MUSIC THEORY AND ARRANGING TECHNIQUES FOR
THE CHURCH MUSICIAN
by
WINSTON VAUGHN ARBLASTER
A THESIS
Presented to the School of Music and Dance
and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon
in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements
for the degree of
Master of Arts
September 2010
ii
"Music Theory and Arranging Techniques for the Church Musician," a thesis
prepared by Winston Vaughn Arblaster in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the Master of Arts degree in the School of Music and Dance. This thesis has been
approved and accepted by:
f
Dr. Jack,Boss, Chair of the Examining Committee
.5 <.:p +. ~ I 20 r0
Date
Committee in Charge: Dr. Jack Boss
Dr. Timothy Pack
Don Latarski
Accepted by:
Dean of the Graduate School
iii
An Abstract of the Thesis of
Winston Vaughn Arblaster
in the School of Music and Dance
for the degree of
to be taken
Master of Arts
September 2010
Title: MUSIC THEORY AND ARRANGING TECHNIQUES FOR THE CHURCH
MUSICIAN
Approved:
Dr. Jack Boss
The rising popularity of the use of "contemporary music" for worship in
Christian churches has created an ever-growing body of music professionals who,
coming largely from a rock-influenced folk idiom, are often untrained in music
theory. As the style of music has shifted from the traditional model, stemming from
classical genres, to one dominated by popular music, many of these musicians see
theory education as impractical or at least unneeded given their particular stylistic
approach. In order to address this issue, a method must be developed, departing
from standard methods of theory pedagogy to one employing selected concepts and
iv
applications pertaining particularly to the context the contemporary worship
setting and presenting them in a manner immediately beneficial to these musicians'
vocational considerations. This thesis serves as a possible solution by proposing
such a method and comparing it to the approaches of three major theory methods
on these terms.
CURRICULUM VITAE
NAME OF AUTHOR: Winston Vaughn Arblaster
PLACE OF BIRTH: Eugene, Oregon
DATE OF BIRTH: November 22,1984
GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED:
University of Oregon, Eugene
DEGREES AWARDED:
Master of Arts, Music Theory, University of Oregon, 2010
Bachelor of Arts, Music, University of Oregon, 2007
AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST:
Music Theory Pedagogy
Music Arranging, Composition
Classical Guitar, Jazz Guitar
Worship Ministry in the Christian Tradition
Theology
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:
Instructor, New Hope Christian College, Eugene, Oregon, 2010
Instructor, The Lesson Factory, Eugene, Oregon, 2007-2010
Music Ministry Intern, First Baptist Church, Eugene, Oregon, 2009-2010
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Dr. Jack Boss for his enduring encouragement and enthusiasm
throughout the long tenure of this project as well as his remarkable commitment to
music and the Church. Also thanks to Dr. Timothy Pack and Don Latarski whose
work as advisors and teachers has proven invaluable to me. To Steve Maricle for his
wisdom, which stems from decades of faithful ministry in the church, as well as the
inspiriation he has been as my mentor. To David Case, whose patience and
exemplary teaching helped me to strive for my absolute best. Special thanks to my
mother, whose nurturing hands first showed me music, and above all to our Lord
Jesus Christ, who is redeeming all creation and draws it to the worship of the Father.
To Shaphan Thomas, a faithful teacher and friend.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. PREFACE 1
Background 1
Contributions to the Topic 4
Method 8
Notes 9
II. INTRODUCTION 11
What Is Music Theory and Why Do We Use It? 14
Do We Need Music Theory? 16
Making the Most of the Text 23
Notes 26
III. PRELIMINARIES & NOTATION 27
What Is Music? 27
What Is Notation? 29
What Notation Style Should You Use? 35
Is Notation Necessary for Music Theory? 38
Notes 39
IV. FUNDAMENTALS OF PITCH 40
The Octave 41
The Musical Alphabet & Natural Notes 44
Accidentals 47
Notation on the Staff 49
Practice Exercises 55
Notes 56
Chapter
V. RHYTHM & POPULAR SONG FORM .
The Beat .
Divisions of the Beat .
Notation of Rhythmic Durations ..
Time Signatures .
Syncopation .
Popular Song Structure .
More Vocabulary & Notation .
Practice Exercises .
Notes .
VI. KEYS & SCALES .
Keys & Scales .
The Major Key .
Key Signature .
The Minor Key .
Key Relations .
Practice Exercises .
Notes .
VII. INTERVALS
Numeric Value .
Interval Quality .
Consonance vs. Dissonance .
Transposition .
Practice Exercises .
VIII. TRIADS
Diatonic Triads .
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150
Chapter
Chord Tones .
Chord Quality .
Ear Training for Major & Minor Triads .
Practice Exercises .
IX. FOUR-NOTE CHORDS ..
Diatonic Sevenths .
Chords With Seconds, Fourths, & Sixths .
Practice Exercises .
X. FURTHER CHORD EXTENSIONS
Chord Extension .
Omitting Tones .
Practice Exercises .
XI. SLASH CHORDS .
Chord Inversion (Slash Chords) ..
Slash Chord Reinterpretations ,
Pedal Bass .
Practice Exercises .
XII. CHROMATICISM
Borrowed Chords .
Change of Quality Chords .
A Note About Chromatic Voice Leading ..
Practice Exercises .
XIII. CHORD PROGRESSION
Chord Progression .
Chord Function .
Circle of Fifths (Falling Fifths) .
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Chapter
XIV. CHORD SUBSTITUTION
Simplyfing Chord Progressions ..
Third Relationships .
Modal Mixture ..
Practice Exercises ..
XV. MODULATION
Direct Modulation ..
Common Chord Modulation .
Common Tone Modulation .
Chromatic Modulation ..
Enharmonic Modulation ..
Smoothing Over Difficult Modulatons ..
Practice Exercises .
Notes ..
APPENDIX: COMPARATIVE COMMENTARY
Preface ..
Notation .
Fundamentals of Pitch ..
Rhythm .
Keys & Scales ..
Intervals ..
Diatonic Triads .
Four-Note Chords ..
Further Chord Extensions .
Slash Chords ..
Chromaticism ..
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Chapter Page
Chord Progression 345
Chord Substitution 348
Modulation 350
Notes 352
REFERENCES 355
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
3.1 I Know that My Redeemer Lives -
Samuel Medley & John Hatton 30
3.2 I Know that My Redeemer Lives 31
3.3 I Know that My Redeemer Lives 32
3.4 I Know that My Redeemer Lives 33
3.5 Single-line Rhythm Sheet 35
3.6 Five-line Rhythm Sheet (Drum Set) 35
3.7 Ease of Use vs. Specificity 36
4.1 The Octave 41
4.2 Octave Register Designations 42
4.3 Keyboard, Notes, and Frequencies 43
4.4 Musical Alphabet 45
4.5 Musical Alphabet with Whole and Half Steps 45
4.6 Steps on the Piano 45
4.7 Steps on the Guitar (One String) 46
4.8 Steps on the Guitar 46
4.9 Accidentals 47
4.10 Incorrect vs. Correct Scale Spelling 48
4.11 Chromatic Scale 48
4.12 The Staff 49
4.13 Treble Clef 50
4.14 Notes on the Treble Clef 50
4.15 Learning the Treble Clef 51
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Figure Page
4.16 Bass Clef 51
4.17. Notes on the Bass Clef 52
4.18 Learning the Bass Clef 52
4.19 Ledger Lines 53
4.20 8va 53
4.21 8vb 54
4.22 The Grand Staff 54
4.23 I Know that My Redeemer Lives 55
4.24 Practice Exercises 56
5.1 One Measure in Common Meter 58
5.2 Basic Rock Beat (One Measure) 59
5.3 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber 59
5.4 Basic Rock Beat (One Measure) 59
5.5 Rock Beat in Compound Meter 60
5.6 Whole Notes & Rests 61
5.7 Jesus Messiah - Chris Tomlin, Daniel Carson, Ed Cash & Jesse Reeves 61
5.8 Half Notes & Rests 61
5.9 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Bacchus Dykes & Reginald Heber 62
5.10 Quarter Notes & Rests 62
5.11 And Can it Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell 62
5.12 Eighth Notes & Rests 63
5.13 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley................................................. 63
5.14 Sixteenth Notes & Rests 64
5.15 You Never Let Go - Matt & Beth Redman 64
5.16 You Never Let Go - Matt & Beth Redman (Rhythm Chart) 65
5.17 Ties 66
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Figure Page
5.18 Let My Words Be Few - Matt Redman 66
5.19 Ties 67
5.20 Dots 67
5.21 Blessed Assurance - Fanny Crosby & Phoebe Knapp 68
5.22 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan 68
5.23 Time Signature 69
5.24 In Christ Alone - Stuart Townend & Keith Getty 70
5.25 How Deep the Father's Love For Us - Stuart Townend 70
5.26 Simple vs. Compound Time Signatures 71
5.27 He is Exalted - Twila Paris 72
5.28 Blessed Assurance - Fanny Crosby & Phoebe Knapp 72
5.29 Division of the Beat 74
5.30 Syncopation 74
5.31 Triplets Against Duplets 76
5.32 Duplets Against Triplets 76
5.33 You Are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote 77
5.34 You Are My King (Amazing Love) 78
5.35 Hierarchy of Song Form 78
5.36 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman 79
5.37 Slash Notation 81
5.38 Repeat Signs 82
5.39 Measure Repeats 83
5.40 Hosanna (Praise is Rising) - Paul Baloche & Brenton Brown 84
5.41 Shout to the Lord - Darlene Zschech 85
5.42 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine 86
5.43 From the Inside Out - Joel Houston 88
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Figure Page
6.1 The Seven Notes ofa C Major Scale 92
6.2 Supertonic & Leading Tone 92
6.3 Scale Degree Note Names 93
6.4 C Major Scale & Key Signature 94
6.5 C Major Scale (D to D) 95
6.6 D Major Scale & Key Signature 95
6.7 You are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote 96
6.8 Incorrect Spelling of D Major Scale 96
6.9 F# Major Scale & Key Signature 97
6.10 C# Major Scale & Key Signature 98
6.11 Gb Major Scale & Key Signature................................................................................ 98
6.12 Cb major & Key Signature 98
6.13 Sharp Key Signatures 99
6.14 Flat Key Signatures 100
6.15 Chords in F# Major 101
6.16 Chords in Gb Major 101
6.17 Solfege in Major 102
6.18 joy to the World - George Handel & Isaac Watts 103
6.19 C Minor Scale 103
6.20 C Major vs. C Minor 104
6.21 C Harmonic Minor Scale 105
6.22 C Melodic Minor Scale 105
6.23 a Come, a Come Emmanuel- Henry Coffin, John Neale &
Thomas Helmore 107
6.24 Chromatic Scale 107
------------
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Figure Page
6.25 It is Well- Phillip Bliss 108
6.26 Parallel Keys 108
6.27 Relative Keys 109
6.28 Cycle of Fifths/Circle of Fifths 111
6.29 F Major 112
6.30 G Minor 113
6.31 Ep Major 113
6.32 A Major 113
6.33 B Major 113
6.34 F# Major 113
6.35 Dp Major 114
6.36 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman 114
6.37 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Ed Cash, &Jesse Reeves 114
6.38 And Can it Be - Charles Wesley &Thomas Campbell 114
6.39 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding 115
6.40 How Deep the Father's Love For Us - Stuart Townend 115
6.41 a the Deep, Deep Love ofJesus - Samuel Francis &
Thomas Williams 115
6.42 Crown Him with Many Crowns - Matthew Bridges, Godfrey Thring, &
George Elvey 115
7.1 Intervals 116
7.2 Intervals, Unison Through 13th 117
7.3 3rd (C-E) 118
7.4 Inverted 3rd is 6th (E-C) 118
7.5 Perfect Intervals On C 120
7.6 Perfect Unison (Pl) 121
7.7 Perfect 8ve (P8) 121
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Figure Page
7.8 Chromatic Octaves (G-G) 121
7.9 Come in From The Outside - Israel Houghton & Meleasa Houghton 122
7.10 Perfect Fifth (P5) 123
7.11 Chromatic Fifths (G--G) 123
7.12 A5 (A Power Chord) 124
7.13 You are Good - Israel Houghton 124
7.14 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash 124
7.15 Perfect Fourth (P4) 125
7.16 Perfect 4th Dissonance Resolution 125
7.17 Hosanna (Praise is Rising) - Paul Baloche & Brenton Brown 126
7.18 Chromatic Fourths (D-D) 126
7.19 Major Scale on C 127
7.20 Minor Scale on C 128
7.21 Major 3rd 128
7.22 Minor 3rd 128
7.23 Major 6th 129
7.24 Minor 6th 129
7.25 Harmony in Thirds, C Major 130
7.26 Harmony in Sixths, C Major 131
7.27 Harmony in Thirds, C Minor 131
7.28 Harmony in Sixths, CMinor 131
7.29 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash 132
7.30 How Great is Our God 132
7.31 Major 2nd 133
7.32 Minor 2nd 133
7.33 Major 7th 134
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Figure Page
7.34 Minor 7th 134
7.35 M2 & m7 Resolutions 134
7.36 m2 & M7 Resolutions 135
7.37 Shout to the Lord - Darlene Zschech 136
7.38 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash 136
7.39 Tritone - Augmented 4th 137
7.40 Tritone - Diminished 5th 137
7.41 Augmented & Diminished Intervals 138
7.42 Tritione Resolutions 138
7.43 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine 139
7.44 Chromatic Scale 140
7.45 Chromatic Solfege 141
7.46 Well-Known Songs and the Intervals that Begin Them 142
7.47 Practice Exercises 146
7.48 Practice Exercises 147
7.49 Practice Exercises 147
7.50 Practice Exercises 148
7.51 Practice Exercises 148
7.52 Practice Exercises 148
8.1 Diatonic Thirds in C Major 150
8.2 Diatonic Triads in CMajor 151
8.3 Diatonic Triads in CMinor 151
8.4 CMajor Triad 152
8.5 And Can it Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell 153
8.6 Chord Tones ofthe Triad Extrapolated from its Own Scale 153
8.7 And Can It Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell 154
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Figure Page
8.8 C Major Triad (C) 155
8.9 Major Triads in CMajor 155
8.10 Major Triads in CMinor 156
8.11 Lord I Lift Your Name on High 156
8.12 C Minor Triad 157
8.13 Minor Triads in CMinor 157
8.14 Minor Triads in C Major 157
8.15 Lord I Lift Your Name on High - Rick Founds 158
8.16 B Diminished Triad (Bo) 159
8.17 Diminished Triad in C Major 159
8.18 Diminished Triad in C Minor 159
8.19 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyon 160
8.20 CAugmented Triad (C+) 160
8.21 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyon 161
8.22 Major vs. Minor 161
8.23 Major vs. Minor 162
8.24 1st Position Chords & Alternative Voicings 163
8.25 Sing Missing Tones 164
8.26 Sing Missing Tones 165
8.27 Major & Minor vs. Diminished 166
8.28 Diminished Triad Resolutions 166
8.29 a the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis &
Thomas Williams 167
8.30 5th is Raised by Half Step 167
8.31 Augmented Chord Resolutions 168
8.32 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman 168
Figure
8.33 Practice Exercises
8.34 Practice Exercises
9.1 Seventh Chord in C ..
9.2 7th Chords in C Major .
9.3 7th Chords in C Minor .
9.4 C Major Seventh Chord (Cmaj7) ..
9.5 Maj7 Chords in CMajor ..
9.6 Maj7 Chords in C Minor ..
9.7 Hungry - Kathryn Scott .
9.8 C Minor Seventh Chord (Cm7) .
9.9 m7 Chords in C Major ..
9.10 m7 Chords in C Minor .
9.11 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash ..
9.12 C Dominant Seventh Chord (C7) .
9.13 Maj7 Chords in C Minor ..
9.14 Dominant 7th Chord in C Minor ..
9.15 Dominant Seventh Resolutions ..
9.16 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan .
9.17 C Half-Diminished Seventh Chord (0"7) ..
9.18 Half-Diminished 7th in C Major .
9.19 Half-Diminished 7th in C Minor .
9.20 Majesty (Here I Am) - Martin Smith & Stuart Garrard ..
9.21 C(add2) .
9.22 Common (add2) Chords in CMajor ..
9.23 Common (add2) Chords in CMinor ..
9.24 Major add2 vs. Minor add2 .
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Figure Page
9.25 0 Praise Him - David Crowder 181
9.26 Csus2 182
9.27 You are My King - Billy Foote 182
9.28 C(add4) 183
9.29 Add4 Chords in C Major 183
9.30 Add4 Chords in C Minor 183
9.31 Major add4 vs. Minor add4 184
9.32 God of Wonders - Marc Byrd & Steve Hindalong 184
9.33 God of Wonders 185
9.34 Call to Worship - Matt Redman 185
9.35 Csus4 186
9.36 Suspended 4th Resolution 186
9.37 Hosanna (Praise is Rising) - Paul Baloche & Brenton Brown 186
9.38 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley................................................ 187
9.39 C6 187
9.40 Cm6 188
9.41 Add6 Chords in C Major 188
9.42 Add6 Chords in C Minor 188
9.43 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan 189
9.44 Chromatic Descent on A 189
9.45 You are Good - Israel Houghton 189
9.46 You are Good 189
9.47 Practice Exercises 191
10.1 Chord Extension 193
10.2 CMajor Ninth (Cmaj9) 194
10.3 Major Ninth Chords in C Major 194
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Figure Page
10.4 Major Ninth Chords in C Minor 195
10.5 Hungry - Kathryn Scott 195
10.6 C Minor Ninth (Cm9) 196
10.7 Minor Ninth Chords in C Major 196
10.8 Minor Ninth Chords in C Minor 196
10.9 Lead Me To The Cross - Brooke Fraser 196
10.10 C Dominant Ninth (C9) 197
10.11 C Dominant Seventh, Sharp Ninth (C7:1t 9) 198
10.12 C Dominant Seventh, Flat Ninth (C7b9) 198
10.13 Dominant Ninth Chord in C Major 199
10.14 Dominant Ninth Chords in C Minor 199
10.15 Dominant Chord in C Major (Blues) 200
10.16 My Redeemer Lives - Reuben Morgan 200
10.17 My Redeemer Lives 200
10.18 C Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh (Cmaj7(:It 11)) 201
10.19 Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh Chords in C Major 202
10.20 Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh Chords in C Minor 202
10.21 More Love, More Power - Jude Del Hierro 202
10.22 C Minor Eleventh (Cmll) 203
10.23 Minor Eleventh Chords in C Major 203
10.24 Minor Eleventh Chords in C Minor 203
10.25 Friend of God - Israel Houghton & Michael Gungor 204
10.26 CSeventh, Sus Eleventh (C7susll) 204
10.27 Dominant Seventh, Sus Eleventh Chord in C Major 205
10.28 Dominant Seventh, Sus Eleventh Chord in C Minor 205
10.29 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber 205
,-------------- ---
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Figure Page
10.30 CMinor Thirteenth (Cm13) 205
10.31 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman 207
10.32 Practice Exercises 209
11.1 Chord Inversions 211
11.2 Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman 212
11.3 Here I Am to Worship - Tim Hughes 213
11.4 Here I Am to Worship 213
11.5 Here I Am to Worship 214
11.6 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman 214
11.7 Blessed be Your Name 215
11.8 Shout to the Lord - Darlene Zschech 216
11.9 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyon 216
11.10 Amazing Grace (My Chains Are Gone) - Chris Tomlin,
Edwin Excell, John Newton, John Rees, & Louie Giglio 217
11.11 Seventh Chord Inversions 218
11.12 Speak a Lord - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend 218
11.13 CallToWorship-MattRedman 219
11.14 Let Everything that has Breath - Matt Redman 220
11.15 Above All- Lenny LeBlanc & Paul Baloche 220
11.16 Common Slash Chord Reinterpretations 221
11.17 Be Near-Shane Barnard 222
11.18 Be Near 222
11.19 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine 223
11.20 How Great Thou Art 223
11.21 Amazing Grace (My Chains Are Gone) - Chris Tomlin,
Edwin Excell, John Newton, John Rees, & Louie Giglio 224
11.22 You Are Good - Israel Houghton 225
Figure
11.23 Practice Exercises
11.24 Practice Exercises
11.25 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm &William Runyan .
12.1 CMajor .
12.2 CMinor .
12.3 Shout to the Lord - Darlene Zschech .
12.4 You are Worthy of My Praise - David Ruis ..
12.5 Irresistible - Darlene Zschech ..
12.6 Again I Say Rejoice - Israel Houghton & Aaron Lindsey ..
12.7 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend ..
12.8 The Potter's Hand - Darlene Zschech .
12.9 Minor Sixth Chord vs. Half Diminished Seventh .
12.10 The Potter's Hand - Darlene Zschech ..
12.11 Irrisistible - Darlene Zschech .
12.12 Minor Scale Variants .
12.13 Cminor with # 6 and # 7 Harmonization .
12.14 Seventh Chords Using #6 and #7 .
12.15 0 the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis &
Thomas Williams .
12.16 Let My Words Be Few - Matt & Beth Redman .
12.17 Embedded Chromatic Melody ..
12.18 It is Well- Horatio Spafford & Phillip Bliss .
12.19 Still- Reuben Morgan .
12.20 Great is Thy Faithfulness _ Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan ..
12.21 Great is Thy Faithfulness .
12.22 God of Wonders - Marc Byrd & Steve Hindalong .
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Figure
12.23 Majesty (Here I Am) - Martin Smith & Stuart Garrard .
12.24 Practice Exercises
12.25 Practice Exercises
13.1 CMajor Scale .
13.2 Triads in CMajor ..
13.3 Triads in CMinor .
13.4 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding .
13.5 Mighty To Save .
13.6 Jesus Messiah - Chris Tomlin, Daniel Carson, Ed Cash &
Jesse Reeves .
13.7 Aimless Chord Progression ..
13.8 Tonic to DominantjSubdominant Movement .
13.9 Tonic to MediantjSubmediant Movement .
13.10 The Glory of it All - David Crowder ..
13.11 Holy, Holy, Holy - Reginald Heber & John Dykes ..
13.12 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley ..
13.13 Chord Relations .
13.14 Here I Am to Worship - Tim Hughes .
13.15 0 the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis
& Thomas Williams .
13.16 0 the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus ..
13.17 Cycle of Diatonic Fifths (in C) .
13.18 Lord I Lift Your Name On High - Rick Founds .
13.19 Cycle of Perfect Fifths .
13.20 Give Thanks - Henry Smith .
14.1 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine ..
14.2 How Great Thou Art ..
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Figure Page
14.3 How Great Thou Art 269
14.4 How Great Thou Art 270
14.5 Third Relationships - CMajor 271
14.6 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber 272
14.7 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman 273
14.8 Blessed be Your Name 274
14.9 Blessed be Your Name 275
14.10 Third Relationship, B to G#m7 275
14.11 Third relationships, Cto Am7 to Fmaj9 276
14.12 Third Relationships Expanded 276
14.13 Third Relationships Expanded, Simplified 277
14.14 HowGreatThouArt-StuartHine 277
14.15 Third Relationships, Modal Mixture 278
14.16 Seventh Chords using #6 and #7 279
14.17 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine 279
14.18 Third Relationships, Modal Mixture 280
14.19 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine 281
14.20 How Great Thou Art 282
14.21 How Great Thou Art 283
14.22 How Great Thou Art 284
15.1 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley................................................ 287
15.2 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding 288
15.3 Adding 2 Beats to the Last Chord in the Original Key................................... 288
15.4 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding 289
15.5 Chords in the Keys of C Major and G Major 289
15.6 Common Chord Modulation 290
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Figure Page
15.7 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding 290
15.8 Mighty To Save 291
15.9 Blessed Be Your Name - Matt and Beth Redman/
Here I Am To Worship - Tim Hughes 292
15.10 Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman/
Here I Am To Worship - Tim Hughes 293
15.11 Common Tone Modulation Possibilities, C Major 294
15.12 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend/
o Praise Him - David Crowder...................................................................................... 295
15.13 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend 296
15.14 In Christ Alone 297
15.15 In Christ Alone
15.16 In Christ Alone
297
298
15.17 Fully Diminished Seventh Enharmonic Respelling 299
15.18 Fully Diminished Seventh Enharmonic Respelling 300
15.19 Enharmonic Modulation, Diminished Application 301
15.20 Awesome God - Rich Mullins/
Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding................................................ 301
15.21 CAugmented Triad, Its Enharmonic Respellings and
Possible Resolutions 302
15.22 Enharmonic Modulation, Augmented Application 304
15.23 Let My Words Be Few - Matt & Beth Redman /
We Fall Down - Chris Tomlin 305
15.24 Tritone Substitution 306
15.25 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding /
We Fall Down - Chris Tomlin 307
15.26 Dominant Seventh Enharmonic Respelling 307
15.27 German 6th Resolution 308
Figure
15.28 Enharmonic Modulation, German 6th Application
xxix
Page
309
15.29 Hungry - Kathryn Scotti
Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman 309
15.30 Strong vs. Weak Beats & Beat Divisions 314
15.31 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber I
Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman 316
15.32 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding I
We Fall Down - Chris Tomlin 316
15.33 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash I
You are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote 317
15.34 I Stand in Awe - Mark Altrogge I
More Love, More Power - Jude Del Hierro 317
15.35 Lead Me to the Cross - Brooke Fraser
God Of Wonders - Marc Byrd & Steve Hindalong 318
15.36 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding I
My Redeemer Lives - Reuben Morgan 318
1CHAPTER I
PREFACE
This paper will propose a method for teaching practical elements of music
theory to music professionals operating in Christian churches practicing a
"contemporary worship" style. The method is directed primarily at those in charge
of arranging music and leading musicians for the purposes of conducting music for a
worship service. The topics considered include notation, the fundamentals of pitch
and rhythm, harmony and its use in popular music, arranging techniques such as
chord substitution and modulation, and the necessary applications of these
concepts. It will also provide a commentary that examines its content and
organization in light of three theory texts, namely Music Theory for the Music
Professional by Richard Sorce,i Music Theory for Today's Musician by Ralph Turek,ii
and The Musician's Guide to Theory and Analysis by Jane Piper Clendinning and
Elizabeth West Marvin. iii The text aims to assert a more focused and practical tool
for theory pedagogy than those currently available in order to bridge the "theory
gap" between these musicians and the traditional classically trained world.
Backa:round
Music in the Christian church today is very different than it was 40 years ago
and so are the kinds of musicians who lead it. The influence of the Charismatic
movement has left its mark on the worship services of many contemporary
Protestant denominations, even those who are not technically associated with
Charismatics. The movement, which began in the 1960's, adopted a musical style
for worship services from the contemporary folk idiom rather than the hymn-based
worship of more traditional churches. Strophic chorale-style hymns were
supplanted by improvised performances of songs written in a popular style.
2Instrumentation also changed dramatically from choir and organ, to rhythm
sections that included guitars and drums. Since then, the popularity of this style has
spread and is now used extensively in Christian churches, primarily in Protestant
Evangelical traditions, but also in some Roman-Catholic churches.
As this style of music draws its musical influences more from popular culture
than church tradition, many of the musicians who have assumed positions of
musical leadership have the kind of experience that reflects the musical
backgrounds of most popular musicians - that is, they are untrained and are not
musically literate. Bob Kauflin1 has said about musical literacy in the church today,
"Fewer young people are drawn to pursue more formal methods of music training,
and fewer musicians in the church can read notes ...tens of thousands of churches
have sung and continue to sing God's praise, led by untrained musicians."iv As the
contemporary style of worship has become more popular, the amount of untrained
musicians leading music in the church has increased as well.
Though I am unaware of any empirical study that has pursued research in
this regard, this too has been my experience in the church. In most of the churches I
have attended that have a traditional style of worship, the music leaders in the
church are literate, having at least a rudimentary understanding of music theory,
but in contemporary-style churches, the leader is often one who is untrained,
playing mostly by ear. Even in churches that blend styles, using both styles, either
within a single service or different services, a more musically literate musician often
is responsible for leading worship in the traditional style.
It seems that as the number of church musicians grows who are untrained in
theory, a method for teaching them theoretical concepts that are specifically
practical for their vocation is needed to fill the growing rift or "theory gap" as
identified by Richard Sorce,v between the formally trained, musically literate body of
musicians and the body ofthose who are not. Pedagogical texts have largely served
1 Bob Kauflin is Director of Worship Development for Sovereign Grace Ministries, a multi-national
organization of churches.
3the purpose of responding to - or in a sense playing "catch-up" with - the evolution
of music throughout history by attempting to explain its trends so that its students
may understand them from an academic perspective. As expected, theory pedagogy
has addressed the needs of musicians enrolled in academic institutions seeking to
prepare themselves for professions in music. The number of vocations in music has
grown and diversified beyond the traditional classical realm since the 1970's,vi
consequently so has the need of theory pedagogy to adequately address students'
academic needs. A particularly notable case of this has been in the ever-growing
inclusion of jazz and other popular musical forms into theory texts. As an increasing
number of music schools begin to offer select courses and degree programs that
include the study of jazz or even popular music, so have theory texts accommodated
this change.2 However, I don't believe that these texts are currently sufficient to
concerns of musicians in the church who utilize a popular music style.
My thesis attempts to fill this void by addressing the specific needs of church
musicians in their contexts. The large majority oftheory textbooks are designed to
be practical to the classical musician by addressing theoretical concepts that arise in
classical repertoire and providing musical examples that reflect these trends and
little attention is given to doing the same for popular music. This is largely due to
the fact that the majority of music students enrolled in the average music school are
classically oriented musicians. Furthermore, the fact that popular music is generally
regarded as being far simpler than art-music may have contributed to a consensus
amongst the academic community that this music does not need to be examined on
its own terms. After all, classical music eclipses popular forms with most of its
theoretical concepts being used in popular music to some degree. Many theory texts
may devote only a small section or chapter to discussing popular music.
2 Music Theory for the Music Professional by Richard Sorce and Theory for Today's Musician by Ralph
Turek are a few notable texts that have attempted to update their material to accommodate the
growing number of non-classical musicians enrolled in academic institutions.
4Yet this places the undue burden of practical application on the shoulders of
the student of popular music far more than it does for the classically oriented
musician. Considering many students of popular music may already be at a
disadvantage in terms of their ability in reading music and understanding of music
theory,3 it is no mystery why such musicians would be averse to studying music
theory with the aid of materials currently available. Furthermore, there are many
untrained music professionals who - already well into a career in church music
ministry - may not have the ability to dedicate time needed to complete a theory
program at a music school, especially when there is the undue stress of having to
filter what and how the material is applicable to their style and vocation or imagine
its use in their own body of repertoire.
Since there are many aspects to the role of musical leadership within the
church that seem to have no close parallel outside the church, theory education
should have the capacity to address issues that concern contemporary church
musicians and provide examples for the practical application of the theoretical
content. Thus, a method is needed to eliminate many of the hurdles such a musician
would face in a program of study with current theory pedagogy by tailoring the
content to fit the vocational concerns of the student and with attention to
appropriate styles.
Contributions to the Topic
Despite this apparent need, there has been very little significant work
published for the teaching of music theory for the contemporary church. Probably
the most significant contribution would be The Language ofMusic: Practical Music
Theory for the Worshiping Musician by Tom Brooks,vii This method, written for use
by the Worship Arts Institute at Yonsei University in Seoul, is fairly comprehensive
.and covers many of the same topics that would be discussed in a conventional
3 Public primary and secondary education for the large part still caters to developing these skills in
musicians studying classical styles.
5theory method, yet tailors this material for reception by aspiring church musicians.
Brooks begins with music fundamentals, works through a discussion of harmony in
popular music, instructs the reader in how to read lead sheet notation, teaches
Roman numeral analysis, and includes a section concerning chord substitution, an
important topic missing from many similar texts. Though this method is more
complete in scope than any text of this kind, it seems to propose too much
information for the text to be as practical as his title boasts. For by providing
detailed explanation of many theoretical concepts, many of which find little or no
application in the realm of music making Brooks addresses (for example, the
construction of enigmatic scales and modes, like the locrian mode or "Hungarian
minor"), he risks losing the focus of his readers by overwhelming them with
unnecessary information. In his attempt to bring church musicians completely
across the theory gap, he pushes them over the edge by not giving a sufficiently
practical context for the theory he teaches. Furthermore, the visual presentation
and organization of his text is cluttered and incoherentthrough a multitude of fonts,
tables, and graphics that are undoubtedly meant to organize the text, but in fact
make it appear more complex. As a result, it becomes difficult to decipher what
information is critical to the concepts at hand from what are intended as helpful
examples, what are suggestions for practical application, and what is merely
extraneous musical trivia. Altogether, in terms of its content and presentation, this
text provides a method that would seem overly imposing to most music students.
Another book that was written with many of the same goals as Brooks'
publication is The Worship Musician's Theory Book by Steve Bowersox,viii This book
is designed as a self-study music theory course that covers the rudiments of music
theory from notation to the fundamentals of diatonic harmony. This includes basic
intervals, major and minor triads and scales, transposition, simple modulation
techniques, and some common chord progressions found in the repertoire and
incorporates musical examples from traditional and contemporary styles
throughout. Though it is, with the exception of Brooks' text, one of the most
6comprehensive methods available of its kind, it rarely exposits how to use
theoretical information practically. Furthermore, it does not sufficiently go in depth
into the structure of harmony to adequately address many techniques pertaining to
song arranging. It seems that this book is designed as a text to teach musicians how
to read music with the aid of examples from church repertoire. Indeed this is what
Bowersox has claimed is the purpose of this text, he states, "I am not diminishing the
reading of music, (after all that is why I wrote this book!)"ix In light of this, it seems
Bowersox's book seems to fulfill only one small need of music theory while failing to
expound on the many benefits learning theory has for church musicians.
Another popular work, Music Theory Made Easy by Paul Baloche,x is in the
form of an instructional DVD. This video with its accompanying instructional packet
available for online download, presents music theory in a way more immediately
practical than either Brooks' or Bowersox's books. Paul Baloche does well to
present basic concepts of music theory from notation to diatonic harmony and
Roman numeral analysis by approaching these topics from a worship leader's
perspective. These themes are approached from the keyboard and the guitar and
applied directly to the playing of common worship songs. However, Paul Baloche's
course is fairly limited in scope, being less comprehensive than even Bowersox,
though he does touch very briefly on ear training by encouraging viewers to attempt
to sing and aurally recognize numeral analysis of the chord progressions he
demonstrates, something entirely overlooked in the Bowersox text. However,
Baloche simply does not sufficiently go in depth to properly develop a student's
skills in ear training. It seems that the brevity of this DVD instruction course is both
a hindrance and virtue. Its accessibility, practicality, conciseness, and cost have all
seemed to help make this more popular in the realm of instructional material for
worship on Christian music websites, disseminating music theory instruction to a
larger audience, albeit inadequately.
Though a variety of other more instrument-specific publications are available
that address some very rudimentary aspects of theory as it applies to playing a
7certain instrument in a worship setting, they usually fall short in covering issues
that worship leaders face as performers, band leaders, arrangers, and composers.
The above resources have approached the theory gap from the side of the
untrained church musician yet have not been adequate to sufficiently carry him to
the other side. From the classical-academic end, theory texts have, in their own way,
reached out across the void to the untrained individual (the church musician
included), some with more effectiveness than others. Two texts that make such
strides are Music Theory for the Music Professional by Richard Sorce and Theory for
Today's Musician by Ralph Turek. These methods, designed for use in a typical
university or conservatory setting, attempt to balance references to classical music
with references to popular music with some success, but in my opinion, are
inadequate to appeal to the more focused needs of a church musician in a
contemporary context, and despite their apparent focus fail where more
conventional texts succeed.
It appears that the available material does not go far enough to remedy a
growing disparity between the study of music theory and the church musician,
causing the study of music theory to seem out of reach or entirely impractical. My
paper will take the approach that Brooks, Bowersox, and Baloche do by writing from
the perspective of a church musician to make the study both practical and vital, yet
serve better to bridge the gap by being more comprehensive in the scope of
theoretical material it covers. To show this, I will provide a commentary that
compares my work to Sorce and Turek's theory texts in an attempt to show what
divergences from the common methods are necessary, as well as a more
conventional theory text: The Musicians Guide to Theory and Analysis by Jane Piper
Clendinning and Elizabeth West Marvin, to show how my work compares to a more
commonly used theory method.
8Method
In order to create a method that can simultaneously instruct an untrained
musician in the practical aspects of music theory while addressing specific musical
issues that musicians in the contemporary Christian church may face, I have
designed my work to be in the form of a curriculum for self-study or corporate-
study, much like the Brooks and Bowersox books have done. It will cover many of
the same topics that a freshman-level theory course would, but will not discuss
concepts idiosyncratic to classical repertoire and will replace examples from
classical music with popular Christian worship songs. It will give special attention
to the issues that worship leaders face by continually applying concepts through
theoretical and - where appropriate - ear training exercises, performance exercises,
and musical analyses. The theoretical content will essentially serve as a platform for
which to discuss issues including, notation, harmony, rhythm, song arranging &
reharmonizing of contemporary choruses and hymns, and modulation, constantly
giving reference to its use in leading a band and facilitating a corporate worship
service in a church utilizing a contemporary style.
In order to keep this work accessible, I will use the perspectives of musicians
who both have no formal instruction in theory and those who have some
experience. A sufficient discussion of notation and its use in the church will allow
the reader to utilize the knowledge to communicate musical ideas using universal
musical terminology so that as a leader, ideas may be expressed more specifically
and directly than an illiterate musician could. Also they will have the fundamental
knowledge with which to read a score and understand any direction given on a lead
sheet or chord sheet. As an arranger, the reader will be taught how to create a
cohesive arrangement of any song or songs and understand the impact of making
certain musical decisions in a setting of corporate worship.
In creating a pedagogical text, I hope that this would be viewed less as a
study of contemporary music in the church, but rather evaluated in terms of its
practicality as an instructional aid for an untrained church musician. I feel that I
9have written this in the spirit of the early theorists, Guido, Johannes de Garlandia,
and Zarlino, whose treatises were created to serve the musicians of the church to
help them be better students of the music they were tasked with performing. It is
my aim to create a modern treatise for the new era of church music that will be used
in this similar capacity. This treatise is written to bring music theory to an area of
music culture that in my opinion so desperately needs it. Ultimately I hope this
work that is both a resource to the Church and the academic community, in so much
that music education is made more accessible to musicians of any background and
vocation so that they are more fully equipped to tackle the many challenges they
will encounter in the professional world and teachers are given the adequate tools
with which to most effectively instruct said pupils.
Notes
i Richard Sorce, Music Theory for the Music Professional (New York: Arsdley House
Publishers, Inc., 1995).
ii Ralph Turek, Theory for Today's Musician (New York: McGraw Hill, 2007).
iii Jane Piper Clendinning and Elizabeth West Marvin. The Musician's Guide to Theory
and Analysis. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2005).
iv Worship Matters, "Are We Responsible for Musical Literacy in the Church?," Bob
Kautlin, http://www.worshipmatters.com/2007j 11 jwhats-happening-to-musical-
literacy-in-the-churchj (retrieved August, 16, 2010).
v Sorce, xxiii.
vi Ibid.
vii Tom Brooks. The Language ofMusic: Practical Music Theory for the Worshiping
Musician, 2d ed. (Laguna Niguel: New Earth Publications, Inc., 2010).
viii Steve Bowersox, Worship Musician's Theory Book (Ponte Verde Beach: The
Bowersox Institute of Music, 1991).
ix Ibid., 84.
x Paul Baloche, Modern Worship Series: Music Theory Made Easy, 94 min., (Via
Productions, 2005), DVD.
10
11
CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION
"Sing unto Him a new song; play skillfully with a loud noise."
Psalm 33:3Xi
In the spring of 2008, I was asked to lead worship services at First Baptist
Church of Eugene. It was my first time doing so. I had led worship for the college-
aged ministry many times, but I knew that leading music for the morning services
was going to be a very different experience. The collegians met in a very informal
setting that I had become very accustomed to. Every Sunday evening we gathered
to sing in a dimly lit living room of an old sorority house on the campus of the
University of Oregon. It was packed with students who were eager to worship God
through fellowship, teaching, and music. As a musician, it was easy to feel relaxed
while worshipping alongside my peers who, though they were nuzzled close, didn't
seem to care if I missed notes or fumbled over a few words. The services carried
along nicely, abiding all manner of hiccup in leadership. But when I stood on stage
in front of a congregation of 2000 or more worshipers on that Sunday morning, I
sensed that the pressure was on in a way I hadn't experienced before and I was
confident that I had to bring my very best in order to keep things going smoothly.
Having been briefed in my new responsibilities, I was told I was now going to
be in charge of just about everything musical from the choosing music creating
arrangements, composing vocal charts, recruiting musicians, and rehearsing the
band, and leading it all on Sunday morning. To most, this may have sounded like a
lot to take on all at once, but to me this was the easy part. At the time I was a
graduate student of music theory at the Uof 0 and all throughout my time in music
school I, my music education had taught me how to write and arrange charts and
12
lead a group of professional musicians. So like any other time, I prepared myself to
lead the service by probing the depths of my music education and bringing all my
creative senses to bear on the music.
Having a love for song arranging and composition, I had studied the music
well and developed some very specific ideas of what the musicians could do with the
songs and, wanting to set them all up for success, I made sure I was as clear as
possible in what instructions I had for them. I carefully edited the charts and clearly
articulated my thoughts as I led the musicians through rehearsal. As we practiced,
we discovered some obvious kinks, but most everything had panned out beautifully
and I felt adequately prepared to meet the demands of the Sunday morning service.
I thought I had covered everything.
When I stepped into the church on Sunday, the stage was bigger than a small
house and the sanctuary was brightly lit, full of people of all ages. It felt like the
Roman Coliseum compared to what I was used to. I was accustomed to leading
college students crammed into a cozy space no more than five feet in front of me,
but the first row that morning seemed almost a mile away and the feeling was
anything but a cozy; it seemed cold. Shrugging this feeling off, I gave a nervous
greeting to the congregation and the band struck up the chords to the opening song.
The group was well rehearsed and the set panned out like clockwork. As the service
progressed, the band played all the music we had worked out the week before and
sounded great, thanks to their exceptional skills and musical intuition. The songs
came to life in the moment, taking on a new character, though obviously shaped by
the musical conversation we had as a band, the congregation now taking part in that
experience.
However, when the opening set of songs had ended and the last chord of my
guitar had ceased ringing, silence filled the room. The pianist shifted in her chair
and I felt all eyes on me, waiting to be led to the next element of the service. Usually
the person up front knows what to do next, but I didn't. I thought the offering was
next, but who was going to introduce it? Maybe it was me, but I could not
13
remember. My mind had gone blank. The pastor quickly picked up on my mental
impasse, and took initiative to lead in my stead. The musicians left the stage and the
service continued on smoothly. This awkward moment was only a minor glitch, but
I still felt a measure of shame. In that moment, I realized that I had become so
consumed by the music - in its preparation, rehearsal, and performance - that I had
neglected my other responsibilities as a worship leader and favored one function of
the service at the expensive of another. Certainly all my musical practice and
prowess had paid off, but it would only go so far and I had forgotten that my role as
a worship leader continues when the music stops.
I begin with this story because I want to remind the reader that the role of a
church musician, and the worship leader specifically, is a very complex and
demanding one. He or she not only needs to bring excellence in music, but also
needs to lead people, including non-musicians to non-musical places. This means a
church musician must learn to worship God and develop their skills in ways that
extend well beyond that of music.
Thankfully, ministry is as much about grace as it is about excellence. We are
allowed these stories in part to inspire ourselves to be better at what we do and
teach us this very important virtue: the song continues through every moment of
worship. Thus, in order to play skillfully, as the Psalmist says, you must do so in a
variety of ways, especially in the areas you are least comfortable. You must hone the
things you can do well and "go back to school" on the things that need real work.
Therefore, as you read a book on how to employ music theory for the church
musician, I expect you will do so with the full realization that it concerns only a
portion of the responsibilities facing a worship leader and that it is only part of the
equation. Yet as this is a book on music specifically, I expect it will be especially
valuable to you if you feel music needs some work specifically. As a music theory
book, it will deal mainly with employing musical knowledge towards skills in the
church context. By restricting the scope of this book, I intentionally avoid discussing
many issues of being a worship leader or other church musician that are as
14
important or more important in these roles as music so that more attention can be
placed on music here (and allow room for other concerns to be placed elsewhere).
Many of the issues faced by musicians in the church - the social, spiritual,
theological, and clerical - are too complex to be discussed in depth here. Moreover,
I am not equipped to teach them. As there is any number of texts that address these
issues in the church, I leave this discussion to women and men who are wiser in
these areas than I.
Everyone has strengths; mine is mostly music. It is easy for anyone to do as I
did and focus on only the things they excel in or enjoy while not adequately
confronting those things that need more improvement. We can even make excuses
for our shortcomings while over-estimating the importance of the things we
naturally do well. This book was written for those church musicians, like me, who
recognize this and want to avoid it. It is for those of us who know where we come
up short and want to do something about it.
If you feel that your lack of an understanding of music serves as limitation
for your ministry, keep reading. Or perhaps you are not even sure what music
theory is or how it can help, but you are curious to learn more. In that case, the
following pages may help convince you that this book will benefit you. So, the next
section will deal briefly with what music theory is and what makes it important to
musicians in the church.
What Is Music Theory and Why Do We Use It?
Music theory is the study of how music works on a technical level. Like an
auto mechanic looks under a hood of a car to see how everything is put together, a
music theorist looks at notes to understand music better. Music theory allows us to
do this. This means that when we directly discuss any of the mechanical
characteristics that make music what it is, like notes and rhythms, we are using
15
music theory.4 So it is likely that you intuitively know some music theory already.
Music theory is used to answer some of the most fundamental questions about
music. If you've ever wondered: What makes it sound the way it does? What makes
good music sound good and bad music sound bad? How can I make music sound the
way I want it to? It will help answer these questions.
Music Theory is a Teaching Tool
You may be surprised to hear that music theory got its start in the church.
The men who came up with the theory that evolved into what we use today used it
as a teaching tool for other church musicians. One of the earliest and most famous
of these theorists was a Benedictine monk named Guido of Arezzo who developed in
the eleventh century the first musical staff and an early form of solfege, both of
which are still used today in their modern forms. Guido created his music theory to
serve his fellow worshippers who he noticed were having difficulty learning the vast
number of chant melodies that they had to sing weekly. His theories eventually
spread throughout the church, and became standardized, as they brought order and
clarity to the teaching of this music. Since then, music theory has not lost its place as
a centerpiece of music education. Today it is taught in a nearly universal form in
schools worldwide.
Music Theory is Language
This common vocabulary that music theory provides allows musicians of all
backgrounds and skill levels to discuss music clearly. By creating a common ground
that supersedes individual musical experiences or philosophies, people can help
each other learn and collaborate on the same level. The metal guitarist from the U.S.
can share his or her musical ideas with the classical violinist from Korea even when
they are not familiar with the other's style of music.
4 Though music theory has the capacity to discuss many more aspects of music than these mechanical
ones, they are beyond the practical scope of this book.
16
Music Theory is Creative Potential
Every musician is armed with a creative mind, and music theory empowers
you to use it. Possessing knowledge of how music works gives you the power to
bend, break, or employ those rules at your will. As a musician you must know what
tools are available in order to use them effectively. How much more creative is a
painter who can see what colors are on his palette? He must see the colors to be
able to paint what he wants. Otherwise it is just guesswork.
Music Theory is Musical Power
By making music intelligible, music theory makes any kind of music
accessible. It provides the means to comprehend any music so that it can be
understood and replicated. If you've ever wanted to know how to play jazz, gospel,
or reggae, music theory can help provide insight to any genre of music so that you
are brought from thinking merely, "Wow, that sounds different!" to having the
ability to understand it and the skills to employ it at your will. Understanding music
gives you practical knowledge. And if knowledge is power, understanding music
makes you a powerful musician.
Do We Need Music Theory?
When Guido of Arezzo devised the musical staff, he was responding to a need
in the musical life of the church. He saw his fellow musicians were struggling and
knew that if they were going to get better, they would need to be challenged in the
way they learned and perceived music. His musical staff allowed them to think
objectively about the notes they were singing so that they could take more control of
their own musical development.
Granted, music in the church has changed a lot since the eleventh century.
Technology and advances in musical style have made the experience of the aspiring
worship leader different from that of the cloistered monks of the middle ages. But
has our complicated age rendered learning music theory obsolete? On the contrary,
17
it is my opinion that we need it more than ever. Music in the church has become so
complex and demanding in the last 1000 years that a worship leader cannot afford
to be complacent or mediocre in his or her musical development.
Despite its apparent value and benefits, music theory has never been the
most popular subject among musicians because it is a challenging way to think
about music. Music theory is as complex as the music that it explains, and the music
we play in church is complex. Every chord we play is its own highly organized
system of notes working in concert to create music that on the surface seems simple
and organic. It took a millennium of innovation to get music from Guido's time to
where it is today. This has resulted in a modern music theory that is extremely
complex and time consuming to learn. The real question is: Is it worth all the effort?
Of course I think it is, but many musicians in the church have chosen not to pursue it
for a variety of reasons.
Not convinced? Below is a list of some reasons why worship leaders say they
have chosen not to study music theory. Following this are a few of the many
reasons for learning it that are directly applicable to those who lead worship in the
church today. I hope the commentary on each idea will help convince you that
learning music theory is not only worthwhile but also essential for your growth as a
church musician and worship leader.
What Some Church Musicians Say About Theory
1) Learning music theory will take too long.
It is right to say that learning music theory is no small task. It takes
time to develop even a basic working knowledge of the subject. However,
learning just the basics can take you a long way. Some scholars spend their
whole lives studying music theory, but most musicians know a little, and use
what they know on a daily basis. Studying the Bible is an enormous
endeavor too, but you chip away at it a little bit at a time and you do it
18
because you believe it is important. If you come to feel that learning music
theory is worth the effort, try not to be overwhelmed with the idea of
committing yourself to learning it. Reserve a little time in your week to
learning something new and don't move on until you've grasped it.
2) I don't even read music, how can you expect me to understand music
theory?
You do not need to read music to understand music theory, although it
certainly will make it easier. I have attempted to make it possible for any
musician to grasp these ideas and immediately put them into practice while
constantly incorporating examples of written music. Hopefully by the end,
you will have a good knowledge of music theory and be able to read music to
the degree that you need it.
3) With the available software and resources available through Christian
Copyright Licensing International (CCLI) and other worship music
resources, hasn't technology made it unnecessary for me to know this
information myself?
Not at all. Such software resources can be extremely valuable to
worship leaders and though they can be helpful for changing keys or
providing pre-arranged lead sheets at the click of a button, they are no
substitute for a creative mind. I recommend that rather than using pre-
packaged music arrangements, a worship leader uses his or her ears and
theoretical knowledge to craft a service for his or her church's needs.
Certainly, such technology can be helpful. I use them sometimes, myself. But
every time I print out a lead sheet from a software resource, I play through it
with a discerning ear and a pen ready to tailor a song to better suit the
service, the musicians involved, and for the congregation I am leading. If
your pastor were downloading his sermons from the Internet (and without
19
even checking what they said!) rather than using his own God-given gifts, he
would probably not be your pastor for long. As a musician} why should your
standards be any less?
4) If I work with musicians who don't know anything about music theory
either, what good will it do for me to learn it?
This is a good point. While studying music theory, you will develop a
vocabulary with which to communicate musical ideas more effectively, but
granted this vocabulary won't help as much if your fellow musicians only
hear a bunch of theoretical jargon from you that they don't understand.
However, studying music theory will give you a greater understanding of the
music you and your whole team plays. Having a clear understanding of the
music before you hand it out and while you play it is a crucial part of being
able to lead a team of musicians, and conveying your musical vision as a
leader. It is important to be musically aware not only in terms of what you
play yourself, but also to be able to understand what others are playing.
Music theory will allow you to hear and recognize what other musicians are
playing even if you have no knowledge of how to play their instrument.
Furthermore, much can be said about the role of a worship leader in
fostering the musical growth of the members of his/her team. Your personal
education can enable you to be a better leader and teacher to gently help
others along in becoming better stewards of their craft.
5) Isn't music theory just a list of rules? Won't that hinder my creativity?
No. Music theory is not a list of rules. It is simply a way of organizing
and describing musical sounds and thus de-mystifying them. When one
studies music theory, they are not learning what they can and cannot do, but
what has been done and thus what could be done. Understanding what others
have done opens up more avenues of creativity for you.
20
Musicians who do not know music theory often hold the
misconception that what musical ideas they formulate apart from theoretical
knowledge are more novel than they really are. However, it is generally
accepted that there is "nothing new under the sun" (to reference
Ecclesiastes) when it comes to music. It has been said: "...the tools of
musical creation have remained virtually unchanged for the last 300 years.
There are no new pitches, chords, rhythms, or dynamics. Every element of
syntax that was available in 1700 is still used today. What has changed is the
style in which these syntactical elements are employed."xii
This statement should not be defeating to the aspiring musician,
however. Rather, with a good theoretical knowledge of what is the norm in a
style or a multitude of styles, a studious musician has cultivated the ability
(and indeed liberty) to emulate or deviate from the norm at his or her leisure
and make her own "mark" in a given style. In short, if you know where you
want to go, you must also know where you are in order to know how to get
there. Music theory will open up pathways for creativity that you never
knew existed.
6) Music theory isn't for me; I just play by "feel" and have gotten along just
fine without it.
Don't limit yourself. Too many people hold the misconception that
there are two types of musicians: those who play by ear and don't need to
read music or learn theory, and those who do. Don't confine yourself to
either stereotype. Once you get better at it, music theory can be felt and
understood as clearly as a good groove. Through careful study and practice,
music theory can become as intuitive as tapping your foot to a beat. I
challenge you to become a better-rounded musician. The greatest musicians
in this world are the ones who constantly challenge themselves to be better.
They have the pioneer's spirit, never resigning to what is merely comfortable
21
or immediately intuitive. There is always something new to learn and most
of the fun is the challenge.
7) I have made it this far without knowing any music theory already, why
should I start over and learn it now?
First of all, I am guessing you do know some theory. Any musician
who knows that a Cis different from a D knows some theory. It is difficult to
even talk about music without using theory. Just as learning your first chord
put music literally at your fingertips, expanding your knowledge to include
the material covered in this book will broaden your musical potential in the
same way. You began your study of theory the same day you learned your
first chord, and your next step is to go deeper and apply your knowledge in
new and amazing ways.
8) I am content with what I know about music already; I don't need music
theory to do what Iwant to do.
If you are absolutely content with what you can do on your
instrument or where you are as a worship leader and you feel that you have
learned everything you care to learn, then congratulations! You have
reached a level only few musicians dream of and have no need of this book.
Some Reasons to Study Music Theory
1) You have more freedom to express your musical ideas.
Learning music theory is a lot like learning how to read and write. No
one can argue against the idea that learning the fundamentals of grammar
will make your writing clearer or even better. Sure, there are those gifted
individuals who can write brilliantly having never sat through a college
composition class, but the rest of us could use a bit of help. Learning how
22
language functions doesn't necessarily give you great literary ideas, but it
will allow you to express your thoughts more clearly and more the way you
want to. Music theory works the same way, it cannot tell you how to write a
great worship song, or how to arrange the "perfect" worship service, but it
will give you the tools you need to better express yourself and perhaps
unlock potential that has been locked up inside.
2) You will be more efficient and self-sufficient.
One of the great benefits of music theory is that it illuminates patterns
in music (and contemporary Christian music is full of them). One can learn a
song and memorize it in less time by being able to recognize and apply these
musical patterns in performance. Furthermore, if you have musical ideas
that you know how to play in one context (a particular key for example),
theory can show you what potential those ideas may have in other contexts.
Also, having a fundamental understanding of how music is structured
enables you to become your own teacher when it comes to learning new
things. For example, if you are learning a new song you may be unfamiliar
with how to playa certain chord indicated on a lead sheet. A working
knowledge of chord theory will help you learn how to play any chord without
the need for a person or book to show you where to put your fingers.
3) You will be able to better articulate musical ideas to your worship team.
In order to be an effective leader, you must be able to communicate
your ideas to the people on your team. If you have an idea you wish to
convey, you must be able to verbalize it in a way that can be universally
understood. Music theory allows for this; it takes musical ideas and
organizes them into a common language. Developing this vocabulary among
your team will help put everybody on a common level. Without it, you are
stuck with coming up with vague analogies to get people to hear what you
23
are hearing. You might say, "Remember that one riff at the beginning of that
one album?" or even showing them your instrument and saying, "No. Play
like this! This is what I mean." Such communication methods are time
consuming and vague. They can also be very frustrating to a musician who
feels singled out and is given the unfair burden of interpreting instructions
offered by a leader who lacks the ability to clearly describe what it is he or
she desires.
4) You will have the ability to transcribe musical ideas quickly and
efficiently.
Have you ever had a melody that you wanted another musician to play
or hear a chord progression on the radio that caught your ear and really
wanted to know? Music theory will give you the tools with which to
transcribe melodies, rhythms, and chord progressions quickly and accurately
without even having an instrument in front of you. With adequate theory
and ear training, you can take what you hear in your car on the way to work
and know how to play it even before you get there.
5) You will relate better to a wider range of musicians in your community.
Developing a universal vocabulary through an understanding of music
theory will allow you to relate better to musicians who are classically trained.
Being able to communicate with them on their level will make it easier for
you to involve them in your ministry and help them along in their own
musical development. Or perhaps you will learn something from them
without feeling utterly lost ifthey use theoretical terms.
Making the Most of the Text
So, if you feel that you want to learn more about music theory and you want to
use this knowledge in a practical way, then be prepared to make an effort and
--------
24
sacrifice time in order to do it. This book covers many of the same topics that would
be included in a full year of a college-level music theory course, so it should come as
no surprise that it might take that long for you as well to master the concepts herein.
There is no quick way to learn music theory. Learning it cannot be accomplished
overnight and learning to use it in practical ways takes even more time. You may be
serious about learning it and excited about what it can do for you, but you must be
patient for your studies to payoff. They will in due time. So, to honor the time and
effort you will be putting into this study, here is a list of things you can do to make
the most out of it:
1) Set aside a few minutes in your day to study it.
Be consistent with your study in order to keep the concepts fresh in
your mind. Learning music theory is a lot like learning another language, so
be prepared to spend some time on it every day. Ten minutes a week won't
be enough.
2) Play what you've learned on your instrument.
Read about a few ofthe concepts and practice the ear training
exercises, but always play them out on your instrument. Putting music
theory into practice not only helps solidify the knowledge while learning it,
but also turns seemingly abstract theories into practical skills. As the music
theory is unveiled throughout this book, sheet music and tablature (TAB) is
provided so you can immediately apply them to your instrument. Also, don't
skip over practice assignments or musical examples.
3) Make it a part of your practice routine.
When you pick up your guitar or sit down at the piano to play, keep
what music theory you've learned in the back of your mind. Try to relate it to
whatever songs you are working on throughout the week by actively looking
25
for music theory in the music. Applying music theory in this context is an
essential part of using theory in a practical way.
4) Learn it with a friend or as a worship team.
Having friends who are learning along with you can encourage you
when things are confusing or boring. Learning it as a group will help your
team build a common theoretical vocabulary and help build excellence and
team unity.
5) Most importantly, keep at it.
Don't give up on it if it seems difficult or if the benefits aren't obvious
right away. Learning music theory from beginning to end is a very sequential
process. Later concepts build off of earlier ones, so things at the end won't
make sense without the context given by the stuff at the beginning. Don't
skip around looking for the most immediately interesting or beneficial topic
and don't move on from a concept until you feel you've got it.
Text Organization
The portion of the text directly teaches music theory, Chapters III-XV, is
divided into 3 parts. Part 1 (Chapters III-VII) covers theory fundamentals including
notation, the fundamentals of pitch, rhythm, popular song structure, keys, scales,
and intervals. This provides the necessary foundation for what is the meat of the
book. Part 2 (Chapters VIII-XII) concerns chord theory from basic triads through
extended harmony, chord inversion, and chromaticism. Part 3 (Chapters XIII-XV)
concerns some advanced theoretical concepts and arranging techniques. It is the
culmination of the preceding materials. It attempts to muster all the theory
concepts and techniques thus far towards developing a more compositional
approach towards worship music and creating a worship services. Yet before any of
26
that, question of music theory must be addressed: What is Music? We will approach
this in the following chapter.
Notes
xi Ps 33:3 KJV.
xii Richard Sorce, xxiv.
27
CHAPTER III
PRELIMINARIES & NOTATION
To begin to tackle any major subject, one must always learn fundamentals.
These are the concepts that everyone must learn before moving on to more complex
topics. Fundamentals provide the basis for everything else, establishing a
framework upon which we can address some of the more flashy and exciting
theoretical concepts and techniques. This present section forms Part I of the text,
wherein we discuss theory fundamentals. In it, we will cover the basics of notation,
pitch, rhythm, keys, scales, and intervals, the building blocks of everything else. But
even before we get into any of that, we must first address the more fundamental
question: What do we mean when we even say the word music?
What Is music?
"Music" is a broad term that means many things to many different people. To
most, music is what you hear on the radio or what musicians make when they play
instruments or sing, but some people have more subjective notions of what music is.
I have heard people say things like, "That rap music isn't music at all, it's just noise!"
Others have a more enigmatic approach, arguing that birdsong or even the crashing
of waves on a shore are types of music too.
These theories of music have their place in a discussion of music, but music
theory requires a more conventional model for the definition of music as it deals
with the specific mechanics of music that are used in music composition. Music
theory assumes certain definable qualities present in music and uses them to
explain how it sounds.
Traditionally, music is defined as having four major characteristics: pitch,
rhythm, dynamics, and timbre. Below are some working definitions of each:
28
Pitch
Pitch is the specific frequency or frequencies that make up notes in music.
This includes a song's melody - a strand of individual pitches played in succession,
and its harmony (or the chords) - individual pitches which, when grouped together,
interact to create a simultaneity that forms a larger cohesive structure usually
underpinning a melody.
Rhythm
Rhythm pertains to the duration oftime that pitches are sounded and their
temporal organization. It determines how long or short a note is and also governs
the time between notes when no pitch is present. Tempo, a facet of rhythm, is the
speed at which a given rhythm is played.
Dynamics
How loud or soft a note or series of notes are played is called dynamics.
Articulation, often called the "attack" of the note is a concept that is not restricted to
mere dynamics and is also affected by rhythm and timbre.
Timbre
Loosely defined, timbre pertains to the quality of sound produced by a pitch.
Quality does not mean good or bad, but relates to the way it sounds, as how an
electric guitar sounds different from an acoustic guitar. Even when two guitars play
the same notes, these instruments don't sound the same because each has its unique
timbre.
Though music theory has the capacity to explain aspects of music that
pertain to any of these categories, the music theory we will be dealing with in this
book will be concerned primarily with the first two: pitch and rhythm.
29
What Is Notation?
In order to communicate nearly any of these musical concepts in a book, we
must use one or more types of music notation. Simply put, notation is music
instructions in written form. Whether the notation is in the form of a conductor's
orchestral score or a few chord symbols scribbled over a sheet of lyrics, this written
depiction of musical ideas is considered notation. Notation allows us to
communicate our ideas with other musicians through a common language. In the
same way that the ability to read a written language is vital for functioning in a
society, reading notation is necessary to operate in the music world. Ifyou never
learn to read or write any notation, communication with other musicians will be at
best vague and always challenging. Furthermore, you will always feel out of the
loop when around musicians who do use notation.
As a church musician, you should become fluent with at least one method of
notation. Agood place to start is with the style most commonly used by the
musicians who serve in your ministry. However, the more styles you learn, the
more versatile you may become in your communication of musical ideas. There are
three notation styles commonly used in the church today: traditional music
notation, lead sheets, and chord sheets. Also, there is tablature, which is widely
used by guitarists, who indeed make up a large musical force in the church today.
These styles serve as the common tools of communication, allowing musicians to
exchange musical information and ideas with each other. Each style has its own set
of advantages and disadvantages and these will be explored here. Additionally, we
will discuss two very common, yet instrument-specific styles of notation: tablature
and rhythm sheets. It will be beneficial to become familiar with each one so you can
effectively work with whatever musicians may be involved in your ministry.
Inevitably, you will encounter musicians of all abilities and backgrounds and being
able to meet each person on common ground is necessary to working well with
them.
30
Traditional Music Notation (Sheet Music)
Figure 3.1 I Know that My Redeemer Lives - Samuel Medley & John Hatton
1\ J.I 1-----.. I~I
• •
know that
1
my
.~
re I deem
i
G
lives!
©Public Domain
Traditional music notation, often called sheet music (Figure 3.1), is the
primary notational style used by classically trained musicians and is used
extensively in traditional worship services. Most pianists, organists, and choirs are
trained to read this style. It is the most specific of any notation, meaning it has the
capacity to visually depict nearly any aural component of musical performance.
Traditional music notation is written on a series of horizontal lines and
spaces, called a staff Notes and other symbols can be placed on the staffto supply
any information about melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamics, and form (how sections
of a song are laid out from beginning to end), leaving a musician with few questions
of how to play any given song. For this reason, it has been the style of choice for
professional musicians for the last 400 years. When this amount of information is
communicated in written form, musicians can quickly establish the "basics" of
performance and focus their attention on "fine-tuning" their performance.
Sheet music's specificity means it is usually intended for relatively little
improvisation, Le. the musician will play what is written note-for-note. Also it has
the advantage that it can also be instrument-specific or group-specific, meaning that
the written music can be tailored for an individual instrument (as in a part) or many
instruments (as in a score).
The main drawback to this style is that, because it is thorough, it is rather
complex and not learned quickly. It can take weeks or even months of practice to be
31
able to read it and years to be fluent. Unless musicians are confident in their
reading, it can be frustrating and discouraging for them to have to read from sheet
music.
An additional side effect is that instrument parts and especially scores can
become rather lengthy, spanning many pages for just a few minutes of music. If you
have ever seen a conductor turn 40 pages of a symphony during an orchestra
concert, you'll know what I mean. This is cumbersome for musicians who need both
hands to play, like guitarists. Writing sheet music for musicians can also be time
consuming, costly, or both. Writing by hand can be very time intensive and music
notation programs tend to be expensive as well, though they have sped up the
writing process considerably.
Another noticeable drawback to sheet music is that it can foster in the
musician a dependence upon written musical instruction. In more improvisatory
styles, like popular music and jazz, a musician who has developed such dependence
may feel uncomfortable improvising their part. In extreme cases, some musicians
may refuse to play music apart from the aid of sheet music.
Lead Sheet
Figure 3.2 I Know that My Redeemer Lives - Samuel Medley & John Hatton
D A7/E D/F~ G dOlE D AlE E7 A
1.1 know that my re deem er__ lives!
©Public Domain
Another method of notation, similar to traditional notation, is the lead sheet.
The lead sheet is the most common notation used in popular music and jazz (Figure
3.2). It incorporates elements of both traditional notation and chord symbols, which
are the main element of chord sheets (discussed below). On a lead sheet the melody
32
of the given song is written on a single staff of traditional notation with an underlay
of lyrics and chord symbols above the staff.
There are many advantages to this format. It contains enough information
that a musician has all essential instructions for playing the song, including the
song's melody and rhythm, chords and their duration, and overall form. The main
difference between this notational style and traditional music notation is that the
harmony is not written out note-for-note, but represented by chord symbols above
the staff. It is then up to the musician to "realize" the chords and bass line in an
improvised part, meaning that how the chords and rhythms are played is up to the
interpretation of the musician, which will likely be different from performer to
performer. Though this allows for a great deal of individual expression and
spontaneity in performance, it usually means that a group of musicians take more
time to adjust each of their individual parts to create a more cohesive whole.
Lead sheets are also not usually instrument-specific. Multiple instruments
read off the same part as the staff gives a general "road map" for musicians to follow
so they are on the same page, literally, but the rest of the music is improvised.
Length can also be an issue with this style as with traditional notation, though they
are not usually as long. For a 3 to 5 minute song, a lead sheet may be two to five
pages in length.
Chord Sheet (Lyric Sheet)
Figure 3.3 I Know that My Redeemer Lives - Samuel Medley & John Hatton
D A7IE D/F# G C#o/E DAlE E7 A
I know that my Re deem - er lives!
©Public Domain
The chord sheet (or lyric sheet) is another very popular style of notation.
Here, the lyrics to a song are presented with chord symbols placed over the
appropriate words (Figure 3.3). Though there is no staff or notation of melody,
33
there are some very clear advantages to this style. The greatest benefit is perhaps
that it is very user-friendly. One only needs to know a tune goes and how to read
chord symbols to follow a chord sheet, making it accessible to musicians of all skill
levels and backgrounds. Chord sheets are also relatively concise, often fitting onto
one page and thus avoiding page turns, a clear advantage for guitarists and other
musicians who must use both hands to play their instrument.
However, a big drawback to this style is that is that it quite vague in terms of
musical instruction. Words and chord symbols are often the only instructions
provided, meaning that the melody of the song, duration of chords, musical form,
etc. is learned by rote and memorized. Consequently, it is quite difficult, if not
impossible, to play or sing a song from a chord sheet without already being well
acquainted with the tune. Learning new music and being creative with familiar
music becomes a very time intensive process as the bulk of musical ideas must be
communicated verbally or demonstrated on an instrument to be taught. For
instance, if a band leader or music arranger has specific ideas for parts or how he
wants another musician to playa part, such as a counter melody for a vocalist, a
specific strumming pattern for a guitarist, or melodic "hook" for the lead guitarist to
play, the chord sheet does little (if anything) to communicate these ideas. Despite
its obvious shortcomings, its "quick and dirty" approach remains the favored
notational style in many churches that have adopted a popular style of music.
Tablature (TAB)
Figure 3.4 I Know that My Redeemer Lives - Samuel Medley & John Hatton
T 7 3 10 3 7 i7 8 18
I
18
~ 7
know that my re deem er lives!
©Public Domain, arr. by the author
34
Tablature, or simply TAB, is notation specific to fretted instruments, namely
guitar and bass (Figure 3.4). Though it can hardly replace any ofthe other
notational styles, it is often used to supplement them by indicating specific musical
ideas for a guitarist to play.
TAB has a series of horizontal lines representing the strings ofthe guitar's
neck. Numbers placed on the lines indicate which frets to play certain notes or
chords. The number of strings represented by the TAB varies according to
instrument, but normally there are 6 horizontal lines for a guitar and 4 for a bass
guitar. The orientation of the strings is such that the guitar neck positioned
vertically is seen rotated counter-clockwise 90° with the 1st string is situated
laterally above the rest, on top.
This style of notation has its limitations as well, showing only what notes to
play on a guitar, specifying their location in terms of strings and frets, but
sometimes chord symbols, lyrics, and even rhythms are added.
As a music arranger, it is important to know how to read and write TAB as
well since the majority of guitarists are familiar with it and few are comfortable with
traditional notation. Many musical examples in this book will be depicted in
tablature as well for the guitarist, to connect the concepts at hand with familiar and
tangible examples on the guitar.
Rhythm Sheet
A fifth notational style that should be mentioned is the rhythm sheet. This is
a style used primarily for percussion instruments where the definition of pitch is not
a factor, but it can also be useful for indicating rhythms as strumming patterns for a
guitar. On a rhythm sheet, rhythmic information is often communicated through
note values and bar lines on a single-line or sometimes multi-line staff. Drummers
playing a trap set will commonly use a five-line staff. Here, each line indicates the
rhythm ofa specific instrument (such as the bass drum, hi-hat, snare, or cymbals,
etc.) Therefore, on a five-line rhythm sheet (Figure 3.5), the activity of the whole
------_._--
35
drum-set may be notated on a single staff (Figure 3.6). This style of notation will be
used on occasion throughout this book where it is necessary to depict rhythm-only
ideas.
Figure 3.5 Single-line Rhythm Sheet:
Figure 3.6 Five-line Rhythm Sheet (Drum Set]:
What Notation Style Should You Use?
Notation is meant to serve the musicians who use it. So a simple answer to
this question is to use a style that your team can read. If your musicians are
unfamiliar with reading any type of notation, begin by teaching them chord symbols
and how to use a chord sheet. Chord sheets provide a good starting point for
learning notation as they are simple to create, quick to learn, and easy to read. As a
result, they tend to be the most commonly used notational style in contemporary
services, but one should be hesitant to resign them to using only this notation.
Making the Step Towards Staff-Based Notation
As we have seen, chord sheets are easy to use in one sense because there is
little information on the page for the musician to interpret. However, this also gives
the performer the responsibility of memorizing or improvising what isn't indicated.
This makes the greatest benefit of the chord sheet also its greatest detriment.
Notational styles that give more information to the reader are harder to learn, just
as picture books are generally easier to understand over prose. Music notation
36
styles could be seen on a spectrum of ease of use/non-specificity and
difficulty/musical specificity (Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7 Easy of Use vs. Specificity:
~Ease of use/Non-Specificity
Chord sheet Tablature Lead Sheet
Difficulty/Specificity7
Traditional notation
If you have mastered reading chord sheet notation, it is beneficial to then
become acquainted with notation that uses a staff and lays out the music temporally
(with measures or bars), though it may seem like a great challenge initially. Indeed
reading this notation will be challenging at first, but as a church musician, there are
distinct benefits to knowing how to read and create lead sheet and sheet music,
some of which have already been mentioned:
1) It will allow you to communicate more specific musical ideas to your
musicians.
If you have musicians who can read, you can minimize rehearsal time
spent on the more rudimentary aspects of music making by avoiding
questions like, "Where do we play that chord again?" or "How many times do
we repeat the last chorus?" The less time you have to spend on those kinds
of questions, the more time you have to devote to pursuing creativity and
excellence.
2) It will make you a more effective leader and empower the musicians on
your team.
It is important that your musicians are gently led in a way that gives
them opportunity to take responsibility for the music they make. Providing a
part for a musician clarifies their role in a positive way. It gives them all the
directions they need, thus giving them the power to bring the music to life in
37
accordance with the leader's vision and their own creative ability. If you are
a creative person who has a lot of ideas for your band, verbally telling them
what to do every step of the way can be very frustrating, and even
discouraging when they feel singled out or made to feel that they can't be
given responsibility for their own part.
3) You will be able to involve classically trained musicians who may not be
comfortable with improvisation.
There are many incredible musicians out there who are highly skilled
at reading music, but have trouble improvising a part. Often, the thought of
having to play music without much direction can seem mortifying. But why
restrict the music making on Sunday morning to only the musicians who are
comfortable playing "by ear"? Being able to incorporate other types of
instrumentalists like string players and horn players can be refreshing for
your worship and be healthy for your congregation. Consider Psalm 150:
"Praise Him with trumpet sound;
Praise Him with harp and lyre.
Praise Him with timbrel and dancing;
Praise Him with string instruments and pipe.
Praise Him with loud cymbals;
Praise Him with resounding cymbals.
Let everything that has breath praise the Lord.
Praise the Lord!" -Psalm 150: 3-6xiii
When it came to worship, I think the Psalmist wanted musicians to get
involved. Some of my most rewarding experiences have been in helping
musicians share the opportunity to make music unto God in the way they
know best and bringing together musicians of different musical backgrounds
and disciplines to play together.
38
4) The more musicians you involve the greater the need becomes to have
specific parts written.
Have you ever wondered why symphonic orchestras are usually so big
(40-100 players) while pop bands and jazz combos tend to stay small (5 or
less payers)? This is a practical matter. If you do get more musicians
involved, you will have to do more managing as a leader. It takes serious
thought and creativity to get a large ensemble to play together well. If you
have ten different instruments on stage, playing whatever they want
throughout the entire song, there is a good chance things can become
musically chaotic. Unless all your musicians are skilled enough to be
sensitive to each other and work out their specific roles amongst themselves,
it is likely the sound you will be creating will become messy and unpleasant.
Too many different parts going on in the low-end of the sound spectrum
sounds muddy, too many instruments playing in the high-end can make
melody indiscernible and fatiguing to hear. It is in these instances where
overwhelmed sound techs may start pulling people out of the mix because
there is simply too much going on. Orchestras pull it off because they have
sheet music to organize each musician's part and a conductor to help give the
musicians a single mind or focus. Even if you don't go so far as to pull
together a full orchestra, if you can write a part when needed, you still have
the advantage of being able to organize and delineate responsibility to
musicians who would otherwise trample over each other if left to improvise
their own parts.
Is Notation Necessary for Music Theory?
An analogous question might be: is writing necessary for learning history? At
the most basic level, the answer to these questions is "no". Just as one can learn
history as easily from an oral account as from a book, one can also learn theory by
ear and in a more "hands on" approach, but using a written language vastly
39
improves a clear and accurate dissemination of knowledge. Since a book is
inherently a form of written language, this one will undoubtedly make use of
"written music", primarily in its more specific form, staff notation.
Though it is not the easiest way of communicating music in written form, it
remains the most effective. In this respect notation is necessary for learning music
theory. Notation is an attempt to communicate music in written form and music
theory is an attempt to explain music, they depend on each other to an extent.
Music theory can be very complex, but notations can make things more clear, so it
will definitely help to learn how to read staff notation as you learn music theory.
This doesn't mean that you have to read sheet music to understand music theory or
use this book, but I will use examples of musical notation to make my points clearer.
Throughout this book I will make extensive use of lead sheet, staff notation,
and TAB to communicate the concepts I discuss to make this book accessible to as
many church musicians as possible. Carefully reading each will help you be better
rounded in your approach to notation. I encourage you, as you go through this book,
to make the attempt to understand what each diagram is saying. Ifyou are a
guitarist, do not ignore the staff notation simply because an example in TAB is
provided.
At the beginning of this chapter we discussed the 4 components of music:
pitch, rhythm, dynamics, and timbre. The next two chapters begin our study of
"music theory proper" by discussing two of the most fundamental and all
encompassing aspects of music, its pitch and rhythm, which form the basis for most
of what we will discuss in this book.
Notes
xiii Ps. 150:3-6 NASB
40
CHAPTER IV
FUNDAMENTALS OF PITCH
To begin to unpack some of the basics of music theory, such as pitch, a few
concepts regarding the science of sound must first be mentioned. A discussion of
the physics of sound may seem of little importance from the perspective of a
musician, but a basic understanding of some simple concepts will be very helpful to
an understanding of music fundamentals. Music notation and theory puts into
pictures and words what happens musically in the real world, so it should come as
no surprise that scientific concepts are used to explain what real world elements
create that music. In fact some things, like octave equivalence, are perhaps
impossible to understand without the help of science.
The physics of sound explains musical pitch through frequency - the rate at
which a sound wave vibrates the air. Every note or pitch is created by a steady
vibration in the air and by something that creates that vibration, be it the hammers
of a piano striking the strings, a man's vocal chords vibrating the air in his throat, or
the oscillations of a loud speaker moving the air inside a church.
A higher sounding pitch has a higher frequency (more vibrations or cycles
per second) than a lower sounding pitch and of course notes that are the same pitch
will vibrate at the same rate. Thus, a mosquito creates a higher pitched sound by
beating its smaller wings faster than a hummingbird would. Similarly, a small girl
will sing higher than a tall man because her vocal chords are vibrating faster than
his, but when they sing the same pitch, they are vibrating their vocal chords at
exactly the same speed.
41
The Octave
Now here's the interesting part; when a pitch has twice the frequency as
another,' our ears hear it as the same note, only higher. So, every time we double a
frequency no matter how high or low we go, we get the same note (but not the same
pitch), which is why the girl and the man can sing the same melody together, but
obviously in different vocal ranges.
The distance between a note and another twice its frequency is called an
octave. For example, the note A above middle C (named after the middle key on the
piano) vibrates at 440hz (440 cycles per second), so 880hz would be A an octave
higher, and 220hz would be A an octave lower (Figure 4.1). In essence, all the
different notes that we can play in music will fit into an octave, because they are
repeated in the next octave. This acoustical phenomenon is called octave
equivalence.
Figure 4.1 The Octaves:
~
u - A440hz
-
.·:\220hz
~
k
I
Octave Register
To differentiate between octave equivalent notes, musicians designate each
octave according to its own octave register by dividing the range of octaves and
numbering relative to their placement on an 88-key piano. Each new octave begins
5 The notation depicts the notes in the guitar at their sounding pitches. However, since the guitar
occupies a range that strides both the treble and bass clefs, guitar music is usually written on the staff
up one octave from where it actually sounds. In other words, what is indicated in tablature is one
written octave below the staff notation. Thus, all staff notation paired with tablature will reflect this
practice from this point onward.
42
with C. The lowest C on the piano is Cl, making the lowest octave span from Cl to C2.
The next higher octaves are C2 - C3, C3 - C4, etc. to the highest note, C8. C4 is called
"middle C" because it rests in the middle of the keyboard. Don't become overly
preoccupied with memorizing each note's register designation, though; for unless
one is speaking very specifically about register, musicians don't usually bother with
speaking of notes this way. It is sufficient to know the name of the note apart from
its octave register designation (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Octave Register Designations:
.. C3
C2
....
Cl
C6
..
C7
...
C8
..
The image below (Figure 4.3) shows a full 88-key piano keyboard and indicates both
register and frequency in hertz (Hz) of each note.
Tip: A Note About Register
Register is a very important concern when musicians come together to play.
When musicians play with each other they must think about register differently, so
that they can work together. A solo musician, like a pianist playing on his own,
doesn't have the same concerns about register. He may (and usually should) occupy
a wide dynamic range to fill up the spectrum of pitches to his instrument's potential.
However, once you add in a bass guitar, guitarist, or other instrument, things
43
change. Suddenly, our pianist needs to be careful not to get in the way of the other
musician's sound.
Figure 4.3 Keyboard, Notes, and Frequenciesxiv :
"
u,
"
". ." "" '" '" '"
,.
m
....
'" '.'
N ....
"' " "
... M
" ""
," ~ ~', ,. '" '" 0' "' "' u '" u '" " '" fJ' " "j ~ '.' ~~ ,. '" '" '"'" '" ,. "" '.C' "' 11-' ,. ,. ,,; ". ~ :~ '" " ". '" ,.,f/; .j ~rl
"
,. d
" "'
,., ~; ,. ,n
"
'" f.' f,j ;! ,., '" '" H
,.
N
" ""
" '"
,-
",
,., N M .,
" '" '" " "
,.,
,",
, f , ,
"
,tJj
, ,~ ~, r~! , , , ,':I) ..t!., , , ,
, , ,
,',
, ,
" f~'
,
"
.~, ~~ , , , ,~ "l) " ., (3 ., ., 1 ~~ u', 0 '" u ,. ,. ,.-, u u u. '0 , u 0 u. e, 0 u. '0 ., u "- '0 u 0 u. U u. '0 0 u. '0 .,
For any given instrument combination, there is usually some degree of
overlap in terms of the range of frequencies the instrument occupies. This overlap
is expected and isn't necessarily a bad thing, but as musicians do their dance, they
must be careful not to step on each other's toes, so to speak. This is especially
important in the low registers (Cl-E3), which can easily get muddy if too many
instruments play different parts in this range. Take for example, a piano, guitar, and
bass combo. The piano has a range that eclipses both of the other instruments
spanning a range of AO-C8, though pianists will regularly play within a range of
0-C6. Depending on the bassist's style, he or she would usually play in a range of
El-B2 or even up to E3. Rhythm guitarists will regularly play chords between E2-
B4 and on octave higher (ES) or more if playing a lead guitar part. This means that
the pianist's left hand, the bass, and the guitar all occupy the same register from
E2_E3. This is the danger zone for church musicians and is the reason why many
worship teams sound muddy in the low registers when they play. If you or your
44
team hasn't developed the vocabulary to talk about octave register in this way, here
are some simple solutions to this problem:
1) Piano - Have your pianist scoot the piano bench to the right so that the
center of their body is higher up on the keyboard. Or simply ask them to play
fewer notes in their left hand or none at all.
2) Bass - If your bassist has a tendency to creep higher up into the register of
the piano and guitar, ask him or her to restrict their notes to the first five
frets.
3) Guitar - Guitarists are taught from day one to play all six strings when
playing most chords and this can be a difficult habit to break. However, if
they keep from striking notes on the 6th and 5th strings (E and A strings), they
will stay out of the way of the other instruments that play in those low
registers.
The Musical Alphabet & Natural Notes
Since every note is repeated at the octave, all the note names we will ever
talk about in music fit into the space of an octave. In music we use the first seven
letters of the alphabet to name these musical notes. The notes A - G, are ordered
this way from low to high (Figure 4.4). So, in the span of one octave, B is one note
higher than A, Cis one note higher than B, and so on. After the seventh note G, you
start back on A, but in a new octave. This A is the eighth note after G. This is where
we get the term octave. These seven notes are called natural notes or simply
"naturals", indicated by just the note name or sometimes with a natural symbol (~).
45
Figure 4.4 Musical Alphabet:
f-Low PITCH High-7
A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A
Steps
Notes are separated by what are called steps. The distance from one note to
the next note, like A-B, is called a step. There are two sizes of steps, half steps and
whole steps. Each natural note is separated by a whole step (W), except for between
Band Cand E and F, where there are half steps (H) (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5 Musical Alphabet with Whole and Half Steps:
WHWWHWW
A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A
On the Piano
On the piano, a half step is the distance from one key to the next on the right
or left. Two half steps equal a whole step, so a whole step is equal to every other
key. As you will notice, these seven pitches (A-G) correspond to the white keys on
the piano where they are separated by black keys except B-C and E-F where
there are no black keys and only half steps between notes (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6 Steps on the Piano:
WHWWHWW
A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A
46
On the Guitar
Like the keys of a piano, every fret on the neck of a guitar is a half step from
the one next to it. Whole steps are every other fret. Moving up the neck of a guitar,
it is easy to find whole steps and half steps (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Steps on Guitar (One String):
~
u - .... .. •..
W H W W H W W
v .. oJ oJ V • v ...
A B c D E F G A
But crossing strings is a bit more complicated. Awhole step between two
strings on a guitar is found by moving from a low string, like the sixth string, to the
next higher string three frets back towards the nut. The exception is between the
third and second strings where a whole step is two frets back. This distance is
increased by one fret for half steps between strings. So half steps are four frets
except between the third and second strings, which are only three frets apart. Steps
on the bass guitar are the same as for the 3rd _6th strings on guitar (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 Steps on Guitar:
'I
, .. ...... .. v .. .. .. .. ..
H H H W W W
oJ oJ
oJ
c D~ c D~ c D~ c D c D c D
47
Accidentals
The rest of the notes we haven't discussed yet, which are the black keys on
the piano are called accidentals. An accidental is an alteration of a natural note,
making it higher or lower by a half step. Sharps raise a note by a half step and flats
lower a note by a half step. For instance, if you start at A and go up to the next black
key or the next fret of a guitar, you will be on A sharp (A~). Going one note higher
yet will be B. Likewise, if you lower A by one note you will get A flat (A~). A~ is one
note lower than A, but one note higher than G. So the distance between Gto B is two
whole steps or four half steps (Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9 Accidentals
H H H H
G-A~-A-A~-B
Enharmonic Equivalence
There is only one note/black key between A and B, so if you change B into B~,
it will be the same note as A~. So, the black key between A and B has two names, A~
and B~. This same thing occurs with any other sharp or flat. The term for this is
called enharmonic equivalence, which simply means "two names for one note".6
There are even enharmonic equivalents for B, C, E, and F since they are separated by
half steps, though these names are not often used. Their enharmonic equivalents
would be C~, B~, F~, and E~, respectively.
The obvious question might be, "Why does one note have two names?" There
is a good reason for it. It allows us to keep all seven of the note names (A-G) in
every key without omitting any notes and doubling up on others. For instance, if we
6 This fact is not always true in the case of tuning systems of previous centuries, where A# and Br
may have represented two different pitches. Our current tuning system, equal temperament, divides
each octave equally into the same number of half steps, creating enharmonic equivalence.
48
only used sharps and not flats, the key of F would have two A's and no B's which
causes confusion (Figure 4.10).
Figure 4.10 Incorrect vs. Correct Scale Spelling
Incorrect:
F-G-A-A#-C-D-E-F
Correct:
F-G-A-Bb-C-D-E-F
If this seems like a trivial point now, it will seem more important later in the
next chapter, as we discuss scales. So, to summarize, there are 12 notes total in the
space of an octave (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.11 Chromatic Scale:
'I
~
... ~... ~lIJ" qllJ" ... ~... v. ~. fl· .,
H H H H H H H H H H H H
v ~ ~
A-A#/Bb-B-C-C#/Db-D-D#/Eb-E-F-F#/Gb-G-G#/Ab-A
These 12 pitches in this order form what is called the chromatic scale. A
scale is an ordering of pitches from low to high and will be discussed later. The
word chromatic means "color" and indicates that this scale uses the full spectrum of
notes (or colors) available in western music.?
7 "Western music" pertains to the music that utilizes the notes from the chromatic scale, developed in
Europe (as opposed to "country western"). The folk music of Near East and East Asian cultures often
use pitches outside this scale.
49
Notation on the Staff
In traditional notation and lead sheet notation, musical symbols represent
various aspects of performance (pitch, rhythm, dynamics, etc.) by notes on a staff. A
staff is a set of five lines separated by four spaces on which we notate musical notes.
Variations in pitch are distributed vertically; high notes are higher on the staff than
lower notes (Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.12 The Staff:
On its own, a staff cannot tell you which note is which as it is only a set of
lines. A clef, which is a symbol placed at the beginning of the staff, determines pitch
names on the staff. There are two main clefs used by instruments and voices. The
treble clef and the bass clef are the most common clefs, though some other clefs are
used at times. Just like the treble and bass knobs on a stereo are used for high and
low frequencies, so are these clefs. The treble de/is reserved for higher sounding
instruments, including the guitar, the right hand of the piano, and the female voice.
Bass guitarists, the piano's left hand and male voices, mostly use the bass clef
Though a hymnal will usually separate the voices in this way, treble and bass, lead
sheets tend to use the treble clef for all instruments regardless of range. In this case
each musician will sing or play the notes in their own register. As a worship leader
with a contemporary style band, learning how to read notes on the treble clef is
more immediately important than learning the bass clef.
Notes on the Treble Clef
A careful look at the contour of the treble clef will reveal a stylized "G" whose
loop circles around the second line from the bottom of the staff. This clef is
50
indicating that notes on this line are G. For this reason, the treble clef is often called
the "G Clef' (Figure 4.13).
Figure 4.13 Treble Clef:
Simply by knowing where Gis, one can easily determine where any other
note is. As pitches are arranged on the staff from low to high using both lines and
spaces, the space directly up from the second line would be reserved for the note A
and the space below it for F. So the lowest line of the staff to the top line would
cover just over an octave from E-F (Figure 4.14).
Figure 4.14 Notes on the Treble Clef:
f\
~
H W W W H W W H
~ ~ V J
V J
-
~ V "-
"-
-
E F G A B C D E F
Tip: Learning Notes on the Treble Clef
There are some helpful ways of remembering where the notes are on the
treble clef that you may remember from grade school. If you isolate only the notes
that are found on the five lines of the staff they would be E, G, B, D, F from lowest to
highest. The acronym using these letters is "livery {iood Boy Does fine". Note that
"fine" rhymes with "line." This is a very helpful mnemonic for remembering what
notes go on the lines from lowest to highest. Also the four spaces from lowest to
51
highest spell the word FACE, which also rhymes with space, another helpful
coincidence (Figure 4.15).
Figure 4.15 Learning the Treble Clef:
Every Good Boy Does Fine: FACE:
'I
~
v
"
J ,
~
-
E G B D F F A C E
Notes on the Bass Clef
Figure 4.16 Bass Clef
F
~:a
The bass clef, like the treble clef, is a symbol that specifies the placement of
one pitch. It is often called the (IF Clef' as it vaguely resembles an F (Figure 4.16).
Its characteristic dots surround the second line from the top of the staff and indicate
the location of F just below middle C. The rest of the notes can then be determined
above and below this line. The range of pitches on the five line staff of this clef
spans over an octave from G-A. Here, bass guitar tablature has been used since
these notes go below the natural range of a six-string guitar (Figure 4.17).
52
Figure 4.17 Notes on the Bass Clef:
A
B
w
v
w H w
v
w H w w
G A B C D E F G A
Tip: Learning Notes on the Bass Clef
Similar mnemonics can be applied to familiarizing yourself with notes on the
bass clef. The notes on the lines from low to high are ordered G, B, D, F, A. The
corresponding acronym ",Good Roys Do fine Always" is helpful. Also the
arrangement of notes on spaces from low to high creates the word ACEG and one
can remember that "All,Cows Eat,Grass" (Figure 4.18).
Figure 4.18 Learning the Bass Clef:
Good Boys Do Fine Always: All Cows Eat Grass:
I': • • i. ••• • •
I
•
Ii z [ e ee 3 zZ 33
G B D F A A C E G
Ledger Lines
Notes that are higher or lower than those that fit on the staff can still be
indicated in the music through ledger lines. Ledger lines are drawn above or below
the five line staff to extend it in either direction higher and lower to allow for notes
that are outside of the range of the staff (Figure 4.19).
53
Figure 4.19 Ledger Lines:
.. • ...
...
, • ... -,
-
-
~
-
~
F G A B E D c B
8vaand8vb
Although ledger lines are used quite frequently when the notes drift above or
below the staff, they can become very difficult to read when there are too many. For
instances when a melody is exceedingly high above or below the staff, melodies are
generally written in a register where they occupy the staff with a notational
indication that the given melody is intended to be played an octave higher or lower.
For melodies that are intended to be played an octave higher than written, the Bva
symbol is used. This is an abbreviation for ottava, meaning octave. This symbol is
accompanied by a dotted line that shows what part of the melody to transpose up an
octave (Figure 4.20).
Figure 4.20 8va:
Sounding pitches: Written:
For melodies that are intended to be played an octave lower than written,
8vb is used. This is an abbreviation for ottava bassa. The pitches are written an
octave higher than where they actually sound (Figure 4.21).
Figure 4.218vb :
Sounding Pitches: Written:
8°O-----------------~
54
The Grand Staff
The bass and treble clefs together form the grand staff The treble and bass
clefs are actually fairly close to each other in terms of range. A juxtaposition of the
two clefs, the treble directly above the bass, necessitates only one ledger line
between them on the note C. This is the location of middle C (C4).
Figure 4.22 The Grand Staff:
"Middle en (C4)
Much music is arranged on the grand staff, most notably keyboard music,
organ music and choir music, like what is found in most hymnals. In the case of
keyboard instruments, the right hand plays all the notes on the treble clef while the
left hand plays the notes found on the bass clef. For hymnals, the grand staff serves
a dual purpose in that it provides the music for an accompanist, usually piano or
organ, and a choir or soloist(s). For these arrangements, there are usually four
separate melodic lines that, when sung simultaneously, create a harmonic (or
chordal) composition. These four lines are delineated as soprano, alto, tenor, and
55
bass (SATB).8 In most cases the soprano and alto parts are notated on the treble clef
while the tenor and bass lines are notated on the bass clef. Take this arrangement of
the hymn I Know That My Redeemer Lives for example. This is a typical SATB
arrangement notated on the grand staff, sung by a choir, played by a keyboard
instrument or both (Figure 4.23).
Figure 4.23 I Know that My Redeemer Lives - Samuel Medley & John Hatton
1'\ jJ I I.....-.......i I~I
t
t. r .. • ~ ..----- ~ ~< know that mv re - deem - er - lives!j , J-----I
I ..
I
©Public Domain
So far we have discussed the pitch element of music and how it is notated on
a staff, but before we dive into an in depth discussion of how pitch creates melody
and harmony in a song, we will turn our attention to the temporal aspect of music,
rhythm, in the next chapter.
Practice Exercises
Take a moment to practice what you've learned with the exercises below.
For the examples that contain notes on the staff, pencil in the note names, where
they could be located on the TAB, and identify what type of step is between them.
For examples that have notes already written in the TAB, indicate where they are
located on the staff and what kind of step it is. Use W, H, or N to designate between
whole step, half step, or neither (Figure 4.24).
8 sATB arrangements are the norm, but SSA, SATTB, SSATTB and other variants occur for denser
arrangements (those with more than four voices).
Figure 4.24 Practice Exercises
56
1'\
t.J "
~ ,
-
'I .. ~.
• ~...
4
B
•
4
1:I
Notes
xiv Piano, "Welcome to the Vibration Data Piano Page," Tom Irvine,
http://www.vibrationdata.com/piano.htm (accessed August 7, 2010).
57
CHAPTER V
RHYTHM &POPULAR SONG FORM
Rhythm is an aspect of music theory that many people gloss over too quickly.
The reason may be that for many musicians learning rhythm seems largely intuitive
and is more of a visceral thing than pitch. There are many musicians who can
execute highly complex rhythms seemingly without a lot of effort or even repeat
back almost any rhythm with an instrument after only one hearing. So, discussing
the concepts within this chapter may feel laborious when it takes a lot of words to
describe something your ear can understand quite quickly. But taking time to study
rhythm from a theoretical position is absolutely necessary for the ability to read any
notation that includes rhythm, for understanding of more complex theory, and for
mastering many of the concepts and techniques discussed in this book.
The Beat
The beat is something which most everybody, even the non-musician, is
familiar. It is one of the most immediately perceptible aspects of music and one of
the most deeply felt. The beat is the pulse in music that makes your body want to
move. When people react physically to music through movement, it is usually
manifested in the beat. We tap our feet, clap our hands, bob our heads, and dance
with a friend to the beat.
The beat is fundamental to rhythm for it is what any rhythm, fast or slow, is
measured by. The speed of the beat is measured in terms of its tempo and tempo is
determined by the beats per minute (bpm). Average tempos for slow, medium, or
fast tempo songs might be 66,92, and 120bpm, respectively. A good way to
establish a steady tempo during practice or to measure tempo is to use a
metronome, a device that creates a steady pulse according to beats per minute.
58
Meter & Measure
Listen for the beat in most any style of music, especially popular music9 and
jazz, and you should begin to perceive a regular grouping of beats. In rock music,
you will be drawn to the sound of the drums, specifically the interplay of the kick
drum, snare drum, and hi-hat laying down a regular "BOOM-chick-POP-chick-BOOM-
chick-POP-chick" pattern (or something similar). The kick and snare together
delineate the repeated beat grouping of 4 beats and the hi-hat shows the division of
the beat of 2 notes per beat ("BOOM-chick" and "POP-chick"). The cyclic grouping
and division of the beats is called the meter. Every rhythm that the drummer or any
other instrument plays is governed by and is relative to the meter.
A single cycle of the meter is called a measure and is depicted on the staff
through bar lines drawn vertically through the staff. Depending on the meter, a
measure may be very short, being 2 to 4 beats in length, or longer, having 6 beats.
Also odd groupings may occur as well, with measures that are 5, 7, or even 9 beats
long. The most common meter is a four beat pattern (called common time), as in
our rock beat. Here a new bar line will be drawn every four beats (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 One Measure in Common Meter:
II
1 2 3 4
Here is how a basic rock beat described above would appear fitted into a single
measure (Figure 5.2).
9 Throughout this book, references to "popular music" or "popular genres" indicates music typified by
mainstream popular musical genres including, rock, country, folk, etc. as opposed to classical or jazz
styles.
59
Figure 5.2 Basic Rock Beat (1 Measure):
II D D
BOO.\l - chick - POP - chick - BOO:M - clrick - POP-clrick
1 2 3 4
Listen to just about any music and you can count measures as they go by.
Sing the hymn Holy, Holy, Holy while clapping or tapping a 4 beat meter. This metric
grouping should be immediately obvious (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber
C Am G C F C
110 - Iy, ho - Iy, ho ly! Lord God al - migh ty!
©Public Domain
Divisions of the Beat
Until now, we've discussed groupings of the beat (beats, measures, and
phrases), but most of what is played on a given instrument is shorter and related to
the larger grouping as a division of the beat. Some rhythms are faster than the beat
and occur several times between the beat, like how the drummer divides the beat
into 2 with his hi-hat in our basic rock beat (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4 Basic Rock Beat (1 Measure):
]I D
BOO.\l - chick - POP - clrick - BOO.\l- clrick - POP-clrick
1 234
60
Simple vs. Compound Meter
When the beat is immediately divisible by 2 like this, it is called a simple
meter. However, when the beat divides by 3, it is called a compound meter. With
this meter, we could modify our rock beat slightly to accommodate a compound
division, e.g. "BOOM-chick-chick-POP-chick-chick, etc." on the drums (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5 Rock Beat in Compound Meter:
II £E? f±l £E?
BOO:-I-chick - chick - pop - chick - chick-BOO~I - chick-chick - POP - chick - chick
2 3 4
We will discuss further the various applications of simple and compound meters,
but first we must further develop our rhythmic nomenclature by turning to a
discussion of the notation of rhythmic duration.
Notation of Rhythmic Durations
Thus far we have developed a basic vocabulary and understanding for
rhythm, but to be able to talk with any specificity about meter beyond the surface
elements that delineate it, we music develop a vocabulary for all the possible
durations of rhythm.
Note Durations
Whole Note - This note value will last four beats and thus will last the whole
duration of a four beat measure. Playa note and count four beats before stopping
the sound or playing again (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6 Whole Notes & Rests
Whole Note:
II"
Whole Rest:
-
61
(2) (3) (4) (2) (3) (4)
Listen for this note duration in the context of the songJesus Messiah on the long note
of the last syllable of the word "Emmanuel" (m. 4). Play and sing this example
(Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 Jesus Messiah - Chris Tomlin, Daniel Carson, Ed Cash, &Jesse Reeves
B F~
_l"O!$M?~1~
Bles-sed Re~eem er;__ Em-man-u-el. __ The Res-<:ue for
©200B Vamos Publishing
HalfNote - This note value lasts half as long as a whole note, thus it lasts only two
beats. It appears like a whole note, but has a stem that will point either up or down.
Count, "1,2,3, 4" playing a note on beats 1 and 3 (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 Half Notes &Rests
Half Notes:
r
Half Rests:
1- -
(2) 3 (4) (2) 3 (4)
The familiar hymn Holy, Holy, Holy provides a good example of half notes on the
words "holy" and "mighty" (Figure 5.9)
62
Figure 5.9 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Bacchus Dykes & Reginald Heber
C Am G C F C
Ho - Iy, ho - Iy, ho Iy! Lord God al - migh ty!
©Public Domain
Quarter Note - A quarter note is a quarter of a whole note and lasts for only one
beat. It looks like half note, but its note head is filled in. Count, "1,2,3, 4" and playa
note on every beat of the measure.
Figure 5.10 Quarter Notes & Rests
Quarter Notes: Quarter Rests:
~ F F F 1£ £ £ £
2 3 4 2 3 4
Note that stems may point up or down depending on where they are placed on the
staff. Usually notes placed above the third line (B on a treble clef) have stems that
point downward. This is only to insure that the stems don't stray too far or above
the staff and does not affect the way they are played. See the example below.
Figure 5.11 And Can it Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell
G C D G
,u~. 4§
Thou,__ my God, shouldst die for me? A_
©Public Domain
Eighth Note - This is half a quarter note and so it is the first division of the beat
itself. There would be two equal eighth notes per beat, so count and play, "1 & 2 & 3
63
& 4 &." Eighth notes appear like quarter notes, but have a flag or may be beamed
together if played succession (Figure 5.12, 5.13).
Figure 5.12 Eighth Notes & Rests
Eighth Notes: Eighth Rests:
'J 't 't 'J If '1 't 't
& 2 & 3 & 4 & & 2 & 3 & 4 &
Figure 5.13 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley
B~ B~sus4 B~ B~sus4
Strength will rise as we wait_ up - on the Lord, we will wait
©200S Thankyou Music
Sixteenth Note - There are two sixteenth notes for every eighth note, four for every
quarter note, and sixteen for every whole note. They look like eighth notes but have
two flags or beams. These are best counted, "1 ee & G, 2 ee & G... " and so on. These
are usually the fastest rhythms normally played, though faster divisions may exist,
32nd notes, and even 64th notes. As further divisions are created beyond the
sixteenth note, more flags or beams are added (Figure 5.14).
Figure 5.14 Sixteenth Notes & Rests
Sixteenth Notes: Sixteenth Rests:
1 ee & a 2 ee & a 3 ee & a 4 ee & alee & a 2 ee & a 3 ee & a 4 ee & a
Sing and play the beginning of Matt and Beth Redman's You Never Let Go and listen
for the quick bounce of sixteenth notes. The rapid succession of the words over
64
these note values ensures that this song isn't played too fast or a congregation
couldn't keep up (Figure 5.15).
Figure 5.15 You Never Let Go - Matt & Beth Redman
B
E - ven though I walk through the val-ley of the sha -dow of death, Your
©200S Thankyou Music
A Note About Rests
Just as the notes we play make up rhythm, so do the notes we don't play.
Every rhythmic note value has its equivalent rest, which is merely musical silence or
space. The concept of the rest makes readily significant the precise duration of
notes. Any silenced note creates a rest. For example, if you strum your guitar once
and let it ring out for 4 beats, this is strikingly different from strumming it once and
stopping on the second beat. The first instance would create a chord four-beats
long, while the second would be one-beat long followed by 3 beats of rest. It seems
that rests are often overlooked in performance. I have found it is easy to get caught
up in thinking about what I should be playing that I forget that the act of not playing,
creating space, is in itself a very important musical act.
As we have already seen, rests are counted the same way as their equivalent
notes, but are given notated symbols. In nearly every case, notes and rests relate to
the beat as divisions of either two or three. Also, if a rhythm has longer note values
than the beat itself, it may be a multiple of two or three times the beat.
The arrangement below of You Never Let Go shows how rests can help create
a very powerful moment, perhaps beyond what any notes would do in their place.
This arrangement of the end of the bridge section is depicted on two staves, one
depicting melody and one with rhythm (this is written as a drum part, but assume
that the rest of the band would play along with the drums here). On the second
65
measure the rhythm section hits a quarter note on beat 1, allowing the melody to
"spring off" the downbeat. At this point, the rhythm section rests for the next two
beats while only the voices sing, "still I will praise You," and on the last beat the
band re-enters to drive the bridge back into the chorus (Figure 5.16).
Figure 5.16 You Never Let Go - Matt & Beth Redman (Rhythm Chart):
F~slls E2 B F~sllS E2
1\ 10 l+
~ ---..l '----I
still I will praise You, still I will praise You.-_
> >
v v v y v v v V I *v vyyy vy y y*y y
I
~ ...L. .-.L L-
©200S Thankyou Music, arr. by the author
This is perhaps a more dramatic example, showing how a whole band can
rest or "cut out" to make an exciting musical arrangement, but rests should be used
more subtly, throughout any given arrangement and by all instruments to provide
necessary space. Think about it this way: We've made much use of the analogy of
music as language, so it is appropriate to think of rests like the spaces between
words or sentences in speech. Listeners need to have space in order to process
what they hear. For example, if someone were to speak to you without any breaks
in their speech, you would eventually stop listening, no matter much you wanted to
listen, because people need the space or they become fatigued. The same is true for
music. Music must have space, which makes rests so valuable. As was said earlier,
musicians should listen as much for when not to playas for when to play. In so
doing they not only to make space for other musicians to fill, but make rests so that
the listener can rest as well. This is a hard lesson to learn for many musicians,
because playing is so fun! But there is virtue in thinking of others first and working
together to create something beautiful, even when it means sacrificing musical real
estate that you would otherwise occupy.
66
Ties
An important notational device used in music is the tie. A tie is an arched line
drawn in the music that connects two notes of the same pitch. Two notes that are
tied together are connected so that they become one note that equals the sum of
their lengths. For instance, two quarter notes that are tied become one half note
(Figure 5.17).
Figure 5.17 Ties:
Tied Halves = Whole etc.
Tied Eighths = Quarter etc.
One reason that a tie would be used in the music rather than a half note is
that sometimes it is necessary to show a half note as two quarter notes. Agood
example of this would be an instance when a note is held over a bar line dividing
two measures. See the opening phrase of Matt Redman's Let My Words Be Few
(Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman
G G+ Em/G c
r-
You are God in hea ven,_ and here_ am 1_ on earth,__
©2000 Thankyou Music
Another instance where a tie is often used is when a long note value obscures the
middle of the measure, which would be beat 3 in common time. This beat, being the
67
halfway mark and a natural stable point of the measure, is helpful for musicians to
see, especially in the case of more complex rhythms. So, in order to graphically
show where this stable beat is, a tie may be used where a longer note value would
obscure its location (Figure 5.19).
Figure 5.19 Ties:
Sounded: Preferred:
2
Dots
3 4 2 3 4
Until now, we have discussed rhythm division that are multiples of two, but a
rhythmic grouping of 3 can be achieved through the use of the dot. When a dot is
attached to a note value it increases the length of the note by 50%. In other words, a
dot adds half of the value of the original note or rest. Thus, a half note (worth two
quarters) would be worth three quarters in length with a dot (Figure 5.20).
Figure 5.20 Dots:
Dotted Whole Note & Rest:
II .i. w o ij$ If r
"I 2 3"
Dotted Half Note & Rest:
II ro rrr -- -- 1Wo F
"I 2 3"
Dotted Quarter Note & Rest:
II ro 1° ijt J ~
"I & a"
68
Dotted Eighth Note & Rest:
"1 ee &"
Dotted rhythms are used extensively in compound meters where the beat
divides into three parts (to be discussed in the next section). The example below of
the hymn Blessed Assurance shows how dotted rhythms achieve this necessary
grouping in a compound meter. Every 3 eighths equal 1 beat, putting the dotted
quarter on every beat (Figure 5.21).
Figure 5.21 Blessed Assurance - Fanny Crosby & Phoebe Knapp
o G o AlE E7 A o
Blessed as - sur-ance, Je-sus is mine l _ 0 what a fore-taste of glo-ry di - vine! _ Heir of sal
©Public Domain
Dotted rhythms are used in simple meters as well when a note carries over into the
first part of the next beat. Sing Great Is Thy Faithfulness and listen for how the
dotted quarter note effects the rhythm in measure 2. Here the dotted quarter, which
is worth 3 eighths, spans beat 1 (2 eighths) and the first half of beat 2 (1 eighth)
(Figure 5.22).
Figure 5.22 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan
o 0+ Gmaj7 G6 A7 GIB A7 GID 0
Great IS Thy faith ful ness, 0 God my fa - ther,
©1923, Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Co.
69
Time Sil:natures
Now that we have discussed the different note values possible, it is possible
to explain the time signature. The time signature is the symbol placed at the
beginning of a song or section of music (often after the key signature) to show the
meter and explain how it is notated. The time signature is shown by two numbers
stacked on top of each other, as in a fraction. The top number represents the
number of beats in the measure, so a four beat meter would have a 4 on top. The
bottom number tells you what rhythmic value equals the beat. Like the
denominator of a fraction, the bottom note gives the rhythmic value. An eight on
bottom means an eighth note equals the beat, a 4 means that the quarter note gets
the beat, a 2 means a half note, etc. For example, if you have a four beat meter
where the quarter note gets the beat, it will say 4/4. This is called "four-four time"
(Figure 5.23).
'/'
note value per beat
Figure 5.23 Time Signature:
beats per measurel( -
Another common simple duple time signature is 2/4. Its steady plodding
beat is reserved usually for marches, plenty of which can be found in hymn
repertoire. The time signature 3/4 is a common example of simple triple meter. Its
uneven 3 beat meter has a characteristic swaying or rocking feel. It is often called
the "waltz" as this meter was very popular in classical dance music.
It is never difficult to find an example of a song in 4/4 time, most tunes are
written in this meter. Out of CCLI's Top 10010 as of January 2009, 95 are written in
10 Christian Copyright Licensing International's recorded 100 most popular according to number of
downloads from their online database.
How deep the Fa - ther's Jove for us,
70
4/4 time. This time signature is so common that it has even earned the name
common time. Consequently, this meter is occasionally indicated only by a "e"
instead of the usual 4/4 signature. Yet some other simple meters can be found
among the most popular worship songs. In Christ Alone written by Stuart Townend
and Keith Getty is in 3/4 (Figure 5.24) and How Deep The Father's Love For Us by
Stuart Townend is written in a rare 5/4, though it is often performed in 6/4 (Figure
5.25).
Figure 5.24 In Christ Alone - Stuart Townend & Keith Getty
G D G A D/F~ G D/F~ Em7G/A 0 G
In Christ a - lone my hope is found, He is my light, my strength, my song. This corn-er
©2001 Thankyou Music
Figure 5.25 How Deep the Father's Love For Us - Stuart Townend
OEm D/F# G D/F# D/A A
¥i~~.~
how vast be-yond aJ mea - sure that
©1995 Thankyou Music
Pick-ups
You will notice that, with the exception of the first, the measures in each song
contain rhythms that add up to equate the number of beats in the time signatures, 3
and 5, respectively. However, the first measure of either song doesn't add up this
way. The first bar of In Christ Alone has the equivalent of three eighth notes and the
beginning to How Deep The Father's Love For Us has only a single eighth note. These
are both called pick-up measures. A song has a pickup measure (or anacrusis)
when the first notes of a song occur as an upbeat preparation. Listen for how the
71
anacrusis works as a lead-in landing on a later syllable: "In Christ Al- one" and
"How Deep."
Rhythms in Compound Meter
Compound meters subdivide the beat into three parts, so naturally there will
be many dotted rhythms used. In compound meter, the beat equals a dotted quarter
note instead of a quarter note, so that the beat divides into three eighths not two.
After that, the eighth notes simply divide into 2 sixteenths, as normal, so the first
division of the beat is the only one that marks a difference between simple and
compound meters.
Figure 5.26 Simple vs. Compound Meters:
Metrical Division in Simple Duple (2/4):
~~~:~~ F
I
(2) 2 & 2 & cr & a 2 cr & a
Metrical Division in Simple Triple (3/4):
(2) (3) 2 3 1&2&3& lee&a2ee&a3ee&a
Metrical Division in Compound Duple (6/8):
~.
1 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1 (2) (3) 4 (5) (6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
Metrical Division in Compound Triple (9/8):
1(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9) 1(2)(3) 4 (5)(6) 7 (8)(9) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 &
Compound meters may still have any number of beats, usually 2,3, or 4, and
outside an initial division of the beat, the rhythms are still divided by two.
72
Compound Duple & Compound Triple
A compound duple meter is one where two or four dotted rhythms get the
beat. Although songs with compound meters are less common than those with
simple meters, there are still a number of popular worship songs that use this meter.
He Is Exalted by Twila Paris is written in 6/8 meter (Figure 5.27).
Figure 5.27 He Is Exalted - Twila Paris
F F/A B~ B~/C C7
'~e~.~
--.-/ -------He is ex - alt-ed, the King is ex - alt ed on _ high, __ I will praise _ Him.
©1985 Straigtway Music/Mountain Spring Music
The opening words, "He is exalted, the King is exalted..." exemplify 6/8's
characteristic duple grouping of 6 eighth notes. Compound triple meters have a
grouping of three dotted rhythms for beats. The most common of these is 9/8,
which is not often used in popular music. The classic hymn Blessed Assurance by
Fanny Crosby and Phoebe Knapp is perfect example of a song with a compound
triple meter (Figure 5.28).
Figure 5.28 Blessed Assurance - Fanny Crosby & Phoebe Knapp
o G 0 AlE E7 A o
Blessed as - sur-anee, Je-sus is mine! _ 0 what a fore-taste of glo-ry di - vine! _Heir of sal
©Public Domain
You will notice in both 6/8 and 9/8 meters thatthough the beatis every
three eighth notes, the time signatures suggest that the beat is on every eighth note.
Compound meters pose a problem with the notation of their time signature. Since
there is no whole number to represent a dotted note for the bottom number in a
73
signature, these time signatures are notated to represent the division of the beat and
not the beat itself. For instance, a "4" represents a quarter note in the bottom
number of the signature, so a dotted quarter note would be 4.5 or something
equivalent. Rather than do this, the compromise represents the time signature in
terms of its number of eighth notes. So a simple duple time is 6/8 instead of 2/4.5
and a compound duple is 9/8 instead of 3/4.5. For both, the beat is still on the
dotted quarter, though the time signature doesn't show this.
Syncopation
As you learn to play various rhythmic values and patterns in different time
signatures, you will notice that some rhythms may be easy while others are more
difficult. Certain rhythms are hard to feel because certain portions of the beat are
more difficult to perceive than others.
The division of the measure into multiples of two, beginning with the whole
note and ending with the sixteenth creates a hierarchy that is very perceptible. For
instance, the whole note in 4/4 whose articulation (the point where the value
begins) is on beat 1 of the measure. This is felt as the strongest and most stable
point in the measure. The next division, the half note creates another articulation on
beat 3, since a divided whole note becomes two half notes on beats 1 and 3. The
third beat marks the middle of the measure and the next most stable point.
The first points of syncopation in a measure lie on the weak beats of the
measure, beats 2 and 4. These beats, together called the "back beat," mark the least
stable beats in common time. Even less stable points are those points that fall
between beats. An eighth note division creates articulations on the upbeats (or
"&'s"), which are halfway between beats. The least stable portions of the hierarchy
are the articulations created by sixteenth notes. The "ee's" and the "a's" are halfway
between each eighth note subdivision (Figure 5.29).
3 1234 1&2&3&4& le&a 2e&a 3e&a4e&a
74
Figure 5.29 Division of the Beat:
~41~1I~
1
As we move down this hierarchy, we become more dependent on knowing
where the stable points are in order to accurately play notes in the less stable
points. When music obscures these points of stability by emphasizing the unstable
points this is called syncopation. The example below shows a steady quarter note
pulse followed by a syncopation of the pulse where every note but the first is played
on an off-beat.
A great way to work on developing your rhythmic accuracy is to practice
syncopated rhythms. Practice playing syncopated quarter notes by playing notes
only on beats 2 and 4; it shouldn't be too difficult. However, as one move down the
hierarchy of rhythms, it will become increasingly challenging to play the right
rhythms. By the time you are playing syncopated sixteenths (only playing notes on
the "ee's" and "a's") it will be very difficult, especially at higher tempos. The reason
is that it is our natural impulse is to play with the beat, not against it. It takes a lot of
practice to learn how to play syncopated rhythms (Figure 5.30).
Figure 5.30 Syncopation:
Syncopation of Half Notes:
~ r W
3
Syncopation of Quarter Notes:
3 2 4 2
234 234 I & & (3) & & (I) & & (3) & &
75
Syncopation of Eighth Notes:
&2&3&4& ee 11 (2) ee 11 (3) ee 11 (-I) ee
Mental Subdivision
If you found the above exercise in syncopation very difficult or even
impossible, a helpful way to increase your rhythmic accuracy is to practice
subdividing the beat mentally. This means being able to hear in your mind (or at
least perceive) a continuous subdivision of the beat. It is relatively easy to feel a
quarter note division because this is usually equal to the beat. However, eighth
notes and sixteenth notes are faster than the beat making them more difficult to feel.
Practice by playing half notes while mentally counting quarter notes, "t 2} 3} 4 JJ• Tap
your foot to the beat as you play to keep it physically internalized. When you feel
that you have mastered this at a medium tempo, attempt it at a smaller subdivision.
Play quarter notes while thinking eighth notes in your mind. Mentally count, "1 & 2
& 3 & 4 &JJ and keep tapping your foot to the beat. When you get to sixteenth notes
at a medium tempo, it may be too fast to internalize a subdivision that is twice the
speed of what you are playing, so simply count sixteenth notes in your mind as you
play them. When it takes little mental effort to steadily play sixteenth notes at a
medium tempo, attempt to do this while playing syncopated quarters, eighths, and
sixteenths.
Duplets vs. Triplets
Another form of syncopation occurs when a triple rhythm is superimposed
on a duple meter and vice versa. In the first case, a simple meter will contain
rhythms that divide into three what would normally divide in two. This is a
common rhythm known as a triplet. For example, create a steady beat by tapping
your foot or by using a metronome. Then count, "1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &JJ to establish the
sound of a duple meter. Create triplets by fitting 3 equal notes into the space of one
76
beat. Also count them out loud by saying, "1 & a" or "Tri-puh-Iet". Once you have got
the feel of triplets try going back to the original duple rhythm to practice
transitioning between the triplets and duplets (Figure 5.31).
Figure 5.31 Triplets Against Duplets:
3 3 3 3
Sometimes a duple rhythm will be superimposed onto a compound meter;
this grouping is called a duplet. Try doing the same exercise as above, but start by
establishing a compound meter and oppose it with duplets. Count, "1 & a, 2 & a, etc."
and then pair it with duplets, "1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &J} or "Du-ple".
The note value of a triplet or duplet is of the same denomination as the
rhythm it is taking the place of. For example, a quarter note would normally divide
into two equal eighth notes, so a triplet that fits into the space of a quarter note
would be called an eighth note triplet. Likewise, eighth note duplets would fit into a
dotted quarter note taking the place of three eighth notes. Triplets and duplets can
be superimposed over any note value, thus there is the possibility of dividing notes
longer or shorter than a beat. There could be quarter note triplets over a half note
or conversely, quarter note duplets over a dotted half. Also, sixteenth note triplets
and duplets can be used for faster rhythms (Figure 5.32).
Figure 5.32 Duplets Against Triplets:
2 2 2 2
Popular Song Structure
The above discussion has been concerned primarily with beat groupings and
divisions that make up the bulk of rhythm found in music. However, there is a
77
larger temporal aspect that is central to the way a song is experienced, its musical
form. Form pertains to the larger temporal constructions that determine how a
song progresses from beginning to end. At this point we will begin with the
measure and work our way outward to the largest possible units of song structure
(verse, chorus, etc.).
Phrase
Measures are the basic unit of time that delineates meter, but they are not
the largest. As beats group together to form measures, measures themselves are
grouped together to form a larger unit, called a phrase. Phrases are a collection of
measures that make a complete musical unit that makes sense all to its own. In
other words, a phrase doesn't sound like it needs any more measures to resolve it.
Phrases are usually 4 or 8 measures in length, though some irregular measure
groupings may occur. Listen to the opening phrase to You Are My King (Amazing
Love] by Billy Foote. Even though there are four measures here, they don't sound
complete. If you were to stop at this point in the song, things would seem awkward
indeed (Figure 5.33).
Figure 5.33 You Are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote
DF~ G2 A~llS A
l'm for-gi\· - en,__ be - cause You were_ for-sak - en.
])F~ G2 -\SLlS A
I'm ae - eep - leel,_ You - \\'crc_ con - dcmned.
©1995 worshiptogether.com songs
78
These 4 measures don't sound resolved until 4 measures later, when the
phrase is completed (Figure 5.34).
Figure 5.34 You Are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote
D!F# G2 Asus A
'to jE
"'---'
I'm a-live_ and well,_ Your Spir-it lives_ with-in_ me, be-
G2 A D
cause You died__ and rose_ a - gain. __
©1995 worshiptogether.com songs
A phrase is typically completed by a cadence, which is a section of chords or a
melodic figure that signals the ending of a section of music.
Larger Musical Forms
One or more phrases may be strung together to form the larger musical
structures or sections we are so familiar with - that is, verse, chorus, bridge, pre-
chorus, intro, outro, etc. These larger song structures are the different song pieces
that make up the entirety of a composition (Figure 5.35).
Figure 5.35 Hierarchy of Song Form:
Large Rhythmic Measurement Small Rhythmic Measurement
Song Section (e.g. verse) ~ Phrase ~ Measure ~ Beat ~ Division of Beat
Though song arrangers often change the order of these largest song sections
to determine the flow of the composition at will (and sometimes on the fly), these
different sections have very definable qualities that influence how these decisions
are made. Below is a list of many of these sections and a short description oftheir
79
general purposes and uses in a given song. Song sections are often delineated in the
staff through the use of double bar lines, as between the verse and chorus of the
song below (Figure 5.36).
Figure 5.36 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
G#m E B
still \\'ill say, "Blcs-scd hc thc namc of__ thc_ Lord,
©2002 Thankyou Music
Verse (or Stanza) - This is a section of a song that usually poses some sort of
question, problem, or dialectic that is often resolved by the chorus. As a result, it is
often introduced before the chorus and could be described as being more "wordy."
When multiple verses occur in a single song, the music is often repeated, while text
can change each time to further develop ideas answerable by the chorus. Key
musical features are: a more confined melodic range, lower melodic tessitura, and
faster and more regular rhythms.
Chorus (or Refrain) - This section of music usually follows a verse and often poses
the answer or solution to the verse's text. The text of the chorus, providing the
punch line for much ofthe rest of the song's text, is often seen as carrying the
central message or point of the song. Though it almost always has different lyrical
and melodic content than the verse, the harmonic accompaniment may be the same.
Key musical features: more expansive or "majestic" range, higher melodic tessitura,
and more expansive (slower) rhythms.
Bridge - Although the bridge has carried a variety of more specific definitions in the
history of music, in the most general of terms it refers to a section of music that is in
contrast to both the verse and chorus, usually signaling the return of one or both of
80
those. It occurs later in a song development, usually after several repetitions of a
verse, and though it can serve as an instrumental section, the bridge's text often
develops ideas found in either the earlier choruses or verses. Key musical features:
contrasting melodic and harmonic material.
Pre-Chorus - The pre-chorus usually serves as connecting material between the
verse and chorus. The music is used to build to the climax of the chorus, while the
text leads into the chorus by connecting the lyrical "question" of the verse with the
chorus's "answer." Key musical features: confined melodic range, lower melodic
tessitura than chorus, anticipation-type chord progression (utilizing subdominant
and related chords), and shorter in length.
Intra - Simply put, it is a musical section that begins a song (usually instrumental).
It sets the mood and musical context for the song by establishing the "groove" and
preparing for the onset of the verse. Likewise, it usually contains the same
harmonic progression as the section following it (usually the verse), though the
music can be unique to that section.
Dutro - The outro, like the intro is a section defined by its location. It serves to
wrap up the song, often through a harmonic "tag" that repeats the last several
chords or measures of the song. It is often used to wind down a song that has ended
big. Key musical features: typified by the use of a fade-out, and gradual decrease in
tempo.
Instrumental Solo (or Instrumental Interlude) - A section of a song that utilizes
the harmonic material from another section (e.g. verse or chorus) while an
instrument or voice improvises a melody, often inspired by or identical to the song's
melody. It can serve to give space or reprieve between texted sections of the song,
develop the song by transitioning to a new section, or perhaps take a song to a
81
higher level of intensity or expression than it otherwise could have. Sections of
music that are reserved for instrumental accompaniment and where there is no text,
are usually notated with slash notation - slashes drawn through the staff to
delineate beats (Figure 5.37).
Figure 5.37 Slash Notation:
Cmaj7 Fmaj7
~ ,~ , 7~. , , , 'I 7 , , 'I ' , , 'I ' , , '·11 ' , , Z!cerr .rrrr rTZ r rree,7 cr- rrrz
• Concerning the Instrumental Solo: An Author's Note
The use of the solo, especially the guitar solo, has been a point of great
contention in the Church. As churches started to incorporate the musical idiom
of rock in their worship services, the guitar solo was bound to come along as
well much to the chagrin of many church goers. Surely, this is understandable as
CCM was beginning to take root while the narcissism and blatant self-indulgence
oflate 80's glam-rock's guitar solos were in their heyday. But the concern over
the use of non-texted musical expressions in worship is one that was hotly
debated nearly 1500 years before Van Halen and probably well before that. St.
Augustine (354-430), one of the most influential and respected of church fathers
has written what may come as a surprise to those who hold that textless musical
expression has no place in worship. Consider his words, "It is a certain sound of
joy without words .. .it is the expression of a mind poured forth in joy...A man
rejoicing in his own exultation, after certain words which cannot
be ...understood, bursteth forth into sounds of exultation without words, so that
it seemeth that he .. .filled with excessive joy cannot express in words the subject
of that joy."xv On a similar note, to those who discourage worship leaders from
employing vocal flourishes not found in the music and thus seem flashy, consider
Pope Damasus I (ca. 305-384) who wrote concerning similar vocal techniques,
82
tt •••we understand that which neither in words nor syllables nor letters nor
speech is it possible to express or comprehend how much man ought to praise
God./xvi
More Vocabulary & Notation
In order to navigate your way through all the aspects of a song structure,
some further concepts must be explored that concern the order and expression in a
given song.
Notation for Navigation
Some of the most common notation that determines the order of a song are
repeat signs, endings, signs, and codas, among others.
Repeats - The repeat sign is attached to the bar line on the front of a measure, the
back, or both to indicate that all the music contained within the given area is to be
repeated once, or more times if indicated. In the example below, the 4 measures
enclosed by the repeat signs are to be repeated. Repeat signs help reduce the length
of a score by consolidating identical sections of music into a single repeated passage.
If only a backward repeat sign (one attached to end of a bar line) is present, the
entire composition up to that point is to be repeated (Figure 5.38).
Figure 5.38 Repeat Signs:
Cm~7 rm~7 B~l11ai7 E~maj7
~ 7 7 7 7~' 7 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 71 7 7 7 71 7 ~ 7 7'~ 7 7 7 7 I
== r r r r 13' r r r z :: r r r r , r z r r :, r L r r 'I) r r r z :
Similarly, for smaller sections of music, like individual measures, the
measure repeat sign may be used. It is simply drawn over a measure to indicate
that the content of the given measure is identical to the one preceding it. This
83
doesn't save page space so much that it saves one the effort of writing (and thus
reading) bars that are identical (Figure 5.39).
Figure 5.39 Measure Repeats:
Em c
Endings - Endings are used in conjunction with the repeat sign to direct the
performer to a different way to end the repeated section of music. The 1st ending is
the music as it is played the first pass through the repeated section. At the
backward repeat sign, a bracket extends up from the end of the bar to enclose the
measure(s) included in the 1st ending. The performer takes the repeat back to the
beginning of the section and upon reaching the portion enclosed by the 1st ending
bracket, skips that and goes immediately to the 2nd ending, enclosed by another
bracket and usually indicated with a number 2. This may sound confusing at first,
but it becomes second nature soon enough. For an example, refer to the pre-chorus
that leads into the final chorus in Paul Baloche and Brenton Brown's Hosanna
(Praise Is Rising) (Figure 5.40).
Da Capo - This means "to the beginning." Like a repeat, it is written over a specific
measure to indicate to the performer to start over from the beginning. It is often
used in conjunction with the fine or coda.
Fine - It simply means "end", this word is written into the music to indicate when to
end a song when it isn't the last measure on the page. This usually occurs when a
repeat or other symbol has directed the musician to another place in the score
(where fine has been notated) after having played through all the measures on the
page. It is often paired with D.C. or D.S.
84
Figure 5.40 Hosanna (Praise Is Rising) - Paul Baloche & Brenton Brown
D(~ C
Ho
strength to _ face the day.
C
way. _
\ye find
washed a
all OUI fears _ arc _ washcd a - way_
_________ D
,~ I j'~ I
'Cause when we see __ You,
DC..:l)
,~
- I- ~ I
In Your prc - scnce
G5 G5
,~ I 2
- 1£ ¥~-
'Cause ,,-hen we see
©2006 Integrity's Hosanna! Music
Coda (ft) - This symbol refers to a section of music, separate from all previous
music, and is used to end a song. The performer, upon encountering To Coda or the
coda symbol at a specific bar in the music then jumps to the measure where the
other coda symbol is located. It is often used in conjunction with D.C. al Coda or D.S.
al Coda.
Segno (~) - The segno (or sign) is a symbol that is placed above a specific measure
to indicate a specific point to return to in the music, much like a forward repeat sign.
It is always paired with D.S. al Fine or D.S. al Coda, which indicate at some later point
in the music to return to the measure that had the sign. The 4 notational terms
above result in 4 common phrases found in music that combine these terms to
create a specific set of instructions. They are:
1) D. C. al Fine - This phrase directs the performer to return to the beginning
(da capo) and play the music to the end (al Fine).
85
2) D. C. al Coda - This means to return to the beginning and play the music to
the coda sign (al Coda), at which point they will skip to the other Coda sign
and play the coda section.
3) D. S. al Fine - Return to the sign (dal Segno) and play to the end (al Fine).
4) D. S. al Coda - Return to the sign and play to the coda sign (al Coda), at which
point the performer will skip ahead and play the coda section.
Notation for Expression
There are many types of notational symbols and phrases that indicate to a
performer how to express certain musical passages, too many to be explored here.
For a more complete treatment of such concepts and terms, see a music dictionary.
However, a few very important ones will be discussed presently.
Ritardando (Ritard) - The ritard (often abbreviated as "rit.") is a term that
describes a gradual slowing down of the tempo. Ritards are most often used in the
last few bars of a song to help bring the song to an end. Sometimes a ritard can be
used momentarily in the middle of a song to help draw attention to the beginning of
a new section of music (such as a final chorus or bridge). This would work well in
Darlene Zschech's Shout To The Lord in last measure of the verse, transitioning to a
final declaration ofthe chorus (Figure 5.41). Ritards can also be used to facilitate a
transition from a song of faster tempo to one of a slower tempo.
Figure 5.41 Shout To The Lord - Darlene Zschech
F#m G D/F# ESliS4 E A F#m
~ ,u. _____ __ _ a '''''pa
"~"~
ne- ver cease to war - ship You._ Shout to the Lord,_ all the earth,
©1993 Hillsong Publishing
86
A Tempo - Meaning, "in time", this is a term that is used to indicate a return to
original tempo after some kind of tempo alteration has been employed (Figure
5.41).
Accelerando - The accelerando (accel.) is the opposite of a ritard. It is a gradual
increase in tempo. An accelerando can be used as both a transitional device
between songs and in the middle of a song to create anticipation and excitement in
the music.
Rubato - Traditionally, this term has a more strict meaning of how it affects rhythm,
but it is commonly used to express the free use of time. Playing rubato allows the
performer to slow down or speed up notes at will. The completely free use of time
is often employed by a chord-playing instrument to create a specific atmosphere
during reflective moments of a service, as during prayer.
Fermata ( f:\ ) - A fermata placed on a particular note holds a particular pitch or
pitches until the conductor or leader signals the group to continue. Fermatas are
often used at the end of a song to hold out the last chord or else where in a song to
bring attention to a key note or word as in the final phrase of the hymn How Great
Thou Art by Stuart Wesley Keene Hine (Figure 5.42).
Figure 5.42 How Great Thou Art - Stuart K. Hine
A E7/B Aid B m7/D F~7/d B m E7 A
~~~- =gg§d~u~
Thee: How great Thou art, how great Thou art!
©1953 Stuart K. Hin e, Renewed 1981 Manna Music, Inc
87
Practice Exercises
The practice exercise for this chapter involves examining the rhythmic
content and form ofJoel Houston's song, From The Inside Out, in its entirety (Figure
5.43). This song provides a great exampIe of song that contains many of the
concepts discussed in this chapter. Match the vocabulary on the list below with the
song by circling where you find it in the score and identifying it with the term's
designated number.
1) Measure
2) Bar line
3) Double bar line
4) Half note
5) Quarter note
6) Eighth note
7) Sixteenth note
8) Half rest
9) Quarter rest
10) Eighth rest
11) Sixteenth rest
12) Tie
13) Dotted quarter note
14) Dotted eighth note
15) Dotted quarter rest
16) Dotted eighth rest
17) Pickup measure/Anacrusis
18) Time signature
19) Syncopation
20) Slash notation
21) Forward repeat sign
22) Backward repeat sign
23) 1st ending
24) 2nd ending
25) 3rd ending
26) D.5. al Coda
27) Coda (symbol)
28) Coda (section)
29) Segno
30) Fermata
31) Verse
32) Chorus
33) Pre-Chorus
34) Instrumental Solo
Figure 5.43 From The Inside Out - Joel Houston
F c G
88
1.A thou-sand times_I've__ failed, __ still Your mer
F C
cy re -mains. __ And shonld
G
slum - hie a
Am
gaio, __
F
still I'm caught__
C
in Your grace.
G
Ev -cr last -
illg,
,\m
Your light will shine when
F
all else
C
fades.
G
;:-..Ic-vcr end
ing, __ Your <Tlo ry goes - be yond
'"
p C G F C
~: 7' 7' 7' / I 7' 7' 7' 7' I 7' 7' 7' 7' I-, 7' I I 2 2 2 ? I Z
J j
all fame.
G
2.Yonr will a-
F C G
have all __ else, __ my pur pose re - maius__ the art of
F c G
89
10
Am
sing my sclf__
F
III bring
c
jng You praise.
G
Ev-cr-Iast -
Am
jng, Your light
F
will shine when all else
c
fades. 1\e-ver-end
G
ing. _ Your glo ry goes he yond all fame.
Am
,-
G
In my heart, in my soul, __
F
Lord, give you con-tro!. Con-sume me from the
Am
Let just - ice and praise__III - side - out, Lord.
G
Dm
be - come my em - brace,_
IDtl1 2.3.
7777'~rrrr·
in - side out.
Am
Am
ing,
to - love You from the
F
Your light
F
will
c
shine when
G
c
all
111 - side out. Ev-er-Iast -
G
--F r ~
else fades. Ne-ver-end -
C F
ing, __ Your glo-ry goes be - yond ail fame. And the cry __ of my heart __ is to bring-
90
G
2nd lime 10 Coda
cnes out.
Om
D.S.a/Coda~ 77771 7~ 771 7~~71 77771 77771 77771 77771 77778crrr TCTT:: rerr, Z CTC:: rrrr: TCCT:: rT' z: z rTZ 8
G Am r G
~
You praise, from the in side out, Lord. illy soul
F C Am G F Am G
G
In my heart. in my soul. __
F
Lord. I give you con-trol. __ Con-sume me from the
Am
in - side - out, Lord. Let just - ice and praise__ be - come my em - brace,_
c r G Am F G
cry _ of my heart is to bring__ You praise, from the in side out Lord. my soul_
F G F G F G F
_ cries out. from the in side out. Lord my soul cries out. Lord.__
xv Gustave Reese. Music in the Middle Ages (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.,
1940),64.
xvi Ibid., 63.
91
CHAPTER VI
KEYS AND SCALES
Keys & Scales
The use of keys and scales is relevant for nearly any aspect of music making
that involves pitch (which is almost all of it), thus it is unfortunate that scales have
developed a negative connotation with many aspiring musicians. To many, they are
associated with long hours of grueling, seemingly unmusical practice. However,
understanding scales is an essential part of music theory. Scales are inextricably
related to keys they describe, and provide the basis for nearly all of music
composition. Scales also create intervals, which are the building blocks of chords,
which give music harmonic (chordal) substance. Therefore, in order to grasp chord
theory and tackle music composition, one must first confront scale theory.
In Chapter III, we briefly mentioned the chromatic scale. Though the
chromatic scale uses all eleven pitches that are available, most songs will not. Songs
are written in keys, which utilize a restricted amount (or collection) of pitches. The
key determines what collection is taken from the chromatic scale. It limits what
pitches are to be used in the music's composition and bases them around a single
pitch, called tonic. This tonic note is also what gives keys their names. For example,
if the tonic of a song is Cthen it is said to be "in the key of c."
Ascale takes the notes used in a key and lays them out in order (usually
depicted in ascending order) spanning a full octave, meaning that most scales have a
total of seven different notes (the eighth is simply a repetition of the first in the next
octave) (Figure 6.1).
-----------
92
Figure 6.1 The Seven Notes of a Cmajor scale:
~ • • •• •• • •
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8/1
do re mi fa sol la ti do
1-Tonic (lido")
2-Supertonic (lire")
3-Mediant ("mi")
4-Subdominant ("fa")
5-Dominant ("sol")
6-Submediant (lila")
7-Leading Tone ("ti")
8/1-Tonic (lido")
The 1st and 8th notes are called the tonic or do; they are foundation of the
scale and key. As for the six other notes of the scale, the name describes how that
note relates to tonic. For example, the supertonic (re) is so called because it is above
tonic. Likewise, the seventh note of the scale (ti) is the leading tone because it
"leads to tonic" from below. Play and sing the examples below for a clear
understanding of these pitches relation to the tonic (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2 Supertonic & Leading Tone:
Supertonic~Tonic: Leading Tone~Tonic:
1'1
~
~ L L
re do ti do
------
93
The reason for the other scale names is made a bit clearer if we position the
notes of the scale so that the tonic is on a central axis and the other notes are
arranged above and below in stacked thirds (thirds are intervals and will be
discussed in the next chapter). The below diagram shows notes from a Cmajor
scale (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3 Scale Degree Note Names:
~
I 5 - Dominant "sol"
• ~~ 3 - Mediant "mi"
< r-- 1 - Tonic "do"
t . 6 - Submediant "la". 4 - Subdominant "fa"
Arranged this way, we see that scale degrees 4~ and S~ (fa and sol) are at the
ends of the axis, the position named "dominant." Sol is the dominant while fa is the
dominant below, hence subdominant. Degrees 3~ and 4A (mi and la) are given
corresponding designations, mediant and submediant, respectively, as they lie
midway between the tonic and dominant.
This naming system may appear to be of technical paltriness at first, but
these designations become increasingly relevant as you progress further with scale
and chord theory. But let us return to the present discussion of scales and keys.
The Major Key
There are two general types of keys used in music and therefore two primary
scales associated with them: major and minor. The major scale is used most often in
church music probably due to its intrinsically optimistic quality of sound. Minor
scales, used less frequently, are often described as sounding sad or introspective.
94
As stated, any scale, whether major or minor, is merely an orderly
arrangement of the pitches used in a key, starting on its tonic, do. This arrangement
is based on a pattern of whole steps and half steps specific to that scale, giving each
scale and key its particular sound. The pattern of whole steps and half steps for a
major scale beginning and ending with the root is:
"WI} represents a whole step between notes and "H" represents a half step.
W-W-H-W-W-W-H
Thus a major scale starting on the note Cwould be arranged as such:
WWHWWWH
C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C
Figure 6.4 C Major Scale & Key Signature:
1'\
II! ... -
u
~
k
do re mi fa sol la ti do
We use the Cmajor scale first, because it has no sharps or flats, only natural
notes (Figure 6.4). However, major scales with any other root than Cwill need to
accidentals to adhere to the same pattern of whole steps and half steps. For
instance, a scale starting on Dwith only natural notes would not be a major scale
since the pattern of whole steps and half steps is different (Figure 6.5).
95
WHWWWHW
D-E-F-G-A-B-C-D
Figure 6.5 C Major Scale (D to D):
~
t- •
" -
~
~
re mi fa sol la ti do re
So to make a D major scale, two sharps need to be added. The Fq must be raised to
an F# and the Cq must be raised to a C# (Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6 D Major Scale & Key Signature:
~ .IJ
• •
~
~
~
do re mi fa sol la ti do
WWHWWWH
D-E-F#-G-A-B-C#-D
Key Signature
In the example above of D major, we had to add 2 accidentals (F# and C#) to
create a major scale step pattern starting on D. These two sharps makeup the key
signature for D major. A key signature is the collection of accidentals needed in a
particular key to create a major or a minor pitch collection. The key signature is
96
shown at the beginning of every line of staff, immediately to the right of the clef, to
show the key on every line of the song (this is important, as sometimes the key in a
song, and thus key signature, may change). The example below shows the beginning
of Billy Foote's You Are My King (Amazing Love]. The two sharps in the key
signature tell us that this song is in the key of D major (Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7 You Are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote
DF# G2 Aws A
I'm for -gi" - en, __ be - cause You were _ for - sak - eu.
©1996 worshiptogether.com songs
Tip: Using Correct Scale Spellings
In Chapter II, we learned about enharmonic equivalence and though some
notes "equal" others (say, Gb and F~), getting the correct spelling is crucial for using
the right notes in a key. In D major, for example, using Gb instead of F~would be an
incorrect spelling. By using Gb, the scale would be spelled with two G's (Gb and Gq)
with no F of any kind. Furthermore a key signature could not accommodate the
simultaneous accidentals ofGb and Gq on the same line (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8 Incorrect Spelling of D Major Scale:
If. ~. • #- •~. -•
Ii 0 2 30 20 2 =I
WWHWWWH
D-E-G b-G-A-B-C~-D
---------- -- - -----
------------------------------
97
All seven letters of the pitch alphabet must be used. Although, this may seem
an insignificant issue at first, such discrepancies cause confusion among musicians.
The use of confusing notation and terminology can make chart reading
difficult for musicians who become accustomed to seeing keys spelled the correct
way. Therefore, learn how to speak the language correctly. As a church musician
who may be in charge of creating charts for the musicians in your band you should
set other musicians up for success and avoid needless errors.
Here are 2 rules about scales that will be helpful in ensuring you use the right
pitches at the right times:
1) A scale must use all 7 of the letters of the musical alphabet, also:
2) Scales may use sharps and flats, but none use both at the same time. ll
These rules have made necessary the use of Fb, Ej:l:, Cb, and Bj:l:. It may be
annoying at first to think about Ej:l: or Fb instead of For E, but there are some cases
where these enharmonic equivalents are needed (Figure 6.9, 10).
Figure 6.9 Fj:l: Major Scale & Key Signature:
f1 ~ ~ 01+ '1
~
~
~
WWHWWWH
Fj:l:--Gj:l:--Aj:l:--B--Cj:l:--Dj:l:--Ej:l:--Fj:l:
11 In fact, there are some scales that use both, but they are not diatonic, making them very rare in
popular styles.
Figure 6.10 C~ Major Scale & Key Signature:
98
'1 ~ l+
• ;:I. ft· IT'
> ~
>
WWHWWWH
C~--D~--E~--F~--G~--A~--B~--C~
Below are some uses ofthe notes Cb and Fb (Figure 6.11, 12).
Figure 6.11 Gb Major Scale & Key Signature:
'I I ~. I
,
> J
WWH WWWH
Gb--Ab--Bb--Cb--Db--Eb--F--Gb
Figure 6.12 Cb major & Key Signature:
'1 I
• 17•
1'.
v
> J
WWHWWWH
Cb--Db--Eb--Fb--Gb--Ab--Bb--Cb
99
Tip: Learning To Identify Key Signatures
Determining a key based on its signature alone would require you to write
out all the notes in the key and arrange them until you found an order that matched
with the whole step/half step configuration for major or minor (which will be
discussed later). But depending on the key, a key signature may up to 7 sharps or
flats (as with C# major and C~ major, respectively). Furthermore, there are 14
different major keys alone, meaning that most people attempt to memorize the key
signatures. Eventually, musicians do memorize them all, but in the meantime there
a few shortcuts that make key signature identification easier.
Sharp Keys - These may be learned through a helpful fact: The last sharp in the
sequence is the leading tone of the key, with the exception of Cmajor (where there
are no accidentals). Thus in Gmajor, the F# leads to the tonic G, and the next
example, with 2 sharps, the C# leads to D, and so on (Figure 6.13).
Figure 6.13 Sharp Key Signatures:
C major: G: D: A: E: B: F#: C#:
~ II II II It II It II It II It II It
t
t.
<
, " " ".
.
TO TO
Flat Keys - The trick for learning flat keys is a little different: The with the
exception of C major and F major (where there is only on flat), the second to last flat
in the sequence is the key. Thus, in the 3rd example, the second-to-Iast flat is B~,
which is the key, and in the next one, E~, and so on (Figure 6.14).
Figure 6.14 Flat Key Signatures:
Cmajor: F: Bb: Eb: Ab: Db: Gb: Cb:
100
~ I I I I I
t ,
t ..
~
Double Sharps and Flats
There are special notational symbols that allow one to sharpen or flatten a
note twice. The double sharp (~) raises a note by two half steps, thus A~ or itA
double sharp" is enharmonically equivalent to B. Double flats (~) lower a note by
two half steps, meaning that A~ (itA double flat") is enharmonically equivalent to G.
However, this notation only occurs in very esoteric keys, like Dj::l: major, Ej::l: major, Gj::l:
major, Aj::l: major, and Bj::l: major, and Fb major. Because these keys are never used
and can always be reinterpreted as their enharmonic equivalents, they will not be
discussed in depth in this book. Double sharps and flats are also used for the
spelling of some rather uncommon intervals, which will not be discussed either as
they are rarely, if ever, ever encountered in popular music.
Tip: Which Key to Use?
Worship leaders are often placed in the role of arranging and distributing
music. It is then becomes the responsibility of such an individual to make important
decisions, like what key to playa song in. Though every key has its enharmonically
equivalent key, oftentimes worship leaders will chose to notate a given song in the
first key that comes to mind without giving a thought to the other possible key
spelling. Yet, in an earlier discussion, we found that certain interpretive difficulties
arise from having to read music in enigmatic keys that require confusing notation,
like double sharps and flats. Potential problems like these may be avoided simply
101
by using an enharmonically equivalent key. For instance, use A~ major instead of G~
major, because the pitch content ofA~ major has only 4 flats, while G~ major has 6
sharps and 1 double sharp. In such cases, the decision seems obvious. It is apparent
that being conscientious about what how you notate your music is important. But
what about more equally related enharmonic keys?
The keys of G~ major and F~ major both have 6 accidentals in their key
signatures. Although either key has equal number of sharps or flats, there may be
more of a difference than is at first perceived. Consider the chords that occur in
either key (Figure 6.15, 16).
D#mB F#
"~~I~~I~1~~I~~t~I~~t~
Figure 6.15 Chords in F# Major:
F# G#m A#m
Figure 6.16 Chords in G~ Major:
G~ A~m B~m
I I I
D~
t t
FO
t
G~
I
If you are a guitarist, you might be staring at the 6 sharps F~ major thinking,
"I like sharps. F~ major just looks better to me." I would agree with you. Musicians
who play stringed instruments tend to prefer keys with sharps rather than keys
with flats. So, as a guitarist, I would much rather play in the key of F~ major. The
reason has to do with the way stringed instruments are tuned. The guitar's strings
are tuned to the notes E, A, D, G, and B. Each one of these keys is a key that uses
sharps. Therefore, the music that is idiomatic for guitar uses open strings and tends
to be in these keys. Hence, guitarists generally prefer sharps. Knowing your
102
musicians well enough to understand they're preferences can be big aid in trying to
make playing together as efficient as possible and when in doubt, choose the key
with the fewest accidentals.
Solfege for Major
Being able to conceptualize theory in words is only half the battle; hearing
and recognizing these patterns in the music is as important or perhaps more
important for using theory in a practical way. To hear and recognize the notes of a
scale as they are played is an important skill to develop and can be helpful for
singing harmony, transcription, among other things.
A common method for ear training is solfege, which was briefly introduced at
the beginning of this chapter. Solfege is a method for learning to sing and aurally
identify notes through use of special syllables. Though this method has been around
for over 1000 years, you may recognize them from the Broadway musical, The
Sound ofMusic.
Taking the major scale, we assign these names to each tone (Figure 6.17).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8/1
Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti-Do
Figure 6.17 Solfege in Major:
~
~ .. •
~
v ~ J
J
do re mi fa sol la ti do
103
CD E F GAB C
Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti-Do
This allows us to be able sing a melody with the same names in any key, thus the
first line ofJoy to the World would be thus (Figure 6.18).
Figure 6.18 Joy To The World - George Frederic Handel & Isaac Watts
.loy (0 the world, the Lord IS cOllle. LeI earth rc -ceive her king!. __ Let
do Ii la sol fa IIll re do sol la la Ii Ii do
©Public Domain
The Minor Key
The other type of key is minor, and its corresponding scale, the natural minor
is based on a different series of whole steps and half steps than major. For minor,
the pattern is:
W-H-W-W-H-W-W
This pattern will create a whole new set of keys. Thus a minor scale starting on C
would as such (Figure 6.19).
Figure 6.19 Cminor scale:
,.,
I
~ .. ..
v ~
-
v ~
do re me fa sol Ie te do
104
WHWWHWW
C-D-E~-F-G-A~-B~-C
Another way to conceptualize the structure of a minor scale is in its relation
to major. Notice that the Cminor scale differs from the Cmajor scale in that it has 3
flatted notes (E ~, A~, and B~) on the 3", 6", and T scale degrees respectively. Or in
other words, a minor scale is major with a ~3, ~6, and ~7 (Figure 6.20).
Figure 6.20 CMajor vs. CMinor:
CMajor: CMinor:
I'l I
~ • • • •
v ~ v , J
~
-
~3 ~6 ~7
Other Minor Scale Forms
You see that the minor scale is, from a certain perspective, an alteration of
the major scale. So, going with this same logic, there are a few other minor scale
patterns that are different alterations of major. These are the harmonic minor and
the melodic minor. The difference here is that these alterations do not create
unique minor keys, but are just different versions of the minor key.
Harmonic Minor - This is the same as a natural minor scale, but employs the
leading tone, or ti, of major. Therefore, since natural minor contains a ~3, ~6, and ~7,
with respect to major, the harmonic minor scale may easily be thought of as having
only a ~3 and ~6. Thus, Charmonic minor scale contains only the accidentals E~ and
105
Ab. The harmonic minor has applications that will be discussed in depth in Chapter
XIII (Figure 6.21).
Figure 6.21 C Harmonic Minor Scale:
1'\ I
U ... •
",
"
-
do re me fa sol Ie ti do
WHWWHWW
C-D-Eb-F-G-Ab-Bq-C
Melodic Minor
The melodic minor has two alterations that differ from the natural minor
scale by using both the raised 6A (fa) and the leading tone, T (ti) from major. This
leaves only b3 from natural minor (Figure 6.22).
Figure 6.22 C Melodic Minor Scale:
1\ I
U ... •
"
k
-
do re me fa sol la ti do
C-D-Eb-F-G-A-B-C
WHWWWWH
106
Familiarize yourself with these minor scale forms now, as they will become
more relevant as we progress through theory, especially in Chapter 10 when we
discuss chromaticism through modal borrowing. For now, spend some time
becoming with the sound of minor and its difference to major through solfege.
Solfege for Minor
When singing minor melodies using solfege, we must alter the syllables of the
major scale to reflect for the differences in the scale pattern. Flatted pitches will
change their syllables to an "-e", Mi would change to me, la to Ie, and ti to teo So all
the forms of minor would be sung as such:
Natural Minor (b3, b6, b7):
"do re me fa salle te do"
Harmonic Minor (b3, b6):
"do re me fa salle ti do}}
Melodic Minor (b3):
"do re me fa solla ti do}}
For example, the carot 0 Come, 0 Come Emmanuel, which is in a minor key uses the
natural minor collection, would be pronounced with these syllables (Figure 6.23).
107
Figure 6.230 Come, 0 Come Emmanuel- Henry Coffin, John Neale & Thomas
Helmore
fa le sol fa
man u ancl
fa
that
el,
me
el
cloIe
ra
clore
15 _
come, Em
sol sol
me
0 come, 0
clo me sol
'I F J J
ran some cap
sol me clo
©Public Domain
Chromaticism in Solfege
Oftentimes, in a major or minor key, you will come across a note that isn't
naturally part of the major or minor key. In such cases, you must also alter the
solfege to reflect this change (it is this consistency that makes solfege so effective).
Generally, flatted notes receive the vowel "_en while sharpened syllables get the
altered vowel "_i". The only exception is with the case of the rarely lowered
supertonic (b2). In this case, re already has the syllable "-e", so it is changed to ra.
As a reminder, solfege syllables are relative to tonic of the key, so don't always
associate Cwith do or Db with ra. A chromatic scale of solfege beginning on Cwould
be (Figure 6.24):
Figure 6.24 Chromatic Scale:
fJ
~ q.. ~.. v_ ~- fj- .,
~
~
-
do dijra re rijme mi fa fijse sol sijle la lijte ti do
108
C--C~/Db--D--D~/Eb--E--F--F~/Gb--G--G~/Ab--A--A~/Bb--B--C
One of the most common alterations of the scale you will find is the ~4 (Ii) in
major keys and is especially common in hymns. Take the hYmn It is Well for
example, the solfege accommodates the chromatic note on the word "billows"
(Figure 6.25).
Figure 6.25 It Is Well- Phillip P. Bliss
ver, at - ten deth my way, when
re mi fa la sol fa Illi sol
. 4§~I ~ ~
When peace, liek a ri
sol sol fa mi mi
tl F J ~
sor rows like sea
do ti la la
bil - lows
sol Ii
roll,
sol
what
sol
©Public Domain
Key Relations
Parallel Keys
Keys that share the same tonic pitch, yet contain a different sequence of
whole and half steps are said to be parallel keys. For example, Cmajor and Cminor
do not have the same key signatures, but they do share the same tonic, making their
scales run parallel to each other. E minor is the parallel minor of E major and vice
versa (Figure 6.26).
Figure 6.26 Parallel Keys:
Parallel Keys, Cmajor: Cminor:
• •
• • •
• •
• •
• •
•
109
C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C
C-D-Eb-F-G-Ab-Bb-C
A common occurrence in music is for a piece to modulate from a major key to
its parallel minor. An example ofthis would be the song Again I Say Rejoice by Israel
Houghton and Aaron Lindsay. In the bridge section of the tune, during the words, "0
that men would praise His name, would praise His name to the ends o/the earth",
there is a clear modulation from E major to E minor.
Relative Keys
Another way keys relate is through similar pitch content. If you take the keys
of Cmajor and A minor, neither has any sharps or flats. Thus they are said to have
the same key signature. Major and minor keys that share the same key signature
are related. A minor is the "relative minor" of Cmajor and Cmajor is the "relative
major" of A minor. Notice that A is the found on the submediant A, or la, of Cmajor
scale. One can easily find the relative minor of any key from this point in the major
scale. Finding relative major is just as simple, simply go to the mediant (mI] of the
minor scale. Cin this case of A minor.
•••••
A Minor:
I··••
• •
Figure 6.27 Relative Keys:
Relative Keys, CMajor:
, ....
R2 34567 R
C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C
A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A
R2 3 45 67 R
110
The Cycle of Fifths
We have already seen evidence of the last key relation we will discuss.
Earlier in the chapter, we saw the progression of key signatures on the staff from
keys with no accidentals (C major and is relative A minor) up to keys with 7
accidentals in their signatures. This progression of keys carried a logical pattern,
where the next key was five notes away each time. For example, the distance
between the 1st key (C major) and the 2nd (G major) is five notes: C-D-E-F-G.
This pattern is most clearly represented by the cycle of fifths. The cycle offifths is a
graphic depiction of keys, progressing by fifth, where major and minor keys with
related pitch content (or similar key signature) are positioned adjacently. In other
words, the cycle of fifths is a way of organizing keys or scales with regard to the
number of accidentals they have. According to the cycle of fifths, the key of Cwould
be more closely related to the key of G (having only 1 sharp) than it is to Ctt major
(having 7), even though Ctt major is nearer to Cmajor in terms of pitch order. As it
turns out, the keys that are farthest apart in terms of pitch order are most similarly
related with regard to key signature. GmajorIE minor is five notes away from C
majorI A minor, so it is said to be a 5th away, making GmajorIE minor is the closest
key to it in the circle (moving clockwise). The next key in the cycle would be D
major/B minor, because they have 2 sharps. The cycle continues around the circle
to its furthest position (6 o'clock) at Ctt major, which has 7 sharps, the most possible.
Moving counter clockwise, the cycle passes through all the keys with flats. It
begins with C majorIA minor to move one position over (11 o'clock) and ending
with B majorIGtt minor or Ab minor. This direction, we go down five notes from C
major/A minor, through F major/D minor, Bb major/G minor, Eb major/C minor,
etc. (Figure 6.28).
111
Figure 6.28 Cycle of Fifths/Circle of Fifths:XVii
Circle of' 5ths
16_"~
•
'&-~ s : .•I, '. i 'J,'il\ • '•• '
.~--
li22J
t.}
C
!
J L --,[1')__'_-,
.J
c~
l~r,'~",,'..... " " "•• , _ •• R
.
~ r ( . (; [) \ I 131 h,.. ,,[ -1,1 I i\,l~ l rlll I od I ,"Id n,ll ..t"J "
13 L \ [) G (' I
The cycle of fifths is more than just a handy aid for remembering what keys
have what sharps or flats, but it shows how the keys are related. According to the
cycle of fifths, the key of E is closely related to A (a difference of one sharp). This
means that there is only one note different between the two keys. This becomes
more important later on, especially as we discuss modulation techniques at the end
ofthe book. For now, remember that keys have relations were some are closely
related because they share a common tonic pitch (parallel keys) and others are
112
related because they share common pitch content (relative keys & keys related by
fifth).
Practice Exercises
In the practice exercises below, notate the key signature and scale both on
the staff and in the tablature - either major or minor, as indicated (Figure 6.29 -
6.35).
Figure 6.29 F Major:
Figure 6.30 G Minor:
~
Figure 6.31 E~ Major:
Figure 6.32 A Major:
1'\
Figure 6.33 B Major:
1'\
Figure 6.34 F# Major:
'I
Figure 6.35 Db Major:
f'I
113
114
In the following exercises, identify the key of the song excerpt and then write
the solfege for the given melody under the example (Figure 6.36 - 6.42).
Figure 6.36 Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
B F# G#m E
Bless - ed _ be _your _name _in the Jand that_is _plcn - ti - ful, _ whereYour
©2002 Thankyou Music
Figure 6.37 How Great Is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Ed Cash, & Jesse Reeves
C Am?
The splcn dar or_ the King, _ robed in ma - .ies - ty. _
©2004 worshiptogether.com songs
Figure 6.38 And Can it Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell
G C D G
4~_· J3
T~ my God shouldst die for me') A
©Public Domain
Figure 6.39 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding
A E D A E
SaY.jor, Hc eaulIIovc the lIIountains. My God is migh-ty to save, _ He is migh-ty to saw. _ For-
©2006 Hillsong Publishing
How Deep the Fa - ther's love for liS,
115
Figure 6.40 How Deep The Father's Love For Us - Stuart Townend
D Em D/F# G D/F# D/A A
4~ij&~~.
how vast be-yond al Inea that
©1995 Thankyou Music
Figure 6.410 The Deep, Deep Love Of Jesus - Samuel Francis & Thomas Williams
Em Em(, B C Am6 B Em
B
o
G
the deep, deep
D.F# C E B:D# Em
love of _
Am
Ie sus,
Em
hound less
o
free,
©Public Domain
Figure 6.42 Crown Him With Many Crowns - Matthew Bridges, Godfrey Thring, &
George Elvey
D B 111 G D F# D A 7 'E D _\
Cro\\'11 Him I\'ith ll1H - 11)' erOW1IS, the Lamb up - 011 His throne. Hark!
D Ad B 111 DEED A'd E7B A D E E7 A AG
Notes
hoI\' the hcav'1I - I)' an - them drol\'1Is all InU - sic but its 01\'11, .-\
©Public Domain
xvii Theory, "Key Signatures and the Circle of Fifths, ImprovHQ
http://www.improvhq.com/?id=keysignatures (accessed August 10, 2010).
116
CHAPTER VII
INTERVALS
Simply put, an interval is the space formed by the distance between two
notes when they are sounded together, either in succession (melodically) or at the
same time (harmonically) (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1 Intervals:
Melodic: Harmonic:
~ .. ..
. .
J
-
Intervals provide the basic structure for music on a note-by-note level. In
fact, the intervals between the notes are as important to the way music sounds as
the notes themselves. They affect whether a given combination of notes will sound
good or bad. Certain ones can even make the "right notes," or those in the key,
sound wrong and "wrong notes," those not in the key, sound right. In this chapter,
these intervals are categorized, analyzed, and discussed in light of practical
scenarios so that a musician can harness their power over the music.
All intervals are designated by their numeric value, which is the number of
notes from one note to the next, and quality, the type of interval that is created by
this distance.
Numeric Value
We assign a numeric value to any interval simply by counting how many
notes it takes to get from one to another. At this point, it is not important whether
117
we use a major or minor scale, we simply count note names (pitch classes). For
instance, to count the numeric interval from ( to any note above it, we use an
ascending scale starting on ( (and counting ( as 1). Each pitch class above (then
has a number representing the numeric interval between Cand it (Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2 Intervals, unison through 13th :
1'1 .- ..
~ .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
-
.-
V k
k
- - - -
J
- - - - -
u
1 2
do re
345
mi fa sol
6
la
7 8
ti do
9 10 11 12 13
re mi fa sol la
Notice that the scale does not stop at the octave, but continues to the 13th note
above C. Though pitch classes repeat themselves in the next register, we still
identify intervals that are bigger than an octave. This becomes important later on as
we use these intervals to discuss complex harmonies like 11th and 13th chords.
Take, for example, the second interval created in the scale above, (-D. Dis
the second note, so we say the interval from ( to D is a 2nd. Similarly, E would be a
3rd above (, and the E an octave higher and would be a 10th. The numeric
designation follows suit with every interval, except for intervals of the same pitch
class. These are termed unison and octave, instead of 1st or 8th, depending on
whether the notes are in the same register. Basically, if two notes of the same name
share the same register, they are a unison (1), ifthey are in different registers, the
interval is called an octave (8).
118
Interval Inversion
As we've just seen, numeric distance is specific to the distance between two
given notes in the scale, meaning we measure the interval from the lower of two
given notes. As result, for every set of two pitches, there are two possible intervals
depending on which is lower. For instance, between the notes Cand E, possible
intervals could be a 3rd (if Cwere lower, Figure 6.3) or a 6th (if E were lower, Figure
6.4).
Figure 7,3 3rd (C-E):
I' ~ • • •• •OS:Ii Ie ()0 2~ () 2 "I
E 1 2 3
C do mi
Figure 7,4 Inverted 3rd is 6th (E-C):
~
~ ... .-
. .
~
~ v ~
-
C
E
1
mi
2 3 4 5 6
do
When the order of notes in a given interval is reversed so that the lower note
changes positions with the higher note, this is called inversion. It is very important
to understand that two given notes can create two different intervals depending on
119
their order, yet acknowledge that the fact that they share the same pitch content
makes them related through inversion.
Throughout this chapter, intervals related by inversion will be introduced
together since, in sharing similar pitch content, they tend to share similar musical
applications. Though intervals provide the basis for chord theory (begun in the next
chapter), we will take advantage of the present opportunity to discuss how both
instrumental and vocal musicians utilize these specific intervals to make them an
immediate feature of the musical arrangement. Rather than simply being the
background as the ingredients that make up the chords we hear in a song, we will
see how musicians exploit intervals themselves and bring them to the musical
foreground to create dynamic song arrangements.
Interval Quality
Quality is the other factor that determines the type of interval. Quality is
affected by the size of a specific interval and is related to the number of whole steps
or half steps that make up a given interval. A variation of one or two half steps on
the size of an interval will affect the interval's quality. Take the interval of a 2nd for
example. The distance from C-D is a 2nd, regardless of any sharps or flats, because
D the second note in a scale starting on C. This means that C-Db is also a 2nd,
because D is the next note, even though they are two different interval sizes. C-D is
a half step larger than C-Db. They are both seconds, but of different qualities. C-
D, as the larger interval, is called a major 2nd (M2). C-Db is one half step smaller,
but is called a minor 2nd (m2).l1 There are in fact 5 different interval qualities:
perfect, major, minor, augmented, and diminished.
11 A whole step is the same as a major 2nd and a half step is the same as a minor 2nd. Thus, W = M2, H
=m2.
120
Perfect Intervals
There are four essential types of perfect intervals, the perfect unison, 4th, 5th,
and octave (Bve). There is a long history explaining why they were given the name
"perfect," but part of the reason lies in the very open, seemingly crystalline, sound
these intervals create when they are sounded together. In major or minor scales,
the tonic note paired with the tonic, fourth, fifth, or octave of the scale creates a
perfect interval. A "P" before the interval number is used to indicate these intervals.
Above the octave it is also possible to have perfect intervals. The P11 and P12 are
those immediately above the octave. Though the 11th is specified in some more
complex chords, colloquially, we reduce compound intervals to their equivalents
within an octave (P4th and P5th) for the sake of simplicity (Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5 Perfect Intervals On C:
1\ .-
@.. ..... ... ... ... ... ...
,
-
Pi
do
P4
fa
P5
sol
P8
do
Pii (P4) P12 (P5)
fa sol
Unisons - Though "interval" is probably not the most accurate way to describe this
sonority, nonetheless, intervals of the unison are created by two notes of the same
pitch sounding together. Unisons are especially noticeable in light of all other
intervals, which create harmony. Take any vocal section from two solo singers to a
full choir there are times when singers may need to sing "in unison" as opposed to
"in harmony" in order to create necessary contrast in a vocal arrangement of a song.
The example below shows a unison with the tonic of the Cmajor scale, do (Figure
7.6).
121
Figure 7.6 Perfect Unison (Pi):
...
~ .... ... ..
"
~
"
~
-
-
C 1
do
Octaves - Like unisons, octaves are made up notes of the same pitch class, but the
notes may occur in different registers (Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7 Perfect 8ve (P8):
...
~ ... ... ..
, u
"
~
~
-
-
C
C
1
do
8
do
On a chord chart, octaves may be designated with "8" next to the root name (Figure
7.8).
Figure 7.8 Chromatic Octaves (G-G):
G8 G#8 .\8 A#8 138 C8 C#8 D8 D#8 E8 1'8 1'#8 G8
1\ .ioI •
" ~... ~... ... ... H'"
.. H-
... ...
-
v
-
-
v ,
-
-
v
..
-
---------- ----------------
122
8ve : G G# A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G
Root: G G# A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G
These intervals are especially apparent when multiple instruments in a given
ensemble converge to playa given melodic line. A very common arranging
technique, effectively creating an exciting moment in a song is to direct each
instrument (e.g. piano, guitar, bass) to play the same melodic line in its own register.
A single line melody can draw a listener's attention, often more powerfully than a
chord progression, making the effect of these intervals rather striking.
For good examples of this technique, listen to the music of Israel Houghton.
Octaves and unisons form a key part of the song, Come In From The Outside, where
full chords are played in only a few key places. Here the absence of any full chord is
indicated by "N.C' (no chord) The musical arrangement is reduced to a single
melodic line doubled by the keyboards, bass, guitars, and horns (Figure 7.9).
fJ I
., ., .,
~ .. * .. *-------* -. * * *
Come in from the out - side:_ Don't be a-shamed.
--
--
')1'\
. .
. .,
•• ..
.. .. • • • • - -
"
0 IV JV 'v - -
- "
,n
0 0 u
"
u w '0
Figure 7.9 Come In From The Outside - Israel Houghton & Meleasa Houghton
NC
©2004 Integrity's Praise! Music
Fifths - Moving up from the do, we reach the fifth note of the scale, sol. In major and
minor keys, this is a perfect fifth (PS) (Figure 7.10).
123
Figure 7.10 Perfect Fifth (P5):
"
, ... ... ..
---
v V k
V k ~
~
G
C
1
do
5
sol
Another common occurrence is to play only the root of a chord and
harmonize it with a fifth above it (the root and 5th of a chord). When you playa
chord progression with only the interval of a 5th it creates "power chords", a sound
common to rock music. These are notated with a "5" next to the root name (Figure
7.11).
Figure 7.11 Chromatic Fifths (G-G):
us G~S \S A~S 135 cs ds ])5 D~S Es FS I:~S GS
'-
.. ~!l:: - WI. "..- ... H .. ~ .. !l .. ,..- ...
"
-
-
-
k
-
V
-
'-' ;; - ~ v U / 'v
-
5th : D D# E E# F# G G# A A# B C C# D
Root: G G# A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G
Israel Houghton's You Are Good makes use of power chords during the bridge
section ofthe song. The tab below shows power chords that are made up of both
fifths and octaves. This amounts to a chord made from the root, fifth above, and the
root above that (R-5-R) (Figure 7.12, 13) .
124
Figure 7.12 AS (A Power Chord):
I"j
t..) -
..
""'
""'
v
Figure 7.13 You Are Good - Israel Houghton
:'\.c. C5 135 1i5 U5 ,\5 N.C. liS D5 Ad
10 H
t. ~ ~
You are_ good, __ all the time; All the time, you are - good;
-
'.
-
""'
-. ':. .
- ""' ""'
- . -
- -
©2001 Integrity's Praise! Music
Though perfect intervals are used in a musical foreground by guitars and
other instruments, vocalists tend to avoid them when singing harmony. Attempt to
sing a harmony in parallel fifths above the melody of How Great Is Our God (Figure
7.14).
Figure 7.14 How Great Is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash
~:t~
The splen dar or_ the King, robed in ma - jes - ty._
©2004 worshiptogether.com songs, arr. by the author
You will probably find that this doesn't create the sound that most vocalists
would find appealing when attempting to harmonize a part. Though fifths and
125
fourths may make for some interesting vocal harmonies, most people prefer the
richer sound of major and minor intervals (to be discussed later).
Fourths - Similarly, perfect fourths (P4) are intervals that are found naturally on
the 4th scale degree (fa) up from the tonic (do) in both major and minor scales
(Figure 7.15).
Figure 7.15 Perfect Fourth (P4):
~
t ... ~
L
L
F
C
1
do
4
fa
The P4 is the defining interval of the commonly used "sus4" chord. It's
"suspended" sound is due to its dissonance (a concept to be addressed later in the
chapter), which resolves best to the 3rd note of the scale (fa resolves to mi) (Figure
7.16).
Figure 7.16 Perfect 4th Dissonance Resolution:
I'l
U ... ...
-
~
-
J
4
fa
3
mi
126
Though this interval is found all throughout music - it is disguised amongst
scales and chords - it usually enters the musical foreground in the form of sus4
chords, as in the chorus of Hosanna (Praise Is Rising) by Paul Baloche and Brenton
Brown (Figure 7.17).
Figure 7.17 Hosanna (Praise Is Rising) - Paul Baloche & Brenton Brown
D c; ,us-+ c; E m7 C2
IJo - san - - na, 110 - san na, __
©2006 Integrity's Hosanna! Music
The diagram below shows the P4 interval of each sus4 chord in the chromatic
scale (Figure 7.18).
Figure 7.18 Chromatic Fourths (D-D):
D sus-+ D#slIs-+ L ,u,-+ r ,us-+ I;#SlI'-+ G '1I,-+ G#,;u,-+ ,\ SlI,-+ A#su,-+ 13 SlI,-+ C ws-+ c#,us-+ D ,u,-+
'I lol •
@ • H· IT
-
-
--
k
'- :., ~ ~ - U / 'k
-
4th : G G# A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G
Root: D D# E E# F# G G# A A# B C C# D
Major & Minor Intervals
While perfect intervals govern unisons, fourths, fifths, and octaves, in both
major and minor scales, the major and minor intervals govern seconds, thirds,
sixths, and sevenths as well as their octave equivalent ninths, tenths, and
127
thirteenths. Earlier, we compared the intervals C-D and C-Db and found that
while they were both seconds, they had different qualities, major and minor,
respectively.
Examining the interval content of major and minor scales helps to determine
the non-perfect intervals larger than a 2nd. Both major and minor scales begin with
a perfect unison (Pl) and a major 2nd (m2), but the following major and minor
intervals are different according to their respective major or minor scale. For
example, a C major scale contains E, A, and B on the 3rd, 6th, and 7th scale degrees.
Thus the intervals created above tonic are a major 3rd (M3), major 6th (M6), and
major 7th (M7), respectively (Figure 7.19).
Figure 7.19 Major Scale On C:
~ • ..
t .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... .. ..
-
" " -
~
~
-
- - - - - - - - - - -
u
Pi M2 M3 P4
do re mi fa
P5 M6
sol la
M7 P8
ti do
M9 Ml0 Pll P12 M13
re mi fa sol la
We already know that the 3rd, 6th, and 7th, are flatted in minor, so likewise, the
intervals created by Eb, Ab, and Bb, are the minor 3rd (m3), minor 6th (m6), and
minor 7th (m7), respectively (Figure 7.20).
Therefore, to determine the major or minor quality of a 3rd, 6th, 7th and the
compounds (10th and 13th) is a simple matter of determining whether the higher
note fits into a major or a minor scale based on the bottom note.
128
Figure 7.20 Minor Scale On C:
1\ I • ..
4! .. ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
,
-
:<
..
- - - - -
u
P1 M2
do re
m3 P4 P5
me fa sol
m6 m7 P8 M9 m10 P11 P12 m13
Ie te do re me fa sol Ie
Thirds - Major and minor thirds are generated from the 3rd note up from either the
major or minor scale, mi or me (Figure 7.21,22).
Figure 7.21 Major 3rd :
'I
• .. ~
u ~
L
"
L
E
C
Figure 7.22 Minor 3rd :
1
do
3
mi
~
~ ... ~
.
.
Eb
C
1
do
b3
me
-------- ----
------------- ._--------- -----------------_ .. _------
129
Sixths - Major and minor sixths are generated from the sixth degree of the major or
minor scale and are the inversions to the thirds.
Figure 7.23 Major 6th :
~
,J .. ..
-
v ,
~ ~
A
C
Figure 7.24 Minor 6th :
1
do
6
la
~
~ .. .. •
,
v
Ab
C
1
do
b6
Ie
In the above paragraphs we saw how perfect intervals (unisons, octaves,
fourths, and fifths) are all used in some way, at times, to complement a melodic line,
be that a bass line, chord progression, or the song's melody. The same is true for
thirds and sixths. Though any interval may be used to create such a harmony, these
intervals are by far, the most common. Thirds and sixths are ideal, because they do
not have the unnaturaL robot-like, sound of fifths, nor do they have the irresolute,
dissonant quality of fourths and other intervals.
130
With this type of interval, a harmony is created by a melodic line sung or
played a third or a sixth away from the melody, with similar motion.12 For example,
if a melody were sung in the key of Cmajor, moving from C, up by step to F (do to fa)
and back down to C again (do-re-mi-fa-mi-re-do), the harmonist could sing
beginning major 3rd above this, moving in the same direction, but staying in the key.
They would sing E up to A and back (mi-fa-sol-Ia-sol-fa-mi). By confining
the harmony to notes in the scale, both major and minor thirds are employed in a
single line (Figure 7.25).
Figure 7.25 Harmony in Thirds, CMajor:
fl • .. •
tJ
-
" .' -:. - -:. "
- - " - -
,
A vocalist could invert this harmony so that the line is sung below the melody,
creating a string of sixths, beginning with a minor 6th below (Figure 7.26).
In a minor key, a melody moving up to the 4th note of the scale would proceed
do-re-me-fa-me-re-do. This would be harmonized beginning a minor 3rd
above, on me, and following the scale (me-fa-sol-Ie-sol-fa-me) (Figure 7.27).
12 "Similar motion" with regard to vocal harmony implies that a harmony line follows the melody in
terms of pitch direction (i.e. when the melody goes up, so does the harmony). This is different from
stricter "parallel motion" which means that each vocal part moves in the same direction maintaining
a strict intervallic distance (i.e. always a M3 apart).
131
Figure 7.26 Harmony in Sixths, C Major:
11
U -
~ ~
~
-
v
-
~
-
'"
J
- -
L..
f'I I • .. •
~
~
'"
~ -' v
"
~
V
-' U
-
Figure 7.27 Harmony in Thirds, C Minor:
b
Likewise, the inversion of this same harmony would begin a M6 below do (Figure
7.28).
Figure 7.28 Harmony in Sixths,C Minor:
,..,
u
, J V
-
,
~
-,
-
-" '"' -" -
,
The bridge section of the popular song, How Great Is Our God, provides a
perfect example of a moment where the harmonizing voice can follow the melody in
thirds quite well. In this case, the harmony part is sung above the melody, but the
132
inversion of this interval (sixths below) could work just as well. Try singing the
below vocal harmonies along with the melody and accompaniment in order to get
the full effect of how they resonate with the other voice and the overall harmony.
Familiarize yourself with singing these parts both above and below the melody
(Figure 7.29).
Figure 7.29 How Great Is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, Ed Cash
c~:~§:~~
Name a - bove_ all_ names;__ You are worlh-y of_ all_ praise.__ My
©2004 worshiptogether.com songs, arr. by the author
However, at the beginning of the song, singing a third above the melody may not
sound as pleasant (Figure 7.30).
Figure 7.30 How Great Is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, Ed Cash
C Am
~:t~
The splen dor or _ the King, robed in rna - jes - ty._
©2004 worshiptogether.com songs, arr. by the author
As you sing both examples, listen to how well the harmony of the first
example resonates with the chord progression of the song, while the second one
does less so. Sometimes a harmony part may fit well with a melody alone, but with
the accompanying chords, may sound out of place.
Creating a great harmony line isn't as simple as singing thirds or sixths along
with a melody, however. Often times, the chords of a song demand one to sing a
harmony at an interval other than a third or sixth. So, to craft a harmony part in an
artful way, it is important to be able to sing a third away from any note (above and
133
below), but also to hear when it is necessary to deviate from this pattern. At some
points in any given song, it may be desirable to harmonize the melody with an
interval that may be typically avoided, like the perfect fourth or fifth, or even a
major or minor second, even if they are more dissonant sounding with the
accompanying voice than a third or sixth is.
Seconds - Major and minor seconds do not reflect their respective places in the
major and minor scale, the same way the other intervals have. The major 2nd is
found as the second scale degree (re) in both major and minor scales, while the
minor 2nd is equivalent to the half step. The m2 is found in mi-fa and ti-do in
major keys, likewise re-me and sol-Ie in minor keys (Figure 7.31, 32).
Figure 7.31 Major 2nd :
., ., .. ..
v ~
:! ~ -
-
D
C
1
do
2
re
Figure 7.32 Minor 2nd :
I~ , ~ ....... !'"• • • • z.. • ~Ii 1 L 0e 2:e 2: 3
C 3 4 7 8
B mi fa ti do
- -- ---_._-- ---
134
Sevenths - Major and minor sevenths are the inversion of seconds and do reflect
their places in either scale. The major 7th is found on the seventh scale degree of
major, ti (Figure 7.33, 34).
Figure 7.33 Major 7th :
'I
, .. .. ..
.
V ~ J
J J
B
C
Figure 7.34 Minor 7th :
1
do
7
ti
'I
, .. .. ..
J V
"
J
V . J
Bb
C
1
do
b7
te
Major seconds and minor seconds and their respective inversions are
dissonant intervals, meaning they don't harmonize very well in isolation, but they
do occur in more complex chords. It is necessary to be very careful how to treat
them when bringing out this sound in the music, for when it is done well, the effect
can be quite beautiful. The vocal duo Shane Barnard and Shane Everett, known for
their great harmonizing, have often used these dissonant intervals in their music
and achieved amazing results. The use of these intervals in popular music is a
135
rather complex topic that cannot get full treatment here. For now it is beneficial to
become acquainted with their sound and how they sound in context.
In context, these intervals are usually employed as some sort of passing
harmony, wherein a second melody line passes through a dissonant 2nd or 7th
momentarily, to rest on a more consonant interval. The examples below provide
examples of these possible harmony lines accompanying a single note: in each case,
C. The examples depict upward and downward resolution of major seconds, minor
seconds, and their inversions (sevenths) (Figure 7.35, 36).
Figure 7.35 M2 & m7 Resolutions:
M2 Resolve Up: m7 Resolve Up: M2 Resolve Down: m7 Resolve Down:
,
- - •
~ ~
J J J
V
-
-
Figure 7.36 m2 & M7 Resolutions:
m2 Resolve Down: M7 Resolve Down: m2 Resolve Up: M7 Resolve Up:
II
~ • • • •
v ~- ~ v ~
- -
-
At times, a 2nd will appear in exactly this context, where it occurs as part of
a descending line either above or below that is harmonizing a sustained pitch. In
this case, the dissonant interval resolves downward to a consonant third. Such a
--------------~--~------~-~-~.~-~_.
136
harmony part could be sung below the melody of Shout To The Lord at the end of the
verse on the words, "mighty love" (Figure 7.37).13
Figure 7.37 Shout To The Lord - Darlene Zschech
Aid 0 AlE F#m G D/F# Esus4 E
I want to praise_ the won-ders of your might - y love._
©1993 Integrity's Music
Other times, the dissonant 2nd may appear in an entirely different situation.
In this excerpt of How Great Is Our God, a harmony part may be sung above the
melody that does not "need" to resolve downward. At first, this harmony may seem
strange relative to the more conventional examples that have been provided thus
far, but if you listen to the chords that underpin this section of the song, these notes
are given sufficient context that the dissonance shouldn't seem out of place (Figure
7.38).
Figure 7.38 How Great Is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves & Ed Cash
Am F
:~
_ Let all the earth_ re-joiee.__ All the earth_ re-joiee.__ How great_
©2004 worshiptogether.com Songs, arr. by the author
It may be that it takes some practice to get use to singing this type of
harmony. In order get comfortable singing this type of dissonance, a singer must
13 Asterisks indicate dissonant seconds.
137
not only listen to how the note they sing resonates with melody, but also to how it
resonates with the chords being played. This discussion of consonant intervals
versus dissonant ones and the practical uses of both necessitate a more in-depth
overview of this topic from a music-theoretical perspective.
The Tritone
The tritone is a unique interval that is created through the simultaneous
sounding of the fourth and seventh scale degrees,fa and ti. Whenfa is the lower
note, the interval creates a type of fourth, called an augmented 4th (Figure 7.39).
Figure 7.39 Tritone - Augmented 4th :
~
• ..
..
v v ,
V
J
B
F
4
fa
7
ti
When ti is in the bass, the inversion of the augmented 4th is the diminished 5th
(Figure 7.40)
Figure 7.40 Tritone - Diminished 5th :
~
• .., .., ..
..~
v ,
v ~
~
-
J
F
B
7
ti
4
fa
138
Augmented (aug) intervals are created when a perfect or major is increased
in size by a half step, likewise diminished (dim) intervals are formed when a perfect
or minor interval is decreased by a half step. This is seen most plainly in the
diagram below (Figure 7.41).
Figure 7.41 Augmented & Diminished Intervals
(-1 half step) ~~ (+1 half step)
Diminished-Perfect-Augmented
(-lhalfstep) ~~ (+1 half step)
Diminished-Minor-Maj or-Augmented
These intervals, occurring diatonically in the tritone, have a rather dissonant
character14 that demands special resolution in most cases (Figure 7.42).
Figure 7.42 Tritone Resolutions:
Aug 4th Resolution: Dim 5th Resolution:
1\
lI! ..,
v ,
J ~ Z
Because of its dissonance, it is not as common an interval as perfect, major, or minor
intervals, though it is often heard in popular music. It occurs primarily in
diminished chords and dominant sevenths (we will discuss these in chapters 8 and
9). Below is an example of a song where this interval occurs as part of the dominant
14 This character earned this interval the nickname diabolus in musica ("the devil in music") and was
banned from music in the Church for centuries. IronicalIy, today it is arguably the harmonic
centerpiece of gospel music.
139
7th chord (E7 in both cases) and is even an interval to be sung in the melody. Play
each example (Figure 7.43).
Figure 7.43 How Great Thou Art - Stuart K. Hine
_-\ _-\ ,en B m, D E7 A
Thee; _
sol
hall' great Thou
do ti do
art, _
re
hall' great Thou art!
JllJ fa ti do
©1953 Stuart K. Hine, Renewed 1981 Manna Music, Inc, arr. by the author
Consonance vs. Dissonance
We've already given some attention to the notion of consonance and
dissonance, but it would be of benefit to discuss it in some detail here. As we have
progressed through our discussion of intervals, you have no doubt noticed how
some intervals sound better than other. There are certain intervals that resonate in
a way that creates little or no harmonic tension. We call this consonance. Other
notes, when played together, create intervals with a lot of tension, which is called
dissonance. When we hear dissonant intervals we often want something to change
so that we can experience some kind of release to consonance. However, it would
be incorrect to assume that dissonant intervals are bad while consonant intervals
are good.
Music itself can be thought of as the artful control of consonance and
dissonance. It is the treatment of dissonance in music that can make it seem so
beautiful and emotionally compelling.ls Below is a list of all the intervals and how
they resonate, as consonant or dissonant, or both (Figure 7.44)
lSln a way, dissonance can help to tell a story in music. Like any good story, a well-established
conflict will make an eventual resolution more enjoyable. Throughout this book we will return to
this idea of consonance and dissonance to uncover techniques for using it to our advantage for
making music exciting and beautiful.
,-----------~ --- ----
140
Figure 7.44 Chromatic Scale:
1'- ~. ~. I,. ~. ~. ~. •&.,.. q..- ~. q$ • tl·... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Ii : :: j : Jg i § g 3~ ~
C D D C C C/D D C C C D D C
Pl-m2-M2-m3-M3-P4-Aug4jDimS (TT)-PS-m6-M6-m7-M7-P8
You will notice that this chromatic spectrum of intervals spanning a full
octave creates a pattern of consonances and dissonances. This pattern is a
palindrome because each interval creates the same quality of sound, consonant or
dissonant, as its inversion. The exception is the P4, which traditionally can be either
consonant or dissonant depending on context. This dissonant 4th occurs in both
"sus" chords and 2nd inversion chords, a concept we've already touched on and will
be covered in more depth in the following chapters on chord theory.
Tip: Ear Training With Intervals
Important to understanding the consonant and dissonant relationships
between notes that intervals create, is developing the ability to hear and play these
intervals by ear. This ability will become an invaluable tool for you as a musician.
Hearing and identifying intervals allows you to recognize and identify different
chords, chord progressions, and melodies by ear. Furthermore, combining this
ability with theoreticaLknowledge allows one to use theory to sing harmony along
with a melody and put into practical use many of the skills that will be discussed in
this book.
Explore consonance and dissonance by singing each interval melodically and
harmonically and using the solfege syllables as they have been assigned below. You
will notice the particular tensions that some intervals create, especially when they
141
are played harmonically. Some dissonances, most notably the m2jM7 and the
Aug4jDim5, can even be difficult to sustain by a vocalist as they create a significant
amount of harmonic tension and seem abnormal in most popular music contexts.
The example below gives the chromatic spectrum of notes and in the first
three rows below the TAB, assigns each one with a solfege syllable, note name, and
interval name as it relates to the first note of the scale (Figure 7.45). The fourth row
identifies each note as it relates to the major scale, Le. scale degree. Being able to
identify a note this fourth way will become helpful as we discuss chord theory more
in depth.
Figure 7.45 Chromatic Solfege
~
~ .. V'... ~... -.. ,.. • • • • • • • •
'"
~
v v
Note Name:
C-Db-D-Eb-E-F-F#jGb-G-Ab-A-Bb-B-C
Solfege Syllable:
do-ra-re-me-mi-fa-sol-sifle-le-la-te-ti-do
Interval:
P1-m2-M2-m3-M3-P4-Aug4jDim5-P5-m6-M6-m7-M7-P8
Scale Degree:
1-b2-2-b3-3-4-#4jb5-5-b6-6-b7-7-8
Play your instrument and sing each ascending interval melodically (one after
another) and return to the starting pitch. Start with the m2 and expand outward to
larger intervals by using Cor another constant tonic as a reference pitch.
------- -----
142
Play Cthen Db while singing, "do-ra-do". Then practice a M2 by playing C
to D while singing, "do-re-do". This exercise should be practiced not only with
melodic intervals, but also with harmonic intervals. Here, you will sustain the
reference pitch (do) while singing the correct interval with the appropriate solfege
syllable. You will be creating a two-note interval called a dyad, which can function
like a chord.
Repeat the same exercise with descending intervals. Use the do at the octave
as your reference pitch. Start by singing a descending m2 and returning to tonic,
"do-ti-do". Repeat this same exercise for all descending intervals from the octave
both as melodic and harmonic intervals. When you feel comfortable singing these
intervals with your instrument try singing them on your own, without the help of a
reference pitch. Start by playing the interval, then repeating it on your own. Try to
anticipate the note by hearing it in your head before you sing. Eventually you want
to be able to sing any interval ascending or descending without the aid of an
instrument by simply hearing it mentally. A helpful way to develop this ability is to
associate the interval with a familiar song that uses it. You can probably hear the
first three notes of Happy Birthday in your head without needing anybody to remind
you of how it goes. Happy Birthday begins with an ascending M2. Here is a list of
familiar songs and the intervals that they begin with. All are ascending intervals
larger than a unison (Figure 7.46).
Figure 7.46 Well-Known Songs and the Intervals that Begin Them:
m2 - Theme from]aws
M2 - Happy Birthday
m3 - What Child Is This?/Greensleeves
M3 - Holy, Holy, Holy
P4 - How Great Is Our God
Aug4jDim5 - The Simpson's Theme
P5 - 0 Come, 0 Come Emmanuel
M6 - NBC (three-note chime melody)
m7 - Star Trek: The Original Series Theme
143
M7 - Bali Hai (1st & 3rd Notes)
P8 - Over the Rainbow
Transposition
A firm understanding of intervals is also extremely helpful for quickly
transposing music. Transposition is the notation or performance of a composition
in a different key from the one in which it was originally written.16 Consider these
typical instances where transposition is needed:
1) Transposition by known interval: This occurs when you must transpose a
song by a given interval. For instance, you may notice that a soloist is
struggling with the key of a song. She tells you that it is too low for her voice
and asks that you play it 2 steps higher. It is then your task to transpose
every chord ofthe song up by a M3.
2) Transposition to known key: This is one step removed from transposing
by a known interval. At times you may know what key you need to get to and
must determine what interval of transposition is needed by comparing the
distance between the two keys. Say you want to do a song by Chris Tomlin,
but your recording is in E and is too high for you or the congregation to sing
comfortably. You know that you could also play it comfortably in the key of C
and it would be a better key for most people to sing. To transpose to this key,
simply determine the intervallic distance between E and C (M3 down) and
transpose all the chords by this distance.
16 Theodore Baker, ed., Schirmer Pronouncing Pocket Manual ofMusical Terms, 5th ed., (New York:
Schirmer Trade Books, 1995), 243.
144
3) Transposing with a capo (by known key): The capo is a clamp that is set
across the fingerboard of a guitar to raise the pitch of the strings. Oftentimes
a guitarist will use one to allow for similar chord fingering1? to be played in a
variety of keys. In such a case, a guitarist my have a specific key he or she
desires to play in while maintaining the fingerings of a different key. Here,
the guitarist must determine the intervallic distance from the original (no
capo) key and the desired key and place the capo at the fret that is that
distance from the nut of the guitar neck.
4) Transposition with a capo (by known interval): Conversely, a guitarist
may desire to play with a capo, but in order to share music with other
instruments that do not use one, he or she must transpose the music they
read to the sounding key so that it can be used by musicians who cannot use
a capo. For instance, a worship leader who is playing a guitar with a capo,
may easily read chords in the key that corresponds to the fingerings they are
playing (not the actual sounding key), but these are not the chords that
instruments that cannot capo play. Therefore, in order to provide musicians
with music in the right key, the intervallic distance between the guitarist's
fingerings and the actual key must be determined in order to transpose the
music to the correct key.
When transposing a key up or down by a small interval like a whole or half
step, it is an easy task to count the half steps to the next note, but for larger
intervals, it can become time consuming to count steps for every chord (three and
half steps in the case of the P5).
17 It is often preferable for a guitarist to choose a key that allows for chord fingerings with open
strings, generally the major keys of C, D, E, G, A, and B. A capo may be used to play the fingerings of
these keys where barre chords would otherwise be required.
145
There is another method for transposition that can also act as a shortcut if the
interval oftransposition is too large or is an awkward interval that is unfamiliar.
Simply transpose the first chord by that interval and then count the number of steps
up or down to the next chord and determine the same distance from the transposed
chord. For instance, if the key to be transposed is in the key of E and contains the
chord progression E7 F:#m7G:#m7A, and this needs to be transposed to the key of
A simply follow the pattern of intervals generated by this succession of chords.
E7 F:# is a whole step, F:#7G:# is another whole step, and G:#7A is a half step. Now
copy this pattern, beginning with A.
Old key:
E7F:#m7G:#m7A
New key:
A7Bm7C:#m7D
Since many songs have chords that move at small intervals, this can be a quick and
easy way to transpose.
As you continue to study scales and chords, instantly recognizing the distance
between two notes will become more intuitive. Eventually, with a sufficient
knowledge of intervals and scales, transposing a song up or down by larger intervals
can be quick and effortless. Transposition is a task reqUiring music theory that
musicians perform all the time. Developing this skill is very important for almost
any musician. You can practice this skill by transposing a given chord progression
up or down into a variety of keys.
146
Practice Exercises
For the example below, identify given intervals' numeric values and qualities.
If depicted on the staff, indicate possible fret placement in the TAB. If indicated in
TAB, notate the probable interval on the staff (Figure 7.47).
Figure 7.47 Practice Exercises
Il u
t..
~
~
,
"
~ ~
~
lI!J 1)'''
For the examples of perfect fourths below, notate in the staff and on the TAB
the likely resolution of the dissonance. When no staff notation is provided, indicate
147
the interval notated in TAB. If only TAB is provided, notate the intervals on the staff
(Figure 7.48).
Figure 7.48 Practice Exercises
~ ..
~
0-
.
'I ..
t ..
~
For the tritone examples below, indicate whether the interval is an aug4 or a
dimS and also notate on both the staff and TAB the inward moving or outward
moving resolution (Figure 7.49).
Figure 7.49 Practice Exercises
f'l ..
~
v ~ ~
"'
v
Below is a song in the key of D, the chords and guitar riff (in TAB) must be
transposed up to the key of F. Notate the transposed music on the blank staff
(Figure 7.50)
Figure 7.50 Practice Exercises
D A Bm G
148
1\ l.I
~
-
J
-
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-
J J J J J J J J
-
J U U
You are a guitarist playing a song in the key of Bb, but you want to use a capo
to use fingerings from the key of G (Figure 7.51). On what fret do you place your
capo?
Figure 7.51 Practice Exercises
E~ B~ Gm F
> > > I > > > > I > > > > I > > > >I » » » I z 2 » z z I I » » »
On the staff below, transpose the chords from the key of Bb key of G, so you
know what fingerings to use (Figure 7.52)
Figure 7.52 Practice Exercises
4~ I > > > > I > > > > I > > > > I > > > >I I I Z I I I 2 I Z I I Z Z I I
149
CHAPTER VIII
TRIADS
Having gone through a detailed study of the fundamentals learned in Part 1 -
Theory Fundamentals, these concepts can now be applied to a detailed study of
chord theory. In Part 2, for the next five chapters, we will discuss theory and
practical use of the chords we play in popular music. This is a crucial point in your
development as a musician, because understanding chord theory takes one's
knowledge of harmony from the mere physical level- where you see chords as
physical patterns and shapes on your instrument - and combines that knowledge
with a conceptual understanding of their structure. By broadening your perspective
this way, you move beyond mere "muscle memory" to open up your music making
to engage more of the mind and be more creative.
It may be that you have already developed an extensive chord vocabulary as
a musician and know how to playa lot of chords, perhaps even ones that you
wouldn't regularly employ in a worship service, yet you may not know how or why
one would use all these different chords. Learning chord theory will bring meaning
and coherence to a seemingly infinite array of chord possibilities by establishing
context for them. On the other hand, you may not have felt compelled to learn a
huge variety of chords because the music that you play in church seems only to
require the limited number you are already familiar with. With theory, you can gain
the knowledge to climb out of the same mode of music making you may be stuck in
or help further develop and expand an established sound. To get there, we must
begin at the most basic level of chord theory to examine the origin and structure of
the chords you most likely know in order to build the context for a discussion of
more advanced chord structures that until now remained a mystery.
150
By definition, a chord consists of 3 or more notes played simultaneously. So,
in order to find our way through what is a seemingly endless amount of options, we
will discuss presently only the most commonly used chords, those that make up the
basic harmonic language of popular music - and consequently contemporary
Christian music.
Diatonic Triads
The most commonly used chords are diatonic triads. Simply put, a triad is a
three-note chord, but more specifically, a diatonic triad is a three-note chord
derived from a specific major or minor scale. Or in other words, a diatonic triad is a
chord in the key. These chords arise from the harmonization of the diatonic scale of
a given key.
In the last chapter we found that the most pleasing harmony was the 3rd, and
it is with this interval that we harmonize a scale into its constituent diatonic triads.
To do this we group each note in the scale by intervals of a 3rd (every other note).
Below is a diagram depicting each interval of a 3rd contained in the C major scale.
Note that this scale is extended up to the D above the octave to show that a 3rd is
also created between the 7th and 9th scale degrees (tf and re) (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1 Diatonic Thirds in C Major:
m3 M3 m3
;;:=== ~.:z ~.~ ~
To form a triad we simply skip every other note in the scale to include three
notes separated by thirds. The first triad in the key of Cmajor is built from do and
contains the notes C-E-G (do-mf-solJ. The first note is Cand a third higher is E
and a third higher than E is G. The second triad in C major would be D-F-A (re-
fa-fa), the third E-G-B (mf-sol-ti), and so on. If every note of the scale is
151
harmonized into its own triad, this creates a total of seven different diatonic triads
found in the key of C major. In order to identify each triad diatonic to the key, they
are numbered I-VII using roman numerals (Figure 8.2).18
Figure 8.2 Diatonic Triads in C Major:
•
..
-
"
-c
I ii iii IV V vi vii° I
5-G A B C D E F G
3-E F G A B C D E
R-C D E F G A B C
Likewise, there is the possible harmonization of the minor scale (Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3 Diatonic Triads in C Minor:
fJ I I.
~ ..
-
~
"
l
"
i iio bIll iv v bVI bVII
5-G Ab Bb C D Eb F G
3-Eb F G Ab Bb C D Eb
R-C D Eb F G Ab Bb C
18 Numbering diatonic triads according to their place in the scale becomes more important as we
discuss chord progression in later chapters.
152
Chord Tones
Now that each tone of the scale has a three-note chord to call its own, we may
examine triads closer, regarding those tones. Each of the three notes of a given triad
has a special identity and role with respect to that chord. Each triad in the scale has
three notes called the root, third, and fifth. The note of the scale that the other tones
harmonize is the root of that chord. Like tonic does for a scale and key, the root
gives a chord its name and is the reference point for all other notes to relate. If the
root of a chord is C, then this is a type of Cchord. So, the first chord in the key of C
major is a C chord, the second is a D chord, and so on.
The other two notes in a triad have names based on their intervallic distance
from the root. The third is called such because it is the third note away from the
root. This tone defines the chord's quality (major, minor, etc.). Consequently, the
fifth of the chord is five notes away from the root. The fifth defines the type of
chord to some degree, but to a lesser degree than the third. It has the larger role of
rounding out the sound of the chord (Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4 C Major Triad:
t- ~ ~
v
"
k
'"
v k
-
- -
R 3 5
Having the ability to see a chord symbol on a lead sheet and determine
specifically what the chord tones are (root, third, etc.) is necessary, in part, for being
able to have creative control over the sound of the chord. The following example of
the hymn And Can It Be provides an excellent opportunity for developing this skill,
since the melody itself illustrates what chord tones are present by outlining the each
note of the chord (Figure 8.5).
153
Figure 8.5 And Can It Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell
G c D G
4~~I'1G:d III d· f· -: ~lOU,__ my 0 , S lOU (SI Ie or me', _~_
llll sol clo sol la clo fa la Ii re sol Ii clo do
©Public Domain
Though the first three measures outline the chord tones of each triad, they
are not necessarily in an order we have yet seen. In this case, the first and lowest
note of each measure is not the root. The fact is that in most situations, the notes of
a chord aren't laid out in an orderly fashion, stacked neatly in thirds, as has been
depicted thus far in the text. Therefore, ascertaining chord tones from a collection
of notes, or simply a chord progression, requires a little detective work to determine
what make up the chord.
To do this, simply imagine a scale built from the root of each chord, ordering
all the tones in the span of the octave. Move up by thirds from the root to identify
what is the root, third, and fifth. The diagram below shows the first three chords
from the progression above with a scale based on the root of each chord. Note that
each scale extends up an octave from the root, but each scale holds to the key
signature of the song, Gmajor. As a result, the scales built from Cand D are not
major scales. This allows us to identify the chord tones for each chord of this song's
excerpt (Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6 Chord Tones of the Triad Extrapolated from its Own Scale:
G C D
R
do
3 5
mi sol
R R
do fa
3
la
5
do
R R
fa sol
3
ti
5
re
R
sol
154
Based on their respective scales, the chord tones are identified thus (Figure 8.7):
Figure 8.7 And Can It Be - Charles Wesley & Thomas Campbell
G C D G
4*~·m
Thou,__ my God, shouldst die for me? A_
3 5 R 5
mi sol do sol
3 5 R 3
la do fa la
3 5 R 3
ti re sol ti
R
do
R
do
Obviously, knowing what note of the chord you are singing or playing isn't
always a priority, but to understand the chord based on its notes is imperative for
applying the techniques discussed in the next chapters.
Chord Quality
After the root, third, and fifth have been determined, the next thing to know
is the quality of the chord. As well as having a root name, like "C chord," every chord
has a specific quality, just as intervals have qualities. The quality of a chord may be
major, minor, diminished, or augmented.19 These four qualities make up the four
chord 'families'. Though there are many varieties of chords used in popular music,
each belongs to one of these four types.
Major Triads
Major chords arise out of the major scale. Each has a root, third, and a fifth
taken from those scale degrees (do-mi-sol). For a Cmajor triad, its notes would
be taken from the Cmajor scale.
19 The perfect interval quality is not included in this list, because a "perfect chord" is essentially a
power chord, which was introduced in chapter five as a two-note interval (Figure 8.8).
155
Figure 8.8 C Major Triad (C):
"I
'-
.. ~
v
v
'-
'- v '- ,
G
E
C
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
As depicted above, a major triad is built off of the first triad in a major scale,
but other tones of the scale produce major triads when harmonized as well. In any
major key, chords built on do, fa, and sol produce major chords. These are identified
with the upper-case Roman numerals I, IV, V, respectively (Figure 8.9).
Figure 8.9 Major Triads in CMajor:
I'J •
'-
.. .-
"-; ,
-
'-
-
'-
~ '-
I
do
IV
fa
V
sol
I
do
However, in minor keys major chords occur on the harmonization of me, Ie, and te
creating blII, bVI, bVII chords (Figure 8.10).
The use of roman numerals serves more didactic purposes that will be
employed in this text, but on a lead sheet major chords are usually notated with
chord symbols that contain only the root name. For instance, a solitary root, "c"
would represent a major chord, however, other common typologies for a Cmajor
chord may include: Cmaj, CM, and CLio Chord symbols are not standardized, but this
156
text will remain consistent in displaying a solitary root to denote major triads. For
example, see the excerpt from Lord I Lift Your Name On High (Figure 8.11).
Figure 8.10 Major Triads in CMinor:
/@ ~~J
1'1 ~! •
• •
I,
... •
Ii ~ i i3 -'3 5
bIll bVI bVI
me Ie te
Figure 8.11 Lord I Lift Your Name on High - Rick Founds
G C DC G C D C
Lord, I lifl Your namc _ on high.
Minor Triads
Lord, r lcnc to sing _ Your prais - cs._
©1989 Maranatha Praise, Inc.
Minor triads are taken from the minor scale. Therefore, a Cminor triad
would extract its tones from the Cminor scale. Other than the b3 rd of minor, the
other tones are the same as a major chord. For this reason, the 3rd has the role of
defining the quality of the chord, distinguishing major from minor (Figure 8.12).
In minor keys, minor triads arise from the harmonization of doJa, and sol.
These are indicated by the lower-case Roman numerals i, iv, and v to denote minor
triads (Figure 8.13). Minor triads are produced by re, mi, and la in major keys,
identified as ii, iii, and vi (Figure 8.14).
157
Figure 8.12 CMinor Triad (Cm):
I' II ------- I,. ~- •~ ~-=- • -.-~Ii IeI 0 3() :1
G R b3 5
E do me sol
C
Figure 8.13 Minor Triads in CMinor:
f1 I.
~ .. •
-
!
--
-
-
~
-
- -
- -
i
do
iv
fa
v
sol
i
do
Figure 8.14 Minor Triads in CMajor:
1\
tJ .. •
"
~ ,
'- "
'-
'-
ii
re
iii
mi
vi
la
The chord symbol for minor usually has a lower case 'm' attached to the root,
so a Cminor chord would be 'Cm', Some common variants are Cmin, Cmi, and C-.
There is only one note, the third, differentiating major from minor, but this doesn't
mean that the difference is small. The qualities of major and minor chords, which
make up the bulk of harmony in popular music, provide a necessary contrast to keep
158
a given song from sounding overly monotonous. The song Lord I Lift Your Name On
High by Rick Founds offers a great example of how minor chords may be used to
vitalize a song dominated by largely one chord quality (major). Below is the
conduding phrase of the song, which up to this point has been dominated by major
chords (G, C, and D). At the end however, Founds inserts two minor chords (Em?
and Am?) that help bring a refreshing contrast and end the song with the "punch" of
some new harmonic material (Figure 8.15).
Figure 8.15 Lord I Lift Your Name on High - Rick Founds
G C D Em7 A m7 D G
r_~o
_ Fromthe cross_to the grave,_from the grave_to the sky:_Lord 1 lift your name _on high.
©1989 Maranatha Praise Inc.
Diminished Triads
Diminished triads do arise from harmonized diatonic scales, but unlike major
or minor triads, they cannot be defined as the tonic of a key. The reason for this is
that there are no diminished keys, only major and minor keys. Rather, the
diminished chord is a consequence of a diatonic harmonization of the seventh
degree of major (ti) or the second in minor (re). Therefore, the triad is depicted as
such below. The root of the chord is not do, but instead ti instead. Compared to a
major triad, the diminished triad contains a flatted third and fifth and gets its name
from its fifth, which, being flatted, contains the interval of the diminished 5th (dimS).
In this respect, the fifth plays a very important role for this triad, distinguishing it
from minor triads, which contain only the b3 (Figure 8.16).
159
Figure 8.16 B Diminished Triad (Bo):
"I
• ..- ..-~
"
n n "
k
k
-
k
F
D
B
R
ti
b3
re
b5
fa
In major keys, the diminished chord is found as a harmonization of ti, identified viio
(Figure 8.17).
Figure 8.17 Diminished Triad in CMajor:
fJ
... ... •
-
,
k
-
k
vii°
ti
In minor keys, this chord is found as a harmonization of re, thus iio (Figure 8.18).
Figure 8.18 Diminished Triad in C Minor:
"I
...
iio
re
160
A Cdiminished chord might be represented by Cdim, CO, Cm(b5), or Cm(-5). I
will use Co as standard. The last phrase of the hymn Great Is Thy Faithfulness has a
great example of the use of a diminished chord (Figure 8.19).
Figure 8.19 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyon
G#o7 D/A A7 D
Great is Thy faith ful ness, Lord, un - to me.
©1923 Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
Augmented Triads
Augmented triads do not arise out of any harmonization of major or minor
scale and are thus not diatonic. However, it is one of our four main chord qualities,
occurring through a chromatic20 alteration of a diatonic chord, usually tonic. The
alteration occurs when the fifth is raised one half step to create the interval of an
aug 5th between the root and fifth, hence the name (Figure 8.20).
Figure 8.20 CAugmented Triad (C+):
"I
~ .. ~
, k
k v k
-
- -
G#
E
C
R
do
3
mi
#5
si
The chord symbol for a Caugmented chord would be Caug, C+, C+5, or C(#5).
I will use C+ as standard. Though augmented triads are relatively rare, there are a
20 Chromatic, in this sense, refers to the presence of notes foreign to a diatonic system.
161
few notable examples of its use in both Christian hymnody and contemporary songs.
The opening phrase of the hymn Great Is Thy Faithfulness employs an augmented
triad (Figure 8.21).
Figure 8.21 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyon
D D+ Gmaj7 G6 A7 G/B A7 GID D
Great is Thy faith ful ness, o God my Fa - ther,
©1923 Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
Ear Trainin&: for Major & Minor Triads
Play an A major chord then compare its sound to an A minor. Major chords
are usually regarded as sounding happy or bright, while minor chords sound sad or
dark, though depending on the context, this isn't always the case. As you listen to
the chord, pay close attention to the third as it shifts to change the quality of the
chord from major to minor. Between an A major and an A minor chord, the root and
fifth are consistent, but the third moves by half step from C:j:\: to C (mi to me) (Figure
8.22).
Figure 8.22 Major vs. Minor:
A Major Triad:
A
A Minor Triad:
Am
~
• •
~
~
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
R
do
~3
me
5
sol
162
When you are comfortable identifying major and minor chords on the same
root, try expanding this study to include chords with differing roots. Compare C
major to E minor, or any other combination, until you can successfully hear the
difference between major and minor and also identify the individual notes within
each chord. Practicing with Cmajor and E minor is a particularly good study
because the two chords share in common two out of three notes (E and G).
Therefore, you will have to rely on your aural conception of how these notes fit into
the structure of the chord and not necessarily their actual pitch. In this study, listen
to how these notes change function when placed in the context of E minor as
opposed to Cmajor. It is important to be able to hear how a single tone can change
roles when placed in the context of a new chord (Figure 8.23).
Figure 8.23 Major vs. Minor:
Cmajor triad:
c
E minor triad:
Em
~
t.. .. ... I
lIJ"
v v
~ ~
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
R
do
~3
me
5
sol
You want to be able to apply these skills to any musical situation, so attempt
to mimic "real life" musical situations to help prepare you for using these skills the
next time you rehearse or play in church. Here are some ways to practice this:
1) Play different voicings of the triad.21 The simplest way to playa triad is to
play the three notes as close together as possible, each separated by a third
21 Voicing pertains to the arrangement of pitches of a chord with regard to their order and register.
The notes of a triad played in any order (low to high) or in any octave will still create the same chord,
-------------------
163
(like they have been illustrated above), but much of the time chords are not
played with this basic voicing. You must be able to hear the same
relationships between the notes of a chord in any voicing to be prepared to
use these skills in an actual musical situation. If you are a pianist, play
different voicings of the same triad in different registers on the keyboard.
For guitarists, a good place to start may be by playing 1st position (open
string) chord voicings followed by a barre chord voiced higher on the guitar's
neck (Figure 8.24).
D
1'\ T ... • +14- 101 101'-
U -it- ... - - ~ ... I - • •... ... ... -
... ...
-
-v
'!
--
-
~
-
~ ~ - - -
'! ~ ;; ~
-
0 ~
~ ~
'! '- ~ v
-
-
k
-
~
-
- - - "
Figure 8.24 1st Position Chords & Alternative Voicings:
C AGE
...
2) Develop your ability to hear and sing the notes of a triad. A good way to do
this is to play two notes of a triad and sing the missing tone. In the exercise
below, the full triad is indicated in the first measure. The next three show
two notes of the triad that are to be played on your instrument. While these
notes ring, attempt to sing the missing tone (indicated to the right in each
bar).
but one can create different voicings of the same chord by playing these notes in different
arrangements on the keyboard or fingerboard.
Figure 8.25 Sing Missing Tones:
Sing missing fifth: Missing third:
A
Missing root:
164
~
tJ
'! v '!
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
5
sol
For the next example, do the same with A minor.
3
mi
R
do
Figure 8.26 Sing Missing Tones:
Sing missing fifth: Missing third:
Am
Missing root:
~
•
'! v v v
.:. =
. .
..
5
sol
b3
me
R
do
Ear Training for Diminished Chords
The structure and function of diminished triads are very different from major
or minor ones and as a result these chords will be treated differently in an ear
training study. Try comparing a diminished triad to a major or minor triad of the
same root and you will perceive a high level of harmonic tension compared to the
other two (Figure 8.27).
165
Figure 8.27 Major & Minor vs. Diminished
B Bm
u u
,
.,
5
3
R
5
b3
R
b5
b3
R
Listen to the unique sound of a diminished chord. This sound is used often,
in blues, jazz, and rock music influenced by these genres. However, this triad is
rarely heard in contemporary Christian music, but using it can be interesting and
exciting. However, in this context, it must be treated carefully, since its quality is so
distinct.
Unlike major or minor, diminished chords have a certain unresolved
character that causes the listener to expect another, more stable chord to follow it.
As a result, they are best understood in context of this ebb and flow of consonance
and dissonance. The following exercises will allow this by showing you how the
diminished triad works in real musical situations.
The tension in this chord is a result of the dissonant diminished 5th between
the root and the fifth. It is the tendency of dissonant intervals to "want" to resolve to
more consonant ones. These fifths are perceived as unstable and so our ears expect
the interval to do this by increasing or decreasing in size to a consonant interval
within the key.
Resolution of the Diminished Triad
As we saw in the last chapter, the natural tendency for this diminished 5th is
to have both pitches of the interval move inward by half steps, decreasing the
interval to a consonant M3. Since this dissonant 5th resolves to the simple dyad C-
166
E, there are two triads that this chord could resolve to. As we saw earlier with the C
major and E minor chord, two different triads may have up to two similar notes. In
this instance, the succeeding chord could be Cmajor (I), since Cand E would be the
root and third of that chord. Also, it could resolve to Cminor (iffa resolved to me
instead of mi). Conversely, if Cand E functioned as the third and fifth ofthe new
chord, the succeeding chord would be A minor (vi). The remaining tone of the
succeeding triad, will determine to which of these chords the diminished triad
resolves (Figure 8.28).
Figure 8.28 Diminished Triad Resolutions:
I'l I
~ .... • .... ... .... -...
~
- }..
-
;..
-; ~
-
~
;; ~ - - - "-
"-
-
£- "-
"
viio I viia vi
The most common resolution of the viiowould be a tonic, since the root of the
diminished chord is the seventh note (to of the major scale it comes from. The
leading tone has a naturally strong upward pull to the tonic. So this Bo triad wants
to resolve up to a Cmajor or Cminor (viio~lor i) more than resolving down to A
minor (viio-vi), though this is still possible. In the example below, the song a The
Deep Deep Love ofJesus is in the key of E minor. In the last two chords of the
excerpt, a D:It a (vii0) resolves to Em (i) (Figure 8.29)'
167
Figure 8.290 the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis & Thomas Williams
G DF~ C E B D~ E III A III D~c7 E III
bound less
o
free.
©Public Domain
Resolution ofAugmented Triads
Augmented triads, like diminished triads, are dissonant and require
resolution to a more consonant triad, either major or minor. However the
resolution of augmented triads is altogether different from diminished triads. As
stated before, the dissonant Aug5 is created through a chromatic alteration of a P5.
This alteration is not merely hypothetical, but is usually played out in the music
itself. A common context for an augmented triad is to have it succeed a major triad.
In this case there is a literal chromatic alteration of a tone. For example (Figure
8.30):
Figure 8.30 5th is Raised By Half Step:
C C+
fl
~ ~ ~
...
11 v i
.. <- <-
I: - -
1+
Augmented chords don't sound like any progression through a diatonic chord
progression, but sound more like a chromatic stretching out of a stationary harmony
as this "expansion" of tonic above.
Once the P5 has been expanded to a dissonant Aug5 (I-I+), the resulting
tension begs the interval to resolve to something in the scale more consonant. In
168
most cases, this interval is resolved when the 5th of the chord moves upward or
downward by a half step. When the :j:I: 5 resolves upward, it resolves to a new and
different chord. In most cases, the other two tones (the root and the third of both
the major and augmented triads) stay the same. The succeeding triad will then be a
triad built on fa (I-I+-vi), but sometimes the third of the augmented triad will
move up by half step too, creating a triad built on fa (I-I+-IV). Yet other times, the
:j:I: 5 resolves downward, back to the fifth of the previous chord (1-1+-1). See the
illustration below for an example of each situation (Figure 8.31).
Figure 8.31 Augmented Chord Resolutions:
:j:I: 5 resolves up: 3 and :j:I: 5 resolve up:
C C+ Am C C+ F
:j:I: 5 resolves back down:
C c+ C
~
,
• • • • • .. • •
...
';! ~ ~ ';! ~ ~ ';! ~ ';!
:: ~ ~ :: ~ :0: :: :: ::
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-
1+ vi 1+ IV 1+
In this first instance, a major chord moves to its relative minor by passing
through its augmented counterpart. Awell-known example of this in contemporary
Christian music is in the verse of Matt and Beth Redman's Let My Words Be Few
(Figure 8.32).
Figure 8.32 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman
G G+ E~G c
You are God in hea ven,_ and here _ am I _ on earth,__
©2000 Thankyou Music
Practice Exercises
Identify each chord below by root name and chord quality (Figure 8.33).
Figure 8.33 Practice Exercises:
169
I ;
, • 1,1,. ~~ ~;i #:
•
In the staff and TAB below, write notate the chord tones, in any voicing, of
the chord symbol indicated (Figure 8.34).
Figure 8.34 Practice Exercises:
Dm A
170
CHAPTER IX
FOUR-NOTE CHORDS
The three-note triads we have studied so far form the bulk of the chord
vocabulary that most guitarists and keyboardists are familiar with, but an aspiring
musician should not stop there. The triad is the basis for higher levels of chord
complexity that can be very rewarding to learn. An artful use of more complex
chords can add levels of sophistication and beauty to the simplest songs and they
are integral to most popular and jazz repertoire.
Diatonic Sevenths
As discussed in the previous chapter, we can understand triads as resulting
from a "stacking" of notes in thirds from a major or minor scale. Take the first chord
in a Cmajor scale as an example. Starting at the root, we move up by thirds in the
scale from the root to include the third, and fifth of the scale. Continuing this
process, we include the seventh note of the scale in the chord by extending the
chord up another third. The chord C-E-G-B contains three consecutive thirds
spanning the interval of a seventh, so it is called a seventh chord (Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1 Seventh Chord in C:
~ ..
..----=-----
.
V k J
J
-
R 3 5 7
171
This same process can be applied to any note ofthe major or minor scale so
that all seven notes of a diatonic scale are harmonized as seventh chords (Figure 9.2,
3).
Figure 9.2 7th Chords in C Major:
~ i I i I I I f t
Imaj7 ii7 iii7 IVmaj7 V7 vi7 viio7 Imaj7
7-B C D E F G A B
5-G A B C D E F G
3-E F G A B C D E
R-C D E F G A B C
Figure 9.3 7th Chords in C Minor:
~ ~1 1'1 ~~i 1,1'1 ~I 1,1'1 ~f I,~t
i7 ii07 bIIImaj7 iv7 v7 bVlmaj7 bVII7 i7
7-Bb C D Eb F G Ab Bb
5-G Ab Bb C D Eb F G
3-Eb F G Ab Bb C D Eb
R-C D Eb F G Ab Bb C
Though there are only three chord qualities inherent in the diatonic system (major,
minor, and diminished), a look at the interval content of each seventh chord will
reveal four different types of seventh chords.
Major Sevenths
Major seventh chords consist of a major triad with a M3 above the fifth that
spans a M7 from root to seventh. This M7 interval is derived from the 7th scale
degree ofthe major scale. Chords with this interval content are called "major
seventh chords", usually notated as Cmaj7, for a Cchord, but sometimes Ct:.7, or
CM7 (Figure 9.4).
172
Figure 9.4 C Major Seventh Chord (Cmaj7):
1\
U ..
..---=----
v
'"
'"
v
'"
.'
B
G
E
C
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
7
ti
These chords are found on I and IV (do andfa) in major keys and the bIll and
bVI (me and Ie) in minor keys (Figure 9.5, 6).
Figure 9.5 Maj7 Chords in C Major:
4l I • t• •• •
Imaj7 IVmaj7 Imaj7
do fa do
Figure 9.6 Maj7 Chords in C Minor:
4. •
bIllmaj7
me
• •
bVImaj7
Ie
•
Major sevenths owe their distinct quality of sound to the M7 interval
between the root and the seventh. These chords are used extensively in pop music
and jazz and are often used to support a melody note that contains the seventh of
the chord. The chorus of Kathryn Scott's Hungry offers a great example of how
major seventh chords can be used to complement the melody emphasizing the
seventh of each chord (Figure 9.7).
Figure 9.7 Hungry - Kathryn Scott
Cmaj7 Fmaj7 Cmaj7 Fmaj7
173
_ ing_on_my _knees,_ of_ fer_ ing_all_of_me. _ .Ie sus_
©1999 Vineyard Songs (UK/Eire)
The melody emphasizes each note of the Cmaj7 (Imaj7) chord (C-E-G-B).
The third of the Cmaj 7 chord is then held over to the next measure where it
becomes the seventh of an Fmaj7 (IVmaj7) chord. Using seventh chords to support
sevenths in the melody is a useful implementation of that harmony. It helps give the
singer a pitch to reference and gives a musical arrangement more clarity.
Minor Sevenths
Minor seventh chords are minor triads with a seventh located a minor 7th
(b7) above the root, thus they contain a b3 and b7. The m7 interval is derived from
the 7th scale degree of the minor scale. These chords are called "minor sevenths"
and are notated as Cm7 or sometimes Cmin7, Cmi7, and C-7 (Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.8 CMinor Seventh Chord (Cm7):
I'l
~ .. ~
Bb
G
Eb
C
R
do
b3
me
5
sol
b7
te
Minor seventh chords are found diatonically on re, mi, and la of major (ii7,
iii7, and vi7) and doJa, and sol of minor keys (i7, iv7, v7) (Figure 9.9,10).
174
Figure 9.9 m7 Chords in C Major:
~. I i I • •• •
ii7 iii7 vi7
re mi la
Figure 9.10 m7 Chords in C Minor:
~~'i 1,1'1 ~i I,. ~. I,~t• ~.
i7 iv7 v7 i7
do fa sol do
Minor seventh chords are the most commonly used seventh chords and, due
to their lack of strongly dissonant intervals, they perhaps sound the most benign. As
a result, minor seventh chords are more apt to be used interchangeably with minor
triads. Just like major sevenths, these chords can be used to support a melody that
may suggest a minor 7th, as in the verse of How Great Is Our God. In this case, the
prominence of the Gin the fourth bar suggests the use of an Am7 (A-C-E-G).
Figure 9.11 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash
c A~
The splen dor or_ the King, _ robed in ma - jes - ty._
©2004 worshiptogether.com Songs
Dominant Sevenths
The chord built on sol in major or te in minor, and though it is a major triad, it
does not have the same type of seventh as the other major triads. This is a major
triad with a m7 (b7) above the root. These chords are known as dominant seventh
175
since they are built from sol (or the dominant) in major. Dominant sevenths are
notated simply with a "7" following the root, as in C7 (Figure 9.12).
Figure 9.12 C Dominant Seventh Chord (C7):
1'\
f ...
..----=-----
~ ,
~
-
~
-
-
Bb
G
E
C
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
b7
te
Dominant sevenths are found on the fifth degree (sol) in both major and minor
(Figure 9.13, 14).
I • • •
V7
sol
•••
Figure 9.13 Dominant 7th Chord in C Major:
,.
Figure 9.14 Dominant 7th Chord in C Minor:
•
•
I,. ~f •
•
~
VIl7
te
The dominant seventh is a chord that deserves very special treatment,
because it has a very strong character, due to the tritone between its third and
176
seventh. In the last chapter we found that this interval best resolves inward to a
dyad. Therefore, like the diminished triad it tends to resolve to a tonic chord (lor i)
or the submediant (vi) (Figure 9.15).
Figure 9.15 Dominant Seventh Resolutions:
07 C 07 Cm 07 Am
1\ I
~ ... ~ ... .. ...
...
..". ..". ..".
:'
*
-
'"v ~
-
v ~
- -
- -
V7
sol
I
do
V7
sol
i
do
V7
sol
vi
la
The dominant is the most commonly used seventh harmony in traditional
music, because it has such a strong pull towards tonic, making it the ideal chord for
to end a chord progression and return back to tonic in what is called a cadence. For
example of a dominant seventh chord in context, look at the ending cadence of Great
Is Thy Faithfulness (Figure 9.16).
Figure 9.16 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan
G#c7 DIA A7 D
Great is Thy faith ful ness, Lord, un - to me.
©1923 Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
The final chords of this song are A7~D (V7~I). Here the dominant scale degree has
been harmonized into a dominant seventh chord and the melody outlines the third
and b7 of this chord.
177
Half Diminished Sevenths
The seventh scale degree in major creates a diminished triad (vii0 ). When a
seventh is added as a M3 above the 5th, it creates a chord called the half-diminished
seventh. This is one of two possibilities for diminished seventh chords,22 butthe
half-diminished seventh is the only one that is created diatonically. It is usually
notated C07 or sometimes Cm7b5 23 • In comparison to a major chord, it has a b3, b5,
and b7 (Figure 9.17).
Figure 9.17 C Half-Diminished Seventh Chord (017):
'l
~ .. -.-~ -
~
-
A
F
D
B
R
ti
b3
re
b5
fa
b7
fa
The half diminished seventh chord is the least common to contemporary
Christian music of the four diatonic varieties of sevenths and only occurs on as a
vii¢7 (ti) in major and WJ7 (re) in minor keys (Figure 9.18, 19).
Figure 9.18 Half-Diminished 7th in C Major:
• •
• • •
t •
vii¢?
ti
22 The fully diminished seventh is another sonority that will be discussed later.
23 The half diminished seventh can also be thought of as a minor seventh chord with a flatted fifth, as
a result it is sometimes notated as such, especially in jazz charts.
178
Figure 9.19 Half-Diminished 7th in CMinor:
iiG7
re
• •
•
Unlike other chord qualities, however, this chord is probably used most often
as a seventh than as a simple triad. In fact, many musicians will by default add a
seventh to the triad even if no seventh is specified by the chord symbol. It seems
that the addition of the seventh scale degree adds some richness to the diminished
triad that may be lacking in the mere triad.
One great example ofthe use of the half diminished seventh chord is in the
song by Martin Smith and Stuart Garrard, Majesty (Here I Am). Here, the half
diminished is used as part of a iiG7-V7-i7 progression in the key of A minor (a
very common progression for minor keys) (Figure 9.20).
Figure 9.20 Majesty (Here I Am) - Martin Smith & Stuart Garrard
C/E B¢7 E/G# Am G Fmaj7
co - vered by Your grace so__ free._ Here J__ am,
©2003, 2004 Curious? Music UK
Most transcriptions ofthis song found online don't include the half diminished
chord, but instead have a G/B. Though a Gchord works in this case, it lacks the
richness and harmonic interest that a diminished chord can provide. Though a
iili17-V7-i7 is a more traditional progression, sometimes the traditional can be
more "hip" than the expected contemporary progression.
179
Chords with Seconds. Fourths. & Sixths
Other four note chords can include any of the three remaining tones from the
scale. The 2nd, 4th, and 6th scale degrees (reJfaJ and la) are the tones not included in
seventh chords (R-3-S-7), but adding these tones to the triad can add color and
interest to a triad when used appropriately. The present section will discuss how
chords containing these other tones are constructed and how and when they can be
the most beneficial to use.
Four-note chords containing these tones have two designations: "add" chords
and "sus" chords. Add chords simply add the fourth note to the triad, while sus
chords replace an existing tone. The following sections will explore the structure
and use of add and sus chords using these tones.
Add2orAdd9
Triads with added seconds (add2 or add924) contain the full major triad plus the
added second from major. So they are composed of scale degrees R-2-3-5 or
R-3-S-9 (Figure 9.21).
Figure 9.21 qadd2):
~ .. ... .
--
-----
-
v
"
'-
~ v '-
v v
D
G
E
C
R
do
2
re
3
mi
5
sol
24 In any diatonic scale, the ninth scale degree is equivalent to the second.
180
Chords with added seconds are very commonly used on I and IV in major
keys and i, iv in minor keys, but they may be used on a variety of chords. However,
they are not generally employ on half-diminished chords (viio in major and iio in
minor) or on iii (mi) in major or v (sol) in minor due to the harsh dissonance created
by the second only a half step away from the root (Figure 9.22,23).
Figure 9.22 Common (add2) Chords in C Major:
6;; .. .. 41 d • ..•
I(add2) ii(add2) IV(add2) V(add2) vi(add2) I(add2)
do re fa sol la do
Figure 9.23 Common (add2) Chords in C Minor:
6~fO I 'iWI ~..~~iM bL ~I,"d• ij•
i(add2) bIII(add2) iv(add2) bVI(add2) bVII(add2) i(add2)
do me fa Ie te do
Major add2 chords are extremely common in popular music, but the minor
add2 is less common, since the half step between the second and the third creates a
dissonance. Compare the sound of an A(add2) to a more dissonant Am(add2)
(Figure 9.24).
As with 7th chords, add2 chords are often used to support a melody that
contains this tone. David Crowder's 0 Praise Him has such a melody. At the
beginning of the song, the added second of the first triad (B b) is C. (Figure 9.25).
181
Figure 9.24 Major add2 vs. Minor add2:
Major add2: Minor add2:
A (add2) Am(add2)
"l
~ =- =-.. ..
Figure 9.25 a Praise Him - David Crowder
B~2 F/A
Sus2
Turn your ear__ to hea - yen and hear__ the noise_ in - side._
©2003 worshiptogether.com songs
In the case of the sus2 chord, the third of the triad is replaced by the second
degree of the scale. The chord then consists oftones R-2-5, making it only a
three-note chord. The third of the chord is missing and since this tone defines the
triad as major or minor, a quality is not attached to them. Having no third, these
chords perhaps sound more akin to power chords than triads.25 Listen to the sound
of the Asus2 chord and note the general "openness" in the sound contrasted to the
A(add2), shown earlier, which consisting of four notes, has a richer sound (Figure
9.25.
25 This may have contributed to the fact that they are used extensively in popular music alongside the
power chord.
182
Figure 9.26 Csus2:
"1
It .. .. .~
-
L'
Co ~
~
-
J
-
D
G
C
R
do
2
re
5
sol
These chords, though they have quite a different character than add2's may
generally be used on all the same scale degrees as add2 chords in both major and
minor keys.
A good use of this chord is to create some harmonic variation in a musical
phrase that has a single chord in the accompaniment. What is a prolongation of a
single tonic (do) chord in the ending of Billy Foote's You Are My King, is given a more
interesting variation of the D major triad and Dsus2 through the use ofthat chord.
This progression has movement and keeps the harmony from becoming stagnant
(Figure 9.27).
Figure 9.27 You are My King - Billy Foote
D DwQ D Dsus2
You
Add4 Chords
arc my_ King,_ You arc_ my__ King._ Jc-sus
©1996 worshiptogether.com Songs
Just as the 2nd degree of the scale may be added to the triad to create a
sonority consisting of four notes, so may the 4th degree (fa) of the scale be added to
create an add4 chord (R-3-4-S), however this added tone creates a lot more
dissonance for major chords (Figure 9.28).
183
Figure 9.28 CCadd4):
~
•
.. ..---:------ ------..--
v ~
v ~
-
-
G
F
E
C
R
do
3
mi
4
fa
5
sol
In major and minor keys} the add4 can be used on nearly every diatonic
chord, though it is generally avoided on diminished triads. Also, on triads built from
fa in major (IV) and Ie in minor (VI) the diatonic fourth is an aug4 away from their
roots} therefore they are designate IV(tt4) and VI(tt4), respectively (Figure 9.29, 30).
Figure 9.29 Add4 Chords in C Major:
41" t l- t "'I 1 • 1
I(add4) ii(add4) iii(add4) IV(tt4) V(add4) vi(add4) I(add4)
do re mi fa sol la do
Figure 9.30 Add4 Chords in C Minor:
4~1" Iz~~.. I,~t ~1 ~I,I'1 ~I'1 1'1•
i(add4) III (add4) iv(add4) v(add4) VI(tt4) VII(add4) i(add4)
do me fa sol Ie te do
With add4 chords, the dissonance created by the presence of the fourth is
more pronounced in the major chord than the minor, opposite that of the add2
(Figure 9.31).
184
Figure 9.31 Major add4 vs. Minor add4:
Major add4: Minor add4:
A (add4) Am(add4)
~
~ - -
• •
v V
J oJ.
V J
V V
With major add4 chords, the dissonance created by the half step between the
third and fourth can seem to clash too strongly, but in certain instances, the context
can make this dissonance appealing. Add4 chords are often used in popular music
in much of the same ways an add2 or sus2 chords are used. They can be used to
create more interest in a phrase that contains a single chord and they are especially
fitting if the added 4th is supporting a 4th in the melody. Also, by means of common
tones between chords, they can be given sufficient context. This occurs when a
preceding or succeeding chord to the add4 chord contains the same note as the
fourth. This occurs in the opening chord progression of God a/Wonders (Figure
9.32).
Figure 9.32 God of Wonders - Marc Byrd & Steve Hindalong
E~add4 Fm7 D~ E~add4 Fm7 D~
Lord of all_ cre-a - lion,_ of wal-er, earth, _ and _ sky,_
©2000 New Spring, arr. by the author
Here, the Eb(add4) chord (Eb-G-Ab-Bb) shares its fourth (Ab) in common with
the succeeding chord Fm7 (F-Ab-C-Eb). This common tone link provides the
context needed to make what would be a clashing dissonance, an appealing one.
The example below is one instance where this is possible (Figure 9.33).
185
Figure 9.33 God of Wonders - Marc Byrd & Steve Hindalong
Eb(add4) Fm7 Db2
"l I
l:T
©2000 New Spring, arr. by the author
The #4 Chord
This chord is more internally dissonant than the other chords that have
fourths that lie a P4 from the root, but this chord works well when used in the right
context. It can be used to good affect in Matt Redman's Call To Worship, where the
melody emphasizes the #4 degree of the chord. It should be noted that though this
song is in the key of E minor, it modulates to momentarily to A minor in the bridge,
where an F major chord is VI in that key (Figure 9.34).
Figure 9.34 Call To Worship - Matt Redman
Em Am AmlG [0 (/14)
We're climb-ing up the mountain of the Lord, to - wardsYourho-ly place, and ev-'ry step is praise.
©2002 Thankyou Music
Sus4
The suspended 4th chord is probably the most commonly used chord of any
add or sus variety. With this chord, just like the sus2, the 3rd is replaced by the 4th of
the chord, thus comprising of chord tones R-4-5 (Figure 9.34). This chord can be
used in a variety of ways in music, however its most common use is as a resolution
from the sus4 to the basic triad. In this case, the chord starts as a suspended chord
and resolves to the triad when the 4th degree moves down to the 3rd of the chord
(Figure 9.35).
186
Figure 9.35 Csus4:
fl
U ... ..~
~
:; ~ v ~ -
~
-
G
F
C
R
do
4
fa
5
sol
Figure 9.36 Suspended Fourth Resolution:
A Slls--1- A
I'l
U
'I
I - k
"" "";:; k
U V V
4
fa
3
mi
This can be seen in any number of songs, but in the chorus of Paul Baloche
and Brenton Brown's Hosanna (Praise is Rising), it occurs plainly in the melody
(Figure 9.37).
Figure 9.37 Hosanna (Praise is Rising) - Paul Baloche & Brenton Brown
D G sus4 G Em7
Ho - san na, Ho - san na,_
© 200S, 2006 Integrity's Hosanna! Music
187
It can also be used in a variation with the basic triad, as in another song co-written
by Brenton Brown. It supports a fourth in the melody as well (Figure 9.38)
Figure 9.38 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley
B~ B~sus4 B~suS4
Strength will rise as we wait_ up - on the Lord, we will wait
©200S Thankyou Music
Add6 Chords
Chords with added sixths (R-3-S-6) include the sixth scale degree from
major and are most often notated without "add". So a C major or C minor chord with
a sixth would be C6 or Cm6, respectively. Since the sixth is taken from the major
scale, both of these chords will contain an A q (Figure 9.39, 40).
Figure 9.39 C6:
~
~ ..
*--=-----
----.......--
v ~
v ~
-
A
G
E
C
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
6
la
188
Figure 9.40 Cm6:
0 2 '1
0 J
3 5 6
me sol la
A R
G do
E
C
1~'~~t~~~"~~7~T~::~-=~EJ§l~!~~~.~.~
I--ir--i-1-3--fl----------------+---
Sixths may be added to a variety or chords in both major and minor (Figure 9.41,
42).
Figure 9.41 Add6 Chords in C Major:
it r ( -; I ., 1.,
16 ii6 IV6 V6 vi6 16
do re fa sol la do
Figure 9.42 Add6 Chords in C Minor:
'~l! ~~r I,qr I, q1 ~g1 I,RS., I,•
i6 bIII6 iv6 bV16 bVII6 i6
do me fa Ie te do
The added 6th is probably the least common "add" chord in popular music
and jazz, though it is used very effectively in a number of specific situations. Most
obviously it can be used to support a melody that contains this pitch, as in the
beginning of Great Is Thy Faitfhulness (Figure 9.43).
189
Figure 9.43 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan
D D+ Gmaj7 G6 A7 G/B A7 G/D D
Great is Thy faith fu! ness, 0 God my Fa - ther,
©1923. Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
The sixth can also be arrived at in a chord progression through descending
chromatic line that goes from the root to the sixth (Figure 9.44).
Figure 9.44 Chromatic Descent on A:
A Am~7 A7 A6
f'I ..-loI 1.._.l.I
~ - - - -.. .. .. ..
-
- -
k
k
'" '"
L..
L.. k k k
k L.. .,. L..
.I ~
I
do
Imaj7 17
ti te
16
fa
This motif can sometimes be used during a prolongation of a single chord, in
this case A major, but it can also be used to substitute a different chord progression.
Chord substitution is a topic that will be discussed in more detail later, but for now
listen to how this technique can be used to substitute the usual chord progression to
Israel Houghton's Lord You Are Good (Figure 9.45, 46).
Figure 9.45 Lord You Are Good - Israel Houghton
G DIG Dm/G C/G
p~-
Lord, you _ are good and_Your mer-cy _ cn-dur-eth _for - ci- --::-- er:---:
©2001Integrity's Praise! Music
190
Figure 9.46 Lord You Are Good - Israel Houghton
G Gmaj7 07 06
fJ 101
f.. ..",...._..... .---J' .... ..",.*--..... .--.-..... ..",."it: ~..", :J;j.
Lord, you _ arc good and _"'our IllCf-<;)'_ cn,dur-<;lh_for, c\-"- c~
.
-;. '. ~
,
J
©2001 Integrity's Praise! Music, arr. by the author
One marked difference between 6th chords and the other add and sus chord
varieties, is that there is no sus6 chord. In the case of sus2 and sus4 chords, the
third of the chord is replaced by the neighboring tones of the scale (second or fourth
degrees) and may resolve by step, either up or down, to the third. However, the
sixth degree, being 5 half steps away from the third, is in no position to resolve
smoothly to the third.
Practice Exercises
For each of the exercises below where a chord is notated, identify the four-
note chord by root, quality, and the fourth tone (e.g. maj7, add2, #4, add6, etc.). For
examples where only a chord symbol is indicated, notate the correct pitches on the
staff (Figure 9.47).
191
Figure 9.47 Practice Exercises
Emaj7
, i 1'1 1'1I,
...
Gm(add9) C(#4)
, #r I,I'~!
•
Bbsus4 Bsus2
, •ft-: II..
Dadd4 C~7
, : :;#.
192
CHAPTER X
FURTHER CHORD EXTENSIONS
This chapter will discuss more complex harmonies that include chords that
can include up to five, six, and even seven tones - the whole scale in one chord.
These chords are used freely in classical music and jazz, but are not conventional in
popular music. However, as such, they have the capacity to turn a plain and
predictable triad into a chord that, in its non-conventionality, has the potency to
express extremes spanning spiritual depths of sorrow and pain to divine sublimity,
ecstasy, and mystery. Surely, attaching such enigmatic chords to even more
enigmatic concepts wholly in realm of the subjective, but as an artist, this the world
we live in.
However, there are certainly more practical considerations concerning the
strong character of the harmonies we will discuss. As we progress through more
expanded chords, the harmony becomes increasingly abstracted from the sound of
the root and the core quality of the original triad. Also, as more tones of the scale
pile up in one harmony, the internal dissonance of the chord also increases, making
the application of some theoretical possibilities difficult. Therefore, in order to
"winnow out the chaff from the wheat" we will use theory to illuminate what is
permissible, while giving special attention to what is beneficial.
Chord Extension
Further chord extensions are added in the same manner that the seventh was
added to the triad, by stacking notes by intervals of thirds. After the seventh has
been added to a triad (R-3-S-7), the remaining scale degrees (2,4, and 6) may
be added in triadic order.. Since these tones are stacked onto a triad above the
seventh, they are not called second, fourth, and sixth, as they were when they were
193
added to the triad, but ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth, now that they are added
above the seventh. This is an important distinction, since the sounds of these chords
are quite different from the four-note add and sus varieties.
Let us return the previous concept that intervals extend up thirteen notes
from the root. Progressing by thirds through this spectrum of intervals, we are able
to create a chord that can include up to seven pitches, every note of the diatonic
scale (Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1 Chord Extension:
1'\ .. ..
,j ... .... .. ... ... ... .. .. .. ... ... ... ..
-
V i
- -
-
k
k
- - - - - - - - - - -
R
do
3
mi
5
sol
7
ti
9
re
11
fa
13
la
Recalling the previous chapter on seventh chords, we found there were four
types of sevenths: major sevenths (Cmaj7), minor sevenths (Cm7), dominant
sevenths (C7), and half-diminished sevenths (C 07). All four of these chords may in
theory be expanded to include more tones, though only three of them do in practice
(diminished chords are generally considered too dissonant to carry any other tones
beyond the seventh). Furthermore, there are limited practical applications within
these three types, where some extensions create too much dissonance to be used.
We will give priority to those chords that are practical and by omission reveal those
chords that are not. As has been done in former chapters, we will see on what scale
degrees in major or minor these chords are generally employed. Also, we will also
begin to uncover some chord extensions that may be employed with chromatic
alteration (using other pitches than those diatonic to the key).
194
Ninth Chords
The first chord extension above the seventh is the ninth. Moving up a third
from the seventh creates the interval of a M9 between the root and the ninth.
Major Ninth Chords
When appended to a major seventh chord, it creates a major ninth (maj9)
(Figure 10.2).
Figure 10.2 C Major Ninth (Cmaj9):
1'1
---
• ...
~ ... ~ ~
-
v
- -
-
"
k
~ " k
D R 3 5 7 9
B do mi sol ti re
G
E
C
Major ninth chords are commonly employed on both I and IV chords in major
keys and bIll and bVI in minor. They work so well, that unless the ninth or seventh
clashes too strongly with the melody, they maybe used interchangeably with these
triads (Figure 10.3,4).
Figure 10.3 Major Ninth Chords in C Major:
fi I • t• •• •
Imaj9 IVmaj9 Imaj9
do fa do
195
Figure 10.4 Major Ninth Chords in C Minor:
bIIlmaj9
me
b
II
1,1,1 ~.
bVImaj9
Ie
A maj9 on the IV chord (Fmaj9) in Kathryn Scott's Hungry would fit nicely
considering that the ninth (G) is already present in the melody (Figure 9.5).
Figure 10.5 Hungry - Kathryn Scott
Cmaj7 Fmaj9 Cmaj7 Fmaj9
_ in&_on _111)" _ knees,_ 01'_ fcr_ing_all_of_me. _ .Ie - S\lS_
©1999 Vineyard UK/Eire
Minor Ninth Chords
Likewise, when the ninth is added to a Cm7 seventh chord, the
resulting harmony is called a Cm9 (variants Cmin9, C-9 do occur). It is important to
note that though the chord is called "minor ninth," the ninth is created by the
interval of a major ninth as in maj9 chords (Figure 10.6). Minor ninth chords occur
frequently on re and la (iim9 and vim9 in major keys) and do andla in minor keys
(im9 and ivm9) (Figure 10.7,8). Lead Me To The Cross by Brooke Fraser is in the
key B minor, making the Em9 employed in the third measure ofthe excerpt a ivm9
in that key. This chord is necessary to support the ninth (F~) in the melody on that
measure (Figure 10.10).
196
Figure 10.6 C Minor Ninth (Cm9):
I'}
-
I • ..
@J .. ~ ~
~
,
-
-
-
D
Bb
G
Eb
C
R
do
b3
me
5
sol
b7
te
9
re
I be-long to_ 'J·ou.__ Oh lead mc. __
Figure 10.7 Minor Ninth Chords in C Major:
,. I t • •• ••
ii9 vi9
re la
Figure 10.8 Minor Ninth Chords in C Minor:
'~1 1,),1 I,. ~. I,~t~. ••
i9 iv9 i9
do fa do
Figure 10.9 Lead Me to the Cross - Brooke Fraser
Gmaj7 ,.... Em9
&n#=~.~ll~~~ ~
---lead me to the cross.
©2006 Hillsong Publishing
197
Dominant Ninth Chords
The dominant variety of seventh (C7) may also include the 9th, creating a
dominant 9 th chord (C9). However, several other chromatic alterations to the ninth
also are employed in various musical contexts. These include the C7(:jt9) and
C7(b9). A great many other alterations have been used specifically on dominant
chords, too many to be covered presently. However, these "altered dominants" are
used extensively in classical, blues, and jazz styles, but occasionally make their way
into pop music and a few more will be discussed as we progress through the
chapter..
The diatonic version of the dominant ninth is that which, like the other ninth
chords discussed thus far, has a M9 interval above the root (Figure 10.10).
Figure 10.10 C Dominant Ninth (C9):
~
-
... ..
• ... ~ -
-
A
V ~
~
-
-
D R 3 5 7b 9
Bb do mi sol te re
G
E
C
Another type of dominant chord, having an altered ninth is the dominant
seventh with a sharp ninth (Figure 10.11).
198
Figure 10.11 C Dominant Seventh, Sharp Ninth (C7#9):
II
-----
• ...
~ .. ~ -
-
-
,
k
-
k
-
-
D# R 3 5 b7 #9
Bb do mi sol te ri(orme)
G
E
C
Also, there is the dominant seventh with a flat ninth (Figure 10.12).
Figure 10.12 C Dominant Seventh, Flat Ninth (C7b9):
1'\ ......-- • ...
~ .. ...---:--- -
-
"
,
- -
k
k
k
Db R 3 5 b7 b9
Bb do mi sol te ra
G
E
C
These various dominant ninth chords have their contexts. For the most part,
the unaltered dominant 9th is the one used in major keys (Figure 10.13).
199
Figure 10.13 Dominant Ninth Chord in C Major:
• •
• I
V9
sol
• • •
While the unaltered dominant ninth is diatonic to both major and minor, the
altered dominant ninths tend occur in minor keys since these altered tones are
found in the minor. For instance, the :#9 on the dominant chord is enharmonic to the
b7 ofthe key. Also, the 179 is the same note as the 176 ofthe key (Figure 10.14).
Figure 10.14 Dominant Ninth Chords in C Minor: 26
» •
V9 V7(:tt9) V7(iJ9)
sol sol sol
•
A special consideration for dominant chords, especially altered dominants,
like the 7(:#9), is their application in blues music and those genres influenced by the
blues (like gospel and funk). Blues music relies heavily on use of the dominant
chords on tonic, subdominant, and dominant chords (I7, IV7, and V7). Therefore,
altered dominants do occur on these tones as well (Figure 10.15).
26 Note that the dominant chord diatonic to minor keys is the bVII chord, teo However, since
extensions on dominant chords sound so much like a V7 chord, dominant are generally reserved for
the bVII only during modulation to the relative major [bVII is V in the relative major). Therefore, the
dominant seventh and its extensions are used more commonly on the dominant scale degree, sol, in
minor keys instead. Through modal borrowing, the usual minor v7 is swapped for the dominant V7
of major keys. See Chapters XII & XV for more in depth discussions of modal borrowing and
modulation.
200
Figure 10.15 Dominant Chord in C Major (Blues):
,~~ 17#1 q~ ~. ~~f•
• •
I7(tt-9) IV7(tt-9) V7(tt-9) 17 (tt-9)
do fa sol do
Though there are perhaps too few "bluesy" worship songs, My Redeemer
Lives by Reuben Morgan offers a rare example. Here, there are dominant chords on
both the I and IV chords (E7 and A7), which in this arrangement have been changed
to be unaltered ninths, making this already bluesy song a "funkier" sound through
the use of dominant ninths (Figure 10.16).
Figure 10.16 My Redeemer Lives - Reuben Morgan
E9 A9 E9 A9
I know He's res-cued my soul._ His blood has co-verccl my sin. _ I be - lieve
©1998 Hillsong Publishing, an. by the author
Though the melody of this song would preclude the use of other altered dominants
(the Gtt- in the melody would clash strongly), if nowhere else, an altered dominant
may be used effectively as a final tonic chord, I7(tt-9). After a ritard (rit.) on the
dominant, B7, ending with an E7(tt-9) ends with the bluesy punch, typical in this style
(Figure 10.17).
Figure 10.17 My Redeemer Lives - Reuben Morgan
A elm7 137
Illy Re - deem er h\'es. _
©1998 Hillsong Publishing, arr. by the author
• •
201
Eleventh Chords
The next extension after the ninth is the eleventh. At this point, the amount
of dissonance created by the building up of tones makes viable options limited to
only a few applications for major, minor, and dominant chords. These are the major
seventh sharp, eleventh chord; minor eleventh chord; and dominant seventh, sus
eleventh.
Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh Chords
The major seventh, sharp eleventh is an altered major chord. Having a raised
eleventh is the only viable application of the eleventh on a major chord (that is not
dominant), because the eleventh, which is enharmonic to the fourth (fa) has a strong
dissonance with the third. Though this is tolerated to some extend with add4
chords, the amount of dissonance created by the seventh and ninth together make
an eleventh usingfa unusable (Figure 10.18).
Figure 10.18 C Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh (Cmaj7(#ll)):
I~~~.~ drS-;;; ~c:?:~. t'C _. ~ ~ ............... z"~ . _G
I
.---:---
4i""'"---------j1L.....3-~(+-)_-:;Zt------"l3r--_O__2__O 3__0__Z__3__-'__
F# R 3 5 7 (9)27 #11
(D) do mi sol ti (re) fi
B
G
E
C
This chord appears naturally with on fa in major, IV, as well as Ie in minor,
bVI. As the tonic chord in major, this occurs frequently in jazz, but not often in
27 Though this chord is called maj 7(1Zl11), the presence of the ninth (re) is permitted, but not
required.
202
popular music styles. As part of the bIlI chord in minor keys, it is perhaps used
more frequently, but in contexts where the q 6 (fa) from major is employed through
modal borrowing (discussed in Chapters XII and XIV) (Figure 10.19,20).
Figure 10.19 Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh Chords in CMajor:
,~ I • #1• •
• •
Imaj7(tt11) IVmaj7(tt11) Imaj7(#ll)
do fa do
•1#
•
•
Figure 10.20 Major Seventh, Sharp Eleventh Chords in CMinor:
JJ
bIlImaj7(tt11)
me
bVlmaj7(#ll)
Ie
The song More Love, More Power, in the key of Gminor, could easily employ
an Ebmaj7(tt11) in place of the standard Ebmaj7 (bVlmaj7) in the second bar (Figure
10.21).
Figure 10.21 More Love, More Power - Jude Del Hierro
G m') Eblllaj7(#!1l D m7 Om') F'O
More )oye,_ more po\\' er,_ more of ''1'0\1_ in my_ life,_
©1987 Mercy / Vineyard Publishing, arr. by the author
203
Minor Eleventh Chords
Because of the b3 (me) found in minor chords, the dissonance created by the
simultaneous presence offa and me is less problematic than with major chords and
may thus be employed more freely (Figure 10.22).
Figure 10.22 C Minor Eleventh (Cmll):
"l
---
I .. ..
4t .. ~ -
,
~
"
,
~
F
Bb
G
Eb
C
R
do
b3
me
5
sol
b7
te
9
re
11
fa
These chords are used in major keys, without much difficulty, on re and la
(iill and vi 11, respectively). Also, in minor keys, they may be used on do andfa
(ill and ivll) (Figure 9.23, 4).
Figure 10.23 Minor Eleventh Chords in C Major:
~ .. I I • •• • •
iill vill
re la
Figure 10.24 Minor Eleventh Chords in C Minor:
~ j1 . j. "~~~.~~i!1. ~~~.~~.~
ill
do
ivll
fa
204
Israel Hougton & Michael Gungor's Friend ofGod employs a ii11 on F~mll in
the fifth bar (Figure 10.25).
Figure 10.25 Friend of God - Israel Houghton & Michael Gungor
E CNm7
Who am_I_lhal YOll_ arc-----lnind - fill of_ mc')_ Thal_ You hcar
FNmll E 13 E h
_ ll1C_ whcn_ 1__ calP _
©2003 Integrity's Praise! Music
Dominant Seventh} Sus Eleventh Chords
Dominant chords with elevenths avoid dissonance between mi and fa by
leaving out the third of the chord, making it a sus chord. Thus dominant harmonies
of these types are called dominant seventh, sus eleventh chords. Typologies vary
and may include 7susll, susll, 7sus4, 9sus4, and 11(no3), amongst others. In
every case, the chord symbol is implying the same group of tones (Figure 10.26).
Figure 10.26 CSeventh, Sus Eleventh (C7sus11):
.. .......--
-
.. ...
II! ... ... •
------
-
-
-
k
k
F
D
B
(G)
C
R
do
(5)
(sol)
B
te
D
re
F
fa
205
Dominant harmonies are generally reserved for the V chord (sol) in major
and the modally borrowed V in minor keys (Figure 10.27).
Figure 10.27 Dominant Seventh, Sus Eleventh Chord in C Major:
• •
•
V7sus11
sol
• • •
Figure 10.28 Dominant Seventh, Sus Eleventh Chord in CMinor:
•
•
V7sus11
sol
•
Dominant 7sus11 chord are generally reserved for V~I or V~i cadences.
Remember that a cadence is the pattern of chords that ends a phrase of music. The
end of the hymn, Holy, Holy, Holy provides a fine example for how a V7susl1 chord
is used in such contexts (Figure 10.29).
Figure 10.29 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber
D D/F~ D7/F~ G D Em/G Asusll D
God In tJm~~ p~r sons, bJ~ss - ed Tri - ill - tyl
©Public Domain
Thirteenth Chords
The thirteenth chord is the furthest extension possible in diatonic harmony
and with these chords, all the seven diatonic tones of the scale are available to be
206
used in a single chord. As we found with add6 chords in the last chapter, the
thirteenth (La) is taken from the major scale for both major and minor chords. Thus
the interval that was a M6 above the root in an add6 chord is not a M13 above the
root in thirteenth chords.
As this interval does not create any significant dissonance with the chord
extensions that we've seen thus far, the thirteenth may simply be appended to any
of the chords mentioned above. As a result, it simply be redundant to discuss all the
many varieties of thirteenth chord, but for illustration, below is a depiction of a
minor thirteenth chord. Notice that the thirteenth has been raised from the diatonic
b13 (b6) of minor to the I:i 13 from major (Figure 10.30).
Figure 10.30 C Minor Thirteenth (Cm13):
"I b~
-
I ~..
.. .. ..---:--- -
-,
-
" --
v ~
-
v
-
-
A R 3b 5 7b 9 11 13
F do me sol te re fa la
D
Bb
G
Eb
C
Below is an arrangement of Let My Words Be Few that uses a Cm13 effectively
in the fourth bar (Figure 10.31). As we've seen, the more chord extensions that are
added to a single chord, the more abstracted from the original harmony the chord
becomes. Therefore, use your ear and decide how and when a thirteenth chord is to
be used.
Figure 10.31 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman
G G- Cmaj7 CmJ:'
207
You are God in hea - yen,_ and here__ am 1_ on earth, __
©2000 ThankYou Music, arr. by the author
Omitting Tones
As we've added more and more tones to a single chord, it has become
increasingly difficult to manage the dissonance created by so many notes. One
solution has been to leave one or more notes out of the chord, as with the dominant
7susll chord. Omitting tones less necessary tones from an extended chord is a very
common practice amongst musicians. This frees up harmonic "space" in the chord
to clear out unwanted dissonance, but also makes playing such chords more
practical on a physical level. For instance, the full thirteenth chord contains seven
different tones, more strings than is available on a standard guitar. Therefore, in
order to playa chord like this, a guitarist has to omit some tones. Yet this is not to
be done haphazardly. What tones are omitted from the chord has a great effect on
how the chord will sound, making important a discussion about what notes go and
what notes stay.
Certain tones in a chord help to define the "essence" of the chord and give it
more of its signature character than others. These tones are the ones that you want
to keep in a chord, while the others can more readily be omitted. In the "musical
chairs" of chord tone omission, the ones that contribute the least to the chord don't
get a seat.
As a basic rule, the information given in the chord symbol tells you what
notes are essential to the chord. For instance, a simple Cm on a chord sheet
indicates two things: 1) That the root of the chord is C, and 2) that it is a minor
chord. Given this principle, the list below explains, in order of importance, what
notes have priority in a given chord containing many tones, like a Cm13.
208
1) Root - The most important tone in any chord is the root. The root must
be played in order for the chord to be readily recognizable as a chord
built on that scale degree.28
2) Third - Also the defining note between major and minor triads is the
third. The third is the tone that is different between the two and gives it
is essence as having major or minor quality.
3) Thirteenth - This tone is very important to the chord as it what makes a
Cm13 chord a thirteenth chord, as opposed to any other type of Cm.
4) Seventh - The seventh is another defining tone, perhaps as important as
the thirteenth.
5) Ninth - Equally important to the chord as the eleventh, kept or omitted
according to preference
6) Eleventh - The eleventh is not nearly as important as the others, as it is
implied by the presence of the thirteenth. It may be omitted at will, based
on preference
7) Fifth - With the exception of diminished, augmented chords, and those
with altered fifths, where this tone plays a more defining role, this tone is
the least important and usually the first to be omitted from a chord.
28 Note that this doesn't mean that in an ensemble situation, every musician must play the root ofthe
chord. This tone need only be heard in the collective sound of a band. Oftentimes this note is
covered by the bass guitar or the left hand of the piano.
209
Practice Exercises
For the exercises below, indentify what chord is notated in the staff and on
the tablature (TAB need not match staff notation voicing precisely). For chords
indicated by TAB, identify the chord and notate it in the staff above (Figure 10.32).
Figure 10.32 Practice Exercises
'I JJ I 'c.
~
-
"'v
'I • •
4!) .. ..
~
~
'I JJ'* JJ+I ..
4 ..
~
"'v
Il ,l::I... c.
u ~...
"'
~
-;:
~
210
CHAPTER XI
SLASH CHORDS
Until now, the various chords we have discussed have all been arranged (or
voiced) so that the root of the chord is the lowest note (the bass note29), but this is
not always the case in a real musical context. Oftentimes another note from the
chord can be used as the bass note to create a certain effect in the music. This
doesn't fundamentally change the chord, but the note that is in the bass has a big
impact on the character of the chord as well as the listener's expectations as to what
is going to happen next in the music.
Chord Inversion (Slash Chords)
The standard arrangement of notes in a chord is to have the root in the
lowest register of the chord, called root position, but when a note other than the
root is placed in the lowest register of a chord, this is called inversion. Because a
triad is made up of three different notes, any of these tones can act as a bass note.
So in a single triad, there is root position plus two possible inversions. Take the C
major triad for example (Figure 11.1).
The first voicing, root position, has root note in the bass, and this is the
standard or assumed voicing for a chord. So, when a chord symbol appears without
any slash to designate inversion, the chord is voiced in root position. When the
third is placed in the bass, this is called 1st inversion, and when the fifth is in the
bass, it is 2nd inversion. Inversions are reflected in lead sheet notation through slash
chord symbols. Here, a slash divides the type of chord (e.g. Cm, C7, Asusll, etc.)
29 Though the bass note is often played literally by a bass, the term simply refers to the lowest
sounding note of a given chord. Thus, the bass note in a piccolo duet is simply the lower of the two
notes.
211
from what note is in the bass. The bass note is always either to the right of the slash
or directly beneath it.
Figure 11.1
Root Position:
c
1st Inversion:
cr:
2nd Inversion:
C'G
"
..
u
c,
'"
o'
~ ~
I
do
1/3
mi
liS
sol
This may be all that one needs to know to interpret slash chords in lead
sheet notation, however each type of inversion sounds very different and has
different effects on (and roles within) the music. Therefore, if you intend to be in
the business of writing and arranging music, you had best become acquainted with
what and how chord inversion and slash chords are used. The following section will
discuss each type of chord inversion with respect to its role in music as well as how
slash chords are used to shape a musical composition.
Root Position
This is the most common form for a chord to be in: in this state a chord
sounds the most stable. Though no chord other than the tonic chord is entirely
stable (as we will see in Chapter XIII), root position is the most stable. The chord, in
manner of speaking, is "standing on two feet." Consequently, many songs contain
chords only in root position, no inversions. In the original arrangement, all the
chords of Blessed Be Your Name are played in root position (Figure 11.2)
212
Figure 11.2 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
B F# G#m E
Bless - ed_be_your _name-in the land lhal_is_plen - li - ful,_ where Your
" "
I
do
V
sol
vi
la
©2002 Thankyou Music
IV
fa
Root position, as the most stable voicing, is almost always the voicing of
choice for the end of a song. Try playing the final chord of any song in inversion; it
won't sound finished. Consequently, chord inversions are often used to provide
forward momentum that may be lacking in root position chords.
First Inversion
It is very common for a chord to be played in 1st inversion. Here, a slash
chord is used to show that the third of the chord is sounded in the bass. A 1st
inversion chord often replaces a root position chord when, in so doing, the inverted
chord is next to another chord whose bass note is a step away, helping to create a
melodic contour for the bass line. This is often achieved when root position chords
are paired with inverted chords to generate an ascending or descending stepwise
progression of chords. The chorus of Tim Hughes' Here I Am To Worship is a great
example of how 1st inversion chords can greatly enhance a chord progression
(Figure 11.3).
Figure 11.3 Here I Am to Worship - Tim Hughes
E Bm# 8G# A
213
worship, here I am to bow down, here I am to say that You're my_God.__And You're al-to-gether
I
do
V/3
ti
1/3
me
©2000 Thankyou Music
IV
fa
It is easy to see, when examining the contour of this bass line, how the 1st
inversion chords give direction to the chord progression by allowing the bass line to
move in a more linear fashion (Figure 11.4).30
Figure 11.4 Here I Am To Worship - Tim Hughes
E B/D~ E/d A
worship, here I am to how down, here] am to say that You're my _ God.__And You're al-to-gethcr
©2000 Thankyou Music
In this case, the B/D# in the second bar of the chorus creates a stepwise
descent from the initial E chord. This is answered by an ascending stepwise ascent
from the E/G# to the A. Here, there is smooth connectivity between chords that is
not readily apparent in a chord progression containing only root position chords.
Compare that to the same chord progression with only root position triads. The
bass line created by this chord progression seems to jump around almost aimlessly
in comparison to the earlier example (Figure 11.5).
30 Though the example given depicts the bass line moving in whole notes, it is assumed that this is the
basic structure of the bass line. A performer or ensemble can take this as the platform for how to
interpret the harmony and improvise a part.
Figure 11.5 Here I Am To Worship - Tim Hughes
E B E A
214
worship, here I am to bow down, here I am to say that You're my _ God.__And You're al-together
©2000 Thankyou Music
There are opportunities throughout contemporary Christian music
repertoire to create a certain effect in the music by altering the chords via inversion.
Matt and Beth Redman's Blessed Be Your Name is made up of a chord progression
that remains largely the same throughout the entirety of the song. Compare the
verse progression to that of the chorus (Figure 11.6).
Figure 11.6 Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
Verse:
B F~ G~m E
Bless - ed_be_your _name_in the land that_is_plen - ti - I'u/,_ whereYour
©2002 Thankyou Music
I V vi IV
do sol la fa
Chorus:
E B F~ G~m E
say, "Blessed be the name of_the_Lord,_ bless-ed be Your name. Bless-ed be the
I
do
V
sol
©2002 Thankyou Music
vi IV
la fa
215
The verse progression (I~V~vi~IV)or (do-sol-la-fa) remains
consistent throughout the entirety of the song. If you find that, after time, this song
sounds redundant, an easy solution could be to add more melodic interest and
connectivity to the harmony by employing inverted chords. This is a simple
solution, as they maintain the harmonic structure of a song without altering it too
dramatically (as some chord substitutions might), yet they create enough variation
to make such an interpretation sound distinct (Figure 11.7).
Figure 11.7 Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
B F#IA# G#m E
Bless - ed_be_your _name_in the land that_is_pLen - ti - l'u!,_ where Your
©2002 Thankyou Music
I V/3 vi IV
do ti la fa
Here, playing a 1st inversion chord on the V chord to create a V/3 (V chord
with the third in the bass), connects the I bridges the interval between the I and the
vi chord's bass notes in a three-note stepwise descent (do-ti-la).31
Second Inversion
2nd inversion chords are those that have the fifth of the chord in the bass.
These inversions are qUite useful as well, though not as commonly used as 1st
inversions, since they sound even less stable. Second inversion chords are most
often used in two ways: 1) as part of a stepwise progression in the bass or 2) played
directly before a root position chord whose root is the same as the bass of the 2nd
31 The use ofVj3 is a non-standard notation employed in this book to depict chord inversion with
numeral analysis.
216
inversion chord, usually in a cadence. This first point can be illustrated clearly in
Darlene Zschech's Shout To The Lord (Figure 11.8).
Figure 11.8 Shout To The Lord - Darlene Zschech
Aid D AlE F#m G O/F# E slIs4 E
1/3
mi
all that ] am,_
IV lj5
fa sol
ne - vcr cease to war - ship You.
©1993 Hillsong Publishing
vi bVII IV13 Vsus4 V
la te la sol
Here, both 1st and 2nd inversion chords are used to create a stepwise
ascending bass line from an AIC# to a G. This ascent: I/3~IV~I/5~iv~bVII (mi-
fa-sol-la-te) makes for an exciting chord progression that wonderfully builds up
to the chorus. The other point is clearly demonstrated in the final phrase of the
hymn Great Is Thy Faithfulness (Figure 11.9)
Figure 11.9 Great Is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyon
0#"7 OIA A7 0
Oreat is Thy faith ful ness, Lord, un - to me.
©1923 Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
:j:j:ivo7 1/5 V7 I
fi sol sol do
In the third-to-last bar ofthis hymn, a 2nd inversion tonic D chord (sol)
precedes an A7 (V7 or sol) where the 2nd inversion chord has the same bass note as
the succeeding root position V7 chord. This musical device is typical at a cadence of
a song, especially in a traditional style. Consequently, it is found in many hymns. A
217
similar use of 2nd inversion chords is found in the verse ofAmazing Grace (My Chains
Are Gone), though not as part ofa cadence (Figure 11.10).
Figure 11.10 - Amazing Grace (My Chains are Gone) - Chris Tomlin, Edwin Othello
Excell, John Newton} John Rees} & Louie Giglio
f B~F f
Amaz ing grace, how _ sweet the sound, that saved _ a _ wrelch __ like
©2006 worshiptogether.com songs
I
do
IV15
do
I
do
The BbIF in the verse is a 2nd inversion Bb chord (IV15) in the key of F.
Having the same bass note as the tonic F chords surrounding it} this inversion
creates a sustaining bass note (as opposed to a moving bass line) under several
chord changes} called pedal point. This technique is used often in many styles of
music.
Third Inversion and other Slash Chords
Though root position} 1st inversion} and 2nd inversion chords represent all the
inversions found in triadic harmonies} 3rd inversion chords are also possible
through the seventh chord. A 3rd inversion chord has its seventh in the bass and a
C7 chord with its 7th in the bass would be written C7/Bb} or more simply C/Bb
(Figure 11.11)32
32 It is not mandatory that a seventh be indicated numerically in the chord symbol of a third inversion
chord, since the presence of the seventh as the bass note makes such notation redundant.
218
Figure 11.11 Seventh Chord Inversions:
Root Position 7th :
C7
1st Inversion:
C7/E
2nd Inversion:
C7/G
3rd Inversion:
C7/B~
"I • •
• .. T
"'~
""
.,:
~ - -:. -:.
~ ~
v
V7
do
V7/3
mi
V7/5
sol
V7/7
te
Although, a 3rd inversion may occur on any seventh chord variety: major,
minor, dominant, and diminished, the 3rd inversion is most commonly seen in minor
sevenths and dominant sevenths.
These chords are even more unstable than 2nd inversion and their use is, for
the most part, restricted to two types: 1) it can be used if the bass note descends by
step following the 3rd inversion, usually to a 1st inversion chord, and 2) as part of
pedal point. A classic example of the first point is visible in Keith Getty and Stuart
Townend's song, Speak 0 Lord (Figure 11.12)
Figure 11.12 Speak 0 Lord - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend
G G/F C/E F C/E G G/F CIE F Gsus4 G
light of Christ might be
V V/7I/3
sol fa mi
seen _ to day _ in our acts of love and our deeds of _ faith.
©200S Thankyou Music
IV 1/3 V V/7 1/3 IV Vsus4 V
fa mi sol fa mi fa sol sol
The 3rd inversion G7 chord, G/F, is part of a three-note descent from Gdown
to E. In many cases, the 3rd inversion chord is preceded by a root position triad of
the same root and succeeded by a 1st inversion triad whose root is a fourth higher.
219
In this case, the progression goes: V-7V7/7-71/3. Theoretically, this progression
may be used anywhere a V-7 I movement occurs. In the case of this song, it works
especially well as the resulting bass line creates a pleasant counterpoint to the
melody.
A minor seventh chord in 3rd inversion is another common usage. This
inversion of a minor chord is often reserved for a stepwise bass walk-down from Ia
to fa (vi-7vi7/7-7 IV) in major or do to Ie in minor keys (i-7i7/7-7VI) Matt Redman's
Call To Worship provides a good example of this type of walk down. Note that the
shift from tonic (do) in E minor to a tonic (do) A minor on the word "mountain" is
the result of a modulation, or change of key (Figure 11.13).
Figure 11.13 Call to Worship - Matt Redman
Em Am Am/G F(#4)
iv/7
te
We're c1imb-ing up the mountain of the Lord,
i iv
do do
to - wards Your ho-Iy place, and ev-'ry step is praise,
©2002 Thankyou Music
IV(#4)
Ie
The major seventh variety is also found in popular music, thought it is far
more dissonant (and likewise, unstable) than the other two types, since the major
seventh clashes strongly with the root when inverted.
This chord is nearly always found in a walk down from I to vi. This walk
down occurs in the verse to Matt Redman's Let Everything That Has Breath with a
walk down from E (I), through its 3rd inversion E/D#, to C#m7 (Vi).
220
Figure 11.14 Let Everything that Has Breath - Matt Redman
E E/D~ dm7 A AlB
Let ever-y thing that, ever-y lhing that, ever-y lhing lhal
I Imaj7/7 vi7
~ ti ~
has brealh praise the Lord.
©1997 Thankyou Music
IV V7susll
fa sol
All Three Inversions in One Song
It is not altogether uncommon to find several types of slash chords in a single
son~ since they all may work together to create a pleasing bass progression. Slash
chords representing several forms of inversion are especially common in chord
progressions forming a bass walk-down. Here, the bass line "walks down" each note
of the scale. Slash chords are abundant in these progressions because they allow for
the harmony to be smooth and melodic. This can be clearly seen in the song, Above
All (Figure 11.16).
Figure 11.15 Above All- Lenny LeBlanc & Paul Baloche
A AG~ F~m Amaj7E o
things. A - bOle all ",is - dOIll_ and all_ [he ways _ of mall. _
I
do
Bm7
Imaj7/7 vi
ti la
DA
Imaj7/5 IV
sol fa
E G~ A
1/3
mi
A - ho\"e all_
'M#~_~~,.~
---You were here _ he - fore _ [he 1I"0rlcl_ he - gan. __
ii7
re
IV/5
do
©1999 Integrity's Hosanna! Music
V/3 I Ij3
ti do mi
221
Slash Chord Reinterpretations
As you may have noticed so far, some of the above chord spellings have been
simplified. For example, the second chord in the song above is a 3rd inversion Amaj7
chord, simply spelled A/G# rather than the more cumbersome Amaj7/G#. Where
conciseness in lead sheets is a virtue that is relished, this type of simplification is
commonplace. There are a variety of other cases where a complex chord is reduced
to a simpler spelling on the page to make interpretation quicker and easier. The
following section will show a few common chord symbol reductions.
A chord with four or more notes may be spelled more simply as a triad with
an alternate bass note. This can be very helpful for musicians who are not very
familiar with chord symbols and may only have a basic knowledge of major and
minor triads. One can set up a less experienced musician for success by respelling a
complex chord that may be confusing and notate it in a way that is more familiar.
The examples below offer a few instances where a reinterpretation of a
complex harmony as a slash chord may be beneficial. In each case where an
extended chord has been reinterpreted as a slash chord, the chord to the left of the
slash is contained within the original harmony, but not identified as the root chord.
For instance, in the first example, a C7sus11 contains (C-Bb-D-F), though Cis
the literal root, this chord could be respelled more simply as a Bb triad with a Cin
the bass, since Bb-D-F are the notes found in a Bb major triad. The other
examples follow the same principle (Figure 11.16).
Figure 11.16 Common Slash Chord Reinterpretations:
C7slIs[ [ nk C 13slIsll n~l11ai7"C
4 ~! ~! [I ~f ~f.. .. .. ..
Co7 L~mC Cmaj9lno3J GC
4 ~~1 ~~~i [I ! I.. ..
222
In some cases, musicians will generate a walk-down chord progression by
changing the bass note while the chord above remains consistent. Thus, it may be
simpler and more representative of what is occurring in the music to notate a chord
progression to illustrate this technique rather than notate each chord on its own
terms. For example, the chorus to Shane Barnard's Be Near is an example of such a
case where a chord is repeated and the bass note descends by step. Many
transcriptions of this song spell the chords this way with nearly every chord spelled
as a separate harmony (Figure 11.17).
Figure 11.17 Be Near - Shane Barnard
D Old Bm7 D/A G2 D/F#
near, 0 God._ Be near,_ 0 God_ of uS,_Your near - ness is_ to lIS_ our_
I
do
Imaj7/7
ti
vi7
la
1/5
sol
©2003 Waiting Room Music
IV(2) 1/3
fa mi
However, it may be easier to understand, and perhaps more faithful to how
the writer conceives the music, to interpret the chord progression as the result of a
descending bass under a repeated chord (Figure 11.18).
Figure 11.18 Be Near - Shane Barnard
D DK# Dm DM DIG D/F~
near,O God._ Be ncar,_ 0 God_ of uS,_Your near - ness is_ to us_ our_
1
do
Imaj7/7
ti
1/6
la
1/5
sol
©2003 Waiting Room Music
1/4 1/3
fa mi
223
Sometimes, it may be beneficial to interpret a chord progression in the
opposite fashion. For example, some guitarists prefer to read chords with
extensions (as opposed to triads with alternate bass notes). Since a good many
guitarists have difficulty in the quick identification of notes on the fret board, they
become accustomed to finding a particular bass note and voicing the chord based on
the extensions placed above it. It is less natural for many such guitarists to do the
opposite and locate a particular triad first and then attach the appropriate bass note
to it.
In the transcription below of the hymn, How Great Thou Art, the third bar
contains four chord changes over the same bass note (Figure 11.19).
Figure 11.19 How Great Thou Art - Stuart K. Hine
A E7/B Aid D AlE dm/£ B m7/E E7
God, wben I in awe-some won - der_ con-sid-er alJ the worlds Thy hands bath
©1953 Stuart K. Hine, Renewed 1981 Manna Music, Inc.
1/5 vij3 ii7/4 V7
sol sol sol sol
These chords could be reinterpreted almost entirely as same chord with
various extensions, which may be easier to read for some musicians (Figure 11.20).
Figure 11.20 How Great Thou Art - Stuart K. Hine
AlE E6 Esusll £7 A
all the worlds Thy hands hath see the
1/5
sol
V6
sol
©1953 Stuart K. Hine, Renewed 1981 Manna Music, Inc.
Vsus11 V7
sol sol
224
As a rule ofthumb, it is important to ascertain the skills and preferences of
your musicians, in order to create chord charts that communicate most effectively to
them.
Pedal Bass
An opposite scenario would consist of a chord progression where the
harmony changes while a single bass note remains consistent. The pedal point has
already been briefly discussed, but here it is observed more in depth. Let us return
again to the verse in Chris Tomlin's recording of Amazing Grace (My Chains Are
Gone) (Figure 11.21).
Figure 11.21 Amazing Grace (My Chains are Gone) - Chris Tomlin, Edwin Othello
Excell, John Newton, John Rees, and Louie Giglio
F B~ F CW
ing grace, how _ sweet thesound, th at saved _ a wretch Iikc_Ine. loncc
I
do
IV/5
do
I
do
©2006 Worshiptogether.com Songs
V/4
do
Here, the chord progression is I-IV-I-V, but the bass note remains on the
tonic. A pedal bass is almost always on the tonic or the dominant. When it is found
on the tonic (do), it is usually at the beginning of a song or at the end of a song in a
coda or outro. Since do is the "home" pitch, a pedal point on this tone can create a
sensation of stability or repose. A dominant pedal (on sol) is most often used at the
end of the song, near the lyrical climax, leading into the final dominant chord (V
chord). When on the dominant, it creates more a sensation of anticipation, of
building towards a climax. In more rare cases, pedal point may be used on other
degrees of the scale to create a similar effect. In the phrase leading into the chorus
of You Are Good there is a pedal point on the fourth scale degree,fa (Figure 11.22).
225
Figure 11.22 You Are Good - Israel Houghton
A BA
Peo - pie _ from ev - er
IV
fa
CA
ua - lion _ and tongue,
V7j7
fa
DA
from gcn er - a - tiou_ to gcn - cr a - tiou.
, I ~4i1
We
bVlj6
fa
©2001 Integrity's Praise! Music
bVIIj5
fa
It is clear that changing the bass note of a single chord or chord progression
has a great effect on the music and can be used for a variety of applications, make it
an invaluable arranging technique. Take care to develop this skill and employ it
tastefully in your own arrangements.
Practice Exercises
For the exercises below, identify the chord and its inversion by attaching a
chord symbol to the notation. Fill in the missing notation, either staff or TAB
(Figure 11.23J.
226
Figure 11.23 Practice Exercises:
Il ...
~
-;
I ...
~ ... ... ...
In the exercises below, notate in the staff and TAB the slash chords indicated
by the chord symbols (Figure 11.24).
Figure 11.24 Practice Exercises:
A~/C E7/B Gm7/C
Below is the first verse and refrain of Great Is Thy Faithfulness by Thomas
Obadiah Chisholm and William Marion Runyan. All the chords in this arrangement
are root position chords. Using the concepts and techniques detailed in this chapter,
create your own arrangement of this song from the root position chords by using
chord inversions. Also, if there are any chords that appear to be complicated,
227
attempt to simplify their spellings through slash chords. Remember to use slash
chords to create smoother, stepwise movement as well as pedal points in a base line
when it benefits the arrangement. However, attempt to maintain variety, as too
much of the same thing can become monotonous.
Figure 11.25 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan
D D- Gmaj7 Gei .\ 7 G _\ 7 G D
Great is Th) faith ful - lIess, o God my fath - er,
G D .1..7 D E E7susl! E7
..'\.7 D Dmaj7 D 13(~lJ) D Em D Gmaj7 Go
Though chang - est nol,
D
Thy com pas - sions they
F~1I1 A 7
fail lIot;
D
Thon hast been, Thou for wilt be.
G D 137 .'l.m Em
228
Great IS Thy faith - ful-ncss l Grcat - is Thy faith ful-ncss!
..'1.7 D Dm6
.\lorn - ing by morn - ill? new mer - cies see;
.'1. 7
hayc
D
nccd
D
Dmaj7 D 13(#111
cd Thy
D
hand
Em
hath
.-.\. 7
D
pro
Gmaj7 G"
\id - cd.
D
Great IS Thy faith 1'111 - ness, Lord, un to me.
©1923. Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
229
CHAPTER XII
CHROMATICISM
All of the chords we have discussed thus far have been in the realm of
diatonicity, meaning that they fit naturally into the key of the song; and most chords
used in popular songs today are diatonic. However, there are always some songs
that contain chords not naturally in the key. When tones are non-diatonic, this type
of harmony is called chromaticism. It is helpful to look at chromaticism from a
theoretical perspective since these types of chords, being out of the norm, may not
be a natural part of your chord vocabulary or readily "in your ears" and perceived as
a natural chord progression. Furthermore, chromaticism in popular music can be
difficult to manipulate, as it must be handled delicately for it to sound natural and
not sound jarring or wrong. Theory can teach you how to use them, beyond simply
recognizing them when they are present in music, by suggesting how to add them
into a song when its chord progression has "grown old". When chromaticism is used
in a skillful way, it can help a progression sound fresh, where a purely diatonic
version may seem boring or cliche.
The present chapter will discuss the most common uses of chromaticism in
popular music so that whether you are a music team leader, songwriter, or music
arranger, you will have the tools to employ it effectively and add more to your
growing creative palette. The following techniques will be divided into 2 categories:
• Borrowed Chords
• Change of Quality Chords
These categories are used because the theoretical concept behind them says
that chromatic tones, though foreign to a key, do come from "somewhere". Thus
230
they can be defined systematically so a musician may know clearly how to employ
such techniques in any key and musical context.
Borrowed Chords
The most common way that chromaticism occurs is through a technique
called modal borrowing. In this case, a chord is "borrowed" from the parallel key.
Remember that the parallel key is the major or minor that shares the same root as
the present key. As an example, for Cmajor, the parallel key is Cminor (called
parallel minor). Likewise the parallel key of E minor is E major (parallel major).
Consider the harmonic possibilities offered between the keys of Cmajor and C
minor (Figure 12.1,2).
Figure 12.1 C Major:
f. I ! I J I ! I
I ii iii IV V vi viia I
do re mi fa sol la ti do
Figure 12.2 C Minor:
f~ 1'1 ~~! 1,1 ~I 1,"1 ~i 1,1
i iio bIll iv v bVI bVIl i
do re me fa sol Ie te do
The maj or key can in theory, borrow any of the chords of the parallel minor,
therefore Cmajor can take Cm, Do, Eb, Fm, Gm, Ab, and Bb. In numeric terms, this
means that the major can have i, iio, bIll, iv, v, bVI, and bVll chords in addition to the
seven diatonic possibilities it already has.
231
Modal Borrowing: Minor to Major
/J VII Chords
A bVII chord in major keys is a chromatic chord common to pop music and
can be found in many worship songs. A good example is Darlene Zschech's Shout To
The Lord (Figure 12.3).
Figure 12.3 Shout to the Lord - Darlene Zschech
Aid D AlE F~m G D/F~ Esus4 E
~. ..,~ jt~I ~
all that I am,__ nc - ver cease to wor
V/3 IV 1/5 vi bVII
mi fa sol la te
ship You.
©1993 Hillsong Publishing
IV/3 Vsus4 V
la sol sol
In major keys, the chord that is normally the seventh scale degree is a viia (G:It a in A
major), but here the bVII (G), is taken from the parallel A minor. Another example is
You Are Worthy ofMy Praise by David Ruis. In the key of D major, this song has a C
major chord in the third bar, which is the bVII taken from the parallel D minor
(Figure 12.4).
Figure 12.4 You Are Worthy of My Praise - David Ruis
D C
with all of_my_ heart. _Men:I will WOl-shlP _
I
~ loi
I
u •• ~. -:jJ .--L-U ' • ...,---,. ----- ~~.... ..
---- '-'Women:Iwill wor-ship_
-
with all of _ my _ heart.
" loif ..,
~ •. :i., -;;."-:--u· • • .•__• ----- ~~__" __6'
I
do
©1991 Maranatha Praise, Inc.jShade Tree Music
bVII
te
232
bV! Chords
The bVI chord is another commonly borrowed chord and it is often paired
with a bVII chord as in Darlene Zschech's Irresistible. Here the Bb and C chord are
borrowed from D minor to be used as a bVI and bVII in D major (Figure 12.5).
Figure 12.5 Irresistible - Darlene Zschech
J3~maI7 c: D
bVI
Ie
ir - rc - sisl
bVII
te
i-hie lo\'c. _
©2001 Hillsong Publishing
I
do
Minor iv and v Chords
In minor keys, the diatonic chords found on scale degrees fa and sol are
minor and may as well be borrowed to major keys as well. The minor iv and v
chords are borrowed along with the bVI and bVII chords from E minor to the key of
E major in Israel Houghton and Aaron Lindsey's Again I Say Rejoice in the phrase
that leads into the chorus (Figure 12.6).
Figure 12.6 Again I Say Rejoice - Israel Houghton & Aaron Lindsey
A m7 13 m7 C ])
0, that _ men _ would _ praise _ Him, o that _ men _ would _ praise ---..J lim. Rejoice
iv7
fa
v7
sol
bVI
Ie
©2004 Integrity's Praise! Music
bVII I
te do
Borrowed chords are also effective for creating contrasting sections of music
such as a musical interlude. This can be particularly helpful in hymns, where an
233
interlude between verses can help break up the more rigid structure and give
singers a restful pause in a song where there are few natural pauses in the melody.
Keith Getty composed such a portion of music to be played between stanzas of his
hymn In Christ Alone. Here the interlude begins with a minor v chord. The inclusion
of this chord also adds a pleasant contrast from the harmonic content of the verse
(Figure 12.7).
Figure 12.7 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend
D Am? Em? G A?sus4 D
=P=J= 1 II 7 7 7 1/ 7 7 1/ 7 7 17 7 j7j7 7 7 I 7 7 7 7 Z
stand.
©2001 Thankyou Music
I v7 ii7 IV V7sus4 I
do sol re fa sol do
iio and /JIlJ Chords
These two borrowed chords are indeed the most rare of the borrowed
possibilities, but are employed now and again and to much effect. Their place in a
major key sounds quite distant from the diatonic norm, but that makes them all the
more interesting. Darlene Zschech is a songwriter who commonly employs modal
borrowing in her compositions, two of which illustrate the use of these chords in the
examples below.
In The Potter's Hand uses a form of modal borrowing in the fourth bar of the
verse. Here, the transcription reads the chord as a Cm6/Eb, which would technically
be a borrowed iv6/3 from minor (Figure 12.8).
234
Figure 12.8 The Potter's Hand - Darlene Zschech
G D~
Beau - Ii - fill Lord,_
I
do
c Cm6iE~
won - der - fill Say
V/3
ti
Em?
iour._
I know for sure, __
IV
fa
all of my days_ are_
iv6/3
Ie
held in Your hand;_
©1997 Hillsong Publishing
vi7
la
However, a closer look at the Cm6/E~ (C-E~-G-A)shows that it has the same
pitch content as A07/E~ (A-C-E~-G), which would be analyzed as Wi' 7/5
borrowed from Gminor to Gmajor (Figure 12.9).
Figure 12.9 Minor Sixth Chord vs. Half Diminished Seventh:
C m6/Eb A\?l7/Eb
"
b.. b....
~
~~
<~ <~
", ,~
u
Whichever way you identify this chord, modal borrowing is involved. Here is
a rare example in contemporary Christian repertoire where a iif"7 has been applied
in a major key (Figure 12.10).
235
Figure 12.10 The Potter's Hand - Darlene Zschech
c A07/E~ Em7
I know for sure, __
IV
fa
all of my days_ are_
ii07/5
Ie
held in Your hand;_
vi7
la
Atune we analyzed earlier, Irresistible, contains the rare occurrence of bIll
(me) in a major key. In the instance ofthe last phrase of the chorus, an F(2) chord
appears in the key of D major, a bIII from D minor. See the third bar of the example
below (Figure 12.11)'
Figure 12.11 Irresistible - Darlene Zschech
G2 Bm7 D
0 ver__ me. __ Your good - ness a - bOllnds. _ You','etak - en my
IV(2) vi7 V/3 I
fa la ti do
F2 B~maj7 C D
bVII
te
bVlmaj7
Ieme
bIII(2)
breath a - way_ with Your__ ir-re-sist - i-ble love. _
©2001 HiIlsong Publishing
I
do
Modal Borrowing: Major to Minor
If you recall our discussion of the minor scale in Chapter VI, we examined
three variants of the minor scale. The most common, the natural minor, was the
standard diatonic version, but the other two arose out of some alterations to the
236
natural minor scale by borrowing tones from major. The harmonic minor scale used
the raised leading tone (to from major and the melodic minor used both la and ti
from major. This is a type of modal borrowing.
Though modal borrowing from the parallel major to a minor key works in
theory the same way as borrowing from minor to major, examining modal
borrowing in terms of the use of these various minor scale forms helps explain the
characteristics of the most common forms of minor key chromaticism more clearly.
In fact, chromaticism is much more common in minor and this is due in large part to
the extensive use of these scales. The three minor scale variants in the key of C
minor are shown again below (Figure 12.12).
Figure 12.12 Minor Scale Variants:
Cnatural minor: Charmonic minor:
~ I~"I, ••••• ~ •• ~.• • • • • • •
#7
la
Cmelodic minor:
#6 #7
la ti
These scales exist in both the melodic and harmonic content of a song. Chord
theory tells us that chords are built from the notes of the scale harmonized by
thirds. Therefore, by adding the chromatic possibilities offered by the other minor
scales, we are afforded 6 new triads for the minor scale, since each of the two tones
may occupy the place of a root third or fifth. Below is a composite of the 3 minor
scales with all 13 possible chords shown (Figure 12.13):
Figure 12.13 Cminor with #6 and #7 harmonization:
i
do
iiO
re
ii ~ III ~ III+ iv
re me me fa
IV
fa
v V 17VI
sol sol Ie
vi ~VII viio
la te ti
i
do
237
If you've guessed that the #6 and #7 could also be applied as sevenths, you're
on the right track. Expanding the harmony to include sevenths affords a total of 9
new chords that aren't found in the original diatonic collection of sevenths (Figure
12.14).
Figure 12.14 Seventh chords using #6 and #7:
~~' ~ ~~1 'I tll ~~I ~~I 1'1 ~I'II,\, ~1 i1
i7 imaj7 ii07 ii7 bIIImaj7 bIII+maj7 iv7 IV7
do do re re me me fa fa
~~'I, ~I ~I 1'1 [;1"1 ~1 ~f ~1 ~fI, ~ ~
v7 V7 bVImaj7 vi07 bVII7 bVIImaj7 viio7 vii07
sol sol Ie la te te ti ti
Obviously, we could keep going through 9th, 11th, and 13th chords, but the
possibilities become almost too many to comprehend at this point. For now, let's
stick with our new triads and see what they look and sound like in a musical context.
Though there are six new possibilities, there are three that are used most
often, the major dominant chord, sol (V) and the major subdominant, or fa (IV).
Major IV and V
These two chords are probably the most commonly borrowed chords from
major. Containing the ti from major (IV doesn't contain to, these two chords have a
strong pull back to tonic. As a result, the tonic chord in minor almost always follows
them. This arrangement ofthe hymn 0 The Deep, Deep Love ofJesus provides a good
example of the use of a few of these modally borrowed chords in the third and
fourth bar ofthe excerpt (Figure 12.15).
238
Figure 12.15 0 the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis &Thomas Williams
Em EmG 13 C 1"#07,:\ 13 I:'m
o
i
do
Em
the deep, deep loye of Je SllS,
ij3 V bVl ii07/3 V i
me sol Ie fa sol do
1371>9) Cmaj7 :\7.d D 137 D# Em
o
vast~ 1I11 mens ured, bound less free,
i
do
V7(b9)
sol
bVlmaj7
Ie
IV7/3
la
©Public Domain, arr. by the author
bVII V7/3 i
te ti do
Change of Quality Chords
The last type of chromaticism we will discuss is in this chapter are change of
quality chords. These chords occur as the result of a chromatic alteration of an
embedded melodic line connecting two harmonies or merely the altering of a
diatonic chord's quality to one that is not diatonic.
Major and Augmented Chords: Chromatically Altered Fifths
This is a technique that was hinted at earlier in the discussion of augmented
triads. As stated, chords can arise from an embedded melodic line that involves
chromatic changes by step, changing the quality of the chords as it progresses
through them. This is often the case with augmented chords, where the fifth of the
chord has been sharpened from a major chord ofthe same root. We saw this in the
opening chord progression to Matt Redman's Let My Words Be Few. Here, the fifth of
the Gchord (D) is sharpened in the following chord D# (si) to create a Gaugmented
triad. This chromatic tone is sharpened yet again to E (fa) in the following emaj7
chord. Note that though it is not in the melody of the song, the chromatic ascent of
239
D-D:j:j:-E (sol-si-la) is a melodic line embedded in the harmony. The
arrangement below continues this idea by flatting la to Ie (Eb) in the next chord,
which originally was C, is now Cm. Thus, the chromatic line changed the quality of
the chord. After Cm the chord resolves back to tonic, G, where the Eb (Ie) resolves
down to D (sol). The chromatic melody embedded throughout this five-chord
progression is D~D:j:j:~E-7Eb-7D or sol-si-la-le-sol (Figure 12.16).
Figure 12.16 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman
G G+ Cmaj7 Cm7 G
Yon are God in hea ven,_and here_am I_on earth,_ so I'll_let
I
do
1+
do
©2000 Thankyou Music, arr. by the author
IVmaj7 iv7 I
fa fa do
Below is a possible rendering of these chord changes for guitar. One can
trace the chromatic ascent and descent of the embedded melodic line on the 4th
string from bars 1-3 and transferring up to the 1st and 2nd strings on bars 3-5
(Figure 12.17).
Figure 12.17 Embedded Chromatic Melody:
G G - Cmaj7 em7 G
"l ,Ij • • I. •
, iT; • ... L
..". ..".
- - -
." X -
"-
-
- -,.
-' -'
-
D
sol
D#
si
E
la
Eb
Ie
D
sol
240
Major and Minor Chords: Chromatically Altered Thirds
In the example above, we noted that a chromaticism occurred in the fourth
bar due to a change of quality from Cto Cm when the chord's third was altered from
mi to me (E to Eb). Oftentimes chromaticism arises like this, when the third is raised
or lowered by half step, changing the quality ofthe chord. It happens quite
frequently in traditional music that a ii-7V chord progression is chromatically
altered in this way so that minor ii becomes a major II. In so doing, the II chord pulls
strongly to the dominant (II -7V) much in the way a Vwould pull to tonic.
Consequently, this change of quality is often called a "secondary dominant." This
occurs frequently in hymn repertoire. Note the II or secondary dominant, in the
example below (Figure 12.18).
Figure 12.18 It Is Well - Horatio Spafford & Phillip Bliss
G7 C C'G GF CE F G
"'hen
C
peace
A 111
like a I1Y lOr
An1'C
al - lend
GD D G
lOth Ill)
way,
I
do
when sor
vi
la
rows like sea hil - 1011'S role; whal
©Public Domain
vij3 VjS II V
do re re sol
The song Still by Reuben Morgan has a change of quality also on reo Here, the
IIj3 chord is in first inversion, creating a chromatic ascent in the bass (F-F#-G or
fa-fi-sol) (Figure 12.19).
Figure 12.19 Still- Reuben Morgan
C G B Am F DF~ Gsus G
241
4i~.~-
-- ---Hide me __ nm\" un - der l:oUf_ wings. __
©2002 HiIIsong Publishing
I V/3 vi IV II/3 Vsus V
do ti la fa ft sol
Though a change of quality is commonly employed on the II chord (re), it may
happen on others. The hymn, Great Is Thy Faithfulness, has a VI7 (F#7) moving to ii
(Bm) during the refrain. This chromatically altered VI7 functions as a secondary
dominant to ii. You know a change of quality chord functions as a secondary
dominant when the succeeding chord is a perfect fourth away (Figure 12.20).
Figure 12.20 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan
E7 A F~7 Bill
Great IS Thy faith - fnl-ness l
V7 I
sol do
grcat IS Thy faith - ful-ncss\
©1923. Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
VI7 ii
fa re
Major and Diminished Chords: Chromatically Raised Roots
Diminished chords are change of quality chords when a major chord's root
has been chromatically raised. For instance a D major (D-F#-A) becomes a D#o
(D#-F#-A) when the root, D, is raised a half step. An example of this is found in
the first measure of the excerpt below (Figure 12.21).
242
Figure 12.21 Great is Thy Faithfulness - Thomas Chisholm & William Runyan
D#c7 A'E £7 A
Greal IS Tit} failh
#ivo7 1/5
fi sol
~~.~. ~
ful ness, Lord un - to me.
©1923. Renewed 1951 Hope Publishing Company
V7 I
sol do
Major and Dominant Seventh Chords: Chromatically Altered Sevenths
The last common change of quality chord we will discuss is the chromatic
alteration of a major chord to a non-diatonic dominant seventh. For example, a
tonic (do) in the key of Ab major is Ab (Ab-C-Eb), this chord could be turned into a
dominant seventh, Ab7 (Ab-C-Eb-Gb) adding the note Gb, which is outside of the
key. This chromatic alteration occurs in the arrangement below of God ofWonders.
Here, in the bridge section, the Ab tonic chord is followed by the tonic, chromatically
altered to be a dominant seventh in 3rd inversion, Ab7/Gb. This provides a stepwise
descent in the bass (Ab-Gb-F) (Figure 12.22).
earlh.<111d_of __ hen-yenLord__jah,__ (0 (he
Figure 12.22 God of Wonders - Marc Byrd & Steve Hindalong
\b AbGb
~~~-rs;_
'--'
Hn-Ie - Iu
I
do
17/7
te
Ha-Ie -lu jah,_ (0 the Lord_ of_ hCa-\Cll and_ carlh. __
vi7
la
IV(2)
fa
©2000 New Spring, arr. by the author
Vsus I
sol do
243
The Neapolitan Chord (!JII): Chromatically Altered iio
Another chord that makes an appearance from time to time, especially in
minor keys, is the bIl (which in classical theory is often called the Neapolitan 6th).33
This chord could be conceived of as a chromatically altered iio. For example, the iio
in the key of A minor is Bo (B-D-F) and a bII chord (Bb-D-F) can be created
from it by flatting the root from B to Bb (ra). This is a major chord whose root is the
flattened supertonic tone (ra), hence bII. It is often found in first inversion,34 a
particularly classical use of the chord. Because the seldom-used b2 or ra is present,
the bII chord offers a particularly interesting (yet hip!) sound when used tastefully.
Take this arrangement of Martin Smith and Stuart Garrard's Majesty (Here I Am)} for
example, where the Bbmaj7 is used as a bII in the third bar of the excerpt (Figure
12.23).35
Figure 12.23 Majesty (Here I Am) - Martin Smith & Stuart Garrard
,\m GB C ,\m GB
tJ J §.
-----
no\\' I'vc fOllnd tile great cst 101°c of all __
i bVII/3 bIII i
do re me do
J
IS
bVlI/3
re
33 This qUirky name arose from its association with classical composers ofthe "Neapolitan Schoo!," a
group of composers from Naples, Italy who composed in a similar style in the 18th century, typified
by the use of this chord.
34 In first inversion, the interval created by the bass note and the root of the chord is a 6th, which is
where it gets the name Neapolitan 6th.
35 When substituting chords, one must always be sure that the notes of the melody do not clash with
the substituted harmony. Because the predominant D in the melody is consonant with the Bb chord,
this substitution is acceptable. Note that the B natural in the last eighth note of this measure will
clash momentarily. In these cases one must weigh their options and decide whether this momentary
dissonance precludes the use of the substitution. Another way to avoid this problem would be to
sing this note up or down a half step.
B~mai7 F G7F
244
since You laid dOll'n your life, __ the great - est sac - Ii - flce.
©2003, 2004 Curious? Music UK, an. by the author
bII bVI bVII7/7
ra Ie Ie
In this case, the bII is used as a Bbmaj7 in the key of A minor. Note that the
use of the bII as a bIImaj7 chord works particularly well because its seventh is the
tonic note (do) of the key.
A Note About Chromatic Voice Leading
Voice leading is a term that applies to the consideration of how melodic lines
progress in harmony. We've already discussed some principles of voice leading in
addressing tone tendencies (e.g. the leading tone "wants" to resolve to tonic, etc.).
Though our discussion of this thus far has been limited to diatonic tones, tone
tendencies apply to chromaticism as well. But why is this important?
One of the challenges posed by chromaticism is the attempt to make notes
that are outside of the key sound "inside," and attention to voice leading will much
aid this endeavor because it pays close attention to the natural tendencies of the
notes. Do what is natural and chances are the music will sound natural too.
In terms of chromaticism, voice leading is not entirely difficult; one simply
must know how the chromatic pitch relates to the key. In the simplest ofterms, a
note that is flatted naturally wants to resolve down by step (usually to a diatonic
note), while a note that is sharpened naturally wants to resolve up by step to a
diatonic note. For example, D# will nearly always resolve up to E, but the
enharmonic Eb resolves down to D. If you look at nearly all ofthe examples of
chromaticism in this chapter, you will find these voice leading principles to be true.
245
Throughout this chapter, we've made strides towards thinking about chords
in their larger context by speaking in terms of connectivity and tendency. This will
be the larger subject of the following chapter on chord progression, which discusses
how chords relate and work together.
Practice Exercises
For these practice exercises, identify the chord provided in terms of its root,
quality, and numeric designation (bVI, v7, etc.) according to the key signature. If
only numeric designation is provided, fill in empty staff and TAB accordingly (Figure
12.24,25).
Figure 12.24 Practice Exercises:
Major Keys:
'I I .L.I .a.
.101 +I L h I
~ '.
!
~
v
G
1\ I .L.I
.101 +I
~ •
~
!
-
~ .101 +I h, .101
~
bVII 11/3 17/7 bIll
246
Figure 12.25 Practice Exercises:
Minor Keys:
G7D
fl u +I " ~ ~. I I
~ +I"
a a +I ~ ~ I
,
V7 iii IV7/3 bII
247
CHAPTER XIII
CHORD PROGRESSION
In the last chapter we discussed chromaticism in a diatonic context and doing
so we were forced to make allusions to one of the big concerns of Part 3, the final
section of this book - that is, how chords relate to each other and how they may be
used to form larger musical ideas. Not only will we discuss how chords relate by
showing how they relate within a given song (Chapter XIII), but we will also discuss
how chords may be strung together to link songs of different keys (Chapter XV).
Throughout this segment we will also discuss in depth how chords found in existing
progressions may be changed or altogether substituted to create a new idea for a
given song (the thrust of Chapter XIV). In short, this is the part of the book where
we learn to put all the basic tools of theory we've learned thus far to use, in order to
be creative with them. We will begin to see the chords on the page not as the
instructions for how to playa song, but rather as potentialities suggesting a
playground of options, wherein you take part as a composerjperformer to mold the
music according to your personality and your church's personality. These
techniques will help you take what is a static body of music repertoire and make it
dynamic according to your creative potential. This is where music theory gets really
fun.
Having covered chord extensions, slash chords, and chromaticism, we can
approach the present topic on better footing. Now that we understand chords on
individual terms, we will discuss how chords work together in the larger context of
a song.
248
Chord Progression
A chord progression is a harmonic tapestry of chords woven together to
create the accompaniment for a melody. Though a melody will influence what kind
of chord progression is played with it, chord progression plays an integral role in
the overall sound of a song as it gives the melody a musical setting. In this chapter,
we will discuss how and why chords interact in progression the way they do and
learn how to compose and manipulate them to affect the musical setting of a song.
As music theory exists partially to point out and explain what occurs in
music, it is beneficial to examine chord progressions from a theoretical point of
view, to illuminate the trends that exist and understand the reasons behind those
trends. Grasping the theory behind chord progression is no just helpful for
familiarizing yourself with what is common and most expected, but through this one
can learn how to take the familiar and use your own creativity to manipulate it in an
artful way.
Understanding The Nature of Chord Progression
A very simplistic way of understanding chord progression is as chords played
one after another. Though this is true, it may surprise you to find that a chord
progression gets its sound less from specificaIly what chords or notes are present,
but more by how those notes sound in relation to the key. Why is it that a song can
be played in a variety of keys and sound essentiaIly the same each time, even when
all the notes are being changed? The reason is that though the notes change, the
relationships between them do not. Since the nature of a chord progression
transcends the boundaries of particular notes, it is more beneficial to understand it
in more general terms of chord relationship or "function", rather than what exact
notes are occurring.
What determines chord function is the placement of its root in the scale.
Each note of a scale has a specific function that is a direct result of its placement
therein. Take, for instance, a Cmajor scale. There are seven different tones within
249
the space of an octave and each one has a unIque sound in relation to the key and
ultimately the tonic note (Figure 13.1].
Figure 13.1 C major Scale:
~ • • ~• • •• •...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8/1
do re mi fa sol la ti do
We have already described how each note sounds as ifit is "pulling" in one
direction or the other (except for the tonic). Let's review the seven tones ofa
diatonic scale. We have the tonic, supertonic, mediant, subdominant, dominant,
submediant, and leading tone.
A Review of Pitch Tendencies
1) Tonic Tone: The tonic, being the root of the entire scale, gives every other
note in the key its context. It sounds "at rest", meaning that your ear doesn't
expect or desire it to change to another note.
2) Supertonic Tone: Being the note above the tonic, its most immediate "pull" is
to return back down to tonic.
3) Mediant Tone: the mediant is consonant with the tonic and thus doesn't have
a strong pull up or down, but it doesn't sound resolute as the tonic does, so it
ultimately "desires" to eventually return to tonic, even ifit has to pass
through another note.
----------- - - - -
250
4) Subdominant Tone: The submediant, as tone, has a most immediate
resolution down to the mediant tone, but it also moves to the dominant when
played as a bass note.
5) Dominant Tone: The dominant, being a PS above tonic, is consonant, but like
the mediant it must eventually find tonic or it will sound unresolved.
6) Submediant Tone: This tone is one step above the dominant and will pull
downward to the dominant, but ultimately back to tonic.
7) Leading Tone: More than any other tone, the leading tone "wants" to resolve
up to tonic.
8) Tonic (at the octave): The sheer force of the leading tone's pull causes one
to place the octave at the top of the scale to provide the ear the resolution it
desires.36
Pitch Tendency to Chord Tendency
These names and, to an extent, these same tendencies continue when each
tone in a diatonic scale is made into the root of a triad by adding a note a third and a
fifth above it (Figure 13.2).
36 One can see these "musical forces" are inherent in any diatonic system, which have been instilled in
a listener's conscious and subconscious "ear" by millennia of musical composition, and how they
have been and continue to be the grounds for all forms of musical creativity. Thus, the expectations
ofthe listener can, in many cases, be explained by music theory. This empowers the musician to
interact with the listener by being aware of the listener's expectations, and affords the musicians
opportunity to satisfy them or play with their expectations.
For a more thorough discussion of these "musical forces" see: Steve Larson, "Musical Forces and
Melodic Patterns," Theory and Practice 22-23 (1997-98): 55-71.
251
Figure 13.2 Triads in Cmajor:
f. ! I j I I II
I ii iii IV V vi viiO I
do re mf fa sol la tf do
Major:
1-Tonic triad (do)
ii-Supertonic triad (re)
iii-Mediant triad (mf)
IV-Subdominant triad (fa)
V-Dominant triad (sol)
vi-Submediant triad (fa)
vii"-Leading Tone triad (ti)
I-Tonic Triad (do)
For the minor scale, most of these pitch tendencies are carried over with a
few exceptions. As there is no leading tone present, the dominant functioning triad
is a minor triad and does not have the same pull to tonic as it does in major.
Likewise, the triad built from the 7th degree of the scale contains no leading tone,
which is why the name "leading tone triad" doesn't carryover from major. It is a
major triad built one whole step below tonic and is thus termed the subtonic triad.
This chord doesn't pull particularly strongly in either direction, much like a mediant
chord, though it is often used to pass between the tonic and submediant chords in
either an ascending or descending pattern. It is also often employed in cycle of fifths
progressions (Figure 13.3).
Figure 13.3 Triads in Cminor:
f~ 1'1 ~~I III ~I bl ~j 1'1\,
i iio bIll iv V bVI bVII i
do re me fa sol Ie te do
252
Minor:
i-Tonic triad (do)
iio-Supertonic triad (re)
bIlI-Mediant triad (me)
iv-Subdominant triad (fa)
v-Dominant triad (sol)
bVI-Submediant triad (Ie)
bVII-Subtonic triad (te)
i-Tonic triad (do)
The movement of triads in a diatonic system is made more complex than the
simple tendencies of each root note since, in a triad, there are three tones sounding
together, each with its own specific pull up or down. Furthermore, this is
compounded by the fact that intervals are created between notes that have their
own tendencies as consonant or dissonant intervals. For example, a dissonant
interval wants to resolve to a consonant one, oftentimes in a specific way. All these
variables combine to lend a great depth of character to a chord the moment it is
played in the context of a chord progression. Tones pull this way and that and some
tones' or intervals' individual tendencies win out over others, as the chord
progression unfolds towards an eventual resolution.
Though it may seem as if the possibilities are endless or that there ought to
be no rules concerning how to compose a progression, there are some basic trends
or "rules" that have become common. Many common progressions are used because
they are simply good ideas and are sensitive to how notes tend to function.
Worship ministers are often involved in both performing and composing music, so
becoming familiar with how chords function in progressions can be helpful to
playing by ear and making good musical compositional decisions during the
writing/arranging process.
Chord Function
In order to more easily understand how chord function works, it is helpful to
distill the different types of chords in a diatonic system into fewer categories than
253
the seven already mentioned. Even though a chord can go anywhere in a
progression, the current style of music composition in popular music allows for a
simpler model of chord function since some chords function in similar ways. Chords
like the supertonic, leading tone, and submediant function similarly to the
subdominant, dominant, and mediant respectively. So they may be assimilated into
those classifications. Ordering similarly acting chords into groups, we define four
main types of chord functions: Tonic, Mediant chords, Subdominant chords, and
Dominant chords.
Tonic Function: I, i, and vi - The home chord sounds at rest. It usually provides the
beginning and ending for most progressions. Sometimes the submediant (vi) can be
used as a substitution for tonic at the end of a phrase. Such a substitution is called a
deceptive cadence, as it usually comes as a "surprise."
Mediant Function: iii, vi, bIll, bV!, and bVII - Mediant chords have a weak and not
entirely determinate pull, but don't sound resolved. They usually provide a link
between chords of stronger character (Le. tonic, subdominant, and dominant
chords).
Subdominant Function: IV, ii, iv, and iio - These have a relaxed pull towards tonic
that sounds as if it "falls" back into the tonic chord, or move to the tonic by means of
another chord, namely the dominant.
Dominant Function: V, viio, and v - They have a stronger pull to tonic and sound as
if they're "leaning" into it. Moving to any other chord besides tonic comes as a bit of
a surprise, though popular music has tamed the V7 IV progression so that it is fairly
typical.
254
Tonic Chords
The word progression spurs thoughts of movement, and this precisely is
what a chord progression is, a movement in harmony from point A to point B. A
progression may begin in one spot and end in another, or it may circle back around
to end up where it began. The tonic chord usually functions as this point of origin
since it is so closely associated with the key. It sounds entirely stable in context of
the key and sounds resolved when played, meaning that it doesn't seem like it needs
to change to a different chord.
Though the tonic chord usually ends a chord progression with a cadence, be
it the end of a verse, chorus, or the whole song, the other chords in a key tend to
serve as "stops along the way" leading back to tonic. This song, in the key of D, is a
good example of how a well-balanced chord progression begins with the tonic chord
(D major) and departs and returns to tonic (Figure 13.3).
Figure 13.3 Triads in C minor:
In Christ Alone - Stuart Townend and Keith Getty
GOG A D/F~ G D/F~ Em7G1A 0 G
V Ij3
sol mi
IV
fa
I
do
IV
fa
In Christ a - lone my hope is (clUnd, He is my light, my strength, my song. This corn-er
©2001 Thankyou Music
IV 1/3 vi? Vsus I IV
fa mi re sol do fa
Though this song starts with a G major chord (IV), you can hear how the G
chord is part of a pick up measure that leads to the following D chord (1) on the
second syllable of"alone". It is clear that the harmonic and metric aspect of the
phrase begins here. The chord progression doesn't really resolve until it reaches the
next root position tonic chord on the word "song".
This is a good example of a well-balanced chord progression that begins and
ends on tonic (though not all well-balanced phrases must do so). This gives a sense
255
of resolve or completeness to each phrase of the song. This manner of writing lends
itself very well to this style of song. More traditional style songs, like hymns, are
composed with this kind of balance in mind on a number oflevels. The metric flow
of the text is even and often employs some kind of rhyme scheme. The more even
and traditional ebb and flow of the chord progression fits well into the parameters
of the song.
However, some chord progressions will avoid having a resolved beginning
and end in favor of a progression that sounds unresolved at both ends. This kind of
cyclical progression sounds as if it could be looped indefinitely without ever
resolving. The verse of Reuben Morgan's Mighty To Save is a good example of this
kind of progression. This is a IV-I-vi-V progression. Here, the verse's
progression begins on the IV chord (D) and ends with the V (E), though the IV chord
does resolve to a I (A). The placement of the tonic on the second bar doesn't make it
sound at all finalized. The momentum of the progression keeps moving forward
through the vi chord into the V. At the Vchord, the harmony pulls strongly to tonic,
but every time this progression repeats, the IV chord delays this resolution (Figure
13.4).
Figure 13.4 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding
D A r#m E
b' 'ry onc nccds com-pas sioIl, _ lo\'clhat'slIc\'Crfail IIIg. _ Let mcrcy fall OIl_ mc.
©2006 Hillsong Publishing
IV I vi V
fa do la sol
This is part of what makes the chorus of this song so satisfying to sing. The
tonic chord doesn't get played in a ((resolved" kind of manner until the beginning of
the chorus. The verse progression which creates a more unresolved or "suspended"
256
character gets answered by the I-V followed by the originaIIV-I-vi-V
progression played at the rate of half notes. (Figure 13.5)
Figure 13.5 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding
A E D.\ F~m E
Sa\'10r, He canmoye the
I
do
mounlains. :--ly God is migIHy to
V IV
sol fa
save, _ He is llligh-1y to saye. _ For-
©2006 Hillsong Publishing
I vi V
do la sol
Dominant and Subdominant Chords
Taking a closer look at dominant and subdominant chords, we can really get
at the core ofthe sound of these chords. Let's examine the chorus to Jesus Messiah.
This progression continually returns to the tonic (B) while alternating between the
IV (E) and V (F#) chord (Figure 13.6).
Figure 13.6 Jesus Messiah - Chris Tomlin, Daniel Carson, Ed Cash, & Jesse Reeves
ERE
Je-sus :--1es-si
IV
fa
ah: __
I
do
:-:mne a-boYe all__ names:_
IV
fa
Blcs-sed Re.<Jeelll cr~__
I
do
Em-nHUI-ll-d, __
V
sol
The Re.s-cuc for
©2008 Vamos Publishing
257
Listen to this progression and notice how the IV chord sounds as if it is falling
back to tonic while the Vchord leans into it. To hear more clearly how the
subdominant and dominant offer more in terms of a sense of progression compared
to other chords in the key, play the same chord progression, but replace the
subdominant and dominant chords with mediant and submediant chords. In this
chord progression, the I-IV-I-V has been replaced with I-vi-l-iii (Figure
13.7).
Figure 13.7 Aimless Chord Progressions:
B G~m B D~m
~ "'4 '''1 '''1 117~ 7»1 ""1 "71'''~~111 IIII I ,rr r", rrrr rrrr rrrr rrr~
I
do
vi
fa
I
do
iii
mi
Regardless of the fact that such a chord progression would not be very ideal
for this song's melody, it is clear that here the stability of the tonic is not balanced by
the more different sound of the subdominant and dominant chords. The mediant
and submediant chords are too close in sound to the tonic to give this chord
progression any distinct sense of development.
The sameness or closeness in sound between two chords is relative to how
much distance there is between the chords' roots, as well as how many common
tones each chord has. The roots of subdominant and dominant chords are further
away from tonic in terms of their position than any other chord. Whether moving
up or down from tonic in a scale, these chords are 4 to 5 steps away, whereas the
mediant chords are only 3 steps away and the supertonic and leading tone chords
are only 1 step away (Figure 13.8).37
370ne might note that the leading tone chord is furthest away from the tonic as it carries the seventh
scale position. However, it is in fact closest to tonic as it is only a half step away from the tonic at the
258
Figure 13.8 Tonic to DominantjSubdominant Movement:
Dominant in C: Subdominant in C:
I
do
V
sol
I
do
IV
fa
This large distance between the tonic and IV and Vchords makes them ideal
destinations for a chord progression, because it makes the harmonic movement
sound as if it is "going somewhere," more so than the mediant chords.
Mediant and Submediant
The mediant chords are closer to the tonic at 3 steps away (Figure 13.9).
Figure 13.9 Tonic to MediantjSubdominant Movement:
Mediant in C: Submediant in C:
4 s ~1= t:
I iii I VI
do mi di la
You will notice that both mediant chords (iii and vi) share two tones in
common with the tonic. Compare the notes of C(C-E-G) to E minor (E-G-B)
and A minor (A-C-E). The nearness of the mediant's root to tonic and the
"closeness in sound" from sharing two common tones gives an aural impression that
the harmony isn't so much changing as a IV or V chord would, but more as if it is a
variation. Mediant chords are sometimes used to shift the harmony away from the
top of the scale. This means that the chords that are furthest away are those that carry a central
position in the scale, i.e. subdominant and dominant chords.
259
tonic, thus keeping the progression moving along, without going immediately to a
subdominant or dominant chord.
Listen to The Glory ofIt All by David Crowder for use of the mediant iii chord.
This song uses the iii (D#m) in precisely this way, to shift the harmony while it is on
its way to the dominant (F#) chord (Figure 13.10).
Figure 13.10 The Glory of it All- David Crowder
B D~m F~
At tbc_ start_ Hc was _ thcrc,_ Hc \\'as _ thcrc, _
I
do
iii
mi
©2007 worshiptogether.com songs
V
sol
The submediant (vi) chord is used similarly. Compare its use in the opening
phrase of the hymn, Holy, Holy, Holy. The submediant Am follows the tonic in this
case, adding some harmonic interest where otherwise a tonic chord could have been
sustained (Figure 13.11).
Figure 13.11 Holy, Holy, Holy - Reginald Heber & John pykes
C Am G C F C
~ J r-§ ~ J
Ho - Iy, 110 - h ho Iy! Lord God al migh ly!
",-'
©Public Domain
I vi V I IV I
do la sol do fa do
The chorus of Everlasting God has a similar situation, where a submediant vi
chord is used in place of a tonic chord (Figure 13.12).
260
Figure 13.12 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley
B B!D# E
You are_the_ev - er - last - ing_God,_ the ev - er - last - ing_God.
I
do
G#m
1/3 IV
mi fa
E
You do __ not_ faint,_ You_ won't grow wear - y._
vi
la
IV
fa
©200S Thankyou Music
Supertonic and Leading Tone Chords
Some chords are so closely related that they often share the same function as
other chords. Recognizing that chords sharing similar tones sometimes share
similar functions will show why I have grouped the ii chord with the IV as a
subdominant and the viiO with the V as a dominant. These chords share the same
relationships that mediant chords do with tonic (Figure 11.13).
Figure 11.13 Chord Relations:
Subdominants in C: Dominants in C:
IV
fa
ii
re
V
sol
viiO
ti
Listen for the use of the IV chord and the ii chord in the chord progression of
the verse of Here I Am To Worship. Here, the ii chord (F#m) and IV (A) are used at
similar points in the phrase (Figure 11.14).
261
Figure 11.14 Here I Am to Worship - Tim Hughes
E B ~m E B
I
dore
iiV
sol
I
do
Light of the world, you stepped down in-to dark - ness, opened my eyes, let me _ see._
©2000 Thankyou Music
V IV
sol fa
Now try playing this chord progression without the F#m, using instead the A
in the 2nd measure. You will find thatthough this arrangement uses the supertonic
chord on the second bar, it could have used the subdominant instead. However, the
F#m adds a nice contrast to the A chord, keeping this phrase of music from
becoming too repetitive.
Likewise, the viio sounds close enough to a V that is used as a dominant. The
hymn 0 The Deep, Deep Love ofJesus provides a good example of this. This song,
which is in the key of E minor, uses modal borrowing to employ a major V chord (B)
(Figure 11.15).
Figure 11.15 0 the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis & Thomas Williams
G DF# CE B· D# E III .-\. 111 13 Ii 111
r r 4f$F~ ~~ 0<::::::::::?
....--3----'
rast, un meas ured, bouud less free,
©Public Domain
bIll bVII/3 bVI/3 V/3 I iv V I
me re do ti do fa sol do
Where a dominant seventh may be used, so maya leading tone chord.
Compare the original version ofthis hymn (above) to this arrangement that uses a
D#o7 leading tone chord (Figure 11.16).
262
Figure 11.16 a the Deep, Deep Love of Jesus - Samuel Francis & Thomas Williams
G D'F~ CE BD# Em Am D#c7 Em
=r r ~C?E ~~ 0~
...--3---'
Hl5(, un meas ured, bound less free,
©Public Domain
bIll bVIl/3 bVI/3 V/3 i iv viio7 i
me re do ti do fa ti do
In this case, the change in sound is not drastic when a leading tone chord is used as a
dominant. It sounds much like a B/D# would, except that the chord has more
internal tension.
We've discussed how each diatonic chord has particular tendencies to "pull"
towards other chords. Though the above chord functions exist as the primary role
for these chords, we will see in the following section how each of these chords may
also resolve in a different way to create a particular kind of chord progression.
Circle of Fifths (Falling Fifths)
If you recall the segment in Chapter 4 where we discussed the cycle of fifths,
we found that the various keys could be organized in such a way to create a cycle
that moved through all the keys by way of the interval of the 5th. Now, earlier in this
chapter we saw how the dominant chord (which is a 5th a away from tonic) has a
particularly strong pull to tonic. These concepts, which have their differing
applications, actually come together to explain a certain type of chord progression
that has pervaded music for hundreds of years, the circle of fifths progression (also
called "falling fifths"). This progression can be used in a strictly diatonic context or
can be expanded to traverse all twelve chord/key possibilities in the cycle.
263
Diatonic Fifths
This progression, in a diatonic context, does not move through all twelve
keys, but by way of 5th movement, cycles through all seven diatonic chords of a
given key, when played in its entirety. In this case, one of the intervals is a
diminished fifth (between IV and viio) (Figure 11.17).
Figure 11.17 Cycle of Diatonic Fifths (in C):
c F B' Em Am Dm
f 1 I J I 1 I
I IV viiO iii vi ii
do fa ti mi la re
G C
J t
V I
sol do
It can be used in whole or in part, as we saw at the end of Lord I Lift Your Name On
High. This song employs the last four chords in the cycle in the key of G:
vi-7ii-7V-71 or Em-7Am-7D-7G (Figure 11.18).
Figure 11.18 Lord I Lift Your Name on High - Rick Founds
G C D Em? Am? D G
_ FromLhe cross_Lo Lhe grave,_l'romLhe grave_La Lhe sky:_Lord IlifLyourname_on high.
I
do
IV
fa
V
sol
vi7
la
©1989 Maranatha Praise Inc.
ii7 V I
re sol do
Perfect Fifths
The cycle may also be employed to traverse every possible chord (either in
major or minor) when the fifth movement is restricted to perfect intervals (Figure
11.19).
Figure 11.19 Cycle of Perfect Fifths:
C I, Il b J~b Ab Db 1'# B \ J) G c
264
4 ~ql~ l~~1 ~,~ q,'~ I~l; I~\t
I IV bVII bIll bVI bII #IV VII III VI II V I
do fa te me Ie ra fi ti mi la re sol do
However, in a real musical context, the entire cycle rarely runs full course, as
such a lengthy progression could seem extremely protracted and indulgent. Often a
composer, like he's on a train, will get off at one of the stops along the way. Take, for
instance, the song Give Thanks by Henry Smith. In the chorus, the cycle in the key of
F begins on an Am (iii) chord and runs through seven of the chords through to an Eb
(bVII) where it "hops offthe train" and wraps things up with a V7-71 progression
(Figure 11.20).
Figure 11.20 Give Thanks - Henry Smith
Am7 Dm7 Gm7 C7 Fmaj7
nOlI Jet the \\'eak say, "1 am strong." Let the poor say, "1 mn rich." be - cause-of
iii7
mi
Bbmaj7
vi7 ii7
la re
Ebmaj7 Ebn C7
V7
sol
Imaj7
do
F
\\'hat
blVmaj7
fa
the I,onl has donc
bVIImaj7
te
~ 1 ~ ~.i
for_ us. Gi\c thanks.
©1978 Integrity's Hosanna! Music, arr. by the author
bVII/7 V7 I
la sol do
Now that we are beginning to understand how chords relate to each other
and move together to form larger musical phrases, we have many of the theoretical
265
tools we need to understand music to the degree that we can now create new
progressions or manipulate existing ones to make fresh arrangements. This is the
focus of the following chapter, which will deal specifically with the idea of molding
the harmony of an existing tune, to bring out a different character or to even to
breathe new life into a tired song.
266
CHAPTER XIV
CHORD SUBSTITUTION
In a sense, this is the chapter that everything in this book has been leading up
to, and the one I have been most eager to write. The techniques described here are
some of the most useful and also fun for church musicians who are looking to put
their own creative footprint onto or revitalize old standards that may have become
tired through overuse.
Chord substitution is the process of altering the chord structure of a
preexisting composition. These techniques allow the arranger to manipulate and
often improve on a song without changing the melody. As an arranger, my goal is to
create a musical tapestry of songs that allows for enough familiarity that invites
singers to participate confidently in worship, but also keep them engaged through
fresh and exciting new sounds. With these techniques, we will learn how to
manipulate the chord progressions of both new and old compositions in both subtle
and more drastic ways that still uphold the familiarity and singability of the song.
Fundamentally, there are three ways to alter a song through chord
substitution. One can change the chord structure of a song by removing chords to
simplify the music, replacing chords to modify the music, and adding chords to make
it more complex.
Simplifyin&= Chord Pro&=ressions
Though this technique is not often needed for songs in a popular style, this is
a very helpful technique when attempting to "contemporize" more traditional songs
like hymns. In general, hymns contain a lot more chord changes per musical phrase
than popular songs.
267
The origin of this stylistic difference lies in the instrumentation for which
each respective style was intended. Hymns were composed to be able to be
performed with little or no instrumental accompaniment. The "band" consisted of
the congregation's voices and maybe an organ or piano for accompaniment. The
chords in each song were generated from how a singer could harmonize with the
melody, usually in at least 4 distinct parts, soprano, alto, tenor, and bass (SATB).
This kind of "part writing" allowed for quick changes in harmony, oftentimes at the
rate of one chord per syllable. Later, when the instrumentation and compositional
style changed to reflect popular music, with guitar being the primary
accompaniment as opposed to a keyboard instrument, songs were written with far
fewer chords. The guitar-driven accompaniment would usually vamp on a groove
composing of a simple chord progression so a melody could be sung over the top of
it.
Playing a hymn in the context of more contemporary instrumentation poses
some challenges for musicians, especially for guitarists, who are not accustomed to
quickly changing chord progressions that cover a lot of "harmonic ground", so to
speak. The unfortunate result of this is that many great songs ofthe faith are simply
not heard ignored because they are too difficult to play, or the traditional
arrangements are so different from modern ones that they sound antiquated.
Therefore, it can be extremely valuable for a church musician to be skilled in
adapting these songs to the musical culture of the church so that they can better fit
stylistically and be more accessible to the musicians who play them.
A complex chord progression can be made simpler by omitting chords and
although this is often a simple enough process that one can do it quickly by ear,
there are some factors that can make it difficult. Having more of a technical
understanding of how to do this well is useful. Take the hymn How Great Thou Art
as an example. Though this hymn was composed in the mid 1940s when songs were
already on their way to becoming less harmonically complex, the traditional
arrangement contains a lot more chords than most guitarists would care to play.
268
Here is the first phrase of the hymn followed by a two-step process for how to
simplify this song into a more contemporary sounding arrangement (Figure 14.1).
Figure 14.1 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A E7B Ad D
Lord my God,
dm'E
when J
BmE
in awe - some
E7 :\
won - der__ con - si - der
all
f#@E.~J~~~ ~
~
(he worlds Thy hands have made, see (he
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust
1) Leave only the chord on the first beat of each measure. One very easy
way to make a rough simplification is to remove all chords except for the
chord that is on the downbeat of each measure. Though this isn't a
perfect method, it can get you started. Here is what the song would
sound like with this first level of simplification (Figure 14.2).
Figure 14.2 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A D
() Lord my
AE
God, when I 111 awe - some \\'on - der__ con - si - cler
all the worlds Thy hands haye see (he
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
269
It is rare that using this step alone will make for an adequate
arrangement. It is so rough that it eliminates some essential chords along
with all the "unnecessary" ones. If you sing with this arrangement, you may
find the song needs a chord change in parts where there is now none.
2) Add chords where needed. This is the more difficult step. Some songs
need a lot of chords added. Oftentimes it can be difficult to determine
where chords need to be added and what those chords ought to be.
Listening to the melody along with the simplified version can help
determine where chords ought to be added. Places where the melody
lingers on notes that don't fit the chord well are key spots. Listening to
this new arrangement you may find that in the first full bar at the word
"awesome", the melody moves to an F# which doesn't fit the A major very
well. In the original version, the D major chord came in here rather than
on the downbeat of the next bar. Moving the D back to this position
would solve this problem (Figure 14.3).
Figure 14.3 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A D
o Lord Ill) God, when I in nll'e - some won - der__ con - si - der
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
Although revisiting the original harmony can often fix these issues, this isn't
always the case. The third full bar has AlE and the fourth has A in this simpler
version. It sits too long on the same chord. In my opinion, this arrangement could
benefit from a different chord where changes of harmony were in the original, over
the words "worlds Thy hands have". To keep this arrangement simpler, we would
not reinsert all the chords that were originally there (C#m/E-7 Bm/E-7 E7). When
270
attempting to determine which harmony one should use, choose the harmony that
fits best with the melody for its full duration. In this case, the E7 works well. The
resulting simplified arrangement of this phrase of music could look something like
this:
Figure 14.4 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A D
o Lord Illy
:\ E
God,
£7
wben I in awe - some \\'on - der__ con - si - der
all
ffj~.~~~J~~ ~
-------
the \\'orlds Thy hands have made, see (he
© 1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
Replacing Chords
We have already discussed in the previous chapter how some chords may be
used almost interchangeably due to the fact that they have tones in common. This is
the fundamental principal behind most chord substitution. The more tones two
chords have in common the more similar they sound and the more likely a chord
substitution will work. Consequently, the most obvious and perhaps the easiest
form of chord substitution is where the chord essentially stays the same, but is
altered in some way, either through inversion or through the addition or removal of
a tone from a chord. With this technique, the change is relatively subtle as two or
more common are retained and the root is not changed.
We have already discussed this technique in some detail. However, some of
the more interesting and challenging types of chord substitution occur when a new
chord a new chord is used to replace an existing chord.
271
Third Relationships
Finding chords that share two or more tones in common is a fairly simple
matter. In a diatonic key, two chords share multiple common tones when their
roots are a third apart. This is called a third relationship. For example, a C major
triad and an E minor triad share two common tones because E is a third above C.
The same is true for A minor, as its root is a third below C (Figure 14.5).
Figure 14.5 Third Relationships - C Major
C Em Am
, i
-
I 1
I iii vi
do mi fa
In theory, either of these two chords could be used to substitute for the
original chord, Cmajor. However, the degree to which a substitution of this kind
would sound fitting or natural is dependent on the context wherein it is used. There
are many factors that determine the effectiveness of a chord substitution in a song,
but the two most important ones are the melody the chord supports and the
surrounding chord progression.
A substituted chord may sound natural if the notes of the new chord
harmonize well with the melody, but if they clash, then a substitution sounds more
forced. For instance, if a song is using a Cchord (C-E-G) to support the note Cin
the melody above, then a substitution of an Am (A-C-E) will not clash because Cis
the 3rd of Am. Furthermore, the other notes in Am (A and E) do note create
dissonant intervals with C. However, a substitution of Em (E-G-B) would be less
natural since an E minor triad does not contain the note C. It wouldn't give the
melody strong harmonic support, in fact the B in an Em would sound very dissonant
272
against the melody, C. Experiment with this on the first chord of the hymn Holy,
Holy, Holy (Figure 14.6.).
Figure 14.6 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber
C \.111 G C F C
lIo - Iy, ho - ly. 110 Iy! Lord God al - migh ty I
©Public Domain
You should find that an Am would not clash while the Em will. However, the
Em may be used to replace the C at the end of the phrase on the word "mighty".
Though theory can explain in terms of notes and intervals why some substitutions
work better than others, these factors are usually quite easily discernable just by
listening, making an effort to find a fitting substitution fairly simple.
Even though these various substitutions are possible with this hymn, the
resulting chords might not benefit the song much when placed in the context of the
overall chord progression. This leads to the next issue: that the chord should fit well
in the chord progression of a song as well. However, this matter is slightly more
complicated to address. Therefore, let us try to apply all the above principles of
chord substitution in the context of another song where a change in chord
progression is more readily beneficial. Earlier, while discussing chord inversion, we
found that Blessed Be Your Name is an ideal candidate for chord change. This was
because the song's chord progression remains constant throughout its entirety,
putting it at risk of become overly monotonous. By using chord inversion, we were
able to make the song's chord progression a little more dynamic. Likewise, a chord
substitution placed somewhere in the middle ofthe song between verse and chorus
might help to relieve much of the sameness. Attempting this technique on this tune
will be a great example, since on the one hand, the repetitive nature ofthe song begs
for some kind of change, while on the other hand, it is this very repetitive nature
273
that will resist chord substitution by causing any change to seem very obvious and
perhaps out of place.
The phrase leading into the chorus is an ideal spot for us to use substitution.
The melody here changes from what it was in the verse, setting it apart as a different
section of music. Therefore, changing the progression here would be more
expected. In addition, the nature of this phrase is to build anticipation that is
fulfilled at the onset of the chorus, so putting in a different chord progression may
help to create harmonic tension that would be "released" at the chorus when the
original progression returns. Here is the portion of music with the original I-V-
vi-IV chord progression (Figure 14.7J.
Figure 14.7 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
B f# O#m I:
n
Ey' ry hlcss - ing You pour out I'll turn haek to praise.
F# G#111 E
'Vhen the dark - ness dos - es ill Lord, still I "ill say, "Bles-sed be the
©2002 Thankyou Music
As we've stated, careful attention must be placed on how the substitution
affects the overall chord progression and how the new chord interacts with the
melody. In order for the new chord(s) to sound fitting and not sound overly
contrived, the new chord should support the melody line and also help maintain the
flow of the overall progression. Below is an example of how both of these factors
must be in play for a substitution to serve the song well.
Now, according to the theory of third relationship, the progression B-F#-
G#m-E could all be entirely replaced by diatonic chords a third away, either above
or below. Here is an example ofthe first 4 measures of this phrase with third
274
related substitutions. Here, the G#m, D#m, and C#m are all a third below the
original chords while the Bis related by a third above the original root (Figure 14.8).
Figure 14.8 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
G~m D~m B dm
.
E,·' ry hlc~~ - iug You pour out I'll turn hack to prai~c.
©2002 ThankYou Music, arr. by the author
vi iii I ii
la mi do re
Though the new chord progression G#m-D#m-B-C# (vi-iii-I-ii) will
work with the melody, it doesn't fit ideally into the context of the song. This kind of
substitution is not beneficial, as its progression seems directionless and interrupts
the flow of the song. An effective chord substitution not only fits with a melody, but
also serves the overall chord progression by helping to propel the phrase forward.
Look now at the arrangement below. There are several substitutions going on here,
all of which work together to harmonize well the melody and create an effective
progression through an ascending bass line. This is a simple way to maintain
momentum in a chord progression (Figure 14.9).
Figure 14.9 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman
B F~ G~111 E
I
do
E,,' ry bless - iug You pour out 1'II
V
sol
vi
la
tullJ back [0 praise.
IV
fa
G#m7
275
C#m 7
When the dark - ness clos - es in Lord, still J will say, "13les-sed be the
vi7
Ja
Vj3
ti
©2002 Thankyou Music, arr. by the Author
ii7 Ij3 IV V
rn mi ft ~J
Notice now that we added a 7th to the first new chord, making it a G#m7. The
7th of G#m7 is an F# which is a note in the melody and a note that was a part of the
original chord. In fact, the new chord contains all three tones of the original B chord
making this substitution sound more fitting. When a substituted chord is related by
a third below, as with G#m and B, adding the 7th to the substituted chord will create
a four note chord that contains all three tones of the original triad. The illustration
below shows how the original Btriad (B-D#-F#) is contained in the new chord,
G#m7 (G#-B-D#-F#) (Figure 14.10).
Figure 14.10 Third relationship, B to G#m7:
13 G#m7
-
! I
I vi7
do Ja
Third Relationship Expanded
The technique of using third relationship to generate chords with 2 or even 3
common tones, can be expanded if one applies this technique multiple times over a
series of chords, each time expanding the new chord to include the previous chord
and a new root note a third below. This shows every chord in a particular key that
shares 3 common tones with the original chord. For example, if you look at the C
major triad that contains the notes C-E-G (R-3-5), the triad that is related by a
276
third below would be Am7 (A-C-E-G) and contains all the original tones of the C
major triad. Doing this process again, now to the Am, results in a chord with the
root F. This resulting chord would be an F major chord, but if we keep all the
original pitches from the previous two chords, we have an expanded Fmaj9 (F-A-
C-E-G). This process is illustrated below (Figure 14.11)
Figure 14.11 Third Relationships, Cto Am7 to Fmaj9:
C Am7 Fmaj9
1 1- -1- -I
I vi7 IVmaj9
do la fa
Now, we can continue this process until each of the 7 tones ofthe scale is
represented for possible substitution (Figure 14.12).
Figure 14.12 Third Relationships Expanded:
c Am7 Fmaj9 Dm]] Bo7(l1)(b13) Gsus13 Eml3
4 1= =1- =I=- =1- -i- t !--.-
-.
I vi7 IVmaj9 ii11 X38 Vsus13 iii13
do la fa re sol mi
Of course, many of the above chords are very far removed from the original C
triad, and when put in the context of substitution they may sound overly complex,
but this process shows how far this technique can go to reveal common tones
among chords. Note that on three of the chords, certain tones have been omitted in
order to avoid the highly dissonant m9 interval. Doing this helps clear up a lot of the
38 A half-diminished chord with extensions above the seventh is almost unusable, but has been
included for didactic reasons.
277
internal dissonance created by more complex chords. Another method for
simplifying these harmonies is to retain the Cchord while changing the bass note
each time. The above example would be rendered thus (Figure 14.13):
Figure 14.13 Third Relationships Expanded, Simplified:
C CiA C/F C/D CiB C/G C!E
4 1= -=1- -!- =~- I 1 I
-T-
-T____li
I 1/6 1/4 1/2 1/7 1/5 1/3
do la fa re ti sol mi
Now using the above ideas in a more conservative way, let us apply them to
build a fresh arrangement from our simplified version of How Great Thou Art
(Figure 14.14).
Figure 14.14 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A D
o Lord my
AlE
God,
E7
when I III awe-some won - der__ con - si - der
A
all the worlds Thy hands have see the
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust
The goal here will be to create an arrangement that is strikingly different, yet
retains the song's original character and singability. As a general rule, when
creating a new arrangement that will not be so different as to alienate a singing
278
congregation, the first chord of the tune should not be altered too dramatically. The
first chord of the tune, if kept familiar, will help ease the congregation into singing
the new arrangement by not throwing them off at the onset of the tune. Keeping key
elements of the song familiar will give you more room to take liberties with other
parts. For this reason, we have left the initial chord, A, unchanged and will apply our
extended third related technique to the second chord, D.
Modal Mixture
To approach this technique more conservatively at first, let us only move into
the first extended third related chord. Passing through an initial Bm (or Bm7)
would lead to a G#07. This substitution would work in theory but it may have too
much tension to suit this tune. Rather than venturing further through our third
related harmonies, we could resolve this issue by simply changing the new root (G#)
to a Gnatural. Thought this note is not in the key of A major, but it can be borrowed
from the parallel A minor. This Gnatural is outside of the diatonic system of A
major, it sounds good in this context (Figure 14.15).
Figure 14.15
D 13 m7 G#o7 Gmaj9
I
fa
vi7
re
vii07 bVIImaj9
ti te
Modal mixture (or borrowing) may be implemented for the purposes of
substitution as well. The chord used in the above example, is part of the bVIImaj7
found in minor keys (Figure 14.16).
279
Figure 14.16 Seventh chords using:tt6 and :tt7:
~ ~b ~ ~~I I,bl b~Qi 1'1 gl ~ql q I?~1
i7 imaj7 W'J7 ii7 ?IIlmaj7 bIIl+maj7 iv7 IV7
do do re re me me fa fa
~ ~'& ~I 81 1,1'1 gl'l ~i l ~i ~f~ R
v7 V7 bVImaj7 vi il7 bVII7 bVIImaj7 viio7 vii il7
sol sol Ie la te te ti ti
We will utilize this chord for our ongoing arrangement as a substitution of the IV
chord (D) (Figure 14.17).
Figure 14.17 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
.\ GmajlJ
o Lord my God, when I in awe-some \\'on - der__ eon - si - del'
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
Let's take the next chord in our arrangement of How Great Thou Art. After
the newly substituted Gmaj9, the chord progression would return to a tonic A major
chord, but we will take this opportunity to employ some more instances of modal
mixture. To determine what chords may be used through modal mixture for
substitution, let us apply the same techniques described above, but expand the
harmonic possibilities to the parallel key. Here, we have the chord in question, A
major, the modally borrowed eqUivalent A minor and some initial third related
chords associated with it (Figure 14.18).
280
Figure 14.18 Third Relationships, Modal Mixture
A major: A minor:
A Am C F Dm9
-
I ~ I I I
I i bIll bVI iv9
do do me Ie fa
Of these options, we have chosen the Cmajor chord to substitute the A major
in this particular arrangement because it contains an E, which is the note we sing on
the word "all" and because it progresses most naturally from Gmaj9.39 Ifwe desire
to make the progression even smoother, we can extend the Ctriad up further in the
key to become Cmaj7 (C-E-G-B), that way we aren't transitioning from as-note
extended chord to a triad. Remember that extended chords will fit better into a
progression when they are among other extend chords (Figure 14.19).
Figure 14.19 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A Gmaj9
a Lord my God,
I
do
when I in awe - some won - der__ con - si - der
bVIImaj9
te
39 Note that in the fourth bar of the original composition, the note following "all" on the word "the"
was a C#, which would have been highly dissonant with the substituted Cmaj7 chord. To avoid such
a dissonance, the melody has been changed to simply sustain the E, which harmonizes well with a
Cmaj7. At times, changes to a known melody may be so inconsequential they will not confuse a
worshiping congregation, though any change ought to be measured carefully in this regard.
Cmaj7 E7 A
281
all
if~dj;~~l~~ ~
------
the worlds Thy hands have made, see the_
bIIImaj7
me
V7
sol
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
I
do
Now, the next few chord substitutions are critical for ensuring that this new
arrangement retains the balance that the phrase had in the original tune. In order
for the new progression to have a similar arc as the original, we end the phrase on
the tonic (on the word "made"). Therefore, whatever chords we place between
Cmaj7 and the A must bring us naturally from our current position in the parallel
minor back to the tonic in the original key.
A variety of chords could be used to fit into this two-beat length section over
the words "worlds Thy hands have". The original E7 chord was held over both
beats, but two or more chords could be substituted in its place. Here, we have
inserted a chord on each beat to accompany the change in melody note from E to D.
Both of these chords are taken from the parallel minor (Figure 14.20).
Figure 14.20 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
Cmaj7 Em/A Dm6!A A
all
~Ei~ ~
------
the worlds Thy hands have made, see the_
bIIImaj7
me
v/4
do
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
v6/S I
do do
The first chord we've chosen, Em, works as a substitute, because it is the
parallel minor alternative (v) to the original E7 (V7) and shares 3 common tones
with the previous chord, Cmaj7. The following Dm6 is also taken from the parallel
282
minor (iv6) and harmonizes well with the melody. It also works to form an effective
link between the Em and the A due the smooth voice leading between chords. We
have added a tonic pedal note to these chords to further smooth the transition from
these chords back to tonic. The diagram below includes a second staff to illustrate
the voice leading ofCmaj7~Em/A~Dm6/A~A(Figure 14.21).
Figure 14.21 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A Gm~i9
~ •• ..
0 Lord my I God. when I in awe-some ' won - deI__ con - si - deI
... ~ 1+ -------.
~ o'
q~___."-L
• 0-
------I IV
do fa
emaj7 Em/A Dm6/A A
,., J,j +I
:~ .. .. ~ ..
all the worlds Thy hands have l11a~ I see the
II I J,j +I
~ q £T Ii - -.. (>
bIIImaj7
me
v/4
do
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
iv6/5 I
do do
Here is our finalized version of our arrangement of the first phrase of How
Great Thou Art. Through the process of explaining why these chords work in place
of the originals, you have become more acquainted with how chords relate and
work in progression. The process of coming up with unique arrangements that also
work will naturally become more intuitive as you merge your theoretical knowledge
with your ears to hone your musical sensibilities (Figure 14.22).
283
Figure 14.22 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A Gmaj9
o Lord my God,
I
do
when I in awe-some won - der__ con - si - der
bVIImaj9
te
Cmaj7 Dm6/A A
all
.~.~ ~
~
the worlds Thy hands have made, see the_
bIIImaj7
me
v/4
do
©1949. 1953 Stuart Hine Trust, arr. by the author
iv6/4 I
do do
Though "what works" in chord substitution is largely a subjective matter,
since what sounds fresh and new to one person may sound too outlandish to
another, we have attempted to establish a gUide for how to approach this highly
creative arranging technique. The foI!owing and final chapter will explore a similar
topic} but one that is a bit more strict in application, modulation.
Practice Exercises
In the exercise below, you will try your hand at creating a fresh arrangement
of the refrain to How Great Thou Art through chord substitution. The arrangement
below contains aI! the chords transcribed from the original. Using the techniques
discussed thus far, create a new one by omitting chords and adding chords where
necessary, as weI! as substituting new harmonies. Be sure to employ substitution
through third relation, and use modal mixture. In the staff below each measure;
notate the chords so that you are aware of the voice leading between them, when
possible attempt to create progressions with smooth voice leading. Also depict the
new chord progression with a numeric analysis between the staves. Lastly, make
284
sure that the new chords harmonize well with the melody and remember that you
don't need to change every chord. Atasteful arrangement will maintain the integrity
of the original composition while offering something fresh to challenge the listener
(Figure 14.23).
Figure 14.23 How Great Thou Art - Stuart Hine
A A A9/d D D° 0 E AlE E7
'I J> II
- - - - -
t
. ,
t r
---Then sings my soul. my say - ior. God, to Thee; _____ How great Thou
t
J> II
t
E E7 DIE E A A A9/d0 0° 0
J> fI
- - -,
t ~ ... ,. 6- r..
< art-:- -- how great Thou art! -- Then sings my soul. my sav-jor. God to
101 fI
I
t.
E E7/B Aid Bm7/D F~7/Cll3m E7 A
~ J> II
- -
1':'\
t
tJ I
-
~
-------< Thee: How great Thou art, how great Thou art!
t
'I J> fI
t.
285
CHAPTER XV
MODULATION
This final chapter on modulation covers a very crucial topic for the art of
arranging music for a church service. Modulation, which is essentially the art of
changing keys, is a highly useful, yet under-utilized musical technique in modern
worship services. As many music directors desire to craft the music of a service to
flow seamlessly from one element to the next, having the musical skill to transition
between them becomes a very important skill. However, the technique to create a
modulation that changes keys without producing an awkward sensation is not a
simple matter, which is why it eludes many people. As a result, people who aren't
comfortable employing modulation fear their inability to transition to different keys
and often task themselves with creative ways to disguise or avoid it altogether.
Rather than treating key change as an unfortunate speed bump in the worship
service, by learning the art of modulation, one can embrace the musical possibilities
inherent in the process and use the modulation to help foster an uplifting worship
service. Harnessing the powers of modulation can be a very rewarding process,
though Ralph Turek perhaps has said it more eloquently, "...discovering the secrets
of a particularly beautiful but enigmatic modulation can produce a gratifying sense
that a treasure has been unearthed."xviii
Creating a natural and artistic key change is a goal that has kept music
composers and arrangers busy for a long time and as such, a variety of techniques
have developed, which have proven to work well when employed in the right
manner. The types of approaches vary. Some nearly abandon the idea of a smooth
transition altogether while others demand the composition of complex passages of
music in order to transition the listener from one key to the next. As a result, some
techniques will seem more immediately useful, while others may take a great degree
286
of thought (and practice) to employ successfully. All techniques will be discussed in
detail, however, as each one creates its own effect on the music, each can be useful
depending on the musical context and the desires of the music arranger. Also, we
will see how each technique can be used to change keys between songs as well as in
the midst of a song.
There are six main techniques used in music from classical to modern rock to
facilitate modulation: direct, common chord, common tone, chromatic, enharmonic,
and sequential modulation, and each one works in a unique way to string two
different keys together.
Direct Modulation
This is the classic pop song modulation. It is called direct modulation,
because there is no transitional music involved, the song suddenly continues in a
new key. As there is no transitional material needed to create a direct modulation, a
discussion of how to employ it between songs is irrelevant. Therefore, we will focus
on how this technique is used to change keys in the midst of a song.
Though a direct modulation could happen at any moment and move to any
key, generally a direct modulation will lead to a new key either a semitone or a
whole tone above the initial key. So, a song in the key of Cwill likely modulate up to
Cj:l: or D. The reason for this is because a direct modulation is often employed to
heighten the excitement of a song and "step on the gas," so to speak, for the final
verse or chorus of a song. The raised pitch center causes the singer to sing a little
higher (and perhaps with more fervor). The below example of Everlasting God
shows a simple direct modulation moving from the key of B major to Cmajor in a
repetition of the song's chorus. This modulation is considered direct because the
chorus is simply repeated in a new key without any sort of linking chord to ease the
transition (Figure 15.1).
287
Figure 15.1 Everlasting God - Brenton Brown & Ken Riley
G#m E
c
vi
fa
Yon do__ not_ faint, _ YOII_ won't grow
IV
fa
C:E F
wear - y._
ing _ God, __ the ev -
©200S Thankyou Music
I
do
'lOll are_ the_ ev er - last
1/3
mi
IV
fa
As no chord is used to link the two keys together, arrangers will often use
rhythm to create a transition between keys. Sometimes, when a direct modulation
seems awkward, an arranger will create space between the two keys by inserting
one or more beats of rest to create sonic space between the two sections. For
example, a typical situation would be to have all the pitched instruments (non
percussion instruments) rest while the space is filled in by drums with a drum break
of some kind or merely a snare hit on the last beat of the E chord in the old key.
Another technique might be to use some change in rhythm that builds into the next
key over the last few beats of the old key. For example, a common technique would
be to build into the next key through driving eighth notes for a few beats and
transition back into a more "flowing" rhythm upon reaching the new key. Though
this technique is borderline cliche, it certainly is an effective way to create a more
natural transition in a direct modulation.
Another rhythmic technique sometimes used to facilitate transition is the
addition of beats between keys. Oftentimes, an arranger might add a few extra bars
of musical space to cushion the abrupt change of keys by delaying the key change a
few beats or allowing a few extra beats of the new key before singing to let the new
288
key "settle in". Here, we have a modulation from the key of A major to B major in a
repetition of the chorus of Mighty To Save (Figure 15.2).
Figure 15.2 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding
D A f~m E B
con-quered the grave. _ Je-sus con-quered the grm'e. _ Sav-ior, He can move the_
©2006 Hillsong Publishing, arr, by the author
IV I vi V I
fa do fa sol do
This transition seems fairly natural, but if one wanted to add time between the two
phrases, one could simply add a few beats onto the last chord of the first key or onto
the first chord of the next key; though you may find that one produces a more
pleasing result than the other. The first example shows the addition of two beats
(indicated by the 2/4 bar) onto the final E chord for the first phrase. This addition
of time seems to delay the modulation in a fairly natural way that may help to
"cushion" the abruptness of the transition (Figure 15.3).
Figure 15.3 Adding 2 beats to the last chord in the original key:
F~m E - B
con-quered the grave._ Sav - ior. He can move the
However, if you were to add two extra beats ahead of the next phrase in the new
key, you may find the result robs the key change of some potency. Therefore, as you
arrange the music to facilitate a key change, you must keep your ears "on" to ensure
that you are producing the best results in your arrangement.
Adding 2 beats to the first chord in the new key (Figure 15.4):
289
Figure 15.4 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben FieldilJg
F#m E B
con-quered the grave._ Sav - ior, He can move the
Common Chord Modulation
Other modulatory techniques utilize commonalities in harmony to link two
keys together. This occurs in common chord modulation (also known as pivot chord
modulation) where a chord that is shared between two different keys is used to link
them together. In a sense, the tonality "pivots" on this common chord, switching to
a new key. This can occur between songs or in the midst of a single song to change
keys. As there are more common chords shared between closely related keys (those
near each other in the cycle of fifths), these are the keys usually modulated to in
common chord modulation. Compare the key of Cto the key of G. These two keys,
which are a 5th apart, share 4 common chords: C, Em, G, Am (Figure 15.5).
-------------------------- ---- .. -
290
Below is an example of a common chord modulation that moves a
progression from the key of Gto the key of C. As both keys share an Em in common
(vi in Gand iii in C), this chord helps link the two keys together (Figure 15.6).
Figure 15.6 Common Chord Modulation:
Key of Gmajor: Key of Cmajor:
c G 0 Em F C G Am
~i 2' 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 7 ~ ~ 7 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 7I 2 Z 2 2 Z I 2 Z 2 Z 2 I 2 Z
IV I V vi / iii IV I V vi
fa do sol la / mi fa do sol la
When one uses a pivot chord to modulate to a closely related key in the
middle of a song, careful attention must be placed on how this affects the melody.
The reason here is that the new key will cause a leap up or down in the melody's
tessitura (or range). If the leap were very large, one could risk losing the
participation of an unprepared singing congregation. This common chord
modulation uses a pivot chord to bridge the keys of A and E for a repeat ofthe
chorus of Mighty To Save in a new key (E is the pivot chord). However, the jump in
tessitura here is so large that it would most likely shock a congregation out of
singing - ifthey could even sing in that range it all (Figure 15.7).
Figure 15.7 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding
F#m E E B
con-quered the grave._ Say-ior, He can move the_ moun-tains. My God IS
vi
la
V
sol
I
do
V
sol
291
However, a clever use of modulation can make for a creative song
arrangement that won't be overly challenging for a congregation. Using this change
in tessitura to our advantage, we can arrange songs in ways that wouldn't have -
worked well otherwise. For example, if one desired to begin Mighty To Save with
the bridge music and later returned to it, it would be difficult to do so without
feeling like one had "given away the ending". The bridge of many songs functions as
a climax, which is often facilitated by a melody that is relatively higher in range. It is
thus reserved for near the end of a song, because singing it too early would make the
following sections seem deflated and the anticipation usually created would
probably be disrupted. However, one can work around this by setting an initial
presentation of the bridge music in a lower key, where the melody sits in a lower
tessitura, and then modulate to the original key for the rest of the song. This
ensures that a singer won't have a "haven't-we-already-done-this?" sensation when
the climax of the song occurs at the bridge. Below is an example of how a pivot
chord is used to modulate from the bridge in C (not shown) to the key of D and then
to the 1st verse in the original key of A (Figure 15.8).
Figure 15.8 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding
G DAD
for the glo-ry_ of the ris-en_ King__
IV
fa
I
do
V
sol
Ev try one needs com-pas-
©2006 Hillsong Publishing, arr. by the author
IV
fa
In this example, the modulation of these two keys is cushioned by the A chord on the
word "King". It is a Vchord in the key of D, but tonic in the key of A. This
commonality allows the song to pivot smoothly to the next key.
292
The pivot chord may also be used between songs of differing keys when one
desires a seamless musical transition from one song to the next. In these cases, a
song can segue immediately into the next one or a transition can be facilitated by a
musical interlude. If the final chord of a song begins with the first chord of the next
key, then this chord can be used as the pivot chord and no other chords need be
added.
If a pivot chord modulation were to be created between Blessed Be Your
Name in B major and Here I Am To Worship in E major, then the E major chord links
the two keys as it is both the IV chord in B and the tonic in E (Figure 15.9).
Figure 15.9 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman / Here I Am to Worship-
Tim Hughes
B F# G#m F#
name of_ lhe_ Lord. __
I V
do sol
E E
bless-ed be Your glo - n - ous_ name._
vi V
la sol
13 r#m
IV
fa
Light of the world, you stepped down in - to dark - ness.
©2002 ThankYou Music/©2000 ThankYou Music, arr. by the author
I V ii
do sol re
However, if Blessed Be Your Name were sung in another key instead, like A major,
then the final IV chord (D) couldn't be used as a pivot chord since it is not in the key
of E. However, an A major triad is shared between the keys; it is I in A major and IV
in E major (Figure 15.10).
293
Figure 15.10 Blessed be Your Name - Matt & Beth Redman / Here I Am to Worship
- Tim Hughes
D A E F~m E
- say, "Bless-ed be the name of_the_Lord, __ bless-ed be Your glo - ri - ous_namc._
IV
fa
D A
I
do
E
V
sol
13
vi V
la sol
r~m
I
do
IV
fa
~_~~,Jf~I//i'i'_
Light of the world, yon stepped down in - to dark - ness,
©2002 ThankYou Music/©2002 ThankYou Music, arr. by the author
I V ii
do sol re
Common Tone Modulation
In a similar fashion to common chord modulation, a single tone may be used
to link two keys together. In this case, a common tone transition is made when an
instrument (or instruments) sustains or repeats a single pitch (held over from the
previous chord) until the chord in the next key sounds. However, as only a single
tone is used rather than a triad, the degree of possibilities for what two keys may be
linked together is greatly increased. For instance, if a song were to end on a Cmajor
triad, each of the three tones in the triad could be used to link to the next key. The
first chord of the following key could be either major or minor and contain the
common tone as one of its three tones. The diagram below shows that each of the
three tones of a triad could be the member of a major and a minor chord where that
tone is either the Root, third, or fifth. This creates 6 different possibilities for each
tone of the Cmajor triad and a total of 12 different chord possibilities (Figure
15.11).
294
Figure 15.11 Common Tone Modulation Possibilities, C Major:
C
,
•
I
do
Common tones on the root:
C Cm Ab Am F Fm
~ I &11 ~l ~~ q~l...
root root root third third fifth fifth
do do do mi me sol sol
Common tones on the third:
E Em C dm 1\ Am
~ II ~I #11 HI til• I
third root root third third fifth fifth
mi do do mi me sol sol
Common tones on the fifth:
G Gm Eb Em C Cm
~ I ~I ~~I ~~I• t ~t
fifth root root third third fifth fifth
sol do do mi me sol sol
As the diagram above shows, a Cchord could be linked by common tone to a
Cm, C#m, Eb, E, Em, F, Fm, G, Gm, Ab, A, or Am chord. This means that at least this
many keys can be linked to a C chord through a common tone, since each of these
chords could be the tonic of the new key or simply a chord diatonic to the new key.
As there is a wide range of possibilities for where to modulate, common tone
modulation allows for the modulation between two more distantly related keys
(keys not near each other in the cycle of fifths]. Furthermore, since instrumentation
295
is often drastically reduced during modulation (often to a single instrument with
holding one sustained pitch) the rhythm can break altogether. This rhythmic "dead
space" may allow for two songs with very different meter or tempo to be linked
together as well.
For example, observe how In Christ Alone can be linked to 0 Praise him
through a common tone. In Christ Alone is written in the key of D and is in a
moderate 3/4 meter while 0 Praise Him is in the key of Bb with a quick 4/4 meter.
However, since D major (D-F#-A) and Bb major (Bb-D-F) both share the note
D, this tone may be used as a common tone to transition between these two very
different-sounding songs (Figure 15.12).
Figure 15.12 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend / 0 Praise Him -
David Crowder
G DiF# Em A D Bb2
pow'r of Christ I'll stand. _ Turn your ear__ to hea-
©2001 ThankYou Music/©2003 worshiptogether.com songs, arr. by the author
IV 1/3 ii V I root / third 1(2)
fa mi re sol do do / mi do
Chromatic Modulation
Other than direct modulation, every modulation technique discussed thus far
has used some form of diatonic "link" between two different key areas to facilitate a
smooth musical transition. However, this is not the only way to create a musical
transition between keys. Rather than using diatonic similarities to link keys
together, the remaining types of modulation employ some type of chromatic shift in
harmony that will steer the progression towards a new key.
Chromatic modulation uses secondary dominants to direct a chord
progression to a new key. As we found in Chapter XII, a secondary dominant is a
major chord taken from the dominant scale degree of a different key, but until now
296
we have not seen songs that stay in the new key after a secondary dominant is used.
The below example shows how Keith & Krystyn Getty's 2006 recording of In Christ
Alone shows how chromatic modulation may be effectively used even in the midst of
a song. In the 3rd stanza, Keith Getty employed a secondary dominant to raise the
key from Cmajor to Db major (Figure 15.13).
Figure 15.13 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend
GSLIS G F C F G C/E F C/EDm G
~£ !j~ ,~ £ ~. is
There in the ground His bo - dy lay, light of the world by dark ness
VSUS V IV I IV V 1/3 IV 1/3 ii V
sol sol fa do fa sol mi fa mi re sol
GSLIS G AD? DD GD A~ D~!F
~ J !j ~~hl'~~ J ,~ £ ~
slain. Then burst - ing forth in glor-ious day, up from the
©2001 & 2006 Thankyou Music
VSUS V VI7 / V7 I IV V 1/3
sol sol Ie / sol do fa sol mi
This modulation works particularly well because the notes being sung on the
word "bursting" over the secondary dominant Ab7 are both in the original key and
the new key. This Cnatural is the tonic in Cmajor and the leading tone in Db major,
furthermore it is the third of the Ab major chord. Whereas other secondary
dominants might not have common tones with the original key, this helps create a
rather delightful moment in this arrangement. Needless to say, it is very
appropriate to raise the pitch center over the verse that says, "He rose again." The
one thing that could make this transition awkward is the fact that two of the notes
over the words, "Then burst-" were changed from their original pitches. However,
this alteration is trivial enough that it makes employing such a modulation well
297
worthwhile. For comparison, see the third stanza without a key change or altered
melody (Figure 15.14).
Figure 15.14
Gsus G F C F G CE F CiEDm G
light of the world by dark
F C!EDmG C
4!1 '~ 'j#ij~1~.
There in the ground His bo - dy lay,
GSllS G F C F G CiE
ness
slain. Then burst-ing forth in glor-ious day, up from the grave He rose a - gain. And as He
Keith & Krystyn Getty's In Christ Alone employs a second modulation
between the third and fourth stanzas in an eight-bar musical interlude. This
chromatic modulation is similar to the first, also using a secondary dominant to
bring the pitch center up another half step from Db to D (Figure 15.15).
Figure 15.15 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend
Abm7 Eb m7 Gb Ab7sus4 Db Ab m7
4~IZI ~ 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 I 7 7 7Z~ Z I 2 I I I I Z I 2 I I Z I I
D
#V7/V7
si I sol
~b~~'i~
:":0 guilt in life, no fear in
©2001 & 2006 Thankyou Music
I
do
IV V7sus4
fa sol
ii7
re
Eb m7 Gb Ab7sus4 A7
4~,;~ 7 7 7 I 7 7 7 11 'iz I I 2 1 1
298
Due to the nature of chromatic modulation to seem abrupt compared to
modulations that use common tones, the chord progression used to modulate
between keys is often extended by one or more chords. Thus, instead of
immediately moving from a V7 to a tonic in a new key a ii7-V7-I progression is
often employed to delay the modulation. It is done most smoothly when the ii7
chord shares one or more tones in common with the previous chord. In the next
example, a ii7-V7-I progression in Cmajor (Dm7-G7-C) is used to modulate
from the key of D. Both Db (Db-F-Ab) and Dm (D-F-A) share F in common,
making this progression seem more natural (Figure 15.16).
Figure 15.16 In Christ Alone - Keith Getty & Stuart Townend
Ab m7 Eb m7 Gb
Dm7 G7S11S4 c
I
do
ii7
re
V7sus4
sol
©2001 & 2006 Thankyou Music
I
do
Having discussed direct, common chord, common tone, and chromatic
modulation we've covered the four most common techniques for modulation.
However, two other techniques remain that are as interesting as they are unusual.
Enharmonic modulation and sequential modulation are not at all common in
popular music, much less contemporary Christian music, but as such they perhaps
represent an unexplored frontier of creativity through modulation within these
musical genres.
299
Enharmonic Modulation
Enharmonic modulation is a form of modulation wherein a given chord acts
as a pivot point modulating to a key where the chord is only common to each key
through an enharmonic respelling of the chord's notes. Though instances where
this kind of chord relationship can occur is limited, enharmonic modulation offers
possibilities for a smooth modulation to radically different keys which would have
been otherwise difficult to transition to. The chords that offer the most potential
here are chords that contain intervallic symmetry, such as fully diminished seventh
chords and augmented triads, however dominant seventh chords can offer some
possibilities as well. We will discuss the application of each type below.
Fully Diminished Seventh Applications
Afully diminished seventh chord may be respelled into a variety of other
chords through enharmonic equivalence. For instance, the B07 chord (vii07 in the
key of C) contains an A~ whose enharmonic equivalent is G#. If the chord were
respelled this way to have the pitches B-D-F-G#, this new chord would be an
inverted G#07 triad (vii07 in A) (Figure 15.17).
Figure 15.17 Fully Diminished Seventh Enahrmonic Respelling:
B °7 G#07
1 ~J &1
A~ G#
F F
D D
B B
The fully diminished seventh chord contains four tones, which are separated
by a minor 3rd. Due to the symmetry of the fully diminished seventh, the chord may
be respelled through enharmonic equivalence so that a new chord may be built from
300
each of the four tones of the chord. We already found that the Bo7 is viio7 in the key
of C, while a simple respelling results in a viio7 in the key of A. Furthermore
changing the B to a C~ results in a Do7 (key of E~). Changing A~ to Gj:j: and F to Ej:j:
results in an Ej:j:°7 (key of Fj:j:). Therefore a single fully diminished seventh chord
may be reinterpreted in four different keys (Figure 15.18).
Figure 15.18 Fully Diminished Seventh Enharmonic Respelling:
B °7 D °7 E#07 G#07
Though the process whereby we achieve these enharmonically-related
chords might seem complex, the resulting application is a fairly simple one: each
tone of the chord represents a potential root that implies a potentially new key area.
The diagram below shows a chord progression employing an enharmonic
modulation from Cm to A major (two very disparate keys) in a rather smooth
fashion using a respelled fully-diminished seventh.
Here the chord begins with a rather conventional i-iv-V7-viio7-i (Cm-Fm7-
G7-Bo7-Cm) progression in the key of Cm, but on the second pass through this
same chord progression, the viio7 is respelled as a Gj:j:°7 to act as a pivot chord to the
key of A (Cm-Fm7-G7-Gj:j:07-A). (Figure 15.19)
301
Figure 15.19 Enharmonic Modulation, Diminished Application:
Cm Fm7 G7 B07 Cm Fm G7 G#07 A
iv7 V7 viio7 iv
do fa sol tf do fa sol sf / tf do
If composing such a chord progression does not seem too out of reach, the
greater challenge will lie in employing such a technique in the context of a worship
service where one attempts to create a seamless flow of music from one song to the
next. Let us attempt modulation between two songs using these same keys.
Awesome God by Rich Mullins could utilize an enharmonic modulation to transition
from the key of C minor to Mfghty To Save (in A) by taking a Bo7 and respelling it as
a G#o7. In the example below, the G#o7 is used as part of an ending "tag" of the last
line of the song that is used as a modulatory passage that transitions to the following
key (Figure 15.20).
Figure 15.20 Awesome God - Rich Mullins / Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan &
Ben Fielding
A~ E~ Fm7 G7 em
wis
~VI
Ie
Fm7
dom,_ pow'r and love, our God is an awe - some God.
~lll iv7 V7 i
me fa sol do
G7 G#07 ASl1s4 A D
Our
4~"!~~-~~
God is an awe - some God. __ Ev 'ry one needs com-pas-
©1988 BMG Songs, Inc.j©2006 HiIIsong Publishing, arr. by the author
iv7 V7 #vo7/ viio7 Vsus4 V IV
fa sol sf / tf sol sol fa
302
Augmented Applications
Like the fully-diminished seventh chord, the augmented triad is symmetrical,
yielding possible enharmonic spellings. Each augmented triad can be respelled
enharmonically, which will allow for different possible resolutions. Ifwe recall our
discussion of augmented triads from Chapter VIII, we will remember that the
augmented triad has a dissonant augmented fifth, which has a tendency to resolve
either up or down. For example, a C+ (spelled C-E-G#) could resolve to a Cmajor
triad if the fifth were to descend by a half step, or Am, F, or Fm triads if the fifth were
to move up by half step.
Under enharmonic modulation, the symmetrical augmented triad may be
respelled into two other augmented triads. A respelling of the triad creates a new
root and thus a new fifth with two other possible resolutions. Thus, with
enharmonic respelling, there are 6 possible resolutions for one collection oftones
that form a single augmented triad (Figure 15.21).
Figure 15.21 CAugmented Triad, Its Enharmonic Respellings and Possible
Resolutions:
C+ C Am
It ~l [Ii
E+ E dm
ij§ ~~! J#;
Ab+ Ab Fm
1,1 1'1 I,~iI,
303
Let us explore what advantage an enharmonic respelling of an augmented
chord brings. Remember that the dissonant fifth in the augmented chord tends to
resolve by step either up or down, meaning that it is succeeded by either the major
triad sharing the same root (downward resolution) or a minor triad with root a m3
below (upward resolution), e.g., a C+ resolves to either Cor Am. In the context of a
simple chromatic modulation involving an augmented triad, the chord could only
serve to steer the harmony to keys containing the two resulting chords. Thus, a C+
could only modulate to keys containing C or Am (the keys of C, Am, F, Dm, G, Em, or
Fm).4°
However, the possibilities under enharmonic respelling make the augmented
triad an extremely versatile tool for modulation. Through enharmonicity, the
dissonant fifth may be reassigned to a new note in the triad and result in four more
resolutions that create even more possibilities for modulation. For instance, when
the C+ is reinterpreted as its enharmonic equivalent E+, the possible resolutions
then become E and Cj:j:m producing E, Cj:j:m, A, Fj:j:m, B, Gj:j:m, and Am as possible key
areas. likeWise, if it were respelled as Ab+ (or Gj:j:+)41, the resolution to A[, or Fm
would include A~, Fm, D[" B[,m, E[" Cm, and D[,m. A single augmented triad may
thus easily modulate to 18 of the 24 major and minor keys.
Let us now see how a modulation would sound using this technique.
Attempting a modulation from a song in the key of Gto one in the distant key of E["
we could compose a short musical interlude where an enharmonic modulation can
take place. In Chapter VIll, we discussed augmented triads and found that the Matt
& Beth Redman song Let My Words Be Few contains such a chord. This song
proVides the perfect opportunity to modulate by using an augmented triad, because
this type of chromaticism is native to this song. Therefore, taking the initial chord
40 Of course modal borrowing would yield even more key areas. But for the sake of simplicity, the
options have been restricted to chords diatonic to the resulting key with the exception of the V in
minor, which though it isn't diatonic, is a common modally borrowed chord to be included.
41 In this instance, the enharmonic respelling of C+ to G#+ is respelled further to A~+ in order to avoid
the rarely notated keys of G#, E#m, A#, 0#, and B#m.
304
progression of the song, which uses this chord, we can utilize this as a framework
for our modulatory passage moving from the key of Gto Eb.
Below we have an example of the unaltered version of the verse's chord
progression for Let My Words Be Few (G-7G+-7Em/G-7C) followed by the
modulatory section based on the prior chord progression (G-7 Eb+IG-7Cm/G-7Ab).
At the second approach of the augmented chord, the Dj:j: has been respelled to its
enharmonic equivalent Eb. Respelled in root position, this new triad would be Eb-
G-B, an Eb+ triad. Because the new fifth of the chord is B, its most natural
tendency would be to move up a half step to C, just as the Dj:j: of the G+ chord moved
to E. The subsequent chord would be a Cm/G triad instead of Em/G. Since the
Em/G was a vi chord in G, Cm/G could be vi chord as well, but in the new key (Eb).
Following suit with a natural unfolding ofthe progression (I -7 1+ -7vi-7 IV), the next
chord would be the IV in Eb, thus Ab. Now, solidly in the key of Eb, IV can resolve
back to I and begin the next song in the new key (Figure 15.22)
Figure 15.22 Enharmonic Modulation, Augmented Application:
G G+ Em/G C
4U Ii! ij bj!
"IT "IT "IT
I 1+ vij3 IV
do do do fa
G E~+/G Cm/G A~ E~
4U MJ I~3 I~I)§ 1m! be-
"IT "IT "IT
I bVI+13 I 1+/3 vij5 IV I
do do I mi mi fa do
The next song could be any that may be played in the key of Eb, but we have
chosen one with a similar tempo, Chris Tomlin's We Fall Down. Here, we have this
305
modulation bridging these two very different keys in a fairly seamless fashion. In
order to make this modulation feel as natural as possible, it often helps to provide a
melody (either sung or played on an instrument) to lead people through the key
change. This helps ground the listener in something familiar as the harmony
wanders into unfamiliar territory. The solution below uses the melody of Let My
Words Be Few, but after it reaches the Eb+ it must continue on in the new key for it
to fit with the harmony. Thus, halfway through the 2nd bar of the modulation on the
Eb+, the melody switches to the same melody transposed a M3 below (Figure
15.23).
Figure 15.23 Let My Words be Few - Matt & Beth Redman / We Fall Down - Chris
Tomlin
G G+ Em/G C
YOll are God iu hea - ven,_ and here __ am I _ on earth, __
I 1+
do do
G CmiG
vi/3 IV
do fa
E~
We fall _ down, _ we
©zooo Thankyou Music/©1998 worshiptogether.com songs, arr. by the author
I bVI+/3/ 1+/3 iv/5 IV I
do do / mi mi fa do
Dominant Seventh Applications
The third type of enharmonic modulation we will discuss involves the use of
an enharmonic respelling of the dominant seventh chord. There are two possibilites
for modulation with an enharmonic respelling of this harmony. The first is the
tritone substitution and the second is an augmented sixth respelling.
306
Tritone Substitution
A modulation may be achieved through a respelling of the dominant
seventh's tritone - the diminished fifth interval between the chord's third and
seventh tones. For instance, the third and seventh of a V7 in the key of A major (E7)
is G# and D, respectively. These tones may be respelled as D and Ab, which make up
the third and seventh of a Bb7 chord (Bb-D-F-Ab). As each chord contains at
least two common tones, they are able to substitute for each other and modulate to
their respective keys. Thus, E7, dominant seventh in the key of A, may be used to
modulate to the key of Eb (whose dominant seventh is a Bb7). Likewise, a Bb7 chord
may be used to substitute for the V7 chord in the key of A (E7). Ifthe altered
dominant chord, 7b5, is used, this provides a smoother resolution, since the b5 is the
tonic in the next key (Figure 15.24).
Figure 15.24 Tritone Substitution:
E 7(bs) Eb
V7 V7
A
The theory used to explain this principle may seem involved, but the result
can be summed up with a simple rule. A V7 chord may resolve down by one half
step to a tonic, whose key is a tritone away. The arrangement below uses this
technique to create modulation between two distantly related keys, A and Eb
(Figure 15.25).
307
Figure 15.25 Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding / We Fall Down-
Chris Tomlin
D A F~m E E E7(~5)
Call -qllered the grave._ Je - sus Call -quered the grave._
IV I vi V
fa do la sol
E~ E~ B~ em
V V7(~5)
sol sol
I
do
We faIl_ dOWll,_ we lay our_ crOWllS_ at the feet
I V vi
do sol la
©2006 Hillsong Publishing / ©1998 worshiptogether.com songs
Augmented Sixth
Another enharmonic modulation may be achieved by renaming the dominant
seventh chords seventh tone. For example, a G7 (G-B-D-F) may have its 7th
respelled to E# to create the interval of an augmented sixth (enharmonic to a m7).
The resulting G(#6) (G-B-D-E#) finds its application not in the key ofC, but as a
German Augmented sixth chord in the key of B (Figure 15.26).
Figure 15.26 Dominant Seventh Enharmonic Respelling:
G7 G(#6)
, I ~..
V7 Ger+6
308
Music theory identifies three varieties of augmented sixth chords, Italian,
French, and German, but for our purposes, we will only examine one.42 The German
Augmented 6th chord, abbreviated Ger+6, is a major chord with an added
augmented 6th tone. This chord, which appears almost exclusively in classical music,
has a distinctive name due to the special manner in which it is used. Though it is
enharmonic to a dominant seventh chord, it's conventional means of resolution
looks quite different. The Ger+6 appears only on the b6 scale degree in either a
major or minor key and usually resolves to a I chord in 2nd inversion. This is due to
the fact that an augmented sixth interval will resolve outward to an octave rather
than inward to a major or minor sixth, as with the dominant seventh. See diagram
below (Figure 15.27).
Figure 15.27 German 6th Resolution:
Resolution of Dominant 7th : Resolution of German 6th :
G7 C G(#6) B/F#
1 I ! ~-; t¥!...
V7 I Ger+6 1/5
sol do Ie sol
The most common unfolding of this chord progression would be to pass
through the Vchord (F~) and return to a root position B (Ger+67I/57V7I). When
used in the context of enharmonic modulation, this respelling ofthe dominant 7th
(most likely a V7 chord) to a Ger+6 allows for a quick modulation to the key a half
step below. The example below shows this modulation, moving from the key of Cto
the keyofB by means ofthe chord progression - in C: I7vi7V7V7 (in B:
Ger+6)7I/57V7I (Figure 15.28).
42 These fanciful names find their history in development of western European classical music and
though their names seem to imply certain regional origins, there is no historical evidence for this.
309
Figure 15.28 Enharmonic Modulation, German 6th Application:
CAm G G 7 B IF~ F~ B
fi Ie I~ ~-&
I vi V V7 / Ger+6 1/5 V
do la sol sol/Ie sol sol
I
do
This chord progression may be used as a modulatory passage to bridge
Hungry by Kathryn Scott - in the key of C- to the key of B for Matt & Beth Redman's
Blessed Be Your Name. This chord progression is derived from the verse progression
of Hungry, but when it reaches the dominant chord (G), it uses this as an occasion to
modulate to the key one half step below through an enharmonic respelling of the V7
to a Ger+6. Continuity is facilitated through the superimposition of the next song's
melody over this chord progression. Notice that the melody is necessarily altered to
fit the harmony of the progression. Though not a duplication of the subsequent
melody of Blessed Be Your Name, it adequately prepares the listener for the next
song and provides a melody that helps to give this somewhat esoteric modulation a
natural momentum (Figure 15.29).
Figure 15.29 Hungry - Kathryn Scott / Blessed Be Your Name - Matt & Beth
Redman
C Fmaj7 C Am
_ You're all_this hearl __ is_liv - illg fof. __
r
do
IVmaj7
fa
r
do
vi
la
G G7 B
310
_t,
Bless - ed_ be__ your_ name __ in the
©1999 Vineyard Songsj©2002 Thankyou Music, arr. by the author
V 1 VV V7 / Ger+6
sol sol/Ie
1/5
sol sol do sol
You may have noticed that as we have progressed through the chapter, the
modulation techniques have become seemingly more obscure in the context of
popular music; and in order to keep the flow of the music sounding natural during
modulation, more attention is needed to the manner in which the techniques are
employed. Perhaps, you have also determined that though the above techniques are
indeed possibilities, the musical result may seem so alien to the nature of a given
song that they are not pleasing enough to be used practically in a worship service.
The fact is that these techniques have developed in the western classical
tradition that embraces dissonance and harmonic development to a much greater
degree than contemporary popular music which - its harmony being largely
diatonic - is relatively devoid of much dissonance or harmonic complexity. Thus it
poses a challenge to the music arranger to employ these techniques that rely on
more complex harmonic progressions, in order to build a natural bridge between
two very different key areas that doesn't seem overly dissonant with respect to the
context of the song.43
Whenever a modulation is employed, a momentary sensation of dissonance
is experienced, even if only consonant triads are present, because the introduction
of a new key disrupts the established tonal landscape. These dissonances may be
the result of a dissonant chord used to facilitate modulation or by the sheer
43 From here forth, the term dissonance is used in a more general fashion than discussed previously.
It is used to explain a sensation of harmonic tension that may be the result of dissonant intervals
created through a close linear juxtaposition - as when two different key areas are placed in proximity
to each other - in addition to the simultaneous sounding of tones to create dissonance.
311
juxtaposition of two different key areas, or both. Excepting the natural inclination
(and indeed purpose) of the direct modulation to disrupt a harmonic flow by
suddenly interjecting a new key, the art of modulation lies largely in the ability to
effectively smooth over such dissonances to create a modulation that seems less
unsettling.
In the final section of this chapter, we will discuss more in depth, how one
may tailor an arrangement to sound as natural as possible within the context of the
music, so that an attempted modulation, whose purpose it is to facilitate transition
between different key areas, avoids becoming self-defeating by not providing a
convincing musical context wherein these differing keys are placed together. We
will do so, by taking a closer look at the processes employed in several of the above
examples, despite their apparent effectiveness or lack thereof, to create natural
modulation.
Smoothinf: Over Difficult Modulations
Through the course of our discussion of some the more advanced modulation
techniques (common tone, chromatic, and enharmonic), we have attempted to find
transitions to link chords that seemingly don't belong anywhere near each other.
This is due to the respective keys they inhabit and how very different these keys are
in terms of their pitch matrix; these keys occupy opposite poles in the circle of fifths
and in some cases share but one common tone, or none at all. Yet in the above
arrangements, some of these modulations seem to work rather smoothly to link two
very different keys in a smooth way. This is due to a very deliberate treatment of
dissonance.
The factors that contribute to the level of experienced dissonance in a
modulation must be considered in order to have the theoretical tools necessary for
"masking" them in a manner that makes their presence seem more natural. In these
terms, the prime considerations are harmonic context, rhythm, and melody. A few
312
of the above arrangements utilizing an enharmonic modulation will be examined
according to how these considerations factor into their treatment of dissonance.
1) Harmonic Context: The degree of dissonance experienced by the listener is
largely determined by the degree of dissonance expected by him or her.
These expectations are established by the harmonic context of the song, i.e.
how much average harmonic dissonance is set as nominal. For example, a
complex and relatively dissonant chord, like the fully diminished seventh,
may not sound as dissonant in a context where a song is pervaded by seventh
chord harmony as it will in a song consisting of mostly triads. Thus, when
the above arrangement that links Awesome God to Mighty To Save employs a
G#o7 through an enharmonic respelling, the listener's perception of
dissonance is cushioned by the fact that this chord is preceded by a G7 chord
which not only shares in the inherent dissonance of the Aug 4th, it in fact
shares three common tones with the succeeding G#o7. This helps further to
cushion the impending dissonance by making 3 of the 4 tones of this
diminished 7th chord familiar before it even sounds.
In the case of the arrangement involving a modulation from Let My
Words Be Few to We Fall Down, the prior sounding of an augmented chord in
the chorus provided a context where an enharmonic modulation on an
augmented chord would not seem out of place.
In a different way, the example involving the enharmonic modulation
on a dominant seventh chord used the chord progression of the song it was
modulating from as the basis for a modulatory section. The familiarity of this
chord progression in the context of the music helps better to frame the
modulation in a way that sounds perhaps more natural than would a
completely new progression of chords.
313
2) Rhythm: Rhythm plays a large role in how much a given harmony is noticed.
Generally, longer notes receive more attention than shorter ones simply by
virtue that the listener has more time to dwell on them. Furthermore, meter,
which is a facet of rhythm, has an inherent ebb and flow to it that gives
natural emphasis to some beats over others. In general, "strong beats" (1 & 3
in common or 4/4 time) have more metric weight than "weak beats" (2 & 4).
However, this flow of strong-weak-strong-weak is not attached merely
to a quarter note pulse. As we saw in Chapter V, this metric hierarchy is also
carried over to lower subdivisions of the beat where the 1st and 3rd divisions
are felt more strongly than the 2nd and 4th, as with the first and third notes in
a string of four 16th notes. Thus, what beats are determined to be weak vs.
strong are relative to what level of the hierarchy you are examining. If
chords were changing at a general rate of whole notes, or 1 per measure,
then the 1st and 3rd measures would be the strong beats. And if chords were
to change at a rate of half notes, then the 1st beat would be strong while the
3rd would be weak. This pattern follows through to the shortest divisions of
the beat (Figure 15.30).
Therefore, to help smooth over dissonance through metric de-
emphasis, a pivot chord is often placed on a relatively weak beat. It is no
coincidence that each arrangement places the pivot chord on a weaker beat,
each on its own relative terms. In the case ofAwesome God, the dissonant
G#o7 was placed on the 4th beat of the measure, since the chords in that
moment were moving at a quarter note speed. By contrast, Let My Words Be
Few has the pivot chord (Eb+) on the first beat of the 2nd measure, but this is
still a weak position relative to the other chords, which move at the rate of
whole notes. Likewise, the Ger+6 chord (spelled as a G7) in the arrangement
with Hungry and Blessed Be Your Name is on the third beat of the measure
and since the chords are moving at a rate of every two beats, this chord is on
a relatively weak beat.
314
Figure 15.30 Strong Vs. Weak Beats & Beat Divisions:
I ..
Weak
s wsw s wsw
swswswswswswswsw
s w
3) Melody: Melody is always going to be an important factor in any musical
analysis because it carries such importance in the ear of the listener. The
western musical world, if not the whole world, has made melody the primary
element of most music genres. In general, we listen closely to melody and,
consequently, dissonance becomes very apparent when it clashes with one
(as in a dissonant accompaniment). This is easily perceived in our
arrangement of Awesome God, where a melody, modeled after the song's
melody, is employed during its musical transition modulating from the key of
em to A. Here, the melody ofAwesome God fits well with the accompaniment
until it reaches the first chord of the new key. At this point, it could not
315
terminate on the original C, but because of the A chord on which it ends, it
has to settle instead on C~.44
Furthermore, when a recognizable melody (as with Awesome God) is
altered in this way, there arises a degree of perceptible tension (or
dissonance) simply by virtue of its divergence from the given and expected
pattern. Alterations that result in pitches that are outside of the melody's
key are all the more striking. Though this was avoided in the Getty
arrangement of In Christ Alone through altered pitches that were common to
both keys, it is unavoidable in the Awesome God example where C~ is
completely foreign to the key of Cm.
The adverse effects of this kind of dissonance may also be cushioned
by delaying the C~ to a weaker beat that is also shorter in length. The
inevitably of the C~ sounding out of place in relation to the notes that precede
it, is thus delayed by a suspension of the chord, its onset substituted by a D
natural that is in a sense more consonant because it is common to the keys of
CmandA.
Practice Exercises
In the following exercise, write a common chord modulation between the
two songs. Insert the chord on the measure where no chord symbol is present. Use
a dominant seventh (Figure 15.31).
44 We found a similar situation in our analysis of chromatic modulation in In Christ Alone.
316
Figure 15.31 Holy, Holy, Holy - John Dykes & Reginald Heber / Let My Words be
Few - Matt & Beth Redman
D D;'F~ D7:F~ G D Em!G ASllsll D
God 1Il three per
G
~ II~ -
sons, hless - ed Tri
G+
ni ty! _
'You are God in hea ven,_ and here
©Public Domain / ©2000 Thankyou Music
Write a common tone modulation. Indicate what tone is common to the final
chord of the first song and the first chord of the next song (Figure 15.32).
Figure 15.32 Mighty To Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding / We Fall Down -
Chris Tomlin
C G Em D
con - quered the grave._
l'
.Ie - sus con - quered the grave. _
We fall_ down. __ we lay our _ crowns_ at the feet
©2006 Hillsong Publishing / ©1998 worshiptogether.com songs
Write a chromatic modulation using two chords to link the two songs. The
first chord should be a common chord, while the next chord should be chromatic to
the first key but diatonic to the second (Figure 15.33)
317
Figure 15.33 How Great is Our God - Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, & Ed Cash j You
are My King (Amazing Love) - Billy Foote
F G C
heart will sing,_
D
"How great__ is our God."_
Dsus2
You arc_ my__ Killg,_
©2004 worshiptogether.com songs / ©1996 worshiptogether.com songs
Write an enharmonic modulation between the two keys. Insert an
enharmonic diminished chord (triad or seventh) between the Am and the GmjD
chord (Figure 15.34)
Figure 15.341 Stand in Awe - Mark Altrogge j More Love, More Power - Jude Del
Hierro
I3 sus 137 Cmaj7 dm7(~5) Am7 D C/G G
God
.\m
to whom all praise is due,
GmiD D7 Gm9
stand in awe of You.
H~ma.i7(#t 1)
l'vlore love,__ more power,_
©1987 Sovereign Grace Praise / ©1987 Mercy/Vineyard Publishing
Write an enharmonic modulation using an augmented chord that links the
two keys. In the first blank write the augmented chord following the G (measure 5)
and folloWing that, the chord it resolves to (diatonic to the next key) (Figure 15.35).
318
Figure 15.35 Lead Me to the Cross - Brooke Fraser / God Of Wonders - Marc Byrd
& Steve Hindalong
A Em9 G A Bm A G
Oh lcad mc. __
Fm7 D~2
lead me to
E~add4 Fm7
the cross.
Lord of all_ cre - a tion,_
©2006 Hillsong Publishing / ©2000 New Spring
In this last exercise, write an enharmonic modulation using a dominant
seventh reinterpreted as a German sixth. Note that the chord follows the Om
(measure 3) and will be diatonic to neither key (Figure 15.33).
Figure 15.36) Mighty to Save - Reuben Morgan & Ben Fielding / My Redeemer
Lives - Reuben Morgan
B~ F Dm C DIll
COil - quered the grave, _ Je - sus con - quered the grave. _
E;B B7 E9 A9
~.
He know He's res - cued my soul. _
©2006 Hillsong Publishing / ©1998 Hillsong Publishing
xviii Turek, 492.
319
APPENDIX
COMPARATIVE COMMENTARY
The comparative commentary exists to explain the pedagogical decisions I've
made in creating this theory method. I give explanation of the basis for many of my
decisions through comparison with several other major theory methods by showing
where and why my text diverges from the approaches these other texts take or
remains consistent with one or more of them. It serves in part to validate my thesis
as a more effective bridge for the "theory gap" between church musicians and the
trained academic music community than what is presently available. Texts that will
be referenced are Music Theory for the Music Professional by Richard Sorce, Theory
for Today's Musician by Ralph Turek, and The Musician's Guide to Theory and Analysis
by Jane Piper Clendenning and Elizabeth West Marvin.
I take overall content as my first point of divergence from other theory texts.
The content may not necessarily be deemed "comprehensive" to an accreditation
standard as determined by the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) or
by any other committee; it is comprehensive according to a specific set of musical
skills consider to be is necessary for a church musician to have in place in order to
chart and arrange music for use in a worship service, execute any given instruction
on a lead sheet or chord sheet and gain the vocabulary with which to engage in
dialogue with other trained musicians. The goals and needed content are listed as
such:
1) Gaining an adequate familiarity with the various notational styles used in the
church.
320
2) Learning music theory fundamentals and its vocabulary, including: pitch,
rhythm, keys, scales, and intervals.
3) Learning chord theory from basic triads, extended chords and their practical
applications, and chromaticism in popular music.
4) Learning advanced theoretical applications towards an understanding of
how to arrange music for a contemporary worship service including: a
fundamental understanding of chord progression in a popular music context,
chord substitution, and modulation.
Below is a chapter-by-chapter comparative commentary of the content,
structure, and presentation of the material in my thesis with the treatment of the
same material in the 3 other texts. It notes where in my text certain concepts were
added or omitted in comparison to the others.
The course of each method largely serves to equip each student towards the
development of the interpretive, analytical, and compositional skills pertinent to the
repertoire that is discussed in each. Mine is no different in this respect, therefore
since the body of musicians who make up its readers (and the repertoire they study)
differs from the other texts, the content and pedagogical approach of my text
reflects these differences.
These distinctions are due in part to the nature and purposes of the
dominant style of notation employed by both the musicians in question (and myself
in this text), i.e. the lead sheet, which with regard to its manner of presentation of its
musical directives resembles the type of music it illustrates. As popular music and
jazz, utilizing the lead sheet as their primary notational style, are largely an
improvisatory style, the aim of the notation is far more vague. Since the primary
goal is to give the performer(s) a sense ofthe metrical and tonal structure of the
song, a specific depiction of the melody (where it is understood that this may be
adhered to or departed from at will), lyrics where necessary, and a suggested
321
harmonic structure through which to accompany that melody; lead sheets are
generally devoid of the many other specific performance indicators that
characterize standard notation. Ralph Turek says this of lead sheets, "The
keyboardist or guitarist interprets the chord symbols and improvises an
appropriate accompaniment based on them. The style is up to the player-it can be
varied to suit the purposes of the group."xix
Thus process of translation of notated musical ideas to performance is quite
different from traditional music notation, where the player is generally expected to
execute the more definitive written notation with a much higher degree of precision.
The musical improvisations of the performer are, in turn, more confined to the
subtlety of expression of those specific ideas and do not require major rhythmic,
harmonic, or melodic compositional decisions to the same degree that performers
utilizing a lead sheet are forced to do.
Though it is usually a purpose of the theory pedagogue to instruct the
student to apply theory and notation towards an understanding of how to interpret,
analyze, and compose in a musical style or set of styles (but style is inherently vague
in the form of lead sheets and subjective to the performer), my theory method,
because it utilizes such notation and thus places so much interpretive responsibility
on the shoulders of the reader, must accommodate this deliberate vagueness. The
interpretation, analysis, and composition of the music depends on fewer elements
(fewer performance instructions specified), meaning that the analysis of this music
is restricted to relative basics, its interpretation of notation is largely subjective, and
its composition generally mirrors such generalities. Therefore the method of
pedagogy inevitably must exclude certain concepts in its course, concepts that may
pervade an institution of classical training intended to aid a musician in the more
precise execution of the more precise style, for the purpose of upholding the nature
of the repertoire in its interpretive freedom.
If execution of the traditional style (or set of styles) were a major goal of this
text, then a more specific form of notation would be necessary to supplement the
322
lead sheet (indeed this is case in a few instances throughout the text). However, it
would be beyond the scope of this book to provide the reader with an examination
of the nearly limitless interpretive possibilities allowed by the notation and
acceptable within the repertoire. Certainly, some stylistic boundaries are imposed
in order to allow for a more contextual application of theoretical principles and give
the reader a general sense of what is most commonly employed and thus provide
the context for which more unusual elements are possible. But these are primarily
harmonic considerations. It is typical of the genre to be harmonically and
melodically restrictive while rhythm is allowed much more freedom through
interpretation. For the most part, it is assumed that the reader is to "realize" the
repertoire with a high degree of improvisatory liberty while upholding what
specified elements are provided in the notation and what specific theoretical
concept their attention is being drawn to in that instance.
As mentioned, this aspect of the music and its notation determines that some
concepts will be left out of the text or at least under emphasized compared to some
of the other methods. For instance, in Part I, where notation and theory
fundamentals are discussed, a less comprehensive emphasis is placed on reading
and writing notation. Cclefs are entirely omitted due to the fact that they are not
found in lead sheet notation, which uses the treble clef only, or standard hymn
arrangements, which are notated on a grand staff. Also, notation of complex
rhythmic note groupings such as quintuplets, septuplets, etc. is omitted because
these rhythms are rarely found (if it all) in the repertoire. The purpose of the text in
Chapter 3 (rhythm fundamentals) is to cultivate a "rhythmic awareness" in the
musician who has never thought analytically about rhythm and provide the basic
tools with which to notate the rhythms of the melodies specified in notation.
The other points where my text diverges from the other three on these terms
are many and will be discussed as the need arises throughout the remainder of this
commentary. It should become apparent that the motive of my text is, as stated in
my thesis statement, lito assert a more focused and practical tool for theory
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pedagogy than those currently available to bridge the 'theory gap' between
contemporary church musicians and the 'classically trained' academic world". Thus,
in a sense, the bridge this method creates does not serve to replace what attempts
other texts have made, but to close the gap where they have fallen short in
addressing the perspective and needs of this specific demographic of music
professionals. It does not serve as a fully comprehensive method on the terms of the
academic world. Certain, very important concepts, like voice leading and part-
writing are hinted at. This commentary services to analyze my work in light of three
others, to show where mine surpasses the attempts of the others and where and
why my method works similarly to one or more of the other methods.
Preface
What is Music Theory and Why Do We Use It?
It seems that most theory texts, including the three in question, contain some
sort of theory apologetic that serves to justify the study of theory if not merely its
very existence.xx My text is no exception and due to the seemingly large amount of
skeptics in the realm of popular music and the contemporary church, I offer a
considerable portion of the introduction to addressing this issue alone. I believe
that my arguments are more effective for a church musician reader as I address
issues specifically pertaining to their vocation: how music theory is helpful to them
and how those who would criticize the study of theory are misguided in their
assumptions.
Making The Most of Your Time
Both the Turek and Clendenning & Marvin books give some advice to the
student as to how to study theory using the book and included materials.xxi My text
does the same, though it is less thorough in its directives. I simply encourage the
reader to be consistent in their study routine, apply the concepts on their
instrument, incorporate it into their normal music practice routine, find a study
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partner, and to persevere. Also the included materials & study resources offered by
my text are more modest and do not require the extensive explanations given in the
other books.
Notation
What is music?
This question is not asked in any of the three other texts. Though the answer
is undoubtedly taken for granted, I believe that discussing it in light of what music
theory attempts to do helps to set the boundaries through which theory can operate.
This may be helpful to a student who may have no exposure to analytical thinking
about music, understanding what approach music theory must take towards an
understanding of music.
There seems to be an assumption in the Sorce and Turek texts that the
reader of the book has prior knowledge of the fundamentals of theory, perhaps
rendering such a question naIve.xxii However, I take it as a priori that the reader of
my text is not only unfamiliar with theory and its purposes, but is skeptical of its
practicality.
What is Notation?
Though the other texts do discuss how to read staff notation, they do not
bother to ask the questions: What is notation? Is it necessary? The other texts
assume that their reader is not preoccupied with these questions. Sorce's text says,
"It is assumed that the reader of this text has already had at least a minimum of
musical training and that he or she possesses a rudimentary knowledge of the
principles of music theory."xxiii However, to engage specifically the perspective of
musicians in popular music, many of which possess no such knowledge or training
and may in fact pride themselves on their accomplishments apart from such training
or their ability to "play by ear", one must also generate an apologetic for music
notation as much as music theory. Though Turek too assumes that the reader has
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prior exposure and training in notation and theory fundamentals, he does admit,
"The landscape of rock and popular music is littered with tales of people with little
or no musical training..."xxiv
Traditional Music Notation (Sheet Music)
All three of the other texts have been designed for use in a college setting
where traditional music notation is the standard and ability to read it is both
assumed and required. But my text has a different approach. Given that my
audience is untrained musicians who are already functioning in a professional
setting and who have most likely adopted the other notational style that are the
dominant forms in the contemporary church, traditional music notation is not held
as standard and learning to read it is optional. According to a 2009 survey by
Christian Copyright Licensing International (CCLI), which distributes copyright
licenses to over 150,000 churches world-widexxv, 66.15% of participating license
holders (over 13,000 churches participating) indicated that their musicians used
Chord Charts (lyrics & chords), 59.91% indicated the use of lead sheets, while
25.88% indicated the use ofSATB arrangements, and only 19.27% used
instrumental arrangements.xxvi
Lead Sheet
I have made the lead sheet the standard for my text for several reasons,
unlike the other texts that only include occasional lead sheet examples. The primary
reason for this is a majority of churches employ this style. Though the statistics of
the CCLI survey in 2009 indicate that chord sheets are more popular, the lead sheet
is preferred because it carries all the same information of a chord sheet in a similar
layout, but also contains a melody, lending itself to more precise depiction of
theoretical concepts. I believe it provides an adequate "middle ground" between the
staff-notation-dominated academic sphere and the largely musically illiterate
contemporary church.
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Tablature (TAB)
Tablature is used extensively in Parts I & II, where the specific realization of
individual pitches and chords is the focus and is used only where needed in Part III.
Tablature is provided as supplemental to the staff notation, in order to aid guitarists,
who are less often trained in reading staff notation than other instrumentalists.
Once again, this is an effort to address my specific audience. The same 2009 CCLl
survey indicated that 76.78% of churches primarily use a rhythm section consisting
of guitars, bass, and drumsxxvii, types of musicians who rely more on their ears as
opposed to notated music.
What Notation Should You Use?
This question, also not addressed by any of the other books (since they offer
no other option for notation), is important in this text because, in its attempt to
cater to the perspective of the church musician operating at the professional level, it
must acknowledge practicality, simplicity, economy offered by some notational
styles in contrast to the specificity, thoroughness, and difficulty of others - all being
important concerns for the church musician.
Making the Step Towards Staff-Based Notation
By acknowledging where many musicians are in their reading abilities and
affirming their validity while showing them the advantages of expanding their
capacity to read notation, one can more effectively encourage them to make these
advancements. I believe that the standard the other texts set, making staff notation
the only option for using their course of study, serves to effectively alienate illiterate
students from attempting to join the ranks ofthe literate.
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Is Notation Necessary for Learning Music Theory?
The other texts do not even address this question, but it would be a mistake
to assume one cannot learn music theory apart from notation. Such an assertion
would be akin to saying that one cannot know what words are apart from knowing
how to read them. However, as one of the biggest hurdles of the theory gap is
convincing musicians that they should cross it, the best way to do so is to concede to
the fact that musicians can make strides towards a theoretical understanding
without having the background and skills of a classically trained musician.
Fundamentals of Pitch
The Octave
I believe that a short introduction to acoustics is important to set the context
for a discussion of musical fundamentals, especially for concepts like the octave. A
discussion of the octave and octave equivalence is needed to provide the basis for
notes, scales, keys, and intervals and such things have little meaning and are difficult
to comprehend apart from the scientific properties that define them. Thus, I begin
my discussion of pitch much in the same way as Turek and Sorce doXXYiii , with a short
discussion of sound waves and vibrations, but go into more detail in order to explain
octave equivalence, something they neglect. Clendenning and Marvin mention the
principle of octave equivalence in terms of its notational/theoretical implications,
but do not explain its source in acoustics. In fact, the subject is avoided
altogether.xxix
The Musical Alphabet & Natural Notes
My approach to the introduction of notes is similar to Clendenning & Marvin
in that I suspend the introduction of staff notation of the notes until the whole
chromatic pitch spectrum is covered. The other two texts introduce staff notation
at the same time as they discuss pitches, however I believe this approach is at risk of
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being overwhelming to the student unfamiliar with notation and who only
possesses the most rudimentary knowledge of pitch.
Steps
• Steps On The Guitar
A point where I deviate from all three texts is my use of guitar tablature
to supplement the examples notated on the staff, an addition that is a key feature
of my text. In the same way that all three other books show the spaces between
notes are "fleshed out" on the keyboard, I do so with both the keyboard and the
guitar.
Notation on the Staff
A marked difference between my approach and the other three is that I avoid
discussing Cclefs. This is due to different goals for the presentation of this material.
In the three other books, a major goal is to prepare the student to read scores that
may include such clefs. However, my purpose is to teach the student to read the
treble clef primarily for use in reading lead sheet notation, reading notated
examples in the text, and along with the bass clef, have the ability to read music in a
hymnal which is presented in keyboard notation.
Rhythm
The Beat
Like Clendenning & Marvinxxx, my chapter on rhythm at the beginning
discusses rhythm in more general terms of the beat or pulse, drawing the reader
into a realm of familiarity where they can take what concepts they already perceive
about musical rhythm and later attach vocabulary and notational symbols to their
meaning. The other texts delve right into notation and beat divisions without giving
the reader adequate time to conceptualize theoretical ideas surrounding rhythm.xxxi
As I state in my introduction, rhythm is an aspect of music that is often mastered by
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musicians without any theoretical background. Therefore, care must be taken when
addressing such musicians to allow them to learn the basics of rhythm from a
theoretical/notational perspective without making them feel as if they are wasting
their time on matters they already know. Therefore, I believe it is advantageous to
ease the reader into a discussion of the notation of rhythm by addressing the subject
using terms with which they are familiar, i.e. apart from theoretical vocabulary or
notation.
Meter & Measure
In a similar fashion to Clendenning & Marvinxxxii , I use familiar examples from
the repertoire to illustrate the concepts of beat, measure, meter, and beat division.
Clendenning & Marvin draw the reader into the deeper dimensions of meter by
using examples of Joplin's Pine Apple Rag and an excerpt from the Messiah to discuss
beat & pulse, and Greensleeves to discuss beat division and tempo. They go on to use
a few patriotic tunes (The Stars and Stripes Forever and My Country, Tis o/Thee) to
provide familiar examples for the depiction of meter. However, with respect to the
context of the contemporary church musician and the repertoire they are most
familiar with, I take a more familiar and direct approach. Though I discuss the same
material, I use the example of a basic rock beat drum pattern to illustrate the
majority of these concepts. This drum pattern, engrained in the psyche of most rock
musicians, delineates clearly beats and beat division. Such an example should make
more immediate connections in the mind of a musician between theoretical
concepts and concrete musical situations. The one drawback of this example is that
in common time, the first two beats are identical to the last two, thus making a clear
4-beat measure delineation difficult to identify outside of the musical context.
Therefore, I supplement the example with a well-known hymn Holy, Holy, Holy,
which provides a very clear example of demarcation of measures across a 4-
measure phrase in terms of both its rhythmic and melodic content.
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The other two texts are inadequate at creating relatable examples in
repertoire, as they provide no examples other than abstract notational depictions of
the concepts.xxxiii
The three texts do use different strategies in the discussion of meter and time
signatures and mine is most closely related to the one employed by Clendenning &
Marvin. As time signature is a notational indicator of meter, its relevance relies on
an understanding meter, however, since it uses rhythmic durations as part of its
notation, it relies on that as well. Since notation of rhythmic durations is dependent
largely on the concepts related to meter (most notably beat and pulse, though other
concepts such as measure, which is dependent on meter, are very helpful for
understanding the nomenclature of these durations), it is clear that these concepts
are highly intertwined. Thus it becomes the challenge of the pedagogue to
determine how to best organize the discussion of them in a linearly coherent fashion
so that an understanding of initial concepts is not dependent on an explanation of
subsequent ones.
It seems that there are two strategies used by the texts in question. The one
employed by both Sorce and Turek seem to employ a gradual and simultaneous
unfolding of each these topics, where after an initial introduction of a vocabulary of
rhythm, tempo, pulse, and beat, other dependent concepts such as meter, meter,
measure, time signature, and rhythmic notation are unfolded under subsequent
headings of "Time Signatures", "Beaming", "Dots and Ties", "Simple, Compound, and
Asymmetrical Meter".xxxiv Clendenning & Marvin take a different approach by
separating the discussion of time signature from that of meter, by introducing meter
on more general terms immediately following the discussion of beat and pulse, well
before any notational depiction of time signature is introduced. Following a
generalized discussion of meter, beat grouping and its demarcation (measures), and
beat division is introduced followed by an explanation of these terms dependent on
notation. Only after these concepts have been discussed, is meter's depiction
through time signature covered.
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In my opinion, the latter is the superior strategy. The student with a
developed understanding of these theoretical concepts will eventually bring them
together in the interrelated synthesis that they consitute. However, for the student
who is unfamiliar with said concepts will benefit from a more systematic (though it
is somewhat artificial, as these concepts are not mutually exclusive) unfolding of
these concepts as they are likely to be overwhelmed by the simultaneous
presentation of all the necessary theoretical ideas, vocabulary, and notation.
Keys & Scales
The Major Scale
The beginning of my chapter on keys and scales takes a similar path to the
other texts do in defining the scale as a subset of the chromatic scale and its
meaning in relationship to key. However, more so than the others, my text
emphasizes the role of the scale and key in establishing a tonic center, or at least
emphasizes how the other tones in a subset collection stem from and are related to
a tonic pitch. This has its advantages, I believe, in providing a more practical and
relatable context for the theoretical concepts of key and scale. For the untrained
musician, who may not even have learned scales or have a properly defined
conception of what key is, the sudden presentation of such concepts without any
familiar pretext can pose a challenge to the fledgling theorist or theory skeptic. Yet,
tonality, which has birthed the modern understanding and application of these
terms, is a music phenomenon universal to the experience of musicians both trained
and untrained. Its implications on how music is heard and felt is common at the
most fundamental level. It is commonly understood that, for the most part, the
"musical ear" of the most inexperienced musician is conditioned to recognize, if only
at a very basic level, tonality with respect to recognizing how diatonic is more
intrinsic to tonal music than chromatic harmony. The idea of consonance and
repose as opposed to dissonance and tension are basic musical perceptions that go
beyond the sphere of trained musicians. Therefore, using this as a common pretext,
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a more immediately comprehensible presentation of these theoretical concepts may
be allowed. This way, the musician may attach these theoretical concepts to already
known musical elements without having to accommodate entirely fresh ideas.
A notable difference in my approach, which arises out of this motive, is the
introduction ofthe scale degree nomenclature and their relations to tonic earlier
than the other authors. This, though not entirely essential to an fundamental
understanding of keys and scales, does help draw the reader's attention to the
importance of tonic as the central tone from which keys and scales relate as well
preparing him or her for a later discussion on chord function and its relation to the
respective tendencies of scale degrees.
Double Sharps and Flats
A subheading in the introduction of major scales that discusses the necessity
of double sharps and flats is a feature of my text that is missing from the other ones.
I believe that this topic is a key point that needs to be addressed upon mentioning
the structure of major scales, because it is this structure that necessitates the
notation of a double accidental. Without this context, such a concept would appear
to be a completely arbitrary construction and altogether unneeded. It is precisely
such seemingly esoteric constructs that cause the student to question the value of
theory in making music more comprehensible. Therefore it is unfortunate that these
other texts not only miss such a didactic opportunity by failing to mention the use of
double accidentals where they are most pertinent, they risk further estranging the
skeptic by introducing them out of any meaningful context. In Sorce's text, he
introduces double accidentals early on and alludes to the discussion of their use
later on.XXXV However, he does little more to explain their use than to simply depict
scales that contain them, assuming the burden on the reader to piece together the
puzzle and deduce their purpose without any textual explanation.xxxvi Turek's
handling is worse yet, as he simply mentions their existence in his discussion of
accidentals and fails to explain how or why they would be used, nor do any of the
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scales he subsequently provides as examples contain double accidentals.xxxvii
Clendenning & Marvin don't seem to handle the issue any better. They introduce
double accidentals early on, but never touch on them in their discussion of scales or
provide examples that contain them.xxxviii They are briefly mentioned several
chapters later in their discussion of intervals, though not with enough depth to
make the meaning of their use abundantly clear.xxxix
•
•
Tip: Selecting Keys For Musicians
This idea of choosing to notate music in one key over another in order to
improve a musician or ensemble's ease of reading is important for the
professional context of a church musician, where rehearsal time is usually very
limited if allowed at all (of the 4 or so churches where I have served as a
musician, there is but one short rehearsal preceding the service). The typical
lack of professional quality of musicians combined with a shortage of time for
rehearsal makes it all the more beneficial for music arrangers to use
theoretically informed techniques for the purpose of avoiding unnecessary
difficulties that may hinder the performance of musicians involved. The
aforementioned CCLl Survey in 2009 found that 53.53% of the churches
surveyed stated that the greatest challenge facing their worship ministry was
"lack of skilled musicians/vocalists" and the next most significant issue was a
"lack of preparation time" with 37.07% affirming this as their greatest
challenge.xl
Solfege in Major
As with the Clendenning & Marvin text,xli I include the teaching of solfege
to take advantage of the chapter on scales and key for instruction in basic ear
training. Both Sorce and Turek avoid covering the subject (Turek only goes so
far as to mention it with historical reference to the early theory didactics of
Guido.xlii) This may be due to an attempt to limit the scope of their book to teach
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theory & analysis separately from the daunting subject of ear training, though
Turek does attempt to engage the theoretical ear of the reader through the audio
examples included on the accompanying CD-ROM. I do not claim in my text to
provide a comprehensive, or for that matter adequate, course of ear training,
though I include an introduction to solfege, as Clendenning & Marvin do, towards
the student's acquisition of aural skills in theory. The extent that it is present
helps to encourage the student to use their voice and ears as they learn and
apply theory and to seek a deeper program of study in ear training.
Minor Keys and Scales
With the exception of Turek, the other texts dedicate separate chapters to the
discussion of minor scales and other modes, however for the purposes of my text a
discussion of scales other than major is of less importance. This is due to the
repertoire of Contemporary Christian Music, which is dominated by the major mode.
There are very few songs, especially those having been written in the last 15 years,
which are truly in a minor key. It is more common for a song in this body of
repertoire to merely tend towards the Aeolian mode during a section (like a verse),
while the chorus or refrain shifts to the Ionian mode. But very few exhibit full-
fledged minor key tendencies.
However I do include a short discussion of the harmonic minor and melodic
minor forms, as modal mixture does occur in the repertoire and often in songs that
are composed in minor (if only in part) I discus this in Chapter 10, where such scales
would be exhibited.
Key Relations - Cycle of Fifths
All texts mention the cycle of fifths and each has its own reason for doing so
or at least draws attention to different aspects of the cycle. Clendenning & Marvin
introduce the concept with the clearest indication as to its practical application.
They introduce the idea with regard to keys presenting it as a tool for learning their
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signatures, as it is often used.xliii In this section they show how it organizes keys with
regard to pitch content, devoting the necessary attention to this fact for the purpose
ofteaching key signatures. Ralph Turek's approach is similar in this regard as
well.xliv Ralph Sorce's method is slightly different in the respect that, though he
relates it to key signatures, it is only presented as a subheading under the topic of
key signature and his text contains little information other than this larger
organizational scheme to help draw the reader's attention to its significance. In fact,
he dovetails his circle of fifths discussion with a note on the keys' relationships by
tetrachords.x1v However much this relationship is a reality, I believe that it doesn't
exhibit the economy of information needed to sustain a reader's interest. By using
this approach, he is forced to explain the new vocabulary oftetrachord, including its
meaning, origin, and intervallic construction, and then show how many of them can
be laid out linearly and uninterrupted to form a chain of diatonic scales that are fifth
related. He also is forced to use several pages of diagrams to illustrate his point.
The other texts, including mine, don't bother with this unnecessarily protracted
method.
Where my text deviates largely from all three of the other methods is with
respect to the fact that, through mere omission, I do not emphasize the need to learn
and memorize all the key signatures. The circle of fifths is explained as a reference
tool for one to consult in order to determine a key's signature, but I do not present
this as its purpose. Rather, I draw the focus directly to the fact that it illustrates
what keys share similar pitch content. This is organized under my larger
subheading of "Key Relations", I make this the thrust of the discussion because it
points the reader's attention to the later chapters on modulation, which being a
technique of song arranging (indeed one of the larger subjects of this method) it
places more value on the circle of fifths as an aid in very advanced and practical
theoretical techniques rather than a mere occasion for learning key signatures.
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Intervals
Numeric Value
Each of the three authors approaches this topic in a very similar fashion.
Though Turek uses similar nomenclature as myself ("Numeric Value"), Sorce uses
the term "Interval Distance" and Clendenning & Marvin name it "generic-pitch-
interval".xlvi Despite this variance in vocabulary, each one offers the simple
explanation that the interval's quantitative qualifier is measured by the numeric
distance created between the note names.
Interval Quality
Interestingly, all three texts use very different techniques for explaining how
to determine the quality of an interval. Though each approaches augmented and
diminished intervals similarly, by explaining them as a chromatic raising or
lowering of a perfect, major, or minor interval, the methods for determining perfect,
major, or minor are not shared. Turek's model, which is probably the most novel,
provides a system whereby one determines the quality of interval by examining
how many steps are contained in the diatonic scale spanning the space of the given
interval and by checking these findings against a prescribed set of rules (which are
obviously meant to be memorized) the quality is made apparenUlvii As unique as
this system is, I don't believe it provides the best solution. The problem here is
again one of economy. On the surface it may seem that this provides a simple
solution, minimizing the effort of the student in determining the interval, but in fact
it creates more work by forcing the student to memorize this more complex system
of determination and doesn't avoid the necessity of the individual to memorize the
diatonic pattern of whole and half steps, which is central to all three of the methods.
The only possible step that it cuts out is the need to have minor scales in mind
during the process, yet the total mental processes and memorization required make
this the least efficient process for the student to determine interval quality.
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Sorce recommends a method that is perhaps more conventional than Turek's
proposition, but like it, involves more processes than are needed. He proposes that
the student may determine quality by examining each interval in the context of a
major scale built from each pitch.xlviii If the upper note is in the major scale of the
lower note and the reverse isn't true, the interval quality is major. If the upper note
is a half step lower than what is in the major scale and the pitch name is still
common, it is a minor quality. If each note is included in a major scale built from
each of the two notes, than the quality is perfect. Again, the only advantage to this
system is that it precludes the memorization of minor scales.
Clendenning & Marvin's approach provides the most conventional method.xlix
Here, the student is required to examine whether a major scale or minor scale built
from the lowest note contains both pitches to determine whether the interval is
major or minor. They explain perfect intervals by showing that they are the
intervals shared by both scales (excepting the intervallic 2nd, of course).
Despite the attempts of the other two authors to provide an innovative
approach (that may even seem easier on the surface), the conventional method is
the best one in this case. This is the method I've adopted in my text because it
remains the simpler, more economic means of determining interval quality. In light
on the theoretical concepts that are required prior to the introduction of intervals
(in each of the varying methods), not only does this one require less new
information and memorization, it does better at reinforcing those prior concepts.
For instance, though the other methods avoid the need to memorize the minor scale
pattern of steps, this is doesn't come as a benefit, because this serves to
deemphasize the importance of knowing the structure of minor and causes the
student to be ill-prepared for more advanced theoretical concepts that depend on a
working knowledge of the minor mode (chord theory, progression, etc.).
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Tips
Since the audience that I am addressing in my text is far more specific than
those addressed in the other books, I am afforded a much higher degree of freedom
to provide examples for the practical application of the material. In my text, I take
the opportunity in this chapter to give a context for how intervals may be
specifically employed in the context of a worship service that helps to give the study
of them meaning beyond that of being a simple prerequisite to more advanced
techniques. Here, perfect, major, and minor intervals are shown to be tools for the
harmonization of a given melody or bass line for both instrumental accompanists
and accompanying vocalists. Also, in this chapter I provide many other helpful
teaching opportunities that are missing from the other texts including ear training
exercises and a discussion of transposition that are both tailored to the context of
the church musician.
Diatonic Triads
Though much of the material I discuss in this chapter parallels much in the
other texts, especially those of Clendenning & Marvin and Sorce, my goals for the
student reading this chapter differ in a number of respects. Based on the material
covered and its emphases, as well as the examples given, it seems that the purpose
of the material given by each of the other authors is to equip the student to
recognize and analyze triadic (and in some cases seventh) harmonies present in
classical and modern scores as well as point to a later discussion of harmonic
progression. In essence, the directive of each method is for the practical purpose of
score analysis. Following an initial discussion of the intervallic makeup of the four
types of triads, the examples given by the author are for the purpose of identifying
and analyzing triads in a musical composition. Clendenning & Marvin do this with a
Chaconne by Handel,l Sorce does not use any repertoire examples, but proceeds less
practically through abstract triad notations,H and Turek does this primarily through
a keyboard arrangement of a folk tune, but later with a reduction of a composition
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by Tchaikovsky.lii However efficient each of these methods may be in their
endeavor, my approach pursues a slightly different goal.
The pursuit of this chapter is more than simply to teach the student to
identify triadic harmony in a musical context, but exists to illuminate the structure
and theoretical origins of triadic harmony in order to awaken the musician's aural
awareness of it in a musical context. This purpose comes as a necessity due to the
condition of most the church musicians in question, who have only a limited
understanding of harmony and, for the most part, do not possess the tools with
which to think theoretically about harmony. To an even greater degree, this is often
the case for guitarists who, often not possessing a very precise knowledge of what
notes they actually play at any given point, come to think of chords more simply as
the physical orientation of their fingers on the fret board determined by a chord
symbol on a page. As has been stated, the main thrust of this book is not only to give
such musicians a theoretical awareness of the music they play, but also provide the
tools with which to exert their own creative compositional will on the music itself in
order that they may best fulfill their role to improvise an accompaniment out of the
vagueness of a lead sheet. Therefore, this chapter serves a critical role in helping to
wed the body of fundamentals the reader has learned thus far together with their
extensive, albeit uninformed, experience of how to employ triadic harmony for a
melodic accompaniment.
This is made possible by the fact that each of the examples and exercises
employed in my text draw the reader into that kind of "dialogue" with the theory
either through contemporary song examples that do not require further analysis of
the notation other than familiar chord symbols or through by means of minimally
notated examples which most often contain tablature to aid the guitarist. If in fact
this is an intention of the material presented by the other authors it would do more
to serve those musicians fluent in standard notation and be more relevant to those
who study classical repertoire, and could serve to disenchant those who do not
operate in this context.
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In terms of content, my text doesn't cover as much ground as the other texts
so that more can be devoted to ear training and practical application of the material.
Clendenning & Marvin move past the material present to include a discussion on
triad inversion, figured bass, seventh chords, and Roman numeral analysis.liii I
address all of these topics in subsequent chapters with the exception of figured bass,
which though didactically helpful, is a practice irrelevant to the context of my
intended audience. Therefore, in the spirit of practicality, it has been omitted from
my text. Unlike Clendenning & Marvin, Sorce covers diatonic triad harmonization in
a modal context, another topic I have omitted for similar reasons. He goes on to
cover inversion, a helpful note on note-spacing (though not pertinent enough to the
purposes of my book to be included), figured bass, a practical segment on
identifying spread-position triads (once again, as this concerns more the analysis of
scores, I have left it out), and concludes with a discussion of the chord symbol
notation found in popular music styles (a topic I cover in depth throughout my
text).liv Turek's chapter is less comprehensive in scope and after his discussion of
basic triads includes inversion as well and seventh chords.lv
Four-Note Chords
At this point, my method takes a makes a marked departure from the other
texts in the manner in which I have chosen to cover these concepts. I have decided
that in order to create the most coherence with the previous material towards the
purposes of my text, it is important to structure the content of this chapter so that I
include all the diatonic forms of seventh harmony along with the other triad-based
four-note diatonic collections. Having established triadic harmony based on its
origins in the diatonic scale, the next logical step is to introduce the 7th tone a third
above. This is what most all the other methods do. However, neither of them gives
a thorough treatment to chords that involve the other 3 diatonic tones as in "add"
and "sus" chords and at least not in the musical context in which they are
understood in popular music.
341
The other texts mention these kinds of chords only peripherally or in the
context of some contrapuntal devices (as in suspensions). This is due largely to the
historical context wherein these harmonies arise. However, framing these chords in
the context of seventh chords makes logical since from the standpoint of the popular
musician, who has no notion of the historical development of this harmony and
whose usage of such harmonies are not restricted to instances of counterpoint.
These harmonies are not uncommon relative to seventh chords as they are often
treated in most other theory methods with reference to common practice harmony.
Their presence in the repertoire of popular music is far more common, comparable
to the seventh chord. Furthermore, suspended chords are not confined to
counterpoint (thought they can be used this way, as when a sus4 chord resolves to a
triad), but are often played as static harmonies demanding no resolution.
Further Chord Extensions
The way the three other texts discuss extended harmony differs greatly from
author to author. As stated above, the more common practice orientation of most of
the other methods, especially with Clendenning & Marvin's text, means that the
space devoted to this kind of harmony is only marginal. Turek does discuss it in his
chapter on Chromatic harmony, but interestingly, fails to show how chromatic
alteration of pitches can compensate for the inherent dissonance of some diatonic
harmonizations. Instead, he only depicts those eleventh chords functioning without
dissonance on scale degrees 2 and 6 of major making his treatment of such harmony
incomplete.'vi Sorce discusses static harmonies (those that do note necessitate
internal resolution of dissonances) from the 9th to the 13th in much more depth. He
illustrates how these harmonies arise diatonically, notes the problematic nature of
inherent dissonances, and addresses means with which to correct such dissonances,
such as pitch omission and chromatic alteration.1vii
He also shows how such chords can be respelled with a chord symbol as
showing the upper partials of the chord as a triad with a reinterpreted bass note
342
from the original spelling.Jviii For example, a Cmaj9(#11) could be spelled as a
Gmaj7Ie. Though, in theory, this changes the tonal center of the chord, it does make
for a more expedited notation that has its benefits for sight-reading. I do not cover
this topic in this chapter, but do address it in Chapter 12.
Another notable instance where my text diverges from that of Sorce is how I
do not place as much emphasis on all the possible chromatic permutations of a given
chord. My method is to simply show that such alterations can occur, often for the
reason of avoiding a dissonance, but sometimes to simply bring out other harmonic
possibilities. I think that since so many possible harmonic combinations exist, it
better serves the point of teaching to guide the student towards self-discovery in
this realm rather than inundating them with examples that could needlessly
overwhelm a student. Therefore, thoroughness ought to give way to brevity,
especially considering that most of these harmonies are never specified in the
repertoire and are mere theoretical possibilities. Lastly, Sorce discusses some
principles surrounding the proper voice leading of these chords, but as has been
mentioned, voice leading and part writing are beyond the scope of this book.
Slash Chords
There is a marked difference between my discourse on chord inversion and
those of the other texts. Primarily, this is not a difference in purpose rather the
particular mode that attains that purpose. For these authors, the main purpose for
this discussion is seemingly to teach the student to identify a chord inversion when
it is indicated on a score and to elucidate the purposes or uses for those various
inversions. My text does the same thing, however, for the church musician, the
application of these principles is slightly different. With the more conventional
model, assumed by the other texts, the method of application is primarily
descriptive - that is to identifyIdescribe an existing voicing of a chord, making the
concept a posteriori to the composition and not critical to the actualization of the
music. Whereas, for the church musician, whose relationship to the notation (lead
343
sheet) is, in a sense, more dynamic - where the specificity of the composition is an
extrapolation of a hypothetical written generalized ideal, the method of application
of such an ideal is prescriptive (for the performer) - that is the concept comes a
priori to the composition and, in theory, shapes the actualization of the composition.
This distinction is subtle, since both models stem from the relationship between the
theoretical and actual. The difference is ontological. It thus has the power to shape
the musician's entire relationship with the music and utilization of theory.
Therefore, such considerations yield less attention to actual rendering of the
sonorities in notation or guitar tablature and more attention is placed on the simple
theoretical concept. Specificity in this regard could only go so far, as it is assumed
that the reader's application of concepts will be in an ensemble situation where,
without composed parts, the spontaneous improvisations of parts is uncontrolled to
the degree that the actual rendering of such chords is nearly indeterminable apart
from the prescription of what bass note supports the overall harmony. Even then, it
is assumed that the bass part - likely to be executed by a bass guitar, keyboard, or
both - is not altogether controlled as the degree that the player emphasizes the
prescribed bass note is subjective to the musician's improvisation of their part.
Consequently, as musical examples from repertoire are presented, the bass lines
shown are only to be taken as generalized abstractions of what a bass line could be, t
is understood that the bass notes indicated serves more as a "fundamental
structure" for the composition, similar to what would be depicted in a Schenkerian
analysis. Thus, in a sense the performer interprets the notated instruction in a
"reverse-Schenkerian" manner by "re-populating" harmonic reduction of the chord
symbol. The explanation of the purpose of the chord symbol shows how the
harmonic progression of a composition may be improved by voice leading (in a very
basic sense) and gives the student the tools to recognize opportunity to utilize such
a technique through a synthesis ofthe theoretical tools they have gathered thus far
(keys, scales, intervals, chord construction, and inversion).
344
Chromaticism
For art music, chromaticism, in the sense of being the development of
harmonic and melodic structures in the history of western tonal music, has
generally had a trajectory that has moved from simpler diatonic structures to more
complex chromatic structures. Beginning with the largely pervasive diatonicity of
the European renaissance through the chromatic saturation of the late romantic
period on into the chromatic atonality of the early to middle 20th century, aside from
the post-modern backlash of the late 20th century, the evolution of western art
music has tended toward the complex in terms pitch content.
However, the history of contemporary Christian music (CCM) has plotted a
different course. It has been my observation that the history ofthis music has
tended in large part, toward the simple, the diatonic. Even a quick look at the CCLl
Top 100lix, that is the top 100 most popular songs accessed by their users, will show
this trend. Several of the oldest tunes on the list, Because He Lives by William and
Gloria Gaither and Majesty by Jack Hayford are a quite chromatic relative to more
recent compositions. Because He Lives, written in 1971 modulates three times
moving through Bb major, through Db major, D major, and back to Bb. In each of the
three tonal areas there are multiple instances where chromatics (such as secondary
dominants are employed). Majesty, written in 1981, is less adventurous
harmonically but still contains enough chromaticism to boast a pitch collection of 10
of the 11 chromatic pitches. However, more recent songs, such as the ones that
make the top 15 in the list are strictly diatonic and have been written in the last 15
years.
Therefore, since chromaticism in this repertoire is rare and cannot be treated
as the norm, as with the other texts, my treatment discusses all instances of
chromaticism in popular music as anomaly from the norm. For instance, I have
introduced the raised seventh scale degree in minor, which is treated as the norm
for minor in the other texts as they discuss the minor mode, is shown to be the
result of modal borrowing. The discussion of this topic reveals special instances
345
where this technique is employed in contrast to the usual diatonic schema. The text
shows these instances in terms of existing songs that "break the mold" as well as
special arrangements of more conventional harmonizations to show how
chromaticism can enhance a more typical chord progression.
In contrast to the other texts, I have grouped most ofthe material concerning
chromaticism into this single chapter, with the exception of modulation and
chromatic instances of chord substitution, which appear in subsequent chapters.
The other authors spread this material out over several chapters in a way that
seems to trace the development of harmony in western art music more through the
course of the method, at least in a manner that does so far beyond what I have done.
My method serves not to show any historical development of the repertoire
in question, but to show what is the norm for the repertoire now and propose ideas
for how the norm may be either adhered to or departed from. In this sense, by using
theory to offer potentialities, it offers a possible for the "future".
Chord Pro~ression
This chapter departs from the other methods in some very significant ways.
Primarily, my approach differs from the others in that it does not place as much
emphasis on what kind of chord movement or progression is typical or "permitted"
in the repertoire, but instead serves to raise the students awareness as to why and
how chords sound the way they do in the context of the key, and to show how these
factors influence how a given chord progression is experienced.
For Clendenning & Marvin, once they have developed in the text the
theoretical vocabulary with which to discuss counterpoint, they begin their
discussion of harmonic progression from the standpoint of the two-voice
counterpoint in Chapters 8 and 9)x However, thus bulk ofthe discussion of chord
progression seems to operate from the perspective of the relationship between
tonic and dominant in a phrase and over the course ofthe next 9 chapters (while
introducing topics such as embellishing tones, voice leading, chord voicing, figured
346
bass, amongst others) expands harmonic progression from the tonic dominant
relationship to encompass all types of harmony from predominants, mediant
chords, leading tone chords, cadences, phrasing, secondary dominants, and all
manner of harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic devices that are characteristic in
classical repertoire. Throughout these many chapters, there is a careful attention to
the historical development of harmony and progression, giving specific attention to
various styles from the baroque, classical, and romantic periods.
Turek follows a similar path, though perhaps not as in depth or with as much
attention to the particularities of style. In Part 2 of his text, after developing the
structure of harmony, he discusses cadences and harmonic rhythm.1xi He takes a bit
of a detour to give attention to melody, as Clendenning & Marvin do (Chapters 7-10),
but returns to chord progression while introducing such concepts as seventh
chords, secondary dominants, part-writing, modal mixture, and modulation
(Chapters 11-25). In Part 8 (Chapters 26-30), he does give some very careful
attention to chord progression in his discussion of musical form in popular music
genres.
The text most akin to my own is Sorce's Chapter 8.1xii In this section, he
provides a very clear discussion of chord tendencies, movement, substitution,
tension/resolution, and how chords harmonize melodies. He expands on these
concepts in subsequent chapters through his discussion of musical structure
(Chapter 11), the chromaticism of secondary dominants, borrowed harmony, and
the Neapolitan and augmented sixth chords (Chapter 12, 14, 15, and 16). Also, a
very important chapter for this discussion is Chapter 18, which discusses cyclic
movement, and stepwise, mediant, and tritone movement.1xiii
Each of these others, with possible exception of Sorce, places a significant
emphasis, understandably so, on harmonic progression from the perspective of the
development of western harmony and the compositional approach of classical music
as it is highly influenced by counterpoint. Such an emphasis, however, is not
favored for the purposes of my text, especially as this affects the content and
347
organization of the text on such a large level. As has been stated the compositional,
notational, and interpretational methodology of popular music, especially in the
form of lead sheet notation, is very different from the classical conventional model.
Though it is a given, that the western classical tradition has provided the context for
this type of music, this music is not reliant on many of the compositional practices
and considerations that concern much of western classical composition, the most
notable of which include counterpoint and the strict treatment of cadences. As we
have seen, counterpoint is inherent to the a harmonic framework of a composition,
the principles that have governed its composition in classical music, are not of
primary concern to a harmony playing church musician specializing in popular
music styles, especially a guitarist, whose ability to execute counterpoint is severely
limited relative to that of the keyboard (which has been the platform for the bulk of
western classical composition). Furthermore, attention to particular stylistic
harmonic devices (specific cadences, stricter resolution of certain dissonances, etc.)
is not as much of a concern for my text as the harmonic style of popular music, in its
simplicity, has less particularity to warrant any specific treatment. As the bulk of
the harmonic progressions consist of diatonic harmonies and smaller scope of
chromatic instances, where less attention to counterpoint has influenced the
breakdown of stylistic peculiarities (or "rules") it would not be of significant benefit
to list off any of the number of possibilities for chord combinations of this harmony.
Rather, it is of benefit, as my text does, to point in more general terms to the
tendencies of chords (generalized chord function), that most chord progressions are
influenced by these trends. In short, this is the difference between explaining the
melodic (contrapuntal), harmonic, and rhythmic considerations that go into the
resolution of a perfect authentic cadence from V7 to I,lxiv and merely explaining the
dominant chords "desire" to return to tonic. The simpler explanation, though far
more vague in terms of application, is far more useful to the church musician, who
can apply these concepts to a wide array of contexts and is not restrict to one
particular realization of what is a broader concept.
348
Chord Substitution
Chord substitution is compositional practice that is found in most styles of
western music. It has its origins in classical music, where substitution describes the
historical development of certain chord progressions that "substitute" for the norm
as in a deceptive cadence. Though, in application this differs from the more
spontaneous reharmonization of tunes that so typifies the practice of jazz, or the
arranging techniques for popular songs as described in my text, the theoretical
origins are the same - that is, the exploiting of harmonic relationships between
chords to generate a progression that is at some level atypical. Interestingly, each of
the three texts seems to approach the topic using, to some degree, one of the three
applications already described.
Clendenning & Marvin discuss chord substitution, if only inadvertently,
through the method they take to explain chord progression and phrasing. Theirs is
on that seems to have its roots in Schenkerian theory, where the "basic phrase" is
that consisting of an essential "I-V-I."lxv This phrase may be expanded through
predominant, leading tone, or six-four chords and specifically a tonic expansion is
created through mediant chords and other devices.1xvi They also talk about other
forms of cadences, including deceptive, Phrygian, plagal cadences.lxvii Even if this
form of substitution isn't overt, considering the more common usage of the term, the
correlation should be apparent through the fact that Clendenning & Marvin have set
up a basic structure that can be expanded and altered using the appropriate
harmonic substitutions. This type of substitution is indeed helpful for learning the
functions of chords and their respective tendencies, but doesn't go far enough (for
the needs ofthe church musician) to be able to apply this concepts towards a
working knowledge of how to substitute chords in an existing chord progression.
Turek's handling of chord substitution is almost strictly related to jazz
practice and much more closely related to thrust of Chapter 12 in my book, where,
moving beyond the composer's decisions, the performer himself is expected to exert
a level of compositional responsibility over the performance, a great degree of
349
which is a result of chord substitution. Ralph Turek defines chord substitution in
jazz through several main techniques: tonicization through secondary dominants,
and predominants, tritone substitution and its expansions, and auxiliary or passing
chords.lxviii Though these techniques are indeed helpful they are perhaps not the
most immediately valuable or necessary techniques in terms of the means of a
church musician. In the large majority of contemporary Christian music repertoire
(especially in the past 10 years) there has been a pronounced de-emphasis ofthe
dominant over and above that of earlier styles. The plagal cadence reigns supreme
as the dominant (now rarely emphasized through a dominant 7th) is relegated
largely to status as a passing chord. This has so much become the case that, in many
instances, a dominant seventh harmony, which for so many centuries remained the
centerpiece or seed for music composition, now sounds out of accordance with the
current style of contemporary Christian music.
The reasons for this trend are probably many, but it is my opinion that as the
gUitar has risen to more prominence as an instrument for the composition and
performance of more contemporary music, the musical limitations and difficulties
posed by the instrument itself has had a profound effect on the nature of the style
itself. Given the challenges facing the guitarist to execute more complex harmony
and counterpoint, as well as the natural preference for open strings, the preference
for guitar as means of composition and performance has meant that guitarists
preferences for diatonic harmony and open strings has led to compositions with far
less instances of chromaticism. Furthermore, the preference for ballads45 (evinced
by the majority of more ballad-type songs found on the CCLI Top 100) has also
undoubtedly led to the decline of the dominant 7th, whose dissonance would be too
strong to be prolonged over the longer harmonic durations in the ballads in many
cases. Whether the preference for guitar (often played by untrained hands) has
sustained a preference for ballads (often less technically demanding) is not certain.
45 Strongly melodic compositions with a slower tempo and prolonged harmonic rhythms.
350
In any event, these preferences or trends do exist in the current style and pose their
difficulties (preference for diatonicity and slow harmonic rhythm) make any
extensive use of chromatics through secondary dominant substitution (or similarly
tritone substitution) not the most immediately beneficial substitution technique.
This point is also, why my text, unlike any of the others, employs harmonic reduction
as a practical method for substitution. It is generally excepted that one of the
reasons hymns are beginning to fall out of favor in the contemporary context of the
church is that their harmonic complexity and density is rooted in composition and
performance at the keyboard and are far more difficult to execute from the guitar.
Richard Sorce, does offer a simpler (and conversely more practical) approach
to chord substitution offering many of the same techniques my text employs. He
begins with common tones as the basis for substitution, showing that third related
chords offer a most immediately practical means for substitution.Ixix However, his
treatment of this is quite limited. This common tone relationship is the basis for
most of my discourse on chord substitution in Chapter 12. I begin with a similar
discussion of third relationships that Sorce does, but expand this, through the use of
common tones, to let it this relationship continue twice and even three times or
more over. I also take it to the extra step of employing modal mixture for third
related substitutions, whereas Sorce's text is restricted to diatonic substitutions.
Modulation
Once again, though my chapter discusses much of the same material as the
other texts do, now concerning modulation, the end goals of the discourse are
different. Essentially, all the texts, including my own, cover the same material. We
each show that there are five main types of modulation: direct (or phrase), common
chord (or pivot chord), common tone, chromatic, and enharmonic modulation,
though Turek discusses these techniques under two general headings - those that
use a common chord (or tone) and those that utilize some form of chromaticism.Ixx
This is an accurate generalization, as any kind of modulation (with the exception of
351
a modulation to a relative key) requires chromaticism, though there are two that are
do so using common pitches (common tone and common chord).
The difference however lies in the fact that the purpose of my discourse is to
equip the student with the technical faculties to implement a modulation from one
key to any other employing one or more of these techniques to do so. Also, the
student will grasp the virtues of each and the particular quality each one brings to a
composition. The student is given a particular creative purpose, for learning the
material beyond merely the analysis of modulation in a given a composition. Not to
say, that is, that the other texts do not equip one with the knowledge to take the
concepts from the analytical stage to the compositional stage, but they are perhaps
not as overt as my text towards this goal. This, however, is particularly important
for my readers, who (as is described in the introduction to my chapter) have
modulation as a distinct concern. They require, perhaps uniquely, the faculty to take
a set of songs written in varying styles, from varying composers, in varying keys,
with varying text and string them together to create a seamless and compelling flow
of music. The Internet is littered with people each offering their various methods to
achieve this "flow" in a worship service, which consists largely of modulation in the
greater context of arranging a set of songs. Thus, my text goes the extra mile to offer
as many theoretical resources possible, while keeping the discussion in the realm of
practicality. At each step of the way, I bring up special considerations in the text
that contribute to flow, considerations that are either neglected or taken for granted
in the other texts, as in how other factors than simply harmonic progression
contribute to how effective a modulation is, considerations like rhythm, metric
pulse, melody, and consonance vs. dissonance, amongst others. In any case, my
approach to modulation is valid and distinct in this respect that it offers a new
approach to a musical concern that is not addressed by the other texts.
352
Notes
xix Ralph Turek, Theory for Today's Musician (New York: McGraw Hill, 2007), 52.
xx Jane Piper Clendinning and Elizabeth West Marvin. The Musician's Guide to Theory
and Analysis. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2005.), xxiv-xxv.; Sorce,
Richard. Music Theory for the Music Professional. (New York: Arsdley House
Publishers, Inc., 1995), xxi.; Turek, 1-2.
xxi Clendenning & Marvin, xxv-xxix., Turek, xxi-xxiii.
xxii Sorce, xxi.; Turek, 1-2.
xxiii Sorce, xxi.
xxiv Turek, 1-2.
xxv CCLI - Christian Copyright Licensing International, "Church Copyright License,"
Christian Copyright Licensing International, http://www.ccli.com/why (accessed
July 17, 2010).
xxvi CCLI 2009 License Holder Survey Results, "2009 License Holder Survey Results,"
Christian Copyright Licensing International, http://www.ccli.com/survey/2009
(accessed July 17, 2010).
xxvii Ibid.
xxviii Sorce, 1; Turek, 741.
xxix Clendenning & Marvin, 4.
xxx Ibid., 20.
xxxi Sorce, 4-5; Turek, 760-761.
xxxii Clendenning & Marvin, 20.
xxxiii Sorce, 10-11; Turek, 762-763.
xxxiv Sorce, 10-12; Turek, 761-768.
353
xxxv Sorce, 4.
xxxvi Ibid., 35.
xxxvii Turek, 744.
xxxviii Clendenning & Marvin, 6, 43-45.
xxxix Ibid., 106.
xl CCLI 2009 License Holder Survey Results, "2009 License Holder Survey Results,"
Christian Copyright Licensing International, http://www.cclLcom/survey/2009
(accessed July 27, 2010).
xli Clendenning & Marvin, 42-43, 59-60.
xlii Turek, 4-5.
xliii Clendenning & Marvin, 47-49.
xliv Turek, 749.
xlv Sorce, 41-43.
xlvi Clendenning & Marvin, 95; Sorce, 57; Turek, 19.
xlvii Turek, 20-21.
xlviii Sorce, 59-61.
xlix Clendenning & Marvin, 98-101.
1 Ibid., 112-113.
Ii Sorce, 79-83.
Iii Turek, 38-41.
liii Clendenning & Marvin, 120-132.
liv Sorce, 81-93.
Iv Turek, 39-45.
Ivi Ibid., 529.
Ivii Sorce, 382-391.
Iviii Ibid., 393-394.
lix PraiseCharts - CCLI Top 100 Songs, "CCLI Top 100 Songs," Praise Charts,
http://www.praisecharts.com/ccli (accessed August 2,2010).
Ix Clendenning & Marvin, 134-152, 153-171.
Ixi Turek, 93.
Ixii Sorce, 176-195.
Ixiii Ibid., 417-431.
Ixiv Clendenning & Marvin, 212.
Ixv Ibid., 198-212.
lxvi Ibid., 250-274, 276-283
lxvii Ibid., 298-306.
Ixviii Turek, 547-566.
lxix Sorce, 185-186.
(xx Turek, 492.
354
355
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