may also come to be demonstrated at sites in Central and
South America as well.
Reconstructing the Paleoeconomy and Adaptive Strategies of
Far Western Cultures at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary
Buried sites producing radiocarbon dates and economic data like
subsistence remains (seeds, bones and shell) and perishable artifacts
directly related to specific economic pursuits (fishing hooks, nets,
spears and traps) are extremely rare in the Far Western archaeological
record from 11,000 to 8,000 B.P. (Aikens 1983a). Without such data,
reconstructions of adaptive strategies must remain tentative and
should be tested against indirect data from other sources.
In the absence of such direct data, however, there is much that
can be learned about prehistoric adaptive strategies through studies
of site distribution, settlement pattern and geomorphic context in
relation to the paleolandscape and its resource constraints. From
these data we can make inferences about past human land use patterns,
256
paleoeconomy and adaptation, thereby building a fuller
characterization of Western Clovis and Western Stemmed lifeways.
Alkali Lake Basin research has sought to reconstruct the Clovis and
Stemmed-era landscapes and lake history, and to determine the context
and pattern of occupation surfaces upon that landscape.
Paleoenvironmental Context of Clovis and Stemmed Period
Sites in Western Lake Basins
In the Far West, sites yielding Western Clovis and Western
Stemmed assemblages are not exclusively associated with fossil lakes
and marshes, but are known from a diverse range of environmental
settings including coastal, montane and lowland valley zones (Aikens
1983b; Beck and Jones 1988; Fagan 1974; Fagan and Sage 1974; Price and
Johnston 1988; Zancanella 1988). Nevertheless, the majority of sites
containing significant concentrations of fluted and stemmed points are
in pluvial lake basins, where they are situated along the lowest
strandlines once occupied by shallow lakes, marshes and stream-fed
. deltas during the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene.
Authors like Beck and Jones (1988) caution, of course, against
the mental transformation of lakeside artifact distributions into
statements on subsistence patterns without testing these statements
against regional studies of land use, large scale mapping and site
surveys, and analysis of functional and technological variability
within assemblages. But this observed patterning is unlikely to be
simply a factor of sampling bias because some fairly large portions of
the Far West have now been archaeologically surveyed. In addition to
257
Alkali Lake Basin, large scale site surveys have been conducted along
the lower shorelines in Tonopah Basin, Nevada (Campbell and Campbell
1940; Kelly 1978); Butte Valley, Nevada (Beck and Jones 1988), China
Lake, California (Davis 1978a, 1978b) and, to a lesser extent, in
Railroad Valley, Nevada (Zancanella 1988).
In California, lake basins investigated include Borax and Clear
Lakes (Fredrickson and White 1988), Long Valley (Basgall 1988), Tulare
Lake (Wallace and Riddell 1988) and the Mohave Desert region (Douglas
et al. 1988; Warren and Phagan 1988). In Nevada, coverage includes
Pyramid Lake (Dansie et al. 1988; Tuohy 1988a), Lake Tonopah, Lake
Hubbs and the Carson River Basin (Hutchinson 1988; Tuohy 1988b), as
well as Newark, Jakes, steptoe, Railroad and Butte Valleys (Beck and
Jones 1988; Price and Johnston 1988; Zancanella 1988).
In Oregon, lake basin research began early with work by Cressman
(1936, 1942) and others (Cressman et al. 1940). More recently, studies
include: (1) the Fort Rock and Chewaucan Basins (Beckham et al. 1979;
Bedwell 1970, 1973; Greenspan 1985; Minor and Spencer 1977; Minor et
al. 1979; Oetting 1989; Pettigrew 1981; Toepel et al. 1980); (2)
Alvord and Catlow Basins (Beck 1984; Cannon and Wiggin 1975; Jones
1984; Pettigrew 1984; Wilde 1985); (3) Harney-Malheur Basin (Gehr
1980; Greenspan 1985) and (4) Warner Valley (Weide 1968, 1974).
The paleoenvironmental contexts and site distributions reported
from these western lake basins offer valuable inferential evidence for
the kinds of ecological constraints or potentials which would have
existed during Western Clovis and Western Stemmed occupations in the
Far West. The hydrographic and geomorphic settings of sites producing
258
major concentrations of fluted and stemmed artifacts suggest that
these particular locations in each basin would have been excellent
places for containing reliable food and water resources that could
have supported local human groups at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary
(Willig 1989). In almost every case, the inferred paleogeomorphic
settings of sites include stream-fed deltaic marshes and shallow lakes
or ponds which would have offered a variety of both riparian and
littoral vegetation as well as fresh drinking water for both humans
and the game they would have hunted.
At Tulare Lake, California, the Witt site is located at 59 m
elevation (192 feet) along the southern shore north of Dudley Ridge
5 m lower than the 64 m shoreline occupied by late Archaic groups
(Riddell and Olsen 1969; Wallace and Riddell 1988). There is a
well-defined 56 m shoreline below the Witt site outlining a water body
which would have held about 1.5 to 2 m of water (Willig 1989).
Early sites along the northeastern shore of Tonopah Lake, Nevada
are located where water would have been shallowest, with the
constantly shifting channels of Peavine Creek producing a rich deltaic
marshland area (Campbell and Campbell 1940; Kelly 1978; Pendleton
1979; Tuohy 1988b). As the lake became progressively more saline,
post-Clovis occupation shifted to the north with greater use of
riverine settings (Kelly 1978). A well-defined lower strandline at
1445 m elevation in the Tonopah basin probably bounded a lake which
was 1.5 to 3 m deep during Clovis time (Willig 1989).
The 12 Sunshine Well Locality sites in Long Valley, Nevada would
have been situated at the juncture of three habitats (streamside, lake
259
margin and swamp edge) which would have prevailed just after the major
recession of Pluvial Lake Hubbs (Hutchinson 1988; Tuohy 1988b). The
largest and most productive sites (Sites 3A-B-C) are located near the
overflow point of a narrow stream channel where it would have
discharged into the shallow lake. Beyond this point, the water would
have spread out to form a marsh interspersed with low dunes and sand
spits (Hutchinson 1988). Such a well-watered habitat would have
supported a rich zone of littoral vegetation (grasses, willows,
rosewood), with abundant fish, fowl and other lake margin resources.
In Railroad Valley, Nevada (Zancanella 1988), early sites are
located in the northern part of the basin on relict alluvial fans and
flats, lake terraces and beach berms that are heavily dissected by a
once-active network of braided, perennial stream channels, which would
have fed into pluvial Lake Railroad located ten miles further south.
If well-watered, these areas would have supported juniper-pine patches
and corridors of riparian plants, surrounded by extensive marshes and
a mosaic of rushes, sedges, tules, reeds and grasses. The distribution
of fluted and stemmed-era sites in relation to these paleohabitats
suggests an orientation to lake, marsh and riparian resources.
In Butte Valley, Nevada (Beck and Jones 1988), detailed mapping
of early sites and systematic regional survey of both upland and
lowland tracts helped to identify basin-wide land use patterns.
Western Stemmed sites were not solely associated with prominent
shorelines (some were on the edges of stream channels and alluvial
terraces well above lakeshores), but all of them were found
exclusively at lower elevations on the valley floor.
260
There is much we can learn from the distribution and geomorphic
context of major Western Clovis and Western Stemmed sites in relation
to the paleolandscape, even from the broadest of parameters. Results
from the above mentioned investigations of surface sites or shallow
deposits in numerous western pluvial lake basins have greatly
increased our knowledge and understanding of Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed culture and lifeways in the Far West. But few studies
have incorporated detailed contextual mapping in relation to
paleo-lake history in these western lake basins.
Paleoenvironmental Context of Clovis and Stemmed Period
Sites in the Alkali Lake Basin
In Alkali Lake Basin, Oregon, extensive site survey, mapping,
surface collection and stratigraphic study of fossil lake features has
helped to reconstruct early human settlement patterns and lake history
in the basin at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary (Chapter III). The
evidence suggests a terminal Pleistocene (Clovis) occupation at the
Dietz site oriented to a small, shallow lake (Lake Koko) and marsh in
the center of the Dietz sub-basin (Figure 34). This was followed by a
substantial settlement of Western Stemmed groups along the shorelines
of two larger, and closely sequent, shallow lakes which covered large
portions of the northern Alkali Lake Basin (Figure 35). The 1316 m
Sand Ridge Lake hypothesized for the earliest Western Stemmed
occupation in the basin (Stage I) is supported by a radiocarbon date
of 9,610±100 B.P. (AA-3932) on charcoal from a buried cultural
occupation surface and paleosol at the Tucker Site (Site No. 65).
L261
Hydrologic and Paleogeographic Parameters
Like the paleogeographic settings of other early sites in the
western lake basins discussed above, the presence of
ecologically-productive shallow lakes and marshes during Clovis and
Stemmed occupations is strongly suggested by the Alkali Basin
research. First of all, the northern sub-basin profile and topography,
shallow, wide and well-drained, would have been well suited for marsh
development. Small rises in water would have filled large areas with
shallow standing water. Based on observations of the lack of
accumulated salts and chemicals in the sedimentary deposits in the
basin, Jonathan O. Davis has suggested that the northern Alkali
sub-basin has been leaking groundwater to the south, or leaking
surficial water through the sandy terraces which divide the
sub-basins.
This possibility is best illustrated by a south-to-north profile
across greater Alkali Lake Basin, from the highly chemical southern
sub-basin, to the Dietz site (Figures 68 and 69). The northern
sub-basin, where the Dietz site is located, is much higher in
elevation than the central and southern sub-basins, and the
paleohydrological connections hypothesized by Davis may very well have
existed. If so, the northern sub-basin would have been constantly'
flushed fresh of chemicals and precipitates, especially in more mesic
times when the large drainage due west of the Dietz site was more
active.
SCALE
o 4
..' _..I==__--"==" miles
Alkali Lake Basin:
North to - south profile
(A - A')
I-~
;- ,
('Or... I I/ ,... ,
" -...
" ...\ \,
,...-,-) \,
, )
h ~J J~A_/ ~, C"\" -....(\ \
r' A < "\\ \(', \
I )
; 1 I) , I
,... \ 1
> \ \
<" I \
J / ''\
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(" I "'\ ~, r
'I ,;_)
<...",- .... -.... I bu(~~ [
l I ~b ,
-i l
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/~ I
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I (
~~ I
r-" '\ (
l, \. \
\ .... -.... -
I '\.f- '-" .... - - \,
.:l \
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,/ ,
I I--~
, I
1 I
\ '- oJ/ -~7 r
, , I
\., L-(I
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....... '-./, -,,-""
" ,I'"" - I/-'~~/I drainage boundary
I ,. --- for &ach sub-basin{ [ I I~ I extant water bodies
V " " I~ I 4330Y4320' contours
'I I > __IDietz site hill
\. ,,)
'/
o 5
L.J L.J kilometers
FIGURE 68. Location and Hydrological Setting of the Dietz Site
in the Northern Alkali Lake Sub-basin, Showing the
Location of the North-south Profile (A - A') in
Figure 69
262
North
A
ALKALI LAKE BAS1N: NORTH-SOUTH PROF1LE
(A-A')
South
A
l
1316'
northern
- - - - sub-basin
SCALE 4
o I mile.!
o 5
L... .......I kilomelon
central
- .ub-ba.in
north alkali
10k.
7 X'i vertical
exaggeration
-If----.outhern.ub-ba.in
alkali 10k.
1300
1360
1335
1311
.leYation
Iw1as
FIGURE 69. Basin-wide North-south Profile Across Greater Alkali Lake
Basin, Showing Hydrological Setting of the Dietz Site in
the Northern Sub-basin as Compared to the Central and
Southern Sub-basins
tv
0'\
(..oj
264
Additionally, when the drainage divides for the three major
sub-basins are examined, it is apparent that the drainage area/lake
surfaGe ratio for the northern sub-basin was at least 20 times greater
than those for the central and southern sub-basins. With a lake level
at 1323 m elevation (Figure 32), the drainage area/lake ratio for the
central sub-basin is 3 to 1, and the ratio for the southern sub-basin
is even less, at 2 to 1. This greater ratio for the northern sub-basin
suggests that, all else being equal, the Dietz sub-basin would have
been the best candidate for containing, and maintaining, a reliable
source of water in the terminal Pleistocene.
Paleoecological Parameters of Fossil Remains
Some paleoecological information is available for the northern
Alkali Lake Basin from identification of lake-marsh micro-fossils
recovered from lake deposits associated with Clovis and Stemmed-era
occupation surfaces. Faunal remains recovered from Unit 2 in the East
Shore Trench (Locality 1) included small and large bones and fish
scales. The grey ashy loam comprising Unit 2 represents the first
shallow lake deposits in the basin following pluvial deep-lake
conditions. The flake-bearing lakebed silts which lie immediately
above Unit 2, at 1314.6 m to 1314.8 m elevation, are hypothesized as
representing a buried Clovis-age occupation surface.
One large bone fragment from Unit 2 was identified by Amy Dansie
of the Nevada State Museum (1987, personal communication) and by
Dr. S. David Webb of the Florida State Museum (1989, personal
communication). Both scholars agreed that the bone was too fragmentary
265
for a species-level identification, but that it did represent the limb
bone of a large terrestrial mammal, in the ungulate family of grazers,
which could include horse, bison or camelid.
Other smaller bones from Unit 2 were identified as frog and fresh
water fish by Dr. Ruth L. Greenspan of Oregon's Heritage Research
Associates (1985, personal communication) and by Dr. Gerald R. Smith
of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (1989, personal
communication). In particular, Smith noted that two species of fish
were represented: (1) the ceratohyal of Chasmistes breviroseris of the
Catastomid family (suckers); and (2) the tooth of Gila bicolor, or tui
chub, of the Cyprinidae family (minnows).
Greenspan (1985) has noted that the habitat range for Gila
bicolor (tui chub) is too broad and unspecialized to be useful in
paleoenvironmental reconstruction; but the parameters for Chasmistes
~ are slightly more informative. The latter species are primarily
known as bottom feeders in the colder, deeper lakes of the pluvial
period (Smith 1989, personal communication). The above data suggest
the presence of shallow lake conditions in the northern Alkali Lake
Basin just prior to Clovis occupation. This lake would have scoured
the surface of older deep-water lakebed sediments, thereby
incorporating fragments of cold, deep-water microfossils and late
Pleistocene faunal remains into its deposits.
The Western Stemmed period paleosol at the Tucker Site (Locality
2) has been radiocarbon dated to 9,610±100 B.P. (AA-3932). The
cultural deposits here produced numerous charred bones which were
identified on a general level as small-to-medium mammals, probably
266
rabbit, and some birds (Susanne J. Miller: Faunal Analysis Services,
Idaho Falls, personal communication 1989). The bones provide indirect
evidence for a diet which may have included small mammals and
waterfowl, and further excavation is needed at this locality to obtain
a larger sample of faunal remains, especially in association with
cultural features and time-diagnostic point types.
Several gastropod shells were sampled from the structured lakebed
silts which occur just below the Stemmed-era paleosol at the Tucker
site. This silt-loam deposit may actually comprise the B-horizon of
the paleosol (Figure 57). The gastropod shells were identified by
Dr. Terrence J. Frest (Burke Museum, Seattle) as representing two
different species: Oxyloma nuttalliana (Lea 1841) and Catinella avara
(Say 1824). Both species are marsh-dwelling forms which cannot
tolerate fully aquatic or fully terrestrial conditions. Living at the
edges of wet springs, shallow lakes or marshes, they attach themse]ves
to the surfaces of Scirpus ~ (bulrush) or Typha ~ (cattail). Their
short lifespan of one year requires the presence of water year-round,
or at least during the fall and spring. Both species are known today
from The Dalles and Malheur Lake areas in Oregon.
Species of Catinella can tolerate much drier conditions than
those of Oxyloma, but the presence of both species indicates
relatively warm, shallow water conditions just prior to or during the
first phase of Western Stemmed occupation in the basin from 10,000 to
9,500 B.P. In contrast, colder, full pluvial conditions would be
indicated by recovery of the corresponding colder-water forms known
267
from these genera; i.e. Oxyloma retusa and Catinella gelida (Frest,
personal communication 1989).
Implications of Alkali Basin Lake History: How "neo" is the
"Neopluvial"?
Alkali Lake Basin research has revealed the presence of four
distinct sets of lake features in the basin which apparently postdate
the last pluvial highstand represented by Lake Kevin (1320.8 m) and
predate the onset of fully Altithermal conditions by 5,000
B.P. (Chapter III). The proposed lake sequence includes: (1) a shallow
lake at 1314.8 m elevation (Lake Koko) associated with Clovis
occupation from 11,500 to 11,000 B.P.; (2) two closely sequent lake
levels associated with Western stemmed occupation: the 1316 m Sand
Ridge Lake dating from 10,000 to 9,500 B.P., and the 1315.4 m Lake
Delaine dating from 8,500 to 8,000 B.P.; and (3) a post-occupational,
transgressive lake at 1318 m (Big Cut Lake) occurring after the
eruption of Mt. Mazama, about 6,500 B.P.
The data further indicate that the northern Alkali Lake Basin was
not a place of choice after 7,000 B.P. and remained relatively dry
until recent time. There is a conspicuous lack of cultural materials
dating to time periods later than 6,000 B.P., and no evidence
whatsoever for the presence of lake rises during the so-called
"Neopluvial" period (4,500 to 3,000 B.P.) reported by Allison (1979,
1982) in the neighboring Fort Rock Basin.
This incongruence between the two basins was puzzling, because
Alkali Basin research strongly suggests a long history of synchronous
-268
lake level fluctuations between these two basins (Chapter III). How
was it possible that the two neighboring basins could share such a
close correspondence in lake history for the last 12,000 years or
more, and be so disjunct in the last 2500 years?
It may be hypothesized, based on the Alkali Basin research, that
one of the three low-relief beach ridges described by Allison
(1979:54) in the "Hand Area" of the Fort Rock Basin may correspond to
the Big Cut Lake reconstructed in the Alkali Lake Basin. Allison notes
that the Fort Rock Basin ridges contain secondary deposits of Mazama
pumice sands and must therefore postdate the 6,800 B.P. eruption. But
this does not necessarily mean that these lake levels must be as young
as 4,000 to 3,000 B.P. In fact, it may be that all three of Allison's
"Hand Area" lakes are of early Holocene age. These suggestions are
intriguing and should be further investigated. Ongoing work in the
Fort Rock Basin by Mehringer (1983) and others should provide valuable
insights into these possibilities.
Lithic Sourcing Studies and Mobility Patterns of Clovis and
Stemmed Period Sites in the Far West
There is much work yet to be done on lithic sourcing of early
assemblages in the Far West, but this data base is growing. There is a
definite preference reported for CCS at fluted point sites in southern
Idaho (Titmus and Woods 1988), around China Lake, California (Davis
1978a) and Lake Tonopah, Nevada (Pendleton 1979). Source locations are
not always known, but the 49 fluted points collected around Tulare
Lake are made of local chert, while the 28 Lake Mohave points found in
269
the same area include both local chert and local basalt (Riddell and
Olsen 1969; Wallace and Riddell 1988).
Most of the fluted points from the Borax Lake site are made of
local obsidian (Fredrickson 1987), and all of the identified sources
for fluted points in the Mohave Desert are also clearly local,
including both obsidian and chert (Warren and Phagan 1988). The
predominance of local metavolcanic material is "nearly universal" in
the Pinto-Lake Mohave sites investigated on Fort Irwin (Douglas et
al. 1988). Western Stemmed points reported from Utah's Sevier Desert
are also made of local obsidian (Simms 1988).
In Railroad Valley, Nevada, local basalt is preferred throughout
the period from 11,000 to 7,000 B.P., with CCS preferred second and
then obsidian (Zancanella 1988). Early artifacts from sites in nearby
Butte Valley average 52% basalt, 32% CCS and 16% obsidian, and at
least four local chert and basalt sources have been identified (Beck
and Jones 1988). This pattern is the same for early sites in other
nearby basin valleys (Price and Johnston 1988).
The Sunshine Locality in Long Valley, Nevada contains a wide
variety of materials including obsidian, CCS and basalt, but
projectile points are made primarily of basalt (48%) and CCS (37%),
while CCS is the dominant material for crescents (96%) and beak-nosed
gravers (90%) (Hutchinson 1988). Chert and basalt sources are locally
abundant in Long Valley, and only the obsidian appears to be exotic to
the area (York 1975, 1976).
In contrast, Basgall reports a" broad range of obsidian sources
utilized at the Komodo site, which is located directly on top of the
-270
Casa Diablo quarry in Long Valley, California. Despite this proximity
to a major source, 40% of the 34 artifacts sourced were from quarries
that are 5 km, 40 km and 75 km distant, and showed a much greater
source variability than later sites in the valley (Basgall 1988). Two
obsidian fluted points from Tonopah were recently traced to the Queen
Hill and Bodie Hill sources near the California-Nevada border (Tuohy
1988b) .
At the Dietz site in Alkali Lake Basin, Fagan's (1988) analysis
of debitage and artifacts from separate Clovis and Stemmed clusters at
the Dietz site revealed distinctions in the use of local and exotic
obsidian. Clovis clusters included numerous blanks and finished tools
of exotic obsidian, with only a few blanks, scrapers, flute flakes and
unfinished points made of local obsidian. The Clovis debitage suggests
that numerous exotic blanks were reduced on site into finished tools,
and that finished tools of exotic obsidian were resharpened, recycled
or discarded on site after breakage.
In contrast, Western Stemmed clusters, although a smaller sample,
indicated that numerous blanks and preforms of local obsidian were
extensively reduced on site into finished tools. In both Clovis and
Stemmed clusters, however, most cortex flakes were of local
obsidian. These data, and those from elsewhere in the Far West,
indicate that both Western Clovis and Western Stemmed groups knew the
locations of local stone sources and used them frequently. Western
Clovis assemblages generally include higher percentages of exotic
materials than Western Stemmed sites. This is probably a reflection of
27]
greater range mobility or more extensive trade networks during the
Clovis horizon.
Adaptive strategies at the Pleistocene-Holocene
Boundary: Prospects and Ruminations
Role of Early Big-game Hunting
The typology and intra-site variation of Far Western fluted point
complexes compare favorably with those of Clovis-Llano, but the
paleoenvironmental context and settlement pattern of major sites in
western pluvial lake basins suggest that Western Clovis may also
represent a regional, cultural-adaptational variant of the specialized
big-game hunting tradition implied by "Llano". This lends support to
earlier suggestions that the broad spectrum adaptation of later
Western Archaic cultures may have its roots in Clovis time (Aikens
1978, 1983a; Daugherty 1962; Heizer and Baumhoff 1970; Jennings and
Norbeck 1955). It is also in keeping with the Paleowestern and
Paleoeastern distinctions in subsistence first suggested by Wormington
(1957:20).
Lack of Association with Extinct Megafauna
There are still no acceptable data to demonstrate specialized
hunting of large terrestrial fauna by Western Clovis or Western
stemmed people in the Far West, despite the clai.ms that have been made
(Dansie et al. 1988; Haynes 1988; Heizer and Baumhoff 1970; Jennings
1986; Jennings and Norbeck 1955). In the east, evidence for human
exploitation of mastodon and mammoth is still extremely scarce,
1272
despite an abundance of both fluted point sites and proboscidean finds
(Meltzer 1988:22). Only the Kimmswick site provides an unambiguous
association of fluted points with mastodon remains, and yet there are
other small mammals present here as well (Graham et al. 1981).
Evidence for Subsistence Diversity During Clovis Time
Many scholars have argued for a more generalized, broad spectrum
subsistence strategy during Clovis time (Dent 1985; Gardner 1983;
Griffin 1964; Meltzer and Smith 1986). There is evidence in the east
for subsistence diversity during Clovis time (Meltzer 1988), with
remains of caribou, birds and fish at Dutchess Quarry Cave (Kopper et
al. 1978), giant land tortoise at Little Salt Spring (Clausen et
al. 1979), and grape, hawthorn plum, hackberry and blackberry at
Shawnee-Minisink (Dent 1985).
Even sites on the Plains and southwest have produced evidence for
a variety of both large and small game which would have supplemented
the taking of an occasional mammoth, like the charred bear and rabbit
bones recovered at Lehner, Arizona (Haynes 1980). The faunal
assemblage at Blackwater Draw included deer, wolf, peccary, antelope,
turtle, rodents and birds in addition to mammoth, bison, horse and
camel. Haynes (1964) cautions, however, that these smaller animals
could be from secondary deposits.
In the west, at Fishbone Cave, Nevada, fish, marmot and bird
bones were found associated with a human burial wrapped in cedar bark
which dated from 10,900±300 B.P. to 11,250±250 B.P. (Orr 1956, 1974).
II
,
, '
I
I
273
At the Old Humboldt site in Nevada (26 Pe 670) one fluted point and
two stemmed points were recovered from shallow alluvium in association
with a small, diversified assemblage, including waterfowl egg, three
species of rabbits, bison, 76 clams and one large Lahonton trout
(Dansie 1987; Rusco and Davis 1987).
Furthermore, the environmental data suggest that it is also
doubtful that the Far West could have ever supported extensive herds
of large terrestrial grazers (Daugherty 1962; Haynes 1988; Meltzer
1988; Simms 1988), although there is evidence that such animals were
present in small numbers and were probably taken opportunistically
(Madsen ~982; Madsen et al. 1976). Simms (1988) points out that their
availability would have been shifting and unpredictable through time
and across space in the Great Basin. A strategy continuously dependent
on large game would have been ecologically unlikely.
Conclusions
Based on the above data, the existence of a specialized "big-game
hunting" strategy in the Far West must be seriously questioned. The
data suggest that the reliance on hunting large game in the earliest
periods was not significantly different from that documented for later
"Archaic" periods. It is most likely that specialized big-game hunting
strategy many archaeologists conceive as having been practiced by
Western Clovis folk, and probably continent-wide groups as well, is
more a myth than a reality.
274
Role of Early Lake-Marsh Adaptations
Sites yielding Western Clovis and Western Stemmed assemblages are
not exclusively associated with lake or marsh features, and have been
found in other environmental settings (Aikens 1983b; Beck and Jones
1988; Fagan and Sage 1974; Price and Johnston 1988; Zancanella
1988). But all of the sites containing major concentrations of fluted
and stemmed points are located along the lowest strandlines of
shrinking pluvial lakes or adjacent to the stream channels which would
have fed these water bodies. Results of Alkali Basin research indicate
a significant basin-wide lakeside settlement focus for western Stemmed
occupation, and a major lakeside camp in a similar lake-marsh setting
at the Dietz site during Clovis time.
This settlement focus in relation to fossil streamside, swamp
edge and lake margin habitats, and the lack of any definitive kill
sites or clear association with extinct fauna, lends strong support to
the notion of a "paleo-Archaic" adaptation present in the Far West by
11,000 B.P. But the demonstration of a lakeside and marsh-fringe
settlement pattern for Western Stemmed, and possibly Western Clovis,
occupants in the northern Alkali Lake Basin, is not being offered as a
confirmation of Bedwell's concept of a specialized Western Pluvial
Lakes (WPL) adaptation (sensu Heizer and Napton 1970; Napton 1969).
Janetsky's (1986) summary provides some alternative views regarding
lake-marsh adaptations in the Great Basin.
275
Implications of Alkali Basin Research for the WPL Concept
The unique lakeside and marsh fringe distribution of early sites
in many western lake basins was the basis for Bedwell's formulation of
the Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition, often referred to as WPL or WPLT
(Bedwell 1970, 1973). There are two major problems embedded within the
WPL concept. First of all, an economically-loaded term originally used
to describe the occupants of lake systems in the southwestern Great
Basin has been subsequently expanded by Hester (1973) and many others
to designate Western Stemmed complexes throughout the Far West. The
term "WPL" is now entrenched in the literature as a synonym for all
Great Basin and California complexes containing stemmed points,
regardless of their proximity to fossil lakeshores (see Price and
Johnston 1988).
Moreover, the WPL concept implies a unique, specialized economic
adaptation geared to lake, marsh and grassland resources which would
have been abundant in southern lake systems. The facile application of
an economic (adaptation-based) term to technological
(typologically-based) complexes is a dangerous leap to make,
especially since we know that cultures possessing nearly identical
lithic complexes in the Plateau and elsewhere were clearly not
lake-oriented by any means. The presence of lakeside or marsh fringe
settlement patterns for the earliest inhabitants of the Far West does
not necessarily confirm the specialized lake-marsh adaptation implied
by the WPL concept.
-276
Conclusions
Western Stemmed complexes have a very widespread distribution in
the Far West, across many different environmental zones and ecological
habitats, but there is much evidence for lake-marsh oriented
settlement in many western lake basins. However, the presence of sites
oriented to these lakeside or marsh-fringe settings does not
automatically confirm the existence of a specialized economy geared to
littoral habitats. While there is much evidence to link Western
Stemmed people together on technological and cultural grounds, a
specialized lakeside adaptation was not a likely possibility given the
nature of climatic change at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary.
If anything, these people seem to be linked by adaptation to a
wide variety of habitats situated near these lake-marsh settings.
Specifically, these lake-marsh settlement foci could represent the
pivot points of flexible, wide-ranging, broad-spectrum strategies
"tethered" to mesic habitats which contained reliable sources of food
and water during a time of major environmental stress.
The Clovis-Archaic Interface: Myth or Reality?
The most important question which has been addressed here is that
of the time depth of broad spectrum Archaic-like adaptations in the
Far West. Current data suggest that Western Clovis and Western Stemmed
settlement-subsistence strategies were not limited to specialized
big-game hunting, lake-marsh exploitation or any other kind of narrow
focus.
-277
Broad-spectrum Archaic adaptive strategies have a very early
beginning in Far Western North America (Aikens 1978, 1983a, 1983b;
Jennings 1957, 1964; Jennings and Norbeck 1955). They are well
established in the archaeological record by 8,500 to 7,000 B.P. at
most California, Great Basin and Plateau sites, and as early as 9,000
to 10,000 B.P. at sites like the Dalles, Oregon (Cressman et
al. 1960), Danger Cave, Utah (Jennings 1957) and Frightful Cave,
Mexico (Taylor 1966). All of these sites fall within the time frame
for the earliest Western Stemmed occupations in the Far West. There is
no reason to think that this kind of strategy was not already in place
by 11,000 B.P. during Western Clovis time, especially considering the
temporal contiguity of the Western Clovis and Western Stemmed cultural
traditions.
The absence of ground stone was once thought to be characteristic
of these early complexes (Aikens 1983b; Bedwell 1970), thereby
distinguishing them from later fully-developed Western Archaic
cultures. But recent research has documented a significant number of
occurrences of ground stone artifacts (metates and manos) in Western
Stemmed assemblages (Price and Johnston 1988; Warren et al. 1989;
Willig 1986, 1988, 1989). The strong and frequent co-occurrence of
ground stone slabs and manos in direct association with Western
Stemmed sites in the northern Alkali Basin is certainly significant in
this regard.
278
Implications of the Paleoenvironment
The environmental history of the Far West from 12,000 to 7,000
B.P. is characterized by major, punctuated environmental change,
including the desiccation of once-extensive pluvial lake systems and a
steadily declining population of large terrestrial game (Benson and
Thompson 1987a; Davis 1982a; Mehringer 1977, 1986; Meltzer and Mead
1983). The data suggest that changes in climate, flora and habitats at
the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary were frequent, swift and dramatic,
not gradual and complacent (Bryson et al. 1970). Additionally, these
changes were not synchronous or uniform across the continent.
The pan-western outline of climatic change begins with terminal
Pleistocene desiccation of lakes, rivers and springs from about 12,600
to 10,600 B.P., followed by a general trend toward aridity from 10,600
to 7,500 B.P. (Antevs 1925, 1948, 1955; Davis 1982a; Mehringer 1977,
1986; Morrison 1965a). But research in recent years has emphasized
basin-specific reconstructions and local sub-regional variation and
these studies have greatly expanded and refined our knowledge of late
Pleistocene and early Holocene lake history (Aikens 1983a; Jennings
1986; Madsen and O'Connell 1982). The most recent updates of Lahontan
Basin data include work by Benson and Thompson (1987b), Dansie, Davis
and Stafford (1988), Thompson and others (1986) and work in the
Stillwater Marsh region by Raven, Elston and others (1988). Currey and
Oviatt (1985) provide a summary of Bonneville Basin data.
It is now clear that, despite an apparent synchrony of changes in
lake levels, glacial episodes and atmospheric circulation patterns,
279
there were marked differences in lake history and conditions in each
basin. The expansions and recessions of lake levels in individual
basins varied considerably in the rate and degree of hydrologic
changes, in concert with a number of local factors, including: 1)
precipitation and evaporation ratios; 2) basin geometry and geologic
substrate; 3) size and elevational relief of contributing watersheds;
and 4) the balance of surface to subsurface inflow (Benson 1978, 1981;
Smith and Street-Perrott 1983).
In the northern Great Basin there is much environmental evidence
to support the presence of extensive shallow lake and marsh habitats
at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. But the micro-climate of each
lake basin would have differentially affected local resources, which
is why careful reconstruction of basin-specific lake history and
environment within the Western Clovis and Western Stemmed time frame
has significant bearing upon our interpretations of paleoeconomy and
lifeway. Fluctuations in the size and stability of these shallow basin
lakes and marshes would have greatly affected the paleo-economy and
settlement pattern of local Clovis and Stemmed-era populations by
controlling the abundance and distribution of critical food and water
resources (Madsen 1982; Weide 1968, 1974).
Mehringer (1986:31) has eloquently described the cultural and
environmental history of the Great Basin as one characterized by
successive human adaptive responses to a continuum of environmental
changes involving "sharp, punctuated" climatic events. In fact, the
only thing which remained constant throughout the early post-glacial
environmental history of the Far West was change itself. This
280
variability may have been the most important factor in "shaping
cultural or technological adaptations" (Mehringer 1977:148).
Conclusions
If the data suggest that Western Clovis and Western Stemmed
groups were neither specialized big-game hunters nor free-wandering
nomads (Kelly and Todd 1988), and that they practiced economies which
were more diversified than was once thought, then just how different
were these cultures from the lifeways described in later periods as
Archaic? I maintain that the Clovis-Archaic interface is more a myth
than a reality.
In a situation of punctuated change and fluctuations in lake
levels, both people and fauna alike would have been attracted to
dependable food and water sources for obvious reasons. But the
environmental data also suggest that local distributions and
availability of water, and thereby lake-marsh resources, were probably
not stable and predictable enough to support the specialized lifeway
assumed by Bedwell (1970, 1973).
It is hypothesized here that, during a time of increasing aridity
and frequent environmental change, related cultural groups throughout
the Far West would have maximized success by retaining flexible,
wide-ranging, adaptive strategies geared to a broad spectrum of
available resources, but "tethered" (sensu Taylor 1964) to mesic
habitats containing reliable sources of food and water. In western
pluvial lake basins, including those of southern Arizona and New
Mexico, the pivot of this tether would have been the biotically-rich
281
littoral zones associated with shallow lake and marsh systems, and the
streams which fed them.
Paleo-Archaic Adaptations at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary
in Far Western North America: A Model of Broad Spectrum
Tethered Foraging with a Mesic Focus
Some envision the earliest cultures in North America, especially
Clovis people, as wide-ranging, highly mobile generalists with a
specialized focus on hunting large terrestrial mammals, but with an
opportunistic stance in relation to all other food resources (Kelly
and Todd 1988). This kind of strategy would be the most efficient way
to accommodate periodic resource stresses caused by late Pleistocene
environmental changes, and probably best explains the situation for
the very brief period envisioned for initial Clovis colonizers.
But an interpretation of highly mobile "free wandering" groups
(Beardsley et al. 1956) does not seem to be an accurate interpretation
of the available data for Western Clovis and Western Stemmed periods
in the Far West. Lithic sourcing studies conducted so far reveal a
preference for local sources of tool stone by both Western Clovis and
Western Stemmed people, although Clovis assemblages contain stone from
a greater number of exotic locales. This implies that both populations
had a specific knowledge of local resources and that they returned to
them repeatedly.
In order to ensure continued survival during a time of rapidly
increasing aridity and unpredictable, punctuated climatic change, the
earliest Clovis folk and their successors would have had to learn
about and adapt very quickly to local and regional "menus" and
282
ecological niches. Human groups already accustomed to flexible
foraging practices within a large range, would have quickly and
naturally gravitated, along with the game they hunted, to places where
hydrologic and geomorphic conditions were well suited tor maintaining
stable, concentrated patches or "sweet spots" of edible foods and
fresh water.
These early people could have easily "tethered" themselves to
these mesic "sweet spots" while still maintaining wide-ranging
logistical foraging within each region. In well-watered settings where
an abundance and diversity of resources could be found in one
concentrated area, the earliest Clovis inhabitants could have
practiced a diversified hunting and gathering lifeway keyed to locally
available fish, fowl and vegetal foods, in addition to both large and
small game animals drawn to localities as favorable watering sources.
In Florida, fluted point sites distinctly cluster near limestone
sinkholes containing potable water, and in close proximity to major
lithic sources (Dunbar 1989). Similar scenarios are proposed for
Clovis sites in the Great Lakes and Maritimes regions of northeastern
North America (Keenlyside 1989; Storck 1984, 1989).
Changes in local hydrologic conditions, and therefore local
resources, would have required periodic shifts in the pivot of the
"tether" to more productive locations (Willig 1988, 1989). When
conditions changed for the worse in one lake basin, the search would
begin for a new spot. This kind of adaptive strategy would produce a
few large, redundantly utilized campsites in key spots, and many
small, logistical sites which are less "visible" in the archaeological
283
record (Binford 1980) -- the pattern currently reflected in the
western record.
In this light, the western lake-marsh settlement focus is not
seen as a specialized strategy limited to these habitats, but as one
regional manifestation of a larger, more encompassing, broad spectrum
adaptation which existed throughout the Far west in the early
Holocene, and probably the late Pleistocene as well. All of these
early cultural groups may be seen as being linked by generalized
adaptations to a wide variety of habitats situated near critical water
sources. In this sense, the WPL concept is too specialized and
limiting a description to encompass the full range of diversity and
variability in settlement-subsistence strategies which may have been
practiced by the earliest occupants of Far Western North America.
In the Plateau and other regions like the Snake River Plain, the
pivot of this tethered strategy can be translated into a riverine
focus. Most of the early Holocene sites are concentrated in the
eastern portion of the Plateau which was wetter, cooler and
ecologically more diverse (Ames 1981). The few exceptions to this
pattern, like the Lind Coulee site in Washington (Daugherty 1956), are
located in unique settings where atypically mesic conditions
prevailed. In places where ecological conditions more closely mimicked
Plains resources, like the Oywhee Uplands of Oregon and Idaho, there
are Plano-like influences in early Holocene assemblages, such as those
from Dirty Shame Rockshelter (Hanes 1988a, 1988b). This comes as no
surprise since this region would have easily supported larger herds of
bison and camel for late Plano hunters (Butler 1972, 1976).
bz
284
In other places, like California's North Coast Range, conditions
were perhaps too cool and mesic to support abundant food resources.
There are very few sites occurring before 6,500 B.P. in the vicinity
of Borax and Clear Lakes -- a low population density explainable by
the presence of dense boreal coniferous forests throughout most of the
area during this time, which would have placed severe constraints on
early land use (Fredrickson and White 1988). The California situation
is very similar to the scenario depicted by Meltzer (1988) to explain
low density of Clovis populations in the southeastern United states.
Conclusions
Detailed paleoenvironmental and stratigraphic studies of Western
Clovis and Western Stemmed occupation patterns in the northern Alkali
Lake Basin support earlier suggestions that the broad spectrum
adaptation of later Western Archaic cultures may have its roots in
Clovis time (Aikens 1978, 1983a; Daugherty 1962; Heizer and Baumhoff
1970; Jennings and Norbeck 1955). It can be hypothesized that the
earliest occupants of Far Western North America developed generalized,
broad spectrum adaptive strategies much earlier than was once thought.
Initial Clovis colonizers, already accustomed from the outset to
flexible hunting and foraging practices within a large range, would
have naturally gravitated, like the game they hunted, to mesic
habitats ("sweet spots") containing concentrations of food and
water. Both Western Clovis and later Western Stemmed people living at
the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary in Far Western North America would
have had to remain flexible enough to change quickly, not gradually,
285
in concert with the emerging mosaic of regional environmental
resources so characteristic of the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary.
In western pluvial lake basins, Clovis folk would have maximized
success by retaining a flexible wide-ranging strategy while "tethered"
to mesic micro-environments where a wide range of food and water
resources were concentrated and maintained despite increasing aridity.
Such an early development of Archaic style broad-spectrum adaptation
would be a natural outgrowth of the variability and regional diversity
which characterizes the environmental history of the Far West over the
last 12,000 years.
Over the past thirty years, the Desert Culture concept (Jennings
1957, 1964) has been the catalyst for, and focus of, lengthy and
intensive criticism and debate (Aikens 1970, 1978; Jennings 1973). But
if we interpret the "desert" less literally, and focus more on the
basic notions of the concept -- like the inception of "Archaic" broad
spectrum strategies -- it becomes apparent that this "useful
hypothesis" (Jennings 1973) still retains its original value and
explanatory power. The recognition of broad spectrum adaptations in
the Far West as early as 11,500 B.P. extends the notions of cultural
continuity and adaptability so essential to the Desert Culture
concept. It means that the foundations of the Western Archaic were
already in place at a time when the "desert" as we know it now was
just coming into being. Diversification through time in technology and
culture, in concert with environmental change, eventually culminated
in the development of full-blown Western Archaic adaptations out of
this basal "paleo-Archaic" foundation.
286
APPENDIX A
STADIA SURVEY DATA
Instruments Used and Standards of Error
Transit Level Loops
The first phase of stadia survey in the northern Alkali Lake
Basin involved the establishment of a basin-wide network of datum
points tied to the Dietz site datum and baseline, and to USGS
benchmarks. These various datum stations were tied together through a
system of closed transit level loops utilizing a K and E Paragon 1000
(Mountain) Transit.
EDM Stadia Mapping
The second phase involved the actual recording of over 1800
sub-station stadia shots made from each named datum station, such as
"Elaine", "Ron" and so on. This was accomplished through the use of a
T-16 Theodolite Transit, a McHenry IE Electronic Laser Distance Meter
(EDM), and a Nikkon Triple Prism.
Standards of Error
The majority of field survey and all subsequent stadia reductions
and calculations were completed by Mr. Wayne R. Tucker, who has
provided the following information on standards of error for Dietz
Project survey and mapping. The west-east transect (IS0N) which was
placed perpendicular to the Dietz site baseline was the basis for
testing the standard of accuracy between the two above named systems
of vertical measurement used in Alkali Basin survey; i.e. closed
transit level loops and EDM stadia survey. Duplicate measurements of
several long profiles in the basin were made using both the transit
and EDM stadia methods, beginning and ending on the same set of
benchmarks for comparability.
287
Systematic Errors
The normal acceptable standard of error is 1:5,500, or an error
of one meter in every 5,500 meters distance (Tucker 1987). The
standard of accuracy first calculated by Tucker in the field for the
closed transit level loops was 1:10,000. But subsequent calculations
and comparisons of duplicate system measurements in the laboratory
demonstrated that the transit level loops had, in fact, not met the
1:5,500 standard first set in the field. Instead, it was found that
the transit level loops averaged 1:1,000. This was in stark contrast
to the remarkable accuracy in closures produced by the EDM stadia
which averaged 1:32,000 vertically and 1:140,000 horizontally.
Human Errors
A second series of errors were discovered through comparison of
duplicate measurements, most often relating to mistakes made in the
reduction of stadia and calculations made in the lab, after the
completion of fieldwork.
vertical and Horizontal Adjustments
Based on multiple cross-checks using EDM data, the following
rotational adjustments were made for vertical elevation values at
several of the sub-station datum points:
1. All shots made from "Wayne" were internally correct, but
consistently .82 m higher than the established baseline
stadia system at the Dietz site. These shots (#487-603 and
#1000-1040) were adjusted accordingly. New vertical values
consistently matched within 1 to 2 cm with the established
baseline system values. This error was a result of a poor
level loop connecting "Wayne" to "Ron", with a low standard
of accuracy calculated at 1:600.
2. A series of shots made from sub-station AI were internally
correct, but were consistently 1.22 m higher than the
established baseline system. After much cross-checking, this
error was found to be of human origin. Laboratory stadia
reductions for these shots had used a long-pole value (2.44 m),
instead of the short-pole value (1.22 m). Reference to the
original field notes confirmed the fact that a short pole, not
a long pole, had been used in the field. These shots (#743-764;
and #794-985) were adjusted accordingly. New vertical values
consistently matched within 1 to 5 cm with the established
baseline system of values.
•288
3. A series of stadia shots from the lSON/800E sub-station
(#1469-1624) and from the 130N/000E sub-station (#1625-1726)
were found to be consistently correct in vertical values, but
incorrect in horizontal measurements. Cross-checking indicated
that the source of the error was in a reversed horizontal angle
used in calculating the values in the lab; i.e human error.
These shots were adjusted accordingly and the resulting
horizontal values matched to within 10-30 cm with the
established baseline values.
4. A series of shots made from "Elaine" (#716-721; and #1174-1214)
were found to be horizontally correct but elevation values were
consistently 64-78 cm too low. Further cross-checks were made,
and the conclusion reached was that the error was due to poor
transit loop measurements connecting "Elaine" to the basin-wide
network. Resulting adjustments matched within 2-10 cm with the
established baseline system of values.
Conclusions
The results of stadia mapping and survey in the northern
Alkali Lake Basin revealed the following: (1) basin-wide programs like
these require a great deal of preparation and fieldwork, but the
rewards can be great; (2) the remarkable accuracy of the EDM suggests
that only laser-quality instruments should be trusted in basin-wide
programs such as these; and (3) resulting errors can be both human and
systematic in origin, and can be corrected if enough duplicate shots
are made from multiple stations in the field. It is recommended that
other research projects incorporate as many duplicate check shots as
time and logistics will allow .
289
APPENDIX B
ALKALI LAKE BASIN SITE DATA
Descriptions of all archaeological sites discovered and recorded
through Alkali Basin research are presented below. These data were
compiled as part of the National Register District Nomination prepared
for the northern Alkali Lake Basin. A complete set of full size
illustrations for all time-diagnostic point types and other artifacts
recovered in the northern Alkali Lake Basin is included in Appendix c.
All drawings are the artistic products of Wyndeth V. Moisan.
Dietz Archaeological Site (35 LK 1529)
Location: The Dietz site is the largest lithic scatter of the
northern sub-basin and the reason behind the extensive research and
testing which has been conducted in this vicinity since May 1983.
The site is located within the now-dry northern sub-basin of Pluvial
Lake Alkali in the northern Great Basin of east-central Oregon about
10 miles southwest of Wagontire, Oregon. The core area of the site
occupies the crest and eastern flank of a large, prominent north-south
trending volcanic fault block hill.
There are two distinct beach terraces on the hill's eastern
flank: 1) a 1332 m to 1330 m erosional wave-cut bench just below the
tuffaceous rock outcrops at the crest of the hill; and 2) a 1317 m to
1322 m wave-built (constructional) terrace just below this, which
slopes gently down and merges with the playa floor about 150 meters to
the east. The site area extends for 1.5 kilometers north-south,
following the curve of the fossil shoreline, and extends as far out as
500 meters to the east out onto level playa floor.
Artifact density and distribution: The density of artifacts at the
Dietz site is staggering. The core area of the site extends for over
1.5 kilometers north-south and over .5 kilometers east-west (750,000
square meters). Many, thousands of flakes, in a wide variety of raw
materials, occur in discrete lithic clusters throughout the site area,
with fluted artifacts tending to be concentrated along the lower
elevations (as low as 1314.8 m elevation) and the Great Basin Stemmed
artifacts tending to be concentrated in a wider zone which encompasses
areas that are higher in elevation (i.e. above 1316 m).
290
It was first thought that the stemmed artifacts occurred
exclusively at or above 1319 m elevation, overlapping with fluted
artifacts in a very narrow zone at or near 1319 m to 1317 m elevation.
However, it is now clear, from extensive shore surveys and continued
additional work at the site undertaken by Willig, that the stemmed
artifacts occur over a very wide zone anywhere from points well above
1320 m elevation, as far down as 1315.4 m elevation on the playa floor
(Willig 1986). Research has integrated data into a model of late
Pleistocene and early Holocene lake history and settlement pattern
postulated for these earliest inhabitants of the northern Alkali Lake
Basin.
Vegetation: The site encompasses a variety of vegetation depending on
the distance from the base of the hill and kind of substrate
involved: i.e. hardpacked silty playa floor, loose dune re-worked
beach sands or gravelly lithosols at the crest of the hill. In
general, as one moves from the base of the Dietz hill eastward,
vegetation changes from: 1) a mixed zone of rabbitbrush, greasewood
and sage with some grasses (on the lower beach terrace); 2) to a zone
dominated by tall sage and rabbitbrush, with some greasewood and more
grasses (dune re-worked beach sands); 3) to rabbitbrush dominated
playa floor, with some small greasewood and small sage.
Tools collected: To date, at least 329 artifacts have been collected
and documented from the Dietz site. Of these, 60 are fluted point
fragments and 32 are Western Stemmed artifacts. The rest include: 99
biface fragments, 33 non-diagnostic projectile point fragments, 18
flakes (mostly utilized flakes, with some overshot flakes and blades),
14 ground stone fragments associated directly with Western Stemmed
lithic clusters, 4 large scrapers, 6 corner-notched points, 6 Humboldt
concave base points, 2 Pinto points and 3 large side-notched
points. In addition, the discarded remnants of a collector's stash
were discovered in a historic, recent campsite (Juniper Pole Camp)
near the Four Corners Well road where it transects the site along the
lower beach terrace. Four very recent, small corner-notched points
were found in this scatter. In addition, thousands of point-plotted
flakes have been collected during the 1984 and 1985 field seasons.
Legal description: The site area covers three Sections of Township
28S, Range 23E, broken up into the following segments:
1. Northern tip: SW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6.
2. North-central portion: Almost entire portion of SE 1/4 NE 1/4
Section 6.
3. Northwestern portion:
a. SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6.
b. SE 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6.
4. South-central portion:
a. NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
b. NE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
c. SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 section 6.
291
5. North-central portion:
a. NE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
b. SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
c. Eastern portion NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
d. Eastern half SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
6. Far eastern tip:
a. SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5.
b. NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 5.
7. Southeastern portion:
a. NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
b. SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
8. Southwestern portion:
a. NE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
b. SE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
c. Eastern half NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
d. Eastern half SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 6.
9. Southern tip: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 7.
10. Far southern tip: NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 7.
Because the Dietz site is over 10 acres in size, a 7-sided
polygon has been drawn around the site boundaries for UTM corner
measurements. Beginning in the north and moving clockwise, these 7 UTM
corners are as follows:
1. northing 4784400 easting 741280
2. northing 4784120 easting 741320
3. northing 4783850 easting 741540
4. northing 4782340 easting 740770
5. northing 4781635 easting 740725
6. northing 4781650 easting 740520
7. northing 4784070 easting 740780
Cultural affinity: The Dietz site is primarily a two-component site
assignable to the Western Stemmed cultural tradition dating from
10,500 to 7,000 B.P. and the Western Clovis cultural tradition dating
roughly from 11,500 to 11,000 B.P. The few later period point types
recovered in good context (6 large corner-notched, 6 Humboldt concave
base, 2 Pinto and 3 large Side-notched points) make up a very small
percentage of all tools collected.
OTHER ALKALI LAKE BASIN SITES
The site descriptions that follow have been given Oregon State
Museum of Anthropology accession number prefix of #490. Example: The
accession number for Site No. 48 is #490-48, while the number for Site
No. 49 is #490-49. Diagnostic tools collected at each site are
numbered consecutively, beginning with the first tool collected from
the first site (490-1-1) and ending with the last tool collected at
the last site (490-92-215). The number following each site in
parentheses refers to the original field designation(s) for that site.
292
SITE NO.1 (Locality 2: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter in a large fluvial wash area just 80
meters below and to the northeast of an isolated find of a Pinto style
point (490-68-191) and 100 meters south of the northernmost sandy
beach ridge which forms a continuation of the northern Dietz sub-basin
spit.
Artifact density: 50 obsidian flakes in a 40 meter x 40 meter area
(1600 square meters).
Vegetation: Very little. with a few grasses and some small rabbit-
brush.
Tools collected: One stemmed point base (#490-1-1). one obsidian
fluted point preform with fluting scars (#490-1-2), and one other
obsidian blank/preform (#490-1-3).
Legal description: SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784340, easting 741350.
Cultural affinity: A two-component site dating to both the western
Stemmed culture, dating from 10,800-7,500 B.P., and the Western Clovis
culture, dating from about 11,500 to 11,000 B.P.
SITE NO.2 (Locality 4: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter located along the northernmost beach
ridge about halfway across the Dietz sub-basin in an area where the
ridge flattens out 400 meters due west of a southwest-to-northeast
trending fenceline which transects the sub-basin.
Artifact density: 10 obsidian flakes in a 20 meter x 20 meter area
(400 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with a few large sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784300, easting 742100.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO.3 (Locality 5: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter about 120 meters east-southeast of
Site No. 2 on the same northernmost beach ridge 280 meters due west of
the same southwest-northeast trending fenceline.
Artifact density: 25 obsidian flakes in a 20 meter x 20 meter area
(400 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with a few large sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: West portion of site is located in the east central
portion of the NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range
23E. The east portion of site is located in the west central portion
of the NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 of Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM
co-ordinates: northing 4784240, easting 742210.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
293
SITE NO.4 (Locality 6: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter located where the northernmost beach
ridge meets the southwest-northeast running fenceline.
Artifact density: 40 obsidian flakes in a 30 meter x 10 meter area
(300 square meters).
Vegetation: Consists of an even mixture of sage and rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: Humboldt Concave Base point and midsection
(#490-4-4).
Legal description: West portion of site is located in east central
portion of SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range
23E. East portion of site is located in west central portion of SE 1/4
SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates:
northing 4784040, easting 742390.
Cultural affinity: Early Humboldt Period is now said to date as early
as 8,000 to 6,000 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1978, 1986; Layton 1970).
SITE NO.5 (Locality 8: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter located in the north-central
portion of the southernmost dune/beach ridge 550 meters due west of
the southwest-northeast trending fenceline.
Artifact density: 50 obsidian flakes in a 40 meter x 40 meter area
(1600 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with a few large sage.
Tools collected: Large corner-notched (Elko Series) projectile point
of obsidian (#490-5-5).
Legal description: SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783970, easting 741870.
Cultural affinity: Great Basin Elko Series points (Elko
corner-notched) have been dated from 3500-1500 B.P., or as early as
8,000 to 6,500 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1978, 1986).
SITE NO.6 (Locality 9: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter 70 meters due west of Site No. 5 on
the southern flank of the southernmost dune/beach ridge.
Artifact density: 60 obsidian flakes in a 40 meter x 40 meter area
(1600 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with a few large sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783970, easting 741780.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
-294
SITE NO.7 (Locality lOa: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter 140 meters north-northeast of Site
No. 6 near the crest of the southern dune/beach ridge.
Artifact density: 150 flakes in a 30 meter x 30 meter area (900 square
meters) .
Vegetation: Even mixture of large sage and rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: Cougar Mountain stemmed point base of grey-black
obsidian (#490-7-6).
Legal description: West portion of site is located in the east central
portion of the SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. East
portion of site is located in the west central portion of the SE 1/4
NW 1/4 of Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E.
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784115, easting 741820.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed culture dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 8 (Locality lOb: 7-20-85~
Description: Small lithic scatter 150 meters downslope and southwest
of Site No. 7 along the same southernmost dune/beach ridge.
Artifact density: 10 obsidian flakes in a 30 meter x 10 meter area
(300 square meters).
Vegetation: Even mixture of large sage and rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: Large obsidian biface fragment.
Legal description: NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784045, easting 741670.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO.9 (Locality 11: 7-20-85):
Description: Large lithic scatter located between the northern and
southern beach ridges on the west flank of a fluvial wash zone which
cuts into both beach ridges at this point.
Artifact density: Over 300 flakes, mostly obsidian, in an area
measuring 160 meters x 40 meters (6400 square meters).
Vegetation: Very little--a few grasses, some rabbitbrush and mostly
sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: North central portion of the eastern half of SW 1/4
NW 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates:
northing 4784145, easting 741730.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
295
SITE NO. 10 (Locality 12: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter near the southern edge of a large,
prominent southeast-northwest trending fluvial wash area -- 150 meters
due east of the easternmost extent of the Dietz site (35 Lk 1359); 200
meters southwest of Site No. 9 and 100 meters due west of Site No.8.
Artifact density: 10 obsidian flakes in a 10 meter x 20 meter area
(200 square meters).
Vegetation: Very little--a few grasses, some rabbitbrush and mostly
sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: East central portion of the SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4
Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates:
northing 4784000, easting 741560.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 11 (Locality 13: 7-20-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter 120 meters northwest of Site No. 10
on the western fringe of a large fluvial wash zone.
Artifact density: 25 obsidian flakes in a 10 meter x 20 meter area
(200 square meters) .
Vegetation: Very little--a few grasses, some rabbitbrush and mostly
sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784040, easting 741475.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 12 (Locality 14: 7-20-85):
Description: Large lithic scatter 120 meters due north of Site No. 11
at the northern end of the large, prominent fluvial wash area and 100
meters due east of the Dietz site lithic scatter.
Artifact density: Over 100 obsidian flakes in a 60 meter x 100 meter
area (6000 square meters).
Vegetation: Very little--some grasses and rabbitbrush and mostly
sage.
Tools collected: Lake Mohave-like stemmed point base (#490-12-8).
Legal description: SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784155, easting 741440.
Cultural affinity: western Stemmed culture dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
296
SITE NO. 13 (Locality 1: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter on the southern flank of the
southernmost dune/beach ridge 90 meters due east of the
southwest-northeast trending fenceline and 200 meters southwest of a
series of large dunes which cap the northernmost beach ridge.
Artifact density: Over 75 obsidian flakes in a 35 meter x 30 meter
area (1050 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush and sage dominate.
Tools collected: One resharpened Cascade point (#490-13-9) and a
Humboldt Concave Base point (#490-13-10), both of obsidian. Tools
which were observed but not collected include: one stemmed point base,
one possible crescent fragment and one biface fragment.
Legal description: SW 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783760, easting 742480.
Cultural affinity: Transitional period between the last phase of
Western Stemmed culture, with Cascade point and early Humboldt both
representing the period from 8,000 to 7,000 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer
1986).
SITE NO. 14 (Locality 2: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter located in the southeastern portion
of a small dune area near the crest of the northernmost beach ridge
200 meters northeast of Site No. 13.
Artifact density: Over 100 obsidian flakes in a 50 meter x 50 meter
area (2500 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush and sage dominate with some Indian ricegrass,
and other small grasses.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: NE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783890, easting 742590.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 15 (Locality 3: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter in a small dune area 140 meters
north-northeast of Site No. 14 just over the crest of the northernmost
beach ridge.
Artifact density: Over 50 obsidian flakes in a 50 meter x 40 meter
area (2000 square meters). Some of the flakes have been washed down a
small gully to the southwest.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush and sage dominate with some Indian ricegrass
and other small grasses.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
However, a large rock slab of volcanic tuff (#490-15-216) was observed
and appeared to have been ground; but this was not collected.
297
Legal description: North central portion of NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4
Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4783940, easting 742720.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 16 (Locality 4: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter located within the fluvial wash zone
between two southeast-northwest trending dunes 420 meters due north of
a large, prominent arm of a steep hill (similar to the "nose" at the
Dietz site) where the toe of the hill meets the far eastern shoreline
of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: 40 obsidian flakes, some quite large, in a 40 meter
x 10 meter oblong area (400 square meters) between the two dunes. The
flakes appear to be washing out of the contact zone between the base
of the dunes and some consolidated lake silts and clays below the dune
material, suggesting the possibility of a buried context present.
Vegetation: None.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783120, easting 742685.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, based on comparison
of stratigraphy and elevational position to other known Western
Stemmed sites, especially along this far eastern shore, it seems
reasonable to consider, for the moment, that this site represents the
same time period (i.e. 10,800-7,500 B.P.).
SITE NO. 17 (Locality 5: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter in a small draw or wash zone
between two southeast-northwest trending dunes 100 meters due south of
Site No. 16 and 320 meters due north of the above mentioned "nose" on
the eastern shore.
Artifact density: Less than 40 obsidian flakes, mostly very small, in
a 10 meter x 40 meter oblong area (400 square meters) between the
dunes. As is the case in Site No. 16, the artifacts seem to be eroding
out of the contact zone between the base of the dune sand and the
underlying lakeshore deposits, suggesting the potential for a buried
context.
Vegetation: None.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 8, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783025, easting 742690.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, again, because of
similarities in elevational position and stratigraphy to other known
Western Stemmed sites along this far eastern shore, it seems
reasonable to consider, for the moment, that this site represents the
same time period dating from 10,800-7,500 B.P.
298
SITE NO. 18 (Locality 6: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter eroding out of a wave-cut scarp on
the far eastern shore of the Dietz sub-basin just 150 meters due north
of the "nose" of the prominent hill and 170 meters due south of Site
No. 17. The center of the site is located near the 1797.33 North/ 150
East datum point (1/2" steel rebar) which marks the easternmost point
surveyed from the north-south running baseline at the Dietz site.
Artifact density: Over 75 obsidian flakes, mostly very large, in a
circular lobe shaped area 25 meters x 30 meters (750 square
meters). As with the previous east shore sites described, the
artifacts appear to be eroding out of the contact zone between the
dune sand and the underlying lakeshore deposits, suggesting the
potential for demonstrating a buried context.
Vegetation: None.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were
observed. However, one large rock slab of local volcanic tuff
(#490-18-217) appeared to be ground, but was not collected. In
addition, several old rusty tin cans were observed but not collected.
Legal description: West portion of site is located in the NE 1/4 SE
1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23E. East portion of
sites located in NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 8, Township 28S,
Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4782850, easting 742650.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, as is the case for
Site Nos. 16 and 17, similarities in elevational position/stratigraphy
to other known Western Stemmed sites suggest that this site may also
represent this period from 10,800-7,500 B.P.
SITE NO. 19 (Locality 7 : 7-23-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter washing out of a small
southeast-northwest trending dune; 45 meters southwest of the "nose"
on the eastern shore; 200 meters southwest of Site No. 18 and 150
meters northwest of the Tucker Site (Site No. 65).
Artifact density: Over 200 flakes, mostly obsidian, in a 200 meter x
100 meter area (20,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Very little--a few short sage, some grasses and saltbush.
Tools collected: One large corner-notched point (#490-19-11) and a
possible fluted point (#490-19-12). This second tool displays a crude
shape, but with two long basal thinning scars removed on one side,
suggesting that it may be a fluted point or preform discarded after
unsuccessful fluting attempts. Also observed, but not collected,
were: one broken point fragment of chert and several other obsidian
biface fragments. Again, the artifacts appear to be eroding out of the
contact zone between the dune sand and the underlying lakebed
materials, suggesting the potential for establishing a buried
context.
i .
,
299
Legal description: Northern portion of the site is located in the
south-central portion of SE 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 8, Township 28S,
Range 23E. Southern portion of the site is located in NE 1/4 NE 1/4
SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates:
northing 4782660, easting 742600.
Cultural affinity: Two component site. One tool represents a fluted
point preform probably discarded during the fluting process
(#490-19-12). Represents Western Clovis culture dating approximately
between 11,500-11,000 B.P .. The second tool is a large corner-notched
point (#490-19-11) is assignable to the Great Basin Elko Series
(Elko corner-notched) dating from 3500-1500 B.P., or possibly as early
as 8,000 to 6,000 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1978, 1986).
SITE NO. 20 (Locality 8: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter eroding out of the base of a
southeast-northwest trending dune-capped shore ridge 340 meters south
of Site No. 65 (Tucker Site) along the far eastern shore of the Dietz
sub-basin.
Artifact density: Less than 100 flakes in a 15 meter x 30 meter area
(450 square meters). As with the other eastern shore sites, these
artifacts do appear to be actively eroding out of the base of the dune
and the underlying lakebed deposits, suggesting the potential for
demonstration of a buried context.
Vegetation: None
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed. One
large biface midsection of obsidian was observed near the datum stake,
but was not collected. .
Legal description: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 8, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinate: northing 4782230, easting 742700.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, the stratigraphy and
elevational position are comparable to other known Western Stemmed
sites along this eastern shore, suggesting that the site may represent
this time period from 10,800-7,500 B.P.
SITE NO. 21 (Locality 9: 7-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter on the east flank of a
southeast-northwest trending dune-capped shore ridge, 20 meters below
the dune crest and 150 meters southwest of Site No. 20 on the far
eastern shore of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: 20 obsidian flakes in a 30 meter x 30 meter area
(900 square meters). As with the other east shore sites, the artifacts
appear to be eroding out of the contact between basal dune sand and
underlying lakeshore deposits.
Vegetation: None
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
300
Legal description: Southern portion of NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section
8, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4782140,
easting 742800.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time; but stratigraphy/elevation
suggest affiliation with the Western Stemmed period dating from
10,800-7,500 B.P.
SITE NO. 22 (Locality 10 and 11: 7-23-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter beginning at the southern end
of a large L-shaped dune 50 meters south of Site No. 20 and extending
south for 180 meters to a large dune-capped bowl-shaped shelf or
lakeshore terrace on the east shore.
Artifact density: Over 1000 flakes, mostly obsidian, in an oblong area
measuring 180 meters north-south and 100 meters east-west (18,000
square meters). Small interior flakes are most common in the northern
portion of the site (originally Locality 10); while larger flakes
dominate the southern portion of the site (originally Locality 11)
contains mostly larger flakes.
Vegetation: Very little--some grasses and sage on the dune sand.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: Northern portion of site is located in the SE ]/4
NE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23E. The southern
portion of the site is located in the NE 1/4SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4
Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23 E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4782050, easting 742660.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, as with Site
Nos. 20/21, elevational position and stratigraphy suggest that the
site may represent the Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 23 (Site No.8, 1984):
Description: Small sparse lithic scatter in a small fluvial wash zone
between two southeast-northwest trending dunes 200 meters due north of
the west-east fenceline which marks the section boundary between
Sections 7, 8 and 9 on the north and Sections 18, 17 and 16 on the
south in Township 28S, Range 23E.
Artifact density: 60 obsidian flakes in a 20 meter x 10 meter area
(200 square meters).
Vegetation: None
Tools collected: One large corner-notched point fragment (#490-23-26)
and two weakly shouldered stemmed point fragments (#490-23-27 and
#490-23-28), all three of obsidian. As with the other east shore
sites, the flakes and artifacts seem to be eroding out of a wave-cut
scarp which has truncated modern dune deposits and the underlying
older lakeshore deposits.
301
Legal description: South-central portion of the NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4
Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4781660, easting 742375.
Cultural affinity: A two-component site assignable to the Western
Stemmed culture (10,800-7,500 B.P.) and the Elko period, which can
range from 3500-1500 B.P., or as early as 8,000 to 6,500 B.P. (Hanes
1988a; Holmer 1978, 1986).
SITE NO. 24 (Locality 1: 8-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter on a sandy shelf-like ridge 100
meters south of Site No. 23 and 100 meters due north of the west-east
section fenceline. A large southeast-northwest trending
salt-and-pepper dune marks the site's southern boundary where small
deflation zones have exposed angular to subangular hillslope
gravels. Unlike the other east shore sites, the artifacts at this site
do not appear to be eroding out of the wave-cut scarp, but are rather
entirely surficial.
Artifact density: 100 obsidian flakes in a north-south oblong area
measuring 50 meters x 30 meters (1500 square meters) along the length
of the shore ridge. There is a predominance of bifacial thinning
flakes and many large primary (core) flakes, suggesting that the site
represents a small, discrete lithic reduction workshop. One overshot
flake was observed.
Vegetation: Mostly sage, with some rabbitbrush and grasses.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
However, the following tools were observed, but not collected: one
large ground stone slab of local volcanic rock (#490-24-218) on the
western periphery of the site, one obsidian biface tip, and two other
obsidian biface fragments.
Legal description: Central portion of the SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section
8, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781560,
easting 742400.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 25 (Locality 2: 8-23~85):
Description: Small lithic scatter in a deflation or fluvial wash zone
just below and to the southwest of the large southeast-to-northwest
trending finger dune mentioned as the southern boundary for Site No.
24. The site begins 100 meters north of the west-east section
fenceline and spills over past the fence for about 5 m to the south.
Artifact density: Flakes are widely scattered, (about 100 flakes,
mostly obsidian), over an area measuring 60 meters x 40 meters (2400
square meters). There is a wave-cut scarp along the southwestern flank
of the finger dune; but it is not entirely clear if the artifacts are
eroding from this exposed contact.
Vegetation: Sage and greasewood, with some rabbitbrush.
302
Tools collected: Large side-notched point (Northern Side-notched
style) was collected (#490-25-29) 30 meters south of the northwestern
tip of the finger dune. Also observed, but not collected, was a
medium-sized projectile point tip of obsidian 15 meters south of the
northwestern tip of the finger dune.
Legal description: SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 8, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781490, easting 742340.
Cultural affinity: Large side-notched points (Northern Side-notched)
are not yet accepted as valid Great Basin time markers. Thomas (1981)
claims they can only be assigned to anytime before 650 B.P. Warren
(1968) reports them from 6,500-4,500 B.P. from Great Basin/Plateau
sites; and in Surprise Valley, they date to the Menlo Phase from
6,000-5,000 B.P. (O'Connell 1975). Most recently, they are said to
date as early as 8,000 to 7,000 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1978, 1986).
SITE NO. 26 (Locality 3: 8-23-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter 180 meters to the southwest of the
southern tip of the 350-meter long finger dune described with Site
No. 72 (Isolated find). The site is located on the playa floor 250
meters downslope from and due west of Site No. 27 -- a very large
site to the east along the shoreline.
Artifact density: Flakes are widely scattered--about 30 flakes, mostly
obsidian, in an oblong area measuring 80 meters southeast-to-northwest
and 15 meters wide (1200 square meters). It is not yet clear as to
whether or not the flakes are eroding out of the beach ridge or dunes
located upslope and to the east.
Vegetation: Greasewood and rabbitbrush dominate.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: western portion of the SE 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section
17, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4780720,
easting 742600.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 27 (Localities 4 and 5: 8-23-85):
Description: Extremely large lithic scatter located within a large
bowl-shaped sandy shelf-like area on the eastern shore 250 meters
upslope and due east of Site No. 26.
Artifact density: Entire area is littered with thousands of flakes,
mostly obsidian, and is characterized by a series of small discrete
lithic clusters, ranging in size from 10 meter x 10 meter areas to 30
meter x 30 meter areas. The clusters are too dense and closely spaced
to divide the locality into multiple sites. Instead, the entire area
here has been subsumed into one large site. Many of the clusters
contain non-diagnostic fragments of-large projectile points and biface
fragments of unknown affinity. The entire complex of clusters covers
an oblong area measuring 400 meters southeast-to-northwest and 200
meters wide west-to-east (80,000 square meters).
303
742730
742820
742990
742990
742755
easting
easting
easting
easting
easting
Vegetation: Mostly greasewood and sage, with some small rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: One large Cougar Mountain stemmed point base
(#490-27-30). Also observed but not collected, was a stemmed point
midsection of a Haskett-style point.
Legal description: The site covers the entire portion of NW 1/4 NE 1/4
SE 1/4 Section 17, Township 28S, Range 23E and the entire portion of
the SW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 of the same section. In addition, the
northernmost portion of the site covers the SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE
1/4 of the same section in Township 28S, Range 23E. Because the site
is greater than 10 acres in area, a 5-sided polygon was drawn around
the site whose five UTM corner co-ordinates (beginning clockwise from
the northwest corner) are as follows:
1. northing 4780940
2. northing 4780920
3. northing 4780680
4. northing 4780495
5. northing 4780450
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 28 (Site No.1, 1984):
Description: Very large lithic scatter in dune-reworked beach
deposits on the western flank of the east shore terrace 200 meters due
south of the southern boundary of Site No. 27. This is in an area
where the east shore beach ridge begins to curve sharply to the
southwest to form the first (northernmost) of two southern east-west
trending beach ridges.
Artifact density: Very dense--thousands of flakes in a wide variety of
raw materials including many kinds of obsidian, basalt and some
chert. Some portions of the site seem to represent miniature lithic
reduction stations where large primary flakes and core fragments and
large interior flakes dominate. The area covered by the site measures
300 meters north-south and 150 meters east-west (45,000 square m).
Vegetation: Sagebrush dominates, especially tall sage, with some
greasewood and rabbitbrush and a few grasses.
Tools collected:
One obsidian stemmed point base (#490-28-31)
One Lake Mohave stemmed point base (obsidian) (#490-28-32)
One obsidian crescent (#490-28-33)
One weakly shouldered stemmed point (obsidian) (#490-28-34)
One long Cougar Mountain stemmed point base (#490-28-35)
Legal description: Almost the entire portion of the SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE
1/4 of Section 17, Township 28S, Range 23E; and most of the NW 1/4 SE
1/4 SE 1/4 of the same section. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4780210,
easting 742890.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
304
SITE NO. 29 (Site No.9, 1984):
Description: Extremely large lithic scatter encompassing most of the
eastern half southernmost beach ridge which marks the 4340-foot
elevation drainage divide separating the northern Alkali Lake
sub-basin from the central sub-basin, especially the northern flank of
this southernmost beachridge. The beach ridge trends from the
northeast to the west-southwest where it meets the main Four Corners
Well road (unimproved dirt) which transects the northern sub-basin
from the southeast to the northwest. At this point just west of the
road, this southernmost beach ridge then begins to curve around to the
northwest to form the western shore.
Artifact density: Many thousands of flakes in a wide variety of raw
material occur throughout the site area, with over lOO or more
clusters or areas of concentration. Some of these clusters contain
primary core reduction debris and probably represent miniature lithic
reduction stations. There is an abundance of diagnostic tools and only
one representative of each kind was collected in an effort to
efficiently characterize the site before further testing. The site
covers an oblong area measuring 700 meters southwest to northeast and
averaging 200 meters wide (140,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Sage dominates, with some greasewood, rabbitbrush and
grasses.
(#490-29-41; #490-29-43;
#490-29-48)
(#490-29-36;#490-29-45)
(#490-29-37)
(#490-29-40)
(#490-29-42; #490-29-44)
(#490-29-46)
2 Haskett point fragments
1 grey chert scraper
1 red chert crescent
2 obsidian crescent fragments
1 obsidian biface fragment
1 obsidian base fragment
of an eared point (#490-29-47)
1 large ground stone slab (metate)
of local volcanic tuff (#490-29-49)
Tools collected:
3 obsidian stemmed point bases
Legal description: (See description under site No. 30 below)
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
305
SITE NO. 30 (Locality 1: 8-25-85):
Description: This site is another extremely large lithic scatter which
encompasses most of the southernmost beach ridge west of the road,
covering an area measuring 1200 meters southeast to northwest and
averaging 300 meters wide (360,000 square meters). Because of the
disturbance of deposits created by use of the Four Corners Well Road,
an arbitrary line at the road was chosen to divide these two sites,
although it is also possible that the two sites could be considered as
one.
Note re: geomorphic context of Site Nos. 29/30: The majority of this
southernmost beach ridge has been re-worked into a complex series of
dunes, especially north of the beach ridgeline. It is within and upon
these dunes and between the dunes in blowouts that most of the
artifacts have been observed. It is not yet clear as to whether this
series of campsites is oriented to the dunes themselves, or whether
the clusters are eroding out of older, underlying lakeshore deposits
which have been successively covered and uncovered by dune activity
throughout the mid-to-Iate Holocene.
Artifact density: As is the case with Site No. 29, many thousands of
flakes in a wide variety of raw material occur throughout the site
area, with over 100 or more clusters or areas of concentration. Some
of these clusters contain primary core reduction debris and probably
represent miniature lithic reduction stations. There is an abundance
of diagnostic tools and only one representative of each kind was
collected in an effort to efficiently characterize the site before
further testing.
Vegetation: Sage dominates, with some greasewood, rabbitbrush and
grasses.
#490-30-56; #490-30-57)
(#490-30-55)
(#490-30-60)
(#490-30-50)
(#490-30-52)
point forms
(#490-30-54; #490-30-58)
(#490-30-59)
(#490-30-51)
Tools collected:
3 Haskett obsidian points
(#490-30-53;
1 Lake Mohave point (obsidian)
1 Miscellaneous stemmed point (obsidian)
1 Cougar Mountain point (obsidian)
1 obsidian crescent
2 small transitional stemmed
(1 = resharpened)
1 large obsidian scraper
I obsidian Cascade point
306
Legal description (both Site No. 29 and Site No. 30): The western
portion of the site covers nearly the entire southern portion of NE
1/4 of Section 20, Township 28S, Range 23E; almost the entire eastern
portion of the NW 1/4 of the same section, as well as the NE 1/4 NW
1/4 NW 1/4 of the same section. The far northeastern tip of the site
covers the west-central portion of NW 1/4 of Section 21, Township 28S,
Range 23E. Because the site is greater than 10 acres in area, a
7-sided polygon was drawn around the boundary of the site. The UTM
co-ordinates of these seven corners (beginning clockwise from the
northwest corner) are listed below. (Note that the last three corners
coincide with the National Register District boundary UTM corners of
I, J and K).
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
J.
K.
northing 4779760
northing 4779820
northing 4779370
northing 4779860
northing 4779470
northing 4779000
northing 4779200
easting
easting
easting
easting
easting
easting
easting
741830
741960
743000
743360
743530
742765
742060
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 31 (Site No.2, 1984):
Description: Small lithic scatter eroding out of beach sands on the
east flank and base of a gently-sloping beach terrace on the
southwestern shore of the Dietz sub-basin. Portions of the beach
terrace have been re-worked into dunes. The site is 300 meters
north-northwest of the northwestern tip of Site No. 30 and 350 meters
northwest of Site No. 44 which covers a large portion of the
southernmost beach ridge of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: 25 obsidian flakes in 15 meter by 10 meter area on
the east-facing slope and base of a beach terrace (150 square
meters). One long utilized blade-like flake was observed, but not
collected.
Vegetation: Relatively open cover with sage, greasewood and
rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
However, one large ground stone slab (metate) of local volcanic tuff
(#490-31-19) was observed, and its position marked, but not collected.
Legal description: East-central portion of NE 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4
Section 17, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4780120, easting 741940.
307
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time, but the site's stratigraphic
and elevational position is comparable to other known Western Stemmed
sites in the basin, so it is highly likely that this site represents
the same time period. This is somewhat re-inforced by the presence of
the same kind of ground stone slab seen at other Western Stemmed sites
(i.e. rough, unshaped, opportunistic use of local volcanic tuff).
SITE NO. 32 (Site No.3. 1984):
Description: Small lithic scatter eroding out of gently-sloping beach
ridge sands, some portions of which have been re-worked into
dunes. The site is 250 meters northwest of Site No. 31 on the
southwestern shore of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: Over 100 obsidian flakes in and around the dunes,
covering an area of about 30 meters x 50 meters (1500 square meters) .
Vegetation: Even mixture of short and tall sage and rabbitbrush, as
well as small short grasses, including Indian ricegrass.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed. One
large ground stone slab of local volcanic tuff was observed
(#490-32-220) but not collected.
Legal description: Western portion of the SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4
Section 17, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4780330, easting 741820.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time; but based on the
stratigraphic and elevational position of the site compared to other
known Western Stemmed period sites in the basin, it seems reasonable
to consider, for the moment, that the site most likely represents this
time period.
SITE NO. 33 (Site No.4, 1984):
Description: Small lithic scatter eroding out of beach terrace sands
which have been re-worked into dunes, 450 meters northwest of Site
No. 32 on the southwestern shore of the Dietz sub-basin. The site is
located at the northwestern terminus of a series of large prominent
southeast-to-northwest trending dunes which have been formed out of
older beach terrace material; and just 20 meters north of the
southwest~to-northeast trending fenceline (mentioned earlier) which
transects the northern sub-basin,
Artifact density: Over 100 obsidian flakes in a 30 meter x 50 meter
area (1500 square meters) on the northeastern flank of the beach
terrace,
Vegetation: Relatively open cover of sage, greasewood and
rabbitbrush, as well as abundant grasses, including Great Basin rye
grass and Indian ricegrass.
Tools collected: Two large obsidian.blanks or preforms (#490-33-62 and
#490-33-63),
Legal description: NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 17, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4780770, easting 741610,
308
cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, based on the
stratigraphic and elevational position of this site compared to other
known Western Stemmed sites around the basin, it seems reasonable to
consider, for the moment, that this site represents the same time
period (i.e. dating from 10,800-7,500 B.P.). This is somewhat
re-inforced by the presence of the same large obsidian roughed-out
blanks or preforms which are present in great numbers and frequency at
other Western Stemmed sites in the basin.
SITE NO. 34 (Locality 1: 8-26-85 and Locality 1: 7-18-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter located in small blowout zones
on the playa floor between small dunes in the southwestern portion of
the Dietz sub-basin, immediately north of the west-east running
section fenceline and 500 meters due west of the Four Corners Well.
Artifact density: Over 500 flakes, mostly obsidian, in an area
measuring 250 meters east-west and 120 meters north-south (30,000
square meters). The site actually consists of a series of nearly
contiguous lithic clusters, averaging 25 flakes in areas of about 10
meters x 15 meters. One such cluster produced the Desert-Side notched
point (#490-34-64). The loose sandy surface is littered with small
water-rounded obsidian and pumice pebbles which have their source in
an enormous fluvial deposit shaped like an "umbrella handle" which
originates in the large canyon one mile west of the Dietz hill. These
rounded obsidian pebbles are not to be confused with the hundreds of
culturally produced obsidian flakes which are also present.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush and greasewood dominate.
Tools collected: One Desert side-notched projectile point of obsidian
(#490-34-64) and one large obsidian scraper (#490-34-65).
Legal description: Almost the entire portion of the SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE
1/4 Section 7, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4781490,
easting 741230.
Cultural affinity: Desert side-notched points in the Great Basin
(part of the Desert series) have been dated from 1,000 to 650 B.P., up
into historic time (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
SITE NO. 35 (Locality 2: 8-26-85):
Description: Small hilltop lithic scatter located on shallow, heavily
weathered colluvial hillslope deposits on the northern flank of the
west shore ridge at a point where the shore begins to curve sharply to
the west 450 meters northwest of Site No. 33. The soil is very rocky
and thin here (classic lithosol) with only a 2 to 5 centimeter cover
of loose pumiceous sand covering a rocky "hardpan" colluvium. The
center of the site is within 5 meters of the established basin datum
point labeled as "Bob".
(#490-36-74)
(#490-36-75)
309
Artifact density: Over 200 obsidian flakes in a 20 meter x 20 meter
area (400 square meters). This is a very well-contained, discrete
lithic scatter representing primary lithic reduction activity. Large
core flakes and nodules and primary flakes, mostly cortex flakes,
dominate the scatter. Several large biface fragments of obsidian,
probably blanks or preforms, were observed but not collected.
Vegetation: Very little--two large greasewood and some ground
succulents.
Tools collected: One large obsidian blank/preform (#490-35-66) and
one obsidian Haskett point base (#490-35-67), with a burinated tip.
Legal description: South-central portion of NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 18,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781120,
easting 741320.
Cultural affinity: Western Sternmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 36 (Locality 3: 8-26-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter 200 meters southwest of Site
No. 40 further west along the shore ridge just east of where it begins
to curve sharply to the south. The rocky soil substrate is the same
shallow lithosol as described for Site Nos. 35 and 40.
Artifact density: The densest portion of the site is upslope at the
southern periphery where over 500 flakes, mostly obsidian, occur in a
concentrated zone measuring 40 meters x 40 meters. Portions of this
concentration have begun to wash downslope to the north, forming the
pear-shaped scatter outlined on the topographic map. However, the
scatter is continuous throughout this zone. Overall measurements for
the scatter are: 200 meters north-south and an average east-west width
of 80 meters (16,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush/sage dominate. Occasional very large
greasewood.
Tools collected:
3 obsidian Parman point bases
(#490-36-68, #490-36-69, #490-36-70)
2 Lake Mohave point fragments
(#490-36-71; #490-36-73)
1 non-diagnostic point tip (obsidian) (#490-36-72)
2 miscellaneous stemmed point bases
(obsidian) (#490-36-76, #490-36-77)
1 obsidian concave based point
(made on a flake)
1 large obsidian blank/preform
310
Legal description: Majority of the site lies within the western
portion of SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 18, Township 28S, Range
23E. The very northern tip of the site lies within the SE 1/4 SE 1/4
NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 of the same section. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4781100, easting 740910.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 37 (Wallman Site):
Description: Very large lithic scatter which begins 100 meters
southwest of Site No. 36 at a place where the shore ridge begins to
curve sharply to the south. This is the eastern margin of a small
southwestern lobe of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: The site actually consists of a series of lithic
clusters, with heavy concentration zones which display high numbers of
large primary and core flakes, suggesting that each is a miniature
lithic reduction station. The flakes and tools are visible within and
between dune-like accumulations of sand which have been formed out of
the older beach terrace sands below. Density is very high, with
thousands of flakes, mostly obsidian, occurring over a peanut-shaped
area measuring 300 meters southwest-to-northeast and averaging 100
meters in width (30,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Many tall sage and rabbitbrush, with a variety of
grasses.
Tools collected:
2 Haskett points (obsidian)
(1 = re-sharpened ) (#490-37-105; #490-37-107)
1 small stemmed transitional form
(obsidian) (#490-37-106)
1 non-diagnostic point tip (#490-37-110)
1 Lake Mohave stemmed point. (obsidian) (#490-37-113)
5 obsidian blanks/preforms (#490-37-109, #490-37-112;
#490-37-114; #490-37-115, #490-37-116)
1 obsidian scraper (#490-37-108)
1 tan chert scraper (#490-37-111)
Legal description: The majority of the site lies within the northern
portion of the NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 18, Township 28S, Range
23E. The northern tip of the site covers the SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW
1/4 of the same section. The northeastern tip covers the SW 1/4 SW 1/4
SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 of the same section. The southeastern tip of the
site covers the NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 of the same
section. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4780950, easting 740655.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
311
SITE NO. 38 (Localities 4 and 5: 8-26-85)
Description: Very large lithic scatter which begins 800 meters due
south of Site No. 37 along the southeastern shore of the southwestern
lobe of the Dietz sub-basin. The site is situated on a flat sandy
beach terrace or shelf-like ridge at the base of a large butte at the
northern margin of a series of active dunes at the far southwestern
end of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: Some of the scatter is visible in small swales or
blowout zones between the dunes. Lithic scatters in the northern
portion of the site are very diffuse, and density increases to the
south near the dunes. In the densest portions, there are hundreds of
flakes, mostly obsidian, in each cluster, averaging 10 meters x 20
meters. The overall site area measures 450 meters
southeast-to-northwest, and averages 100 meters in width (45,000
square meters).
Vegetation: Tall sage dominates with some rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: Majority of site covers the entire portion of SW
1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 18, Township 28S, Range 23E. The northern
portion of the site covers the SW 1/4 NW J/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 of the same
section. The northwestern tip covers the NE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4
of the same section. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4779940, easting
740850.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 39 (Isolated Find No. 25; Diagnostic tool #2: 8-25-85)
Tool: 1 large obsidian corner-notched point (#490-39-61)
Location: The tool was found on the outskirts of Site No. 30 on the
crest of the southernmost beach ridge which marks the southern
drainage divide of the northern sub-basin, not far from a stemmed
point base fragment (#490-30-50). However, neither tool was found in
association with any of the lithic clusters associated with Site
No. 30, therefore, this corner-notched point has been designated as an
isolated find.
Vegetation: Sage dominates, with some greasewood, rabbitbrush and
grasses.
Legal description: SE 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 20; Township 28S,
Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4779048, easting 742732.
Cultural affinity: Great Basin Elko series (Elko corner-notched) have
been dated from 3,500-1,500 B.P., or as early as 8,000 to 6,500 B.P.
(Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1978, 1986).
312
SITE NO. 40 (Site No. 5. 1984~
Description: Very large hillslope lithic scatter on the same shallow,
heavily-weathered colluvial deposits on the northern flank of the west
shore ridge 250 meters west-northwest of Site No. 35. The soil is
somewhat less shallow here than at Site No. 35, with about 5 to 20
centimeters of loose pumice-rich cover sand. Here also, the western
shore is now oriented due west, heading into the direction of a small
southwestern lobe of the Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: Very high percentage of diagnostic tools and point
fragments with respect to flakes, suggesting that this site was a
special activity camp where expended, wasted points were removed from
the haft and replaced with new hafted points. A total of 27 tools were
collected from this site, of which 18 are valid diagnostic styles (see
list below). Despite the high numbers of diagnostic tools, flake
density is also very high, with over 1000 flakes in a wide variety of
raw materials, including many different kinds of obsidian, some basalt
and chert. The site area measures 200 meters southwest-to-northeast,
and 100 meters northwest-to-southeast (20,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Mostly sage and rabbitbrush, with many tall sage and some
ground succulents.
Tools collected:
3 Lake Mohave point bases
(#490-40-78; #490-40-84; #490-40-94)
3 large transitional stemmed point forms
(#490-40-81, #490-40-89; #490-40-95)
2 miscellaneous stemmed bases (#490-40-83; #490-40-85)
4 Windust points (#490-40-92, #490-40-93, #490-40-96,
#490-40-100)
6 obsidian blanks/preforms (#490-40-79, #490-40-82,
#490-40-87, #490-40-88, #490-40-91, #490-40-97)
3 obsidian biface fragments
(#490-40-80, #490-40-86 and #490-40-98)
3 Haskett points (green CCS, basalt, obsidian)
(#490-40-99; #490-40-102; #490-40-103)
1 Plano-like Concave Base point (#490-40-101)
1 Parman point (#490-40-90)
1 scraper of tan chert (#490-40-104)
Legal description: Majority of the site lies within the east central
portion of HW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 18, Township 28S, Range 23E. The
extreme northeastern tip of the site lies within the SW 1/4 SW 1/4
HW 1/4 NE 1/4 HE 1/4 Section 18, Township 28S, Range 23E.
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781180, easting 741090.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
1 large obsidian blank/preform
1 large obsidian scraper
313
SITE NO. 41 (Locality 1: 8-27-85):
Description: Large lithic scatter located in the dune re-worked sands
of a beach terrace at the far northwestern corner of the southwestern
lobe of the Dietz sub-basin. The site is 100 meters southwest of the
southern tip of the Dietz site hill, 700 meters due west across the
basin floor from Site No. 37, and 450 meters due south of the
west-east trending section fenceline.
Artifact density: Over 500 flakes, mostly interior flakes of
obsidian, in an area measuring 100 meters x 100 meters (10,000 square
meters) in a bowl-shaped area just on and below a prominent beach
terrace or shelf running along the northwestern shore below and at the
base of a steep sloping ridge.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates, with some grasses.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: The majority of the site lies within the NE 1/4 NE
1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 13, Township 28S, Range 22E. The northern
tip of the site lies within the SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 of
the same section. The southwestern tip of the site lies within the NW
1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 18, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM
co-ordinates: northing 4780940, easting 739930.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, the stratigraphy
and elevational position of the site compares closely with that of
Site No. 42, just 60 meters south, which is assignable to the western
Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500 B.P.
SITE NO. 42 (Locality 2: 8-27-85):
Description: Extremely large lithic scatter located 60 meters due
south of Site No. 41 located in the same geomorphic shoreline position
in the extreme northwestern corner of this southwestern lobe of the
Dietz sub-basin.
Artifact density: Thousands of flakes, mostly obsidian, occurring
throughout an area measuring 450 meters north-south and 200 meters
east-west (90,000 square meters). As is the case with Site No. 41, the
artifacts are found in loose sandy beach material which has been
re-worked into small dunes. Unlike Site No. 41, the lithic scatter of
this site is much more dense, and the loose pumiceous sand covering
the surface has been deflated in many spots, exposing dry cracked
playa floor beneath it. The lithic scatter runs parallel to the shore
for the full 450 meter length of the site, and extends 200 meters east
out onto the playa floor.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush/greasewood dominate, with some sage/grasses.
Tools collected:
2 obsidian crescents (#490-42-117; #490-42-121)
2 Cougar Mountain bases (obsidian)
(#490-42-118, #490-42-122)
(#490-42-120)
(#490-42-119)
SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4
SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4
NE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4
314
Legal description: Three portions of the site strattle parts of
Section 18, Township 28S, Range 23E:
Northeastern tip: SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4
Northeastern portion: Western portion SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4
Southeastern portion: Western portion NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4
Three portions of the site strattle parts of Section 13, Township 28S,
Range 22E:
Northwestern tip:
Northwest portion:
Southwest portion:
Because the site is over 10 acres, a 4-sided polygon has been drawn
around the site boundaries for UTM corner co-ordinates. The fourth
(southwestern) corner coincides with the district boundary UTM corner
co-ordinate labeled "P". Beginning with the northwest corner and
moving clockwise, the four UTM corner co-ordinates are as follows:
1. northing 4780790 easting 739860
2. northing 4780850 easting 740065
3. northing 4780380 easting 740120
P. northing 4780260 easting 739930
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 43 (Locality 3: 8-27-85):
Description: Extremely large lithic scatter at the extreme
southern end of the southwestern lobe of the Dietz sub-basin,
beginning 100 meters southwest of the southern margin of Site No. 38.
This area consists entirely of a dune complex which appears to be
fairly recent and still active.
Artifact density: The flake clusters are visible in small blowout
zones and swales between dunes. Very dense--thousands of flakes,
mostly obsidian, over an area measuring 520 meters
southwest-to-northeast, and averaging 160 meters in width (83,200
square meters).
Vegetation: Tall sage dominates with some rabbitbrush and grasses.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
However, the tip fragments of several obsidian projectile points were
observed, but not collected. Their size and proportion suggest very
small, late-style periods.
315
Legal description: The majority of the site lies within the SW 1/4
and the SE 1/4 of NE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 19, Township 28S, Range
23E. The northwestern tip of the site lies within the SE 1/4 NW 1/4 NE
1/4 NW 1/4 of the same section. The northern portion of the site lies
within the southern portion of the NE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 of the same
section. The northeastern tip of the site lies within the SW 1/4
NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 of the same section. Finally, the southeastern
tip of the site lies within the NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 of the
same section. Because the site is greater than 10 acres, a 4-sided
polygon has been drawn around the site boundaries for UTM
co-ordinates. Two of the corners are shared with the district boundary
polygon corners of "N" and "0". Beginning with the far western corner
and moving clockwise the four UTM corners are as follows:
1.
2.
N.
O.
northing 4779420
northing 4779700
northing 4779630
northing 4779250
easting
easting
easting
easting
740380
740600
741020
740470
Cultural affinity: The presence of very small projectile point tips
suggest a late-period Great Basin site, no earlier than 1500 B.P.,
based on comparisons to the earliest known point series which would
match the point tip sizes observed at the site (i.e. Rosegate series
of small corner-notched points).
SITE NO. 44 (Locality 4: 8-27-85):
Description: Extremely large flake scatter in dune re-worked beach
sands on the southernmost beach ridge in the Dietz sub-basin. The site
covers the majority of the southwest-northeast trending beach ridge
beginning 60 meters southwest of Site No. 28 on the eastern shore and
ending 320 meters southeast of Site No. 31 on the western shore. The
southeast-northwest trending Four Corners Well road (dirt unimproved)
cuts through the center of the site.
Artifact density: The densest portion of the site is concentrated on
the southern flank of this beach ridge, and on its flat shelf-like
crest. The basin datum station "Kevin" marks the highest spot on the
ridge crest just upslope of the densest portion of the site. The
lithic scatter on the northern flank covers a broad area, sloping
gently down for almost 300 meters out onto the playa floor, but the
scatter here is much more diffuse. The entire site contains thousands
of flakes, in a wide variety of obsidian, with some basalt and chert
present. It covers an area measuring 700 meters east-west and
averaging 240 meters wide (168,000 square meters), being 480 meters at
its widest point.
Vegetation: Tall sage dominates, with some greasewood, rabbitbrush
and a few grasses.
316
Tools collected:
1 large transitional stemmed point form
(obsidian, re-sharpened) (#490-44-123)
3 miscellaneous stemmed point bases
(obsidian) (#490-44-124; #490-44-125; #490-44-126)
1 Plano-like concave based point (#490-44-127)
Legal description: Three portions of the site strattle parts of
Section 17, Township 28S, Range 23E:
Majority of site: Almost entire portion of SW 1/4 SE 1/4
western portion: western portion of SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4
Far southern portion: SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4
NE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4
NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4
NE 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4
Three
Range
portions of the site strattle parts of Section 20,
23E:
Southwestern portion:
Southcentral portion:
Southeastern portion:
Township 28S,
742570
742920
742720
742100
easting
easting
easting
easting
4780300
4780020
4779760
4779780
northing
northing
northing
northing
Because the site is over 10 acres, a 4-sided polygon was drawn around
the site boundaries for UTM corner co-ordinates. These four UTM
corners, beginning with the northernmost point and moving clockwise,
are as follows:
l.
2.
3.
4.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 45 (Locality 1 : 8-29-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter 650 meters northwest of the
northern boundary of the Dietz site (35 LK 1529). The site is situated
on a shelf-like beach terrace along the eastern flank of the western
shoreline in the southeastern sector of the Chase sub-basin.
Artifact density: Many tools and thousands of flakes, mostly
obsidian, are scattered in a 100-meter wide strip which follows the
curve of the western shoreline, beginning 5 meters north of the
east-west powerline road (dirt unimproved) and extending for 500
meters to the northwest (50,000 square meters). Flakes are found as
high up as halfway up the Flank of the hill overlooking the shoreline
terrace and they extend downslope out onto the relatively level playa
floor, where small dune-like accumulations of sand have been formed
out of the older beach sands. The largest concentration of debris is
in the center of the site near and just south of the 8-meter square
collection unit (surface collected by John Fagan on August 22, 1985).
(#490-45-128)
(#490-45-129)
(#490-45-130)
317
Surface collection: On August 22, 1985, John L. Fagan supervised the
surface collection of point-plotted artifacts and flaking debris from
an 8-meter square gridded area in the center of the site. The purpose
of the collection was to have some comparative material from a known
single-component western Stemmed site to compare to artifact clusters
at the Dietz site which were believed to be assignable to the same
culture. In addition to this 8-meter unit, Fagan also collected 9
diagnostic tool fragments from the surface across the site, labeling
them Tools #1-9 (see list below). Jo Reese and Bob Musil aided Fagan
in the collection. Later, in my shore survey, three additional
diagnostic tools were collected (Tools A-C).
Vegetation: Tall sage, greasewood and rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: (* = tools collected by and in the possession of
Fagan)
8 miscellaneous stemmed point base fragments*
(#490-45-131 through #490-45-137; #490-45-139)
1 scraper* (#490-45-138)
1 small transitional stemmed point
form (re-sharpened)
1 Plano-like concave based
point fragment (obsidian)
1 large obsidian blank or preform
Legal description: Four sections of the site fall within different
parts of Section 35, Township 27S, Range 22E: 1) the majority of the
site covers SE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4; 2) the north-central portion of the
site covers SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4; 3) the northern tip of the
site covers the eastern portion of NE 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4; and 4)
the southern tip of the site covers SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4.
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784890, easting 740500.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
SITE NO. 46 (Locality 1 : 8-30-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter 150 meters to the northeast
past the northern limit of Site No. 45, along the western flank of the
same western shoreline terrace, at a place where the shoreline curves
sharply to the northeast around a small, but prominent hill.
Artifact density: Hundreds of flakes, in a wide variety of obsidian
with some basalt and chert, occur in a 180-meter long scatter
following the western shoreline from the flank and base of the hill
extending out onto the playa floor in an area 120 meters wide (21,600
square meters). The densest part of the scatter is 25 to 30 meters
southeast of the hill as it curves sharply to the northeast. Large
primary flakes, many of them cortex flakes, and many large interior
flakes were observed.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with 5-10% sage.
318
Tools collected: Several large biface fragments were observed, but not
collected. The two artifacts collected include:
1 possible ground stone fragment (#490-46-140)
1 large obsidian blank or preform (#490-46-141)
Legal description: Western half SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 35,
Township 27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4785310,
easting 740250.
cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, elevational and
geomorphic position is comparable to the four other Western Stemmed
sites known from the Chase sub-basin.
SITE NO. 47 (Locality 2 : 8-30-85; "Carol Site"):
Description: Very large lithic scatter 500 meters northwest of Site
No. 46 along the same northwest trending shoreline of the Chase
sub-basin. The center of the site is marked by the basin datum "Carol"
at the top of a small, but prominent hill which protrudes out to the
northeast onto the playa floor.
Artifact density: Hundreds of flakes, in a wide variety of obsidian,
some basalt and chert, occur along the top of the hill, downslope
along its north, east and southeast flanks, and extending out 100
meters past the base of the hill and beach terrace onto level playa
floor. The area covered by the site measures 300 meters north-south
and 200 meters east-west (60,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Sage and rabbitbrush equally dominate.
Tools collected:
2 obsidian Silver Lake point fragments
(weakly shouldered) (#490-47-142, #490-47-143)
6 Lake Mohave stemmed points
(1 = reworked into burin) (#490-47-144, #490-47-146,
#490-47-147; #490-47-148; #490-47-151; #490-47-153)
1 obsidian Haskett point fragment (#490-47-145)
1 miscellaneous stemmed point base
fragment (obsidian) (#490-47-154)
3 obsidian blanks or preforms
(#490-47-149, #490-47-150, #490-47-151)
1 obsidian scraper (#490-47-152)
Legal description: Three portions of the site cover three different
parts of Section 35, Township 27S, Range 22E: I} The majority of the
site covers the NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4; 2} the eastern edge of the site
covers the far western portion of the NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4; and 3} the
very southern tip of the site covers the NE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4.
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4785860,· easting 740100.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
319
SITE NO. 48 (Locality 3 : 8-30-85 : "Hilltop Site"):
Description: Extremely large lithic scatter at the far northwestern
corner of the Chase sub-basin along a prominent shoreline terrace. The
southwest margin of the site begins 320 meters due north of Site
No. 47. The site is spatially oriented to a large and very prominent
north-south trending hill (thus, the name Hilltop Site) which rises
conspicuously off the valley floor just west of the northwestern
shoreline. The beach terrace is built into the east flank of the hill,
forming a broad, flat sandy shelf at the base of the hill and
extending out for about 50 meters to the east. Below this, the lower
portion of the beach terrace is capped with more recent dune
development and is truncated by a prominent wave-cut scarp, below
which most of the artifacts are found. As is the case with the eastern
shoreline sites in the Dietz sub-basin, the artifacts appear to be
eroding out of the base of the dune materials and the underlying
lakeshore deposits, gradually spilling out further onto the playa
floor for a distance of at least 160 meters from the base of the
hill. This offers great potential for discovering remains in Buried
context, with good stratigraphic control.
Artifact density: This site is unusually dense and productive. There
are many thousands of flakes in a wide variety of materials, including
many kinds of obsidian, as well as basalt and chert varieties. The
area of the site measures 440 meters southeast-to-northwest, and up to
600 meters southwest-to-northeast (264,000 square meters). Discrete
clusters and workshop areas litter the site, many of which appear to
be intact lithic reduction stations with core fragments lying near the
core and spall flakes which were removed, providing great potential
for studying detailed activity areas and re-fitting studies at the
site.
Vegetation: On the broad sandy shelf, tall sage dominates with some
rabbitbrush. On the top of the hill, small ground succulents and
buckwheat are present. Down past the terrace and wave-cut scarp in
fluvial wash zones and playa floor areas, rabbitbrush dominates,
although vegetation here is very little.
320
Tools collected:
2 small transitional stemmed forms (obsidian)
(reworked/resharpened) (#490-48-155; #490-48-166)
1 Plano-like square based point (#490-48-159)
1 Cougar Mountain stemmed point base (#490--48-169)
3 Lake Mohave stemmed point fragments
(obsidian) (#490-48-157; #490-48-160; #490-48-175)
3 large transitional stemmed forms
(obsidian) (weak shoulders)
(#490-48-156; #490-48-165, #490-48-168)
1 obsidian knife ("hilltop" knife) (#490-48-158)
1 tan chert stemmed point base (#490-48-]62)
1 obsidian Parman point (#490-48-167)
1 obsidian crescent fragment (#490-48-163)
2 large obsidian blanks/knives
(#490-48-170, #490-48-171)
1 obsidian scraper (#490-48-174)
3 possible ground stone fragments
(of local volcanic tuff)
(#490-48-161, #490-48-172, #490-48-173)
1 abrading stone
(of local volcanic tuff)
1 bevelled ground stone (mano)
(of local tuff)
(#490-48-176)
(#490-48-164)
Legal description: Four portions of the site cover four different
parts of Section 26, Township 27S, Range 22E: 1) The majority of the
site covers almost the entire portion of the SW 1/4; 2) the northern
tip of the site covers the SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SW 1/4; 3) the
northeastern portion of the site covers the western half of the NW 1/4
SW 1/4 SE 1/4; and 4) the southeast portion of the site covers the
western half of the SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4. In addition, the southern
tip of the site lies within the far northern portion of the NE 1/4 NE
1/4 NW 1/4 of Section 35, Township 27S, Range 22E. Because the site is
over 10 acres in size, a 5-sided polygon has been drawn around the
boundary of the site for 5 UTM corner measurements. Two of these
corners coincide with the first and last district boundary corners of
"A" and "S", respectively. Beginning in the northwestern corner with
point "A", and moving clockwise, the 5 UTM corner co-ordinates are as
follows:
A. northing 4787000 easting 739910
1. northing 4786880 easting 740190
2. northing 4786500 easting 740300
3. northing 4786200 easting 740040
S. northing 4786490 easting 739700
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
32J
SITE NO. 49 (Locality 1 : 9-1-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter 200 meters due east of the
easternmost extent of Site No. 48 near the northernmost point on the
4330-foot shoreline in the Chase sub-basin. The shelf-like beach
terrace begins to break up in this section, but remnant portions are
dune-capped and truncated by the same wave-cut scarp, below which the
artifacts are found.
Artifact density: The scatter is somewhat diffuse, covering an area
250 meters southwest-to-northeast and averaging 100 meters wide
(25,000 square meters). The core area of the site with the densest
scatter is about 10 meters x 30 meters (300 square meters) and
contains about 200 obsidian flakes. One uniface was observed but not
collected. There are many interior flakes.
Vegetation: Mostly sage and rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: 1 obsidian crescent (#490-49-178)
Legal description: The northern portion of the site lies within the
southern half of the SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 26, Township 27S,
Range 22E. The southern portion of the site lies within the northern
half of the NE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 of the same section.
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4786800, easting 740460.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500 .
B.P.
SITE NO. 50 (Locality 2 : 9-1-85):
Description: Large lithic scatter which begins within 100 meters due
east of Site No. 49 along the northern shoreline near its apex. The
site appears to be eroding out of the beach terrace in large deflation
zones and f]uvial wash areas along the northeast shoreline in the
Chase sub-basin.
Artifact density: About 200 obsidian flakes in an area measuring J80
meters east-west and averaging 80 meters wide (14,400 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with some sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were
observed. However, two large rock slabs of local volcanic tuff flagged
in 1985 for later inspection (as possible ground stone) were
re-examined in 1986, and were not considered to be valid ground stone.
Legal description: Northern half of the SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section
26, Township 27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4786940,
easting 740680.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time, but elevational and
geomorphic position is exactly the same as the four other known
Western Stemmed sites discovered along this northern stretch of
shoreline.
322
SITE NO. 51 (Locality 3 : 9-1-85):
Description: Large lithic scatter within 100 meters southeast of Site
No. 50 along the north-central shoreline in the Chase sub-basin as it
begins to curve to the south-southeast. The site is within 250 meters
of the junction of the Christmas Valley Road and the road which
outlines the Roger Chase field. As with the other north shore sites,
in the Chase sub-basin, the lithic materials are visible in small
blowout zones downslope of the truncated beach terrace.
Artifact density: About 200 obsidian flakes in a 100 meter x 100
meter area (10,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with some sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were
observed. However, there may be some ground stone slab fragments in
the vicinity.
Legal description: The northern portion of the site covers the
southern half of the SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 26, Township 27S,
Range 22E. The southern portion of the site covers the northern half
of the NE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 of the same section. UTM co-ordinates:
northing 4786840, easting 740860.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, the elevational and
geomorphic position compares exactly to the other four known Western
Stemmed sites along this northernmost shoreline in the Chase
sub-basin.
SITE NO. 52 (Locality 4 : 9-1-85):
Description: Large lithic scatter within 100 meters due east of Site
No. 51 along the north-central shoreline in the Chase sub-basin as it
begins to curve to the south-southeast. The site is within 5 meters of
the junction of the Roger Chase road (dirt unimproved) and the
Christmas Valley road. In addition, the first of two major benchmark
elevation caps used as our elevational datums for basin-wide survey of
this district is located along the fence at the junction of these two
roads. The elevation here is 4334.5 feet above sea level.
Artifact density: About 200 obsidian flakes in a 100 meter x 100
meter area (10,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Small rabbitbrush dominates with some sage.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were
observed. However, a large uniface was observed, but not collected.
Legal description: The northern portion of the site lies within the
SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 26, Township 27S, Range 22E. The
southern portion of the site lies within the NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SW
1/4 of the same section. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4786800, easting
741030.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, the elevational and
geomorphic position is exactly the same as four other known Western
Stemmed sites discovered along this northernmost shoreline in the
Chase sub-basin.
-323
SITE NO. 53 (Locality 6 : 9-14-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter within 20 meters due south of
the Roger Chase field/fence, along the northeastern shoreline of the
Chase sub-basin, and within 100 meters of the east-west
powerline/section line road. The beach terrace here is heavily
re-worked into dunes and the artifacts are visible in small blowout
zones and fluvial wash areas between dunes.
Artifact density: Hundreds of flakes, mostly obsidian, in an area
measuring 200 meters east-west and 250 meters north~south (50,000
square meters).
Vegetation: Tall sage dominates with some grasses and rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were collected.
Legal description: Four portions of the site cover strattle four
different areas in Section 36, Township 27S, Range 22E:
1. Northwest portion: Eastern half NE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4
2. Northeast portion: Western half NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4
3. Southeast portion: NW 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4
4. Southwest portion: NE 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4785060, easting 742240.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, it is highly likely
that the site is assignable to the Western Stemmed period dating from
10,800-7,500 B.P., based on its elevational and geomorphic position
compared to all other known sites of this period in both the Chase and
Dietz sub-basins.
SITE NO. 54 (Locality 7 : 9-14-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter 400 meters due south of Site
No. 53 along the same dune re-worked east shore ridge dividing the
Chase and Dietz sub-basins, and within 300 meters south of the
east-west powerline/section line road. The site is also within 200
meters of Site No.2, indicating that we have now come full circle in
surveying the 4330-foot shoreline around the northern sub-basin.
Artifact density: About 100 obsidian flakes in an area measuring 100
meters southwest-to-northeast and averaging 50 meters wide (5,000
square meters).
Vegetation: Sage and greasewood dominate with some rabbitbrush.
Tools collected: None because no diagnostic styles were observed.
Legal description: NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784485, easting 742220.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
324
SITE NO. 55 (Locality 1 : 8-31-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter within 100 meters of the southwest
corner of Roger Chase's field and 450 meters due north of the
east-west power line/section line road in the approximate center of the
Chase sub-basin. This site is not associated with any shoreline, and
was discovered while surveying a long north-south transect across the
northern sub-basin to purposefully cover non-shoreline area as a test
to the shoreline hypothesis. In this survey, only two sites were
discovered within the district boundaries: Site No. 55 and Site No. 56
located 450 meters to the northwest. This site is a very small lithic
reduction station containing no diagnostic artifacts.
Artifact density: About 50 flakes of army green obsidian within a 20
meter x 20 meter area (400 square meters). This site seems to
represent a self-contained lithic reduction station involving
reduction of one or two nodules of the same green obsidian material in
an open deflated area on the playa floor.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates.
Tools collected: None because no tools of any kind, much less
diagnostic styles, were observed.
Legal description: South-central portion of SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4
Section 35, Township 27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates:
northing 4785200, easting 740885.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 56 (Locality 2 : 8-31-85):
Description: Small lithic scatter within 200 meters due west of Roger
Chase's field/fence and 450 meters northwest of Site No. 55 in the
approximate center of the Chase sub-basin. This site is not associated
with any shoreline, and was discovered while surveying a long
north-south transect across the northern sub-basin to cover
non-shoreline area to test to the shoreline hypothesis. In this
survey, only two sites were discovered within the district
boundaries: Site No. 55 (described above) and Site No. 56.
Artifact density: About 50 flakes of black-grey obsidian within a 30
meter x 30 meter area (900 square meters). This site seems to
represent a self-contained lithic reduction station involving
reduction of one or two nodules of the same obsidian material in an
open deflated area on the playa floor. The densest portion of the site
is contained within a 10 meter x 10 meter area near the center of the
site.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates.
Tools collected: No tools were collected. However, a midsection of a
possible Haskett-style stemmed point was observed 10 to 15 meters to
the northwest of the site datum. .
Legal description: NE 1/4 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 35, Township
27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4785680, easting 740760.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
(#490-64-179)
(#490-64-180)
(#490-64-181)
tuffaceous rock)
and #490-64-182b)
(#490-64-183)
325
SITE NOS. 57 through 63 (Localities 1 through 7 : 9-14-85):
Description: These sites are a series of lithic reduction stations
(Nos. 57-62) and one extremely large quarry site (No. 63) located well
outside the district boundaries and well above the northern sub-basin
drainage boundary marked by the 4340-foot contour interval. They were
discovered in the north-south transect survey which was designed to
discover just how many sites lay outside the northern sub-basin at
higher elevations. They are not a part of the archaeological district
as it is defined here and will not be included in the nomination.
SITE NO. 64 (Locality 2 : 7-18-85):
Description: Very large lithic scatter on the crest of the central
shore ridge at 4318-feet elevation in the approximate center of the
Dietz sub-basin along a broad flat wave-planed shelf. A large
moon-shaped east-west dune has been built upon this shelf and the
artifacts are eroding out of the lakebed materials on the shelf and
from beneath the dune sand.
Artifact density: Less than 300 flakes, mostly obsidian in an area
measuring 150 meters x 150 meters (22,500 square meters) upon and
surrounding the base of the dune on the wave-planed shelf.
Vegetation: Mostly greasewood and rabbitbrush with some sage.
Tools collected:
1 obsidian Cougar Mountain point
1 obsidian Haskett point base
1 ground stone (mano)
1 large ground stone slab (metate of local
(in 2 pieces) (#490-64-182a
1 obsidian keeled style crescent
Legal description: The majority of the site lies within the NW 1/4 SE
1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23E. The very
northern tip of the site lies within the SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SW 1/4
NW 1/4 of the same section. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4782360,
easting 741690.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7500
B.P.
326
SITE NO. 65 (Tucker Site):
Description: Small lithic scatter actively eroding out of a prominent
wave-cut scarp on the far eastern shore of the Dietz sub-basin in a
small fluvial wash zone between a southeast-northwest trending dune
and the dune-capped eastern shore. The site is located 150 meters
southeast of the prominent "nose" of a large hill which slopes down
sharply to meet the east shore beach terraces and is 150 meters
southeast of Site No. 19 on the east shore.
Artifact density: Density of flakes is very high--over 300 flakes,
mostly obsidian, in a 70 meter x 15 meter oblong area (1050 square
meters) between the dune and the east shore. Most of the flakes are
large, mostly cortex flakes or large primary flakes. Also observed
were numerous preforms or blanks, large biface fragments and several
fragments of ground stone slabs of local volcanic tuff.
Stratiqraphv and Testing: A 50-meter long backhoe trench was placed
perpendicular to the shore ridge at the Tucker Site for stratigraphic
examination; and a 1 meter x 1 meter test unit was excavated into
the wave-cut scarp 15 meters due south of the backhoe trench.
Preliminary analysis of stratigraphy and context of artifacts
confirms the fact that the artifacts are eroding out of a buried
context 1.2 to 1.3 meters below the surface at the contact between the
base of the dune sand and the uppermost lakebed deposits. It is also
apparent that the surface of origin is a remnant, buried A2 soil
horizon which holds great potential for dating (charcoal flecks and
organic debris) and environmental reconstruction.
Vegetation: None in the fluvial wash zone, but sage dominates the
dune capped shoreline and dune crest which mark the east and west
margins of the site.
diagnostic.
#490-65-24)
#490-65-16,
#490-65-20)
1 chert biface
1 large utilized basalt flake
collected: A total of 13 tools were collected, none
1 large basalt biface (#490-65-13)
1 large obsidian biface (#490-65-14)
4 ground stone tools (metate fragments)
(#490-65-21, #490-65-22, #490-65-23,
5 large obsidian blanks/preforms (#490-65-15,
#490-65-18, #490-65-19,
(#490-65-25)
(#490-65-17)
Tools
Legal description: West-central portion of NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4
Section 8, Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4782550, easting 742730.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time; but stratigraphy suggests
that occupation has to be in the late Pleistocene-early Holocene,
bracketing the time range between 11,500-7,500 B.P. This implies
occupation during either the Western Clovis period or the Western
Stemmed period.
-
327
SITE NO. 66 (Locality 1 : 9-13-86):
Description: Small lithic scatter 50 meters north of the 4318-foot
elevation shore ridge hypothesized to be the northern shore of the
Clovis-era lake/marsh. In this section of the Dietz sub-basin, the
4318-foot shore ridge is covered with loose, pumiceous sands re-worked
into small dune-like accumulations, and the land begins to gently
slope northward towards the eroded drainage cut in the center of the
Dietz sub-basin spit 500 meters to the north. This site is situated in
this section of the north shore ridge that begins to slope gently
northward, with sections of the old beach ridge broken up into small
irregular accumulations of re-worked beach sands.
Artifact density: About 200 obsidian flakes in an area measuring 100
meters x 40 meters (4,000 square meters).
Vegetation: Sage and rabbitbrush with some greasewood and small
grasses.
Tools collected:
1 obsidian Plano-like square based point (#490-66-184)
2 obsidian blanks/preforms (#490-66-185, #490-66-186)
In addition, the location of 2 other Plano-like stemmed point bases
(similar to #490-66-184) were staked when this site was first
discovered on 7-18-85, but upon returning to the site to map it on
9-13-86, these 2 points were not found again near their stakes.
Legal description: The western portion of the site lies within the SE
1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E.
UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783520, easting 741620.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P., but probably the later period of occupatio, about 8,000 to 7,000
B.P.
SITE NO. 67 (Locality 2: 9-13-86):
Description: Large lithic scatter within 50 meters north of the
4318-foot elevation shore ridge hypothesized to be the northern shore
of the Clovis-era lake/marsh. In this section of the Dietz sub-basin,
the 4318-foot shore ridge is covered with loose, pumiceous sands
re-worked into small dune-like accumulations, and the land begins to
gently slope northward toward the drainage cut into the Dietz
sub-basin spit 500 meters to the north. Like Site No. 66, this site is
situated in this section of the north shore ridge that begins to slope
gently northward, with sections of the old beach ridge broken up into
small irregular accumulations of re-worked beach sands.
Artifact density: About 200 obsidian flakes in an area measuring 160
meters x 60 meters (9,600 square meters).
Vegetation: Sage and rabbitbrush with some greasewood and small
grasses.
328
Tools collected:
2 obsidian Humboldt concave base points
(#490-67-189, #490-67-190)
1 medium-size obsidian side-notched point fragment
(#490-67-187)
1 obsidian blank/preform (#490-67-188)
Legal description: The northern portion of the site covers the SE 1/4
SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S, Range 23E. The southern
portion of the site lies within the north-central portion of the NE
1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 of the same section. UTM co-ordinates: northing
4783480, easting 741720.
cultural affinity: Large side-notched points are not universally
accepted as valid time markers in the Great Basin. On the Columbia
Plateau and throughout the Great Basin, they have been dated from
6,500-4,500 B.P. (Warren 1968) and in Surprise Valley, California,
they date to within the Menlo Phase from 6000-5000 B.P. (O'Connell
1975). It may also be that the side-notched points at this site,
because of their smaller size and Elko-like shape, are Elko
side-notched and belong to that series instead (3,500-1,500
B.P.). Layton (1970) places the Humboldt (Hu4) types at about 6,500 to
4,500 B.P. This site seems to represent a transitional site somewhere
in time between late Western Stemmed and early Humboldt and
Side-notched forms, about 7,000 to 6,000 B.P.
SITE NO. 68 (Isolated Find No.1; Locality 1: 7-20-85):
Tool: Black obsidian Pinto shouldered point (#490-68-191).
Location: 160 meters northeast of 1250 N/O E datum station at the
northern end of the Dietz site baseline near a place where the
northern Dietz site spit breaks in slope down into a large fluvial
wash area.
Vegetation: Some large sage, a few grasses and some small
rabbitbrush.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784280, easting 741280.
Cultural affinity: Great Basin Pinto-like points (Gatecliff Series
Split Stem) have been dated from 5000-3500 B.P., possibly as early as
8000-6500 B.P. if they relate more to true "Pinto Basin" pinto style
points. This site probably dates within the early period of Pinto
between 8,000 and 6,000 B.P. (Holmer 1986; Thomas 1983; Warren 1986).
Site No. 69 (Isolated Find No.2; Locality 3: 7-20-85):
Tool: Large transitional stemmed point form (transitional to
side-notched forms) (#490-69-192).
Location: 200 meters south of Site No.1 at the southern end of the
same large fluvial wash area.
329
Vegetation: Includes a few small grasses and rabbitbrush.
Legal description: SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784125, easting 741370.
Cultural affinity: Probably dates to within the later period of
western Stemmed Occupation, about 8,000 to 7,000 B.P.
Site No. 70 (Isolated Find No.3; Locality 7 : 7-20-85):
Tool: Large obsidian scraper (#490-70-193).
Location: 130 meters due west of a point where the southwest-northeast
trending fenceline meets the southernmost dune/beach ridge 140 meters
southwest of Site No.4.
Vegetation: Consists of an even mixture of sage and rabbitbrush.
Legal descriptioni SW 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 5, Township
28S, Range 23 E. UTM co-ordinates: 4783940, easting 742280.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
Site No. 71 (Isolated Find No.4; Diagnostic Tool #5: 7-23-85):
Tool: Large corner-notched (and basally-notched) projectile point
fragment of obsidian (#490-71-194). May represent Elko-eared style
(Elko series) or may represent Great Basin Pinto-like (Gatecliff Split
Stem Series). The earlier Elko series has been known to date as early
as 8,000 to 7,500 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986; Thomas 1981, 1983).
Location: 150 meters southwest of Site No. 22 in loose sandy
dune-worked beach deposits of a bowl-shaped shelf-like area located
midway between the crest of the east shore dunes and the level playa
floor to the west.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with some small sage and cheatgrass.
Legal description: SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 8,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781940,
easting 742570.
Cultural affinity: Can be assigned to either the Early Archaic
Gatecliff Series Split stem (Great Basin Pinto-like style) dating from
5000-3500 B.P. (possibly as early as 8000-6500 B.P.) or to the Mid
Archaic Elko series (Elko-eared) dating from 3500-1500 B.P. (Hanes
1988a; Holmer 1986; Thomas 1981, 1983).
Site No. 72~Isolated Find No.5; Diagnostic Tool #1: 9-16-85):
Tool: Large obsidian corner-notched (Elko eared) point assignable to
the Elko Series (#490-72-195).
Location: 5 meters below and west of basin datum point "DICK" on the
northernmost tip of a long isolated finger dune which begins here and
extends 350 meters to the southeast along the eastern shoreline. This
location is 420 meters southeast of Site No. 25 at the fence and 300
meters due south of the same section fenceline.
F330
Vegetation: Mostly sage and greasewood, with some rabbitbrush and
grasses.
Legal description: NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 17, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781140, easting 742570.
Cultural affinity: Can be assigned to the Great Basin Elko Series
(Elko-eared) dating from 3,500-1,500 B.P., or as early as 8,000 to
6,500 B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
Site No. 73 (Isolated Find No.6; Diagnostic Tool #5: 8-23-85):
Tool: Black obsidian crescent fragment (#490-73-196).
Location: Within 50 meters southeast of the section corner for
Sections 17/16 on the north and Section 20/21 on the south in Township
28S, Range 23E on fairly level playa floor at least 150 meters
southwest of the east shore beach ridge.
Vegetation: Very little--small sage, rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 21,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4779820,
easting 743200.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
Site No. 74 (Isolated Find No.7; Diagnostic Tool #6: 8-25-85):
Tool: Large corner-notched point (#490-74-197) assignable to the
Great Basin Elko series (Elko corner-notched).
Location: At the very southwestern outskirts of Site No. 40, about 10
meters upslope on the hill.
Vegetation: Mostly sage and rabbitbrush, with some ground succulents.
Legal description: SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 18,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781110,
easting 741050.
Cultural affinity: Great Basin Elko series (Elko corner-notched) have
been dated from 3,500-1,500 B.P., or as early as 8,000 to 6,500 B.P.
(Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
Site No. 75 (Isolated Find No.8; Diagnostic Tool: 8-23-85):
Tool: Obsidian blank/preform with basal thinning and square base,
possibly a fluted point aborted after unsuccessful fluting
(#490-75-198) .
Location: On a gently sloping beach terrace at the far southern tip
of the Dietz hill, within 5 meters from the basin datum station
labeled "Amy".
Vegetation: Tall sage dominates, with some rabbitbrush and grasses.
331
Legal description: SW 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 7,
Township 285, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781680,
easting 740640.
cultural affinity: The suggestion was made that this is a fluted
point preform displaying fluting scars. The tool is located on the
extreme southern portion of the Dietz site, HOO meters southwest from
the 0 North/O East Dietz site datum. The entire eastern flank of the
Dietz hill from point "Amy" in the south to the 0 North/O East datum
point in the north consists of a very light, diffuse lithic scatter
which ends near "Amy". This tool is best described as a Great Basin
Concave Base point, which could be transitional between Western Clovis
(11,500 to 11,000 B.P.) and Western Stemmed (10,800 to 7,000 B.P.).
SITE NO. 76 (Isolated Find No.9; Diagnostic Tool #2: 8-30-85):
Tool: Large obsidian corner-notched point fragment (Elko series-Elko
corner-notched). (#490-76-199)
Location: Within 80 meters of the southwestern margin of Site No. 47,
further upslope on the western shore hill in the Chase sub-basin.
Vegetation: Equal mixtures of sage and rabbitbrush.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 35,
Township 27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4785740,
easting 739985.
Cultural affinity: The Great Basin Elko series (Elko corner-notched)
has been dated from 3,500-1,500 B.P., or as early as 8,000 to 6,500
B.P. (Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
SITE NO. 77 (Isolated Find No. 10; Diagnostic Tool # 1: 9-1-85):
Tool: Leaf-shaped Cascade obsidian point (#490-77-200)
Location: 100 meters southeast of Site No. 49 along the northern
shoreline near its apex. Because of its close proximity, it may be
that this point should be considered a part of Site No. 49.
Vegetation: Rabbitbrush dominates with some sage.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 26,
Township 27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4786780,
easting 740580.
Cultural affinity: The exact validity of leaf-shaped points in the
Great Basin is somewhat questionable, although generally, most
scholars assign these point styles to the Western Stemmed period
dating from 10,800-7,500 B.P. On the Columbia Plateau, this point
style is type dated from 8,000-7,000 B.P.; but leaf-shaped points of
this kind were also found in association with Windust artifacts dating
from 10,000-9,000 B.P. It probably represents the transitional range
between 8,000 and 7,000 B.P.
p332
SITE NO. 78 (Isolated Find No. 11; Diagnostic Tool #1: 8-29-85)~
Tool: Large basally-notched obsidian point, with a possible
contracting stem (#490-78-201).
Location: 100 meters downslope and due north of the northwestern tip
of Site No. 44, on level playa floor.
Vegetation: Very little--a few rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 17, Township
28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4779970, easting 742210.
Cultural affinity: Questionable: if a contracting stem is present,
the point may be considered part of the Great Basin Gatecliff series
(Contracting stem) which have been dated from 5,000-3,500 B.P. But,
based on the large size and strange morphology, it is conceivable that
the point is even earlier than this, such as 8,000 to 6,000 B.P.
SITE NO. 79---lIsolated Find No. 12; Diagnostic Tool #3: 8-29-85~.
Tool: Large obsidian projectile point tip (#490-79-202).
Location: 160 meters due south of the Four Corners Well and the
east-west section fenceline on open playa floor in the approximate
center of the Dietz sub-basin.
Vegetation: Very little. Rabbitbrush dominates with some greasewood.
Legal description: NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 17,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4781260,
easting 741820.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. Tool is not time-diagnostic.
SITE NO. 80 (Isolated Find No. 13; Diagnostic Tool #4: 8-29-85):
Tool: Medium-size obsidian corner-notched point (Elko
series: #490-80-203).
Location: Within 100 meters of a hand-dug shore trench placed
perpendicular to the 4318-feet elevation central shore ridge which is
hypothesized to be the eastern shore of the Clovis-era lake/marsh. The
tool was found 200 meters southwest of Site No. 64 and 200 meters
southeast of the quarter section brass cap for Sections 7 and 8 of
Township 28S, Range 23E in the approximate center of the Dietz
sub-basin.
Vegetation: Open playa floor with very little vegetation. Rabbitbrush
dominates with some greasewood.
Legal description: SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 8,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4782120,
easting 741640.
333
Cultural affinity: This corner-notched point is slightly too large
for the Rosegate series (basal width: 14 mm) and is an atypically
small Elko eared point. The Great Basin Elko series dates from 3,500
to 1,500 B.P.; but it is possible that the point is slightly later
than this, as in from 2,000 B.P. to historic time.
SITE NO. 81 (Isolated Find No. 14; Diagnostic Tool #5: 8-29-85):
Tool: Obsidian stemmed point fragment (#490-81-204).
Location: On a broad sandy ridge surrounding a large lakeshore spit
which was formed off of the northeast corner of the Dietz site hill
trending from the southwest to the northeast for over 500 meters. The
tool was found within 100 meters southeast of Site No. 1 and within
100 meters north of Site No. 12 on the northern shore ridge east of
the 1250N/OE datum station at the northern end of the Dietz site.
Vegetation: Sage dominates with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: NE 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784280,
easting 741445.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period (10,800-7,500 B.P.).
SITE NO. 82 (Isolated Find No. 15; Diagnostic Tool #6: 8-29-85):
Tool: Large transitional stemmed point form (#490-82-205).
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 140 meters due north of Site No. 81 (Isolated Find
No. 14).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784420,
. easting 741450.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P., but possibly during the later period of occupation, between
8,000 and 7,000 B.P.
SITE NO. 83 (Isolated Find No. 16; Diagnostic Tool #7: 8-29-85):
Tool: Plano-like concave base point of obsidian (#490-83-206).
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 100 meters northwest of Site No. 82 (Isolated Find
No. 15).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: NE 1/4 NW 1/4 SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784490,
easting 741420.
334
cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P., but probably during the later period of occupation, between
8,000 and 7,000 B.P.
SITE NO. 84 (Isolated Find No. 17; Diagnostic Tool #8: 8-29-85):
Tool: Small, miniature fluted point, similar to others recovered at
the Dietz site (#490-84-207).
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 240 meters northwest of Site no. 83 (Isolated Find
No. 16).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: SE 1/4 SE 1/4 NW 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784530,
easting 741170.
Cultural affinity: Can be definitely assigned to the Western Clovis
period (probably dating from about 11,500-10,500 B.P.). It is
identical to other miniature fluted points recovered at the Dietz site
and could actually be considered as a continuation of the northernmost
Dietz site scatter, since it is in such close proximity to the
northernmost limits of the Dietz site. .
SITE NO. 85 (Isolated Find No. 18; Diagnostic Tool #1: 8-31-85):
Tool: Large ground stone slab of local volcanic tuff
(#490-85-208). This artifact has been shot in by EDM/transit and
staked but, due to an oversight, was not collected during the 1986
summer season. J. Willig plans to collect it sometime during the
summer of 1987.
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 160 meters southeast of Site No. 84 (Isolated Find
No~ 17) and 100 meters due west of Site No. 83 (Isolated Find No. 16).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784490,
easting 741325.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time. However, based on the
consistent association of local volcanic rock slabs such as these
(i.e. not purposefully shaped but opportunistically utilized) with
numerous other Western Stemmed sites around the lakeshore, it may be
possible to assign the tool to that period (dating from 10,800-7,500
B. P.) .
335
SITE NO. 86 (Isolated Find No. 19; Diagnostic Tool #2: 8-31-85):
Tool: Re-sharpened, re-worked point fragment. Not time-diagnostic
(#490-86-209) .
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 120 meters northeast of Site No. 85 (Isolated Find
No. 18).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: SW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784590,
easting 741380.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time.
SITE NO. 87 (Isolated Find No. 20; Diagnostic Tool #3: 8-31-85):
Tool: Re-sharpened, re-worked Humboldt concave based point of
obsidian (#490-87-210).
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 160 meters northeast of Site No. 86 (Isolated Find
No. 19).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 5,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784640,
easting 741540.
Cultural affinity: Probably dates to the early Humboldt floruit
dating between 8,000 and 6,000 B.P.
SITE NO. 88 (Isolated Find No. 21; Diagnostic Tool #4: 8-31-85~
Tool: Complete specimen of a white chert crescent (#490-88-211).
Location: On the flat open playa floor 160 meters northwest of Site
No. 55 and within 200 meters of Roger Chase's fence, in the
approximate center of the Chase sub-basin.
Vegetation: Very little. Rabbitbrush dominates.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 Section 35,
Township 27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4785340,
easting 740820.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
n336
SITE NO. 89 (Isolated Find No. 22; Diagnostic Tool #2: 8-28-84):
Tool: Large obsidian Side-notched point with an eared base;
i.e. large Elkoeared (#490-89-212).
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 60 meters due west of Site No. 85 (Isolated Find
No. 18) and 70 meters northeas~ of Site No. 90 (Isolated Find No. 23).
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: SE 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784460,
easting 741260.
Cultural affinity: Large side-notched points (Northern Side-notched)
are not universally accepted as valid time markers. Thomas (1981,
1983) claims they can only be assigned to periods before 650 B.P.
Warren (1968) reports them from 6,500-4,500 B.P. Great Basin/Plateau
sites; and in Surprise Valley, they date to the Menlo Phase from
6,000-5,000 B.P. (O'Connell 1975). Layton (1970) would place it within
the 4,500-6,000 B.P. Silent Snake Phase (bifurcate stemmed points.
SITE NO. 90 (Isolated Find No. 23; Diagnostic Tool #3: 8-28-8~
Tool: Large obsidian Cougar Mountain point base (#490-90-213).
Location: On the same broad sandy ridge surrounding the northern
Dietz site spit 70 meters southwest of Site No. 89 (Isolated Find
No. 22) and 200 meters northeast of the 1250 North/O East datum
station at the north end of the Dietz site, in line with the Section
corner (Sections 6 and 5) brass cap at the powerline road.
Vegetation: Mostly sage with some rabbitbrush and greasewood.
Legal description: SW 1/4 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 Section 6,
Township 28S, Range 23E. UTM co~ordinates: northing 4784410,
easting 741230.
Cultural affinity: Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500
B.P.
337
SITE NO. 91 (Diagnostic Tool # 1: 9-8-84)
Description: Small, sparse lithic scatter located near Datum 8 and the
East Shore Trench in the approximate center of the Dietz
sub-basin. This site has been described as Locality 2, as one of the
three places in the sub-basin where it may be possible to demonstrate
a stratigraphic separation of surficial sterr~ed period clusters from a
Clovis-age paleosol 70 em below the surface. More testing is need here
to recover diagnostic tools near the surface.
Artifact density: Very low, mostly consisting of large spall flakes
and several large biface fragments of obsidian. Site area measures
about 20 x 30 meters (600 square meters).
Vegetation: None
Tools collected: 1 large obsidian biface ("Bart's Biface)
(#490-91-214), which is not time-diagnostic.
Legal description: SE 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 Section 5, Township 28S,
Range 23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4783050, easting 741830.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time, but may eventually prove to
be Western Stemmed period dating to 10,800-7,500 B.P.
SITE NO. 92 (Isolated Find No. 24; Diagnostic Tool # 17: 8-30-85)
Tool: 1 large corner-notched point fragment (Elko corner notched)
(#490-92-177).
Location: On southwestern outskirts of Site No. 48 ("Hilltop Site"),
not in association with any of the lithic clusters at the Hilltop
site. Like Site No. 39 (Isolated find on outskirts of Site No. 30 in
the Crescent sub-basin), this tool was determined to be an isolate
which could be considered separate from the Hilltop site.
Vegetation: In this area below the terrace and wave-cut scarp in
active fluvial wash zones and playa floor areas, rabbitbrush
dominates, although vegetation here is very little.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 Section 35; Township
27S, Range 22E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4786293; easting 740000.
Cultural affinity: The Great Basin Elko series has been dated from
3,500-1,500 B.P., or as early as 8,000 to 6,500 B.P.
(Hanes 1988a; Holmer 1986).
SITE NO. 93 (Isolated find No. 26; Diagnostic Tool #1: 8-6-84)
Tool: 1 large lanceolate biface, possibly Haskett, but not definitive
enough to be certainly identified (#490-93-215).
Location: Found on the east side of the northeast-southwest trending
fenceline just south of the powerline road near the Chase field.
Vegetation: Small amounts of sage and rabbitbrush.
Legal description: NW 1/4 NE 1/4 HE 1/4 Section 5; Township 28S, Range
23E. UTM co-ordinates: northing 4784732, easting 742659.
Cultural affinity: Unknown at this time, but might be assigned to
Western Stemmed period dating from 10,800-7,500 B.P.
APPENDIX C
ARTIFACT ILLUSTRATIONS FOR ALKALI LAKE BASIN SITES
338
+DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
339
553-319
553-421 eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
340
553-411
1
553-258
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529) 341
553-260
553-17
553-14"
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529) 342
.....
553-241
553-232
553-271
553-33
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
343
553-262
553-1
eM
FDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
344
553-417
553-19
eM
FDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
345
553-199
553-435
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
346
553-47
553-295
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
347
553-239
553-234
~ -==:? 553-430
553-431
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
348
553-18
553-196
553-5
553-201
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529) 349
553-100
553-188
553-410
553-6
eM
jii22
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
350
553-169
553-99
553-4
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
351
553-443
553-7
553-404
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
352
553-144
553-39
553-2
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
353
553-412
553-444
553-268
eM
553-195
553-267
E-= ~
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
553-187
354
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529) 355
553-140
553-422
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
356
553-432
553-115
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
~[] ..
553-416
357
553-245
~ 553-16
eM
'F
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
358
553-433
553-113
553-133
_.....--
.F
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
359
553-164
553-244
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
360
553-158
553-243
553-272
eM
(35 LK 1529)DIETZ SITE
361
553-221
553-180
~
553-107
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
362
<::::: ]
553-160
553-143
---
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529) 363
553-198 (CB)
553-407 (CB)
553-67
eM
.,..-------------
364
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
553-442
553-116
553-174
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
365
553-420
553-108
553-118
553-166
FDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
553-153
366
553-159
eM
553-193
pDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
367
553-60 (WS-5)
553-51 (WS-2)
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
ps
368
553-68 (WS-2)
553-45 (WS-2)
553-168 (WS-2)
eM
7-------------------'1
I
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
553-176 (WS-2)
369
553-109 (PS)
~ 553-211 (PS)
553-300 (PS)
L
eM
FDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
(WS-1)
370
553-406
553-259
553-50
553-68
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
(WS-1)
371
-
553-408
553-426
553-405
553-77
eM
FDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
553-145
372
553-434 (WS-7)
553-418 (CA)
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
(WS-7)
({)
~ 553-425
373
553-112
553-212
553-286
553-29 (WS-9)
553-72 (WS-9)
374
553-423 (WS-3)
eM
375
~ 553-415 (WS-8)
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
553-289 (WS-8)
553-61 (WS-6)
-
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529) 376
553-219 (PI)
553-66 (PI)
553-413
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
(HU)
553-288
377
553-58
553-43
eM
zp
DIETZ SI'['E (35 LK 1529) (HU) 378
--
553-173
553-40
553-414
eM
pDIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
(SN)
379
553-296
lI\I
W
553--424
553-403
553-409
eM
DIETZ SITE (35 LK 1529)
(eN)
553-69
380
553-71
553-402
553-401-
eM
a/rHER ALKALI LAKE BASIN Sl'rES
381
490-1-2
490-1-1 (ND)
490--}-3 (ND)
490--4--4 (Ill!)
490-5-5 (eN) eM
------
382
490-7-6 (WS-2)
490-8-7 (ND)
490-13-10 (HU)
4901\-9 (CA)
~
p383
rf~\p\Y
490-27-30 (WS-2)
490--19--11 (CS)
490-23-27 (WS-6)
eM
490-25-29 (SN)
490-19-12 (WC)
490-23-26 (CN)
L
384
490-28- 37. (\~S --,1)
490-28-35 (WS--2)
~ 490-2BLI (\'I5-[)
490-28-34 (WS-6)
0 ~- -, -. -:.--- -"- - - -:. - ,
490-28-33 (WS-l)
eM
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
385
-= •
E> 490--29- 36 (WS-5)
490-29- 4S (WS-S)
490-29-43 (WS-l)
~ 490-29-41 lWS-1)
•
386
•/~-'. - ~ -': - _........ - --
~ 490-29-44 (WS-7)
490-29-42 (WS-7)
490-29-40 (WS-7)
eM
490-29-37 (ND)
490-29-46
490-29-47 (ND)
387
490-- 30-60
(WS-] )
490- 30--5J (CA)
490-30-50
(WS-2)
, 490-30-55
490-30-59
(ND)
-==- _eM
~-=-
388
490-30-56 (WS-5)
490-30-57
~ (WS-5)
490-- 30--54 (WS--8)
490-30-52 (WS-7)
490-30-53 (WS-5)
490-30-58
(WS-8)
389
490-33-62 (ND)
33-63 (ND)490-
"C::'_CM
I390
490-34-65
(ND)
490-- 34-6 /1 (DSN)
-
490-35-66 (ND)
(WS-J)
r391
I
I
I
-
490-36-'75 (ND)
~ 490-36--'74 (eB)
,190- 36-n (N [) )
eM
~ 490-36-76 (WS--1)
392
490-J6-77 (WS-I)
490-36-69 (WS-3)
490-36-70 (W5-3)
490-36-68 (WSJ)
eM
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
,,\ \~~\~
eM
393
394
490-37-107 (WS-S)~
490-37-110 (ND)
~ 490-37-105 (WS--S)
490- 37 --114 (ND)
eM
p395
490-37-112 (ND)
490-37--115 (NO)
490--37-116
(NO) eM
,...
396
490-37-108 (ND)
490--37-109 (ND)
490- 37- III (ND )
eM
~ 490--39-61 (eN)
,.-------
~ 490-40-83 (WS-l) .0
~ 490-40-85 (WS-l)
397
~ 490-40-81 (WS4)
490--40--90
(WS-3)
eM
490-40-94
(WS-4)
~ 490-40-78 (WS-4)
>490-40-103 (WS-5)
~
490-40-99~~>"",- (WS-S)
398
eM
•399
l
490-40-95 (WS-6)
490-40-89 (W'",)""6 )
490-40-81 (WS-6)
~ 490-40-101 (PC)
----
eM
400
490-40-100 (WS-9)
490-40-93 (WS-9)
490-4096 (WS-9)
-
~ 490-40-92 (WS-9)
eM
401
490--40--82 (ND)
I I
I
~
490-40--9'7 (ND)
-
490-40-91 (ND)
eM
402
490-40-79 (ND)
~ 49040-86 (NO)
490-40-80 (NO)
eM
403
490-40--87 (ND)
490-40-88 (ND)
490-40--] 04 (ND)
eM
i.'Jiii !
I \
, I J) \ I
),I '\ (
\ I)
0J
(' "1" \ C'J I') I490-:fJ-'(' .'"
404
-
490-42-120 (ND)
eM
405
~- - ~ ~ ..=-'--- - -: .... '.--:-... _. '. _..... ......-
490-42-121 (WS-7)
490-42-117 (WS-7)
~ 490-42-118 (WS--l)
~490-42-122 (WS-2)
490-42--119 (ND) eM
-
F406
490-44-125 (WS~l)
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ENDNOTE
Research into late Pleistocene human occupation in Far Western
North America had an early beginning. On October 6, 1882, Mr. William
John McGee discovered a large lanceolate point imbedded in well
stratified Lahontan lake bed deposits 25 feet below the surface in the
Walker River Valley of Nevada (McGee 1887, 1889: Figure I, p. 305).
This same deposit, and the sands below it, contained numerous fossil
bones of horse, camel, ox and elephant. The intellectual climate of
the time was not very favorable for the acceptance of such antiquity
(Grayson 1983), but McGee took detailed notes on the microstratigraphy
of the deposits, and the projectile point was painstakingly excavated
under a full set of multiple working hypotheses, as advocated so
eloquently by Chamberlain (1897). Ironically enough, over a century
later, we are still struggling with a lack of archaeological data
necessary to confirm an association of early humans with the hunting
of fossil megafauna in the Far West.
There were two times in particular, during the process of the
Alkali Lake Basin research, that I drew heavily upon the inspiration
and example of McGee and Chamberlain. One time was when I made the
dangerously tardy discovery that there were inconsistencies in the
elevation values of artifacts and shoreline features recorded through
stadia and transit mapping (see discussion in Appendix A). Some of the
values were as much as 2 meters off, a range which easily encompassed
430
all three of the lake levels I had hypothesized to be of relevance to
early human occupation in the basin. Fortunately, it was determined
that the sources of error lay not in the actual field data, but in
laboratory calculations, which could be easily adjusted. But as I
sweated through the process of considering as many possibilities as I
could think of, I thought about how Chamberlain might have handled the
situation.
Later still came the discovery that there was a potential
discrepancy of 1.5 meters in elevation between ground stone tool
clusters and other artifact clusters of the Western Stemmed complex at
the Dietz site (see Chapter III discussions). As I began the grim
process of considering that my integrative model was wrong, that there
was no apparent pattern to the distributions, that specific lake
levels could not be correlated with occupation surfaces and sites, I
once again thought of McGee and Chamberlain and asked myself "Did I
want to acknowledge certain confusion and leave it at that? Or did I
want to keep searching for the truth of things?". Chamberlain and
McGee would have chosen the latter. It was only after I had painfully
set the model aside to search for alternative explanations, after a
long and painful re-examination of the data, that the model of
downslope transport was formulated. Through the process of
entertaining multiple working hypotheses, a better explanation was
derived which actually served to reinforce the model as proposed.
There is no doubt that I resisted this process. I liked my model. But
thanks to the exemplary methods set ·forth by McGee and Chamberlain, I
think I came a little closer to the truth of things.
~__,¥__------------------- ._lIlI!a.J
431
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