THE HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY IN OREGON'S DOUGLAS FIR REGION: AN EXAMINATION OF HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE IN FIVE MILL TOWNS by JOAN MARY KELLEY A THESIS Presented to the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Historic Preservation and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science December 1992 I ii APPROVED: iii Copyright 1992 Joan Mary Kelley iv An Abstract of the Thesis of Joan Mary Kelley for the degree of Master of Science in the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Historic Preservation to be taken December 1992 Title: THE HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY IN OREGON'S DOUGLAS FIR REGION: AN EXAMINATION OF HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE IN FIVE MILL TOWNS APPROVED: Leland M. Roth, Chair The lumber industry in western Oregon's Douglas fir region flourished between 1900 and 1940 , a time known as the "Rail Trade Era. " Prior to 1900, only a limited lumber in­ dustry existed, focusing mainly on local demand. Oregon's rugged coastline prompted ocean- going vessels to seek more favorable ports. At the turn of the century, with technological advance­ ments, organization of large corporations, and an increasing national and local population, the industry entered a new age. Such expansion brought an increase of lumbering activ­ ity to Oregon's dense inland conifer forests. V Small towns located in isolated places near the timber supply provided the forces to manufacture the natural re­ source into sawn lumber . Though the large mill complexes are gone, historical resources from that era remain. Along with the industry's history, this thesis examines five mill towns scattered throughout Oregon's Douglas fir region for extant resources . Log ponds, company housing, spatial arrangements, and industrial artifacts were found. VITA NAME OF AUTHOR: Joan Mary Kelley PLACE OF BIRTH: Fond du Lac, Wisconsin DATE OF BIRTH: March 8, 1951 GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon Montana State University University of Wisconsin-Madison DEGREES AWARDED: Master of Science, 1992, University of Oregon Bachelor of Science, 1975, University of Wisconsin AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Pacific Northwest History Vernacular Architecture Industrial Archeology Historical Museums Cultural Resource Management PUBLICATIONS: vi Kelley, Joan M. "Booth-Kelly Lumber Company: An Empire in the Douglas Fir Country." In Lane County Histo­ rian: The Way It Was, edited by Lois Barton, 55-59. Eugene, Ore.: Lane County Historical Society, Fall 1990. vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Leland Roth, for his encouragement to pursue my interests and his support and assistance along the way. Kenneth Helphand, for his excellent advice and motivation to look at the larger picture. Professor Emeritus Bingham, for not only his reas­ surance and vigilant editing, but his extension of friend­ ship as well. I wish to acknowledge the librarians at the Oregon Historical Society, especially the photograph department, and the staff of Special Collections at the University of Oregon's Knight Library. I found amazing books "in that back room." Any study involving connnunity history includes many people, from city clerks to school children. To all of you, thank you. Of those connnunity people, particular apprecia­ tion goes to curator, local historian of Vernonia's Columbia County Historical Museum, Robb Wilson. Such work gets final touches, and that recognition goes to editor and technical advisor, Carol Roth. Finally, a special thanks to David Moon, my husband, for his generous help in all aspects of my graduate years, viii · and who has taken pride in this thesis and came to know the mill towns and back roads with me . ix DEDICATION To David INTRODUCTION Chapter TABLE OF CONTENTS I. HISTORICAL CONTEXT Physical Landscape ...... . Lumbering Locations in the Douglas Fir Region . . . . . . . Development of the Lumber Industry Layout and Function of the Sawmill II. LUMBER LOCATIONS Lower Columbia and the Mill Town of St. Helens . . . . ... Tidewater and the Town of Garibaldi . . . . . ... The Coast Range and the Town of Vernonia ......... . The Willamette Valley and the Town of Cottage Grove ....... . The Cascade Range and the Town of West£ ir . . . . . . . . . III. HISTORICAL RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . IV. PLANNING FOR THE PRESERVATION OF OREGON'S X Page 1 11 11 23 29 42 47 48 65 79 92 101 108 LUMBER RESOURCES ........... 121 Findings ... Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY 126 126 134 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. Douglas Fir Region of Oregon 2. Hammond Mill, Taken from the Lower Columbia xi Page 3 River Highway, Date Unknown . . . 10 3. Pioneers Called the Forest "The Green Desert," Date Unknown ... 4. Douglas Fir Near St. Helens, Date Unknown 5 . Production of Lumber by Major Regions of the United States ....... . 6. Lumbering Locations in the Douglas Fir Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Progressive Movement of Lumber Industry in United States ......... . 8. Bridal Veil Flume, Date Unknown 9. Proposed Site Plan for Mill Complex ... . .. . 10. Layout of 0-A Mill Complex in Vernonia 11. Douglas Fir Region and Town Locations 12. Regional Map of St. Helens 13. Lithograph of Muckle Brothers Mill, St. Helens, Date Unknown ... 14. Sailing Vessels at McCormick Dock, Date Unknown ........ . 15. Advertisement for St. Helens Shipbuilding Company . . . . . . . . . . 16 18 24 25 32 38 45 46 49 54 55 57 58 16. Advertisement for Chas . R. McCormick .,I & Co. . . . . . . . . . . • . . 17. Aerial View of St. Helens Lumber Company 18. St. Helens Sawmill Nucleus 19. Four Houses in "Bungalow Flats" on Fourth Street . . . . ... 20. Hobsonville, Oregon, 1890 21. Regional Map of Garibaldi 22. Whitney's Logging System 23. Whitney Mill Under Construction, ca. 1921 24. Hammond-Tillamook Lumber Mill, ca. 1930 25 . Garibaldi Sawmill Nucleus, Detail 26. Company Housing and Garibaldi Mill, ca. 1925 ........ . 27. Porch Variations, Garibaldi Company Housing, 1992 ....... . 28. Regional Map of Vernonia xii 59 62 63 65 68 70 71 72 76 77 78 80 82 29. Monorail at O-A Mill, Vernonia, 1928 85 30 . Aerial View of O-A Mill, Date Unknown 87 31. Top View: O-A Company House, Vernonia, Front View, 1992. Bottom View: O-A Company House and Alley Garage, Vernonia, Rear View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 32. O-A Mill, ca. 1930 . . . . . . . . . . . 33. O-A Logging Locomotive and Waste Burner, Date Unknown .. . ... ... . 34 . Concentration of Mills in Willamette Valley, 1925 . . . . . . . . . . . 35. Regional Map of Cottage Grove 90 91 94 95 xiii 36. Local Lumbennen Along O&C Railroad, ca. 1880 . . . . ....... . 96 37 . Sawmill and Crew of the Walter A. Woodard Company, 1920 . . . . . . . . . . 99 38. Regional Location of Westfir 39. Westfir Sawmill Nucleus 40. Mill Office at Westfir 41. Covered Bridge at Westfir, 1991, Built ca. 1945 .......... . 42 . Westfir Company Store, Date Unknown 43. Smoke Stack at Garibaldi, 1992 44. Abandoned Wigwam Burner, 1991 103 106 106 107 109 119 124 1 INTRODUCTION This study begins with an historical overview of the lumber industry in Or egon's Douglas fir region between Euro­ American settlement and 1940. It was not until the turn of the century that the industry came, in earnest, to the for­ ests of the Pacific Northwest where western Oregon's Fir Belt is located. After successive moves through North Amer­ ica's regional forests to the east and south, the industry came to the last forested frontier in the "Far Northwest Corner. " Here, the industry had the benefit of knowledge that had been accumulated from regions previously logged, a growing demand from an expanding population, and the latest in industrial technology to cut, carry, manufacture and export the lumber. Within the Pacific Northwest region, Oregon was a late entry into the lumber industry . Her rocky, inhospitable coastline resulted in the early shipping trade seeking more favorable harbors to the north at Puget Sound or south at San Francisco Bay. It was not until the twenties and thir­ ties that heightened lumber activity began to occur in Ore­ gon, although earlier enterprises clearly pointed the way. 2 This thesis concentrates on the span from 1900 to 1940, a period known as the "Rail Era." This was an interval when rail transport dominated the hauling of raw logs to mills and sawn lumber to markets, and corporations held large tracts of timber while managing a work force to log, transport and mill their raw material. This was before society became reliant on automobiles and "commuting" meant a quarter mile walk to the mill complex for shift work, while residents kept time by the mill whistle . Daily living circulated around these large mills with the noise of the saws and smoke from the burning wood waste and steam locomo­ tives, commonplace in any bustling mill town. Oregon's Douglas fir region is only part of the state's lumber history and a mere fraction of this expansive indus­ try in North America. Regional differences exist in each part of . the country's forests as well as between eastern and western Oregon. Climatic and topographic conditions pro­ duced a tree type and geography in eastern Oregon that cre­ ates a different lumber history. Although the Douglas fir region extends from northern California to British Columbia, the spatial boundaries of this study are limited to the state of Oregon. The Columbia River is the northern boundary, with the California state line to the south, the Pacific Ocean on the west and the summit of the Cascades on the east (see figure 1). 3 ~ DOUGLAS FIR REGION Figure 1. Douglas Fir Region of Oregon. Source: Author. The lumber industry is indeed a vast subject; there­ fore, this study has narrowed the topic. It focuses on the sawmilling or manufacturing aspect of this mighty industry. This study opens with an overview of the industry itself and then concentrates on mill towns and the manufacturing that occurred there. 4 This paper does not deal with logging camps or logging railroads; economic issues such as freight wars, grading standards or public land; the subject of forestry regarding old-growth or reforestation; wood-related industries such as pulp and paper; or ecological debates or United States Forest Service philosophies of conservation or fire preven­ tion. It differentiates between a logging camp and a mill town. A logging camp was established solely for the purpose of cutting timber, building the necessary structures to accomplish that feat, and transporting the raw log to the mill site or open market. Not built for permanence, these communities moved closer to the timber supply when the sur­ rounding trees had been cut out. Many of the buildings were constructed on skids or rail beds to accommodate frequent moves. A mill town, on the other hand, has the presence of the dominating sawmill or mills that identify it as a lumber town. The settlement may have been initiated by a lumber corporation or perhaps was an existing town site where a large corporation built a mill complex. The mill had a monopolizing presence, both physical and economic, for the members of the communities. These mill towns had a permanence, unlike the logging camps that could be readily moved or dismantled. 1 5 It is necessary to distinguish between logging and sawmilling. Logging is the cutting and hauling of the raw material to the manufacturing site. Such activity moved inland away from the stationary mill site as the supply diminished. The sawmilling complex was located near a sta­ ble work force and included a log storage area, the log pond. At the mill complex, lumber was produced; lumber is the product of timber sawn or split for use in construction. From the log pond, logs were hauled into the milling complex to be sawed, shaped, or trimmed into desired dimen­ sions. The mill site was fixed near a "wet-point" loca­ tion. 2 Either a river, a bay, or an estuary provided the operations with a water source. Water served several impor­ tant functions for the mill. Although primarily a storage place for the logs, the water also made it easier to sort and handle the logs, served to clean the logs of grit and gravel that would dull the saws, and acted as a fire 1Logging camps have become towns; however, their mor­ phology is different without the centralizing sawmill. Powers, Oregon, has a history of a logging camp that devel­ oped into a permanent community. See Kenneth A. Erickson, "The Morphology of Lumber Settlements in Western Oregon and Western Washington" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1965), 328-330. 2Erickson, 372-373. deterrent. Prior to summer's dry months when loggers were banned from the forest, the log ponds could be filled with enough raw material so the mill had a steady supply through those dry periods. An additional benefit of water storage was the decreased concern of fire danger and the preserva­ tive effect on logs. 3 6 The sources used for the historical overview were main­ ly secondary. Books, newspapers, periodicals, information published by the regional lumber associations, and local museums provided the data. While researching the case studies, secondary sources were augmented with personal interviews and site visits.' Throughout this project, his­ torical photographs were continuously used; fortunately, this history has been well documented with pictures. The Oregon Historical Society has the photographic collection from The Timberman, a monthly trade journal published in Portland from 1899 through 1957. This remarkable photo collection plus other photographs proved invaluable in this work. The magazine itself, located in the Knight Library, offered insight into Oregon's lumber industry. The 3H. B. Oakleaf, Lumber Manufacture in the Douglas Fir Region (Chicago: Commercial Journal Co., 1920), 17; and Erickson, 373. 'The site visit was a cursory survey completed within one­ half mile from the mill complex. Timberman, originally called The Columbia River and Oregon Timberman, covered all aspects of the industry from logging operations, to activities of a fraternal lumbermen's club, to what mills had installed new equipment, to forestry is­ sues. Those volumes were an extremely helpful resource for this thesis. 7 Chapter I of this thesis documents the historical con­ text of the region's lumber industry. It begins with a description of the physical landscape and how densely for­ ested North America appeared to the Indians, early settlers, and timber barons. The massiveness of the firs in the Pa­ cific Northwest shaped the industry to come. The Douglas fir region in Oregon is geographically divided in this study into six regions or lumbering locations for a better under­ standing of how geography affected the industry's develop­ ment. After examining the influence of climate and terrain, the development of the lumber industry is examined. Lumber undertakings accelerated with industrial innovations of the time and the ever-increasing demand from an expanding popu­ lation. The layout of a mill plant was also investigated for its function in order to visualize its presence in Ore­ gon's landscape prior to 1940. Chapter II investigates a mill town from five of the six regions, to identify and isolate historical resources pertinent to the lumber industry. Here lies one of the 8 objectives of this thesis: to identify pre-1940, lumber resources. To locate the resources, research was conducted by a methodology referred to as the "sawmill nucleus." This formula was derived by ascertaining the most productive mill between 1920 and 1930 in each particular town and determin­ ing the mill site. From that site, a one-half mile radius was established; that distance was basically the walking range to work at the mill. 5 Within that circle, a survey for extant lumber re­ sources was completed. The town's lumber history, wet-point location, mill site in relationship to the town, and spatial arrangements were researched. Chapter III defines each re­ source. A description or explanation of the cultural re­ source's function is given as well as a statement of signif­ icance. Chapter IV of the study concludes with recommendations for these resources. This section addresses how they can be preserved and incorporated into local planning. Such a powerful history is not without its distinct images. Just as the axe was the symbol of pioneer lumber­ ing, waste burners, also known as teepees or haystacks, are representative of this industrial heyday from 1900 to 1940. Refuse burners were essential to any milling complex, and 5Erickson, 374. 9 they dotted the countryside wherever there was a sawmill. 6 This common sight remained well into the 1970s, when envi­ ronmental concerns about air pollution diminished their use. They came in a variety of shapes from cylindrical to conical "wigwam burners," yet their functions are all the same. It was in the twenties and thirties that the sawmill communi­ ties lived within their presence, accepting the cinders, smoke, and glow as an everyday occurrence (see figure 2). None of the big mills researched exist today. Built mainly of wood and housing outdated machinery, the mill complexes were either torn down, burned, or left to deterio­ rate. In the town of Cottage Grove, located in the upper Willamette Valley, the mill site is still in active use, although the mill has been totally revamped for high-tech production. The mill town of Vernonia located in the north­ west corner of the Coast Range had the most unique way of leveling their mill complex. It went up in flames for the great inferno in the 1961 movie, "The Ring of Fire." 7 What remains of the built environment from the pre-1940 lumber industry is the focus of this thesis. Fragments appear in the form of mill company housing, mill offices, log ponds, spatial arrangements and industrial artifacts . . 6During black-out periods throughout World War II, they were a problematic light source. 7Ring of Fire, Andrew L. Stone, dir., 1961, film. Figure 2. Hanunond Mill, Taken from the Lower Columbia River Highway, date unknown. Source: Oregon Historical Society (hereafter, OHS). 10 11 CHAPTER I HISTORICAL CONTEXT Physical Landscape "What better thing than a tree to portray the wealth of our county?" Joseph Jenks, designer of an early Ameri­ can coin, the pine shilling of Massachusetts. 1 The original forests of the United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the treeless prairies of the Midwest, appeared again on the slopes of the Rocky Mountains and terminated in the Pacific Northwest. Roughly half of the 48 contiguous states were originally timbered; however, it can only be estimated how extensive these forests were because of the cutting that occurred. 2 1W. G. Youngquist and H. o. Fleischer, Wood in American Life, 1776-2076 (Madison, Wisc.: Forest Products Research Society, 1977), 59. A series of "Tree" coins, minted in Massachusetts beginning in 1652, became the standard coinage for the early colonists. 2William G. Robbins, Lumberjacks and Legislation: Po­ litical Economy of the U.S. Lumber Industry, 1890-1941 (Col­ lege Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1982), 3-4; Mi­ chael Williams, Americans and Their Forests: A Historical Geography (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 3-4, 25-32; and Edmonds. Meany, Jr., "The History of the Lumber Industry in the Pacific Northwest to 1917" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1935), 1-9. 12 The forests played a central role in America's early pioneer settlement. Wood was used for fuel, building shel­ ters and to make farm implements in the pioneer's pursuit for subsistence living. It was, indeed, a "wooden culture." Clearing the forests for the land to establish an agricul­ tural livelihood consumed a great deal of the trees. 3 Each major lumber region--the Northeast, Great Lake States, South and the Pacific Northwest--has a lumber his­ tory specific to its geographical features, tree type, and technology existing during the time of exploitation. In the 1830s, the rivers of Maine were used to transport logs to the sawmills at Bangor and Gardiner. That river system pro­ vided a swift route after the spring thaw in those pre­ railroad lumbering days. The industry later moved on to the states of Michigan and Wisconsin. Offering few obstacles, the rolling terrain was advantageous to the movement of logs. Nature's design in the Lake States funnelled Mich­ igan's and Wisconsin's white pine into Lake Michigan for distribution in the metropolis of Chicago. By 1900, rail­ road logging and the invention of donkey engines were prov­ ing to be superior methods in the assistance of cutting the timber supply and getting it to the mill. The steep rivers 3Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 3-9; and Brooke Hindle, ed., America's Wooden Age: Aspects of Its Early Tech­ nology (Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1975), 1-12. in the Pacific Northwest were less conducive to log trans­ portation than the rivers in the Great Lakes or the North­ east. 4 13 Eventually, a lumber industry took hold on the western slopes in the Pacific Northwest, where the region was re­ nowned for a coniferous forest unlike anywhere else in the world. The outstanding forest zone in the United States and perhaps the world is located in the Pacific Coast states. Although there are a variety of trees in this zone, it is largely a coniferous forest with only 6 percent deciduous trees. The Douglas fir is the monarch, and the area is suitably known as the Douglas fir region. 5 In 1940, in his book, This Fascinating Lumber Business, Stanley Horn described the spirit of the area: The outstanding characteristic of the western lumber industry is bigness. Trees grow bigger there than they do anywhere else on the face of the earth. Sawmills are bigger, the biggest mill in the world is the Weyer­ hauser mill in Longview, Washington. The Western manu­ facturers carry bigger stocks of lumber in bigger sheds, the logging operators use the biggest and heavi­ est tractors and trucks and the thickest wire rope. Everything they do is done in a big way. 6 4William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: w. w. Norton, 1991), 148-200; and Wil­ liams, Americans and Their Forests, 160, 198-201. 5A. W. Kilchler, "The Broadleaf Deciduous Forests of the Pacific Northwest," Annuals of the Association of American Geographers 36 (June 1946): 122-147. 6Stanley F. Horn, This Fascinating Lumber Business (In­ dianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1943), 69. 14 Fronting the Pacific and backed by the Cascades, the Douglas fir region in Washington and Oregon is a belt of timber approximately 100 to 150 miles wide and 480 miles long. It is the habitat of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuqa taxi­ folia), mixed with Sitka spruce (Picea stichensis), western red cedar (Thuya plicata), western hemlock (Tsuqa hetero­ phylla), and Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). Douglas fir is the principal species in quantity, size, and quality of wood. 7 The forests of the Pacific Northwest had long been known for their magnificent trees, and journals of early explorers tell of the dense forests in this region. Cap­ tains Lewis and Clark wrote: "The whole neighborhood of the coast is supplied with quantities of excellent ti.mber." 8 David Douglas, an early Scottish botanist, wrote during his visit in 1824: "Both [tree species) far exceed those on the Atlantic side in size. "9 On his journey up the Columbia River in 1826, he noted that "the scenery at this place (Fort Vancouver] is romantically wild, with high mountains 7Horn, 70-71; and Edward John Hanzlik, Trees and For­ ests of the Western United States (Portland, Oreg.: Dunham Printing Co., 1928), 23. 8Lewis and Clark, cited in Horn, 69. 90avid Douglas, Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America, 1823-1827 (London: William Wesley, and the Royal Horticulture Society, 1914), 120. 15 on each side clothed with timber of immense size. 1110 Even­ tually Douglas's own name would be used to identify the trees he described. This forested area responded to the presence of moisture and a moderate climate, with the trees growing thick and tall along the coastline and mountain slopes. Trappers and early settlers, like the Indians be­ fore them, preferred to travel the rivers, since cutting their way through the forests was a difficult if not impos­ sible undertaking (see figure 3). More than any other species, the Douglas fir is respon­ sible for the fame that the forests of the Pacific Northwest have attained. The tree was formerly known as yellow fir, red fir, or "Oregon Pine," a commonplace trade name used by early pioneers. Before "Douglas fir" became accepted in the industry, both Oregon Pine and Douglas fir were used inter­ changeably well into the 1920s. It was the first species cut and exported from the Colwnbia River region by the Hud­ son's Bay Company at Fort Vancouver; not knowing what to call Douglas fir, it was shipped simply as "Oregon pine." 11 10Ibid. , 5 7 . 11Dorothy Marie Sherman, "A Brief History of the Lumber Industry in the Fir Belt of Oregon" (Master's thesis, Univer­ sity of Oregon, Eugene, 1934), 6-7. Figure 3. Pioneers Called the Forest "The Green Desert, " date unknown . Source: OHS. The reference to the Douglas fir as yellow or red was explained in 1940 by E.G. Mason, assistant dean to the Forestry School at Oregon State College: 16 The old virgin trees are called old growth and produce the high grade yellow fir lumber. The young trees which have grown up in the last century [are] known as second growth or red fir. Second-growth trees produce 17 a coarse-grained wood that is hard and rough in texture and of a reddish color. The principal uses of second­ growth fir are fuel, pilings, ties and common grades of lumber. The young trees are used exclusively for Christmas trees. Old growth or yellow fir produces all grades of lumber. It is particularly prized for long, clear, straight-grained timbers for structural use in bridges and general construction work. 12 In the forest, the tree commonly reaches heights of 200 feet and a diameter of five to six feet. Douglas fir, due to its intolerance to shade and preference for dense stands, has fully one-half to two-thirds of its length free of branches; the trees tower straight, growing 4 to 10 feet from one another. In selected areas, Douglas fir frequently reaches 300 feet in height and 10 feet in diameter. The stands of fir that compose the bulk of the forest in the Douglas fir region ranged from four hundred to six hundred years old. All mature trees were immense (see figure 4). 13 During the boom of the western Oregon lumber industry from 1900 to 1940, Douglas fir was manufactured into almost every form known to sawmill operators. There were lumber needs for homes, hotels, outbuildings, and opera houses. 12E. G. Mason, "The Lumber Industry," in Physical and Economic Geography of Oregon, ed. Warren DuPre Smith, The Commonwealth Review of the University of Oregon (Eugene: University of Oregon Press, 1940), VII:222 (Special Collec­ tions, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). 13Richard White, Land Use, Environment, and Social Change (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980), 78; and Erickson, 78. lr ,.,, :il -, ,. "i i . .-:~ -~', l.~ ~ -"': ~ T.; ...:, t.:.,,;'- .; ~:. ~ 'I ~~ .... _ . ._ .... Figure 4. Douglas Fir Near St. Helens, date unknown. It is hard to imagine today just how big these trees were. Source: Ralph W. Andrews, Timber! (Seattle, Wash.: Superior, 1968), 45. 18 The tree was used in its raw form for pilings, poles, mine timbers, and railroad ties. 14 The strength and rigidity of Douglas fir contributed to its popularity for early infra­ structures, such as bridges and wood stave pipes for city water systems. 19 Another tree in the region used for commercial purposes is the western red cedar, known for its resistance to decay even in the mild, damp coastal climate. It even exceeded the Douglas fir in sheer bulk. Diameters frequently reached 15 feet, but the tree seldom reached 200 feet in height. Western red cedar is found chiefly in areas with fairly high precipitation and at lower altitudes, rarely occurring above 3,500 feet in elevation. Unlike the Douglas fir, it did not grow in pure stands and often was found rooted among spruce and hemlock in the foggy forests of the coast. This easily worked wood was used by Indians for their dugout canoes, wood carvings, and siding on their lodges; hence the pioneer's called it "canoe cedar. "15 Early Oregon pioneers favored the wood for shingles because of its easy splitting quality and endurance; old growth shingles lasted as long as 60 years. Shingle mills were common sights during the 14Hanzlik, 33-36, 48; and Forever . . . West Coast Woods (Portland, Oreg.: West Coast Lumberman's Association, 1930), 5-10. 15Meany, 2 5 . 20 industrial heyday; however, they closed when the old-growth cedar became depleted. 16 West Coast hemlock, found only in the Pacific North­ west, reaches a height of 150 feet and four to five feet in diameter. This tree commonly grew in association with Doug­ las fir, western red cedar, and Sitka spruce under condi­ tions that satisfied its tolerance for shade and moisture. A 1930s promotional booklet of the West Coast Lumbermen's Association boasted of its quality, for it was once an ig­ nored tree. It was suggested for gymnasium floors. The Association claimed that the wood "is rapidly becoming a favorite among architects for interior woodwork and finish" and "confidently recommended [it] as a moderately priced wood for all features of interior finish and trim, for pan­ els, wainscoting, casing, base, molding, colonnades, newels and turned stock." 17 Its principal range is on moist and cool western slopes of the Coast range; it grows best where precipitation is not less than 70 inches a year, with a great deal of this coming in the form of heavy fog and mist . 18 "Hanzlik, 33-36; and Erickson, 79. 17Forever . . . , 12-14. 18Ibid. 21 Sitka spruce, one of seven species of spruce found in the United States, is also called tidewater spruce. It grows only in the northwest Coast Range under extremely moist conditions. This tree was of special interest to the United States Army during the First World War for aircraft structures . 19 Port Orford cedar, confined to the lower foothills of the Siskiyou Mountains in southwestern Oregon, is an exclu­ sive wood of extremely high value. Found in the southern end of the Douglas fir region in Coos and Curry counties, it was usually found not over 40 miles from the coast. It is a moisture-loving tree, requiring plenty of atmospheric mist. This cedar has a distinct, aromatic odor which is offensive to certain insects . 20 The swath of timberland that makes up the Douglas fir region had large, closely spaced trees throughout. At one time, the Douglas fir forest was the most outstanding in the world. Its very existence may simply have been a happenstance of nature. Under similar conditions, this marine-coast climate elsewhere on the globe would have pro­ duced a broadleaf deciduous forest, rather than one composed almost solely of coniferous trees. The Willamette Valley 19Ibid., 74-79; and Mason, 223. 2°Forever . . . , 88, 122. 22 lies within this timberland and is essentially encircled by trees. The lack of coniferous forest in the valley proper was due to frequent burning by the Indians. It is not definitely known why there is an absence of a widespread deciduous forest; however, there are some theo­ ries of the cause for this rare occurrence. The on-shore winds from the Pacific Ocean plus the relief features of the region helped contribute to such a fir forest. The fact that Douglas fir profits from occasional forest fires may have led to its inevitable dominance. The region might well have become a forest of cedar and hemlock had the fires not kept the Douglas fir sovereign. What caused this "accident" of nature in the Pacific Northwest forest is unknown, but what did emerge was a dominant species that attained a size and longevity unknown in the world. 21 The tree had an influence on the lumber industry and the technology used. Such a quality and quantity of timber made Oregon depend on the lumber industry for economic growth. However, it was not the tree alone that propelled Oregon to lead the nation in lumber production in 1936. The industrial era of railroad technology, improved sawmilling techniques to handle these huge trees, greater profits for the corporations, and a growing population in Oregon and the 21White, 7-11; and Kuchler, 122-14 7. rest of the nation pushed the lumber industry into larger and larger production (see figure 5). Lumbering Locations in the Douglas Fir Region 23 The Douglas fir region is divided into six lumbering locations. Although the entire region has similar charac­ teristics that give it the deserving nickname "the great raincoast," and comm.on resources to make it a "lumber king­ dom, "22 a more detailed geographic division is helpful. The high bluffs of the Lower Columbia River, steep slopes of the Coast Range, alluvial lands of the Willamette Valley, bays and inlets along tidewater, and the steepness of the Cascades are all part of the Douglas fir region. Such differences in geography have resulted in a distinct lumber history for each division (see figure 6). The Coast Range lies between the Willamette Valley and the Pacific Ocean, with the southern boundary not easily defined. For this study, the Middle Fork of the Coquille River was chosen as the southern boundary. South of this river is the Coast section of the Klamath Mountains, where the formations and lumber history are quite different from 22Richard Maxwell Brown, "The Great Raincoast of North America: Toward a New Regional History of the Pacific North­ west," in The Changing Pacific Northwest: Interpreting Its Past, ed. David H. Straiton and George A. Frykman (Pullman: Washington State University, 1988), 50-53. 20.000 a lake States b South c West Coast d New England e Central C ---Iv decade ---------Bvvea, ------ Figure 5. Production of Lumber by Major Regions of the United States. Source: Williams, Ameri­ cans and Their Forests, 197. 24 that of the coast mountains farther north. From the Colum- bia River to the Coquille River, the Coast Range is the broadest at the ends and narrows in the middle. nant resource is timber. The domi- : I I : '1 I I I I I I f I I I I ffl LOWER COLUMBIA RIVER ~TIDEWATER ~ WILLAMETTE VALLEY ~ COAST RANGE s CASCADE RANGE v1::J KLAMATH MOUNTAINS (not discussed) Figure 6. Lumbering Locations in the Douglas Fir Region. Source: Author. 25 26 The climate, under the influence of the sea and especially the winds which blow from the sea, is mild, with calm rainy winters and cool summers with less precipitation. More significant than the total amount of rain is the fact that winters have the heaviest rain while summers are compara­ tively dry. 23 The Willamette Valley, whose main feature is the Wil­ lamette River, serves as the principal corridor for trans­ portation routes in Oregon. This humid lowland is bordered by the Coast and Cascade Ranges. Moderate rainfall and good soils made it highly favorable for farming communities dur­ ing the early settlement years. Towns along the streams had small operating sawmills serving local markets within these farming communities. In this valley, the agricultural econ­ omy helped to feed workers in the surrounding region, and the lumber industry developed secondary to farming. Here, an early pattern of small numerous mills with a moderate production capacity, compared to areas nearby, remained throughout the Rail Era. 24 23Samuel N. Dicken, Oregon Geography (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Brothers, 1950), 14, 23-40; and Warren DuPre Smith, ed., "The Willamette Valley Province," in The Physical and Economic Geography of Oregon (Salem: Oregon State Board of Higher Education, 1940), 25 (Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). 24Smith, Physical and Economic Geography of Oregon, 1940, 32-40. 27 The Cascade Range is different on its east and west slopes, with the rugged west side having heavy precipitation and a dense forest, whereas the eastern slope is in the rain shadow with a corresponding change in vegetation. In the western Cascades, the principal tree is, of course, the Douglas fir, while on the east slope, ponderosa pine is the most prevalent. Similar to the Coast Range, the Cascades had ample streams and rivers that were used for log stor­ age. 2s The Coast Range, the Willamette Valley, and the Cas­ cades are all bordered on the north by the Columbia River. For the purpose of this study, that area has been separated into the Lower Columbia River and is defined as the area from the summit of the Cascades to the mouth of the river. An early trade route, this "River of the West" naturally stimulated an early lumber industry by the Hudson's Bay Company. Swift currents at the mouth of the river result in shifting sand bars, making it difficult for ships to enter, and captains therefore looked to other ports. Quality timber was located on the high cliffs, but until improved technology could tap these resources, the export industry 25Dicken, 52-60; and Smith, Physical and Economic Ge­ ography of Oregon, 1940, 41, 46-49. 28 languished and the local lumber economy diversified to meet its own needs . 26 Between the Coast Range and the sea lies a coastal fringe, where explorers first came into contact with Ore­ gon's timber resources. The fifth lumber location within the Douglas fir region is denominated tidewater. Although the timber supply comes from the geographic region of the Coast Range, the lumber history and the towns along this coastal ribbon differ from the history within the range itself. The industry flourished in the Rail Era using both rail and ocean-going vessels to export the lumber. Coos Bay is undoubtedly the best known lumber center along this coas­ tal fringe. Bays and inlets stimulated an industry specific to the tidewater location along the Pacific Ocean. Oregon's inaccessible coast line, lacking natural har­ bors, was the reason Oregon had less to offer the lumber ex­ port market than did Puget Sound to the north or San Fran­ cisco Bay to the south during the nineteenth century. Ore­ gon's timberlands remained essentially untouched during the Cargo Trade Period. Prior to 1900, commerce centered around Washington's protected harbor with its surrounding accessi­ ble timber, financed by California capital. It took engi­ neering feats to eventually tap the steep mountain slopes of 26Thomas R. Cox, "Lower Columbia Lumber Industry, 1880- 93," Oregon Historical Quarterly 47 (June 1966): 161-162. the Coast and Cascade Ranges and the Columbia River's cliffs, though industrial accomplishments alone did not overcome these geographic challenges. It required the depletion of forests in the Lake States and timber barons eager for another investment before Oregon's Douglas fir region developed a vital lumber industry. Development of the Lumber Industry 29 A sawmill was essential to pioneer life, and soon after a settlement was established, the ability to saw timber into lumber became a necessity. Any lumber produced by the local sawmill was quickly utilized by the burgeoning agricultural communities. With a small population, this sawmill settle­ ment pattern was not really an industry, nor did it supply or even look to distant markets. 27 The development of lumber production in North America during the earliest days was along local lines. The manu­ factured material was largely consumed within a narrow radi­ us of the point of manufacturing and was generally cut to order. There were individuals in scattered towns who served their neighbors by providing them with economical building material. If the mill happened to be favorably located at a seaport or on a large stream, some of its production might 27Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 95-96, 163- 167. 30 be floated down the river to a nearby town or even shipped by sailing vessels to a foreign market. There was no "lum­ ber industry" as such in those days. 28 By the nineteenth century on the northeast coast, Amer­ icans were shifting from local lumber production to one of increased commercial activity with a degree of specializa­ tion. As the population increased, manufacturing and urban centers expanded and a need arose to supply broader markets. The first large sawmill in the United States was constructed in 1838 in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. The number of saw­ mills increased, as well as production, due to accompanying inventions and various improvements to existing machin- ery. 29 The early industry that had began in Maine was soon eclipsed by New York and then Pennsylvania. By 1870, the Great Lake States dominated lumber production in the United States. Following timber depletion in the Midwest, the industrial migration bifurcated to the Pacific Northwest and the South. After several decades, many Southern companies relocated to the Pacific Coast, where the heaviest stands 28Horn, 21-22. 29williams, Americans and Their Forests, 163-167; and Erickson, 13. remained and trees were renowned for their extremely large size ( see figure 7) . 30 31 In 1788, Captain John Meares, a British sea captain, departed with his ship from the Pacific Coast loaded with "fine spars, fir for topmasts" for the Chinese market. Al­ though a storm compelled Meares to jettison his cargo at sea, his effort is identified as the prologue to the lumber industry in the Pacific Northwest. 31 The first sawmill in the Pacific Northwest was a water­ driven mill on the Columbia River near Fort Vancouver, built by John McLaughlin, circa 1827. Milling activity was limited and small scale, but like that of Captain Meares, it was the harbinger of the developing industry. 32 The migration to the Oregon Territory in the 1840s quickly gave rise to sawmills to facilitate settlement and, thus, the first industrial structures in this densely for­ ested region were sawmills. By 1844, Hunt's water-powered mill on the south side of the Columbia River at Cathlamet Head began marketing lumber in Oregon City. It had a 30Horn, 17-33; and Erickson, 9-14. 31Charles H. Carey, General History of Oregon (Port­ land, Oreg.: Binford & Mort, 1923), 61. 32Sherman, 5-9; Ellis Lucia, Head Rig: Story of the West Coast Lumber Industry (Portland, Oreg.: Overland Press, 1965), 13-14; and Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A Histo­ ry of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 9-28. Shaded areas represent forests before settlement. Arrows indicate movement of lumber industry. Dates are approximate for peak production . I. white pine, 1840 II. white pine, 1860 III. white pine, 1890 IV. southern pine, 1909 v. Douglas fir region, 1955 Figure 7. Progressive Movement of Lumber Industry in United States. Source: Modified from Cox, This Well-Wooded Land, 4. capacity of 3000 to 5000 board feet of lumber per day. 33 Five years later, there were thirty sawmills in the 32 33 "Board feet" is the basic unit of measure in the lum­ ber trade. It is a piece of wood of the nominal dimensions of one inch thick and one foot square. territory. 34 In 1846, John Waymire started a hand sawmill on the Willamette River in Portland. 35 33 In 1850, the first steam sawmill in the Pacific North­ west was constructed on the lower Willamette River in Port­ land. The nearby lowlands along the Lower Columbia River was also an active area for the nascent lumber industry during the Cargo Era. Here, timber close to the water's edge and inlets was cut, but the better quality timber lo­ cated above the river on the bluffs was difficult to trans­ port to the sawmills. This area had to wait for transporta­ tion improvements in the forms of V-flumes, logging spurs, and railroad companies. When the California Gold Rush arose in 1849, these small sawmills serving agricultural communities could not meet the demand of sawn lumber for the many frame and plank structures being built in California. Although areas of ex­ isting lumber activity responded to the California demand, the increased pressure did not result in the logging of for­ ested terrain where water transportation was unavailable, as 34Emma Gene Miller, Clatsop County, Oregon: Its His­ tory, Legends and Industries (Portland, Oreg.: Binford & Mort, 1958), 213-214; Thomas Richard Cox, "Sails and Saw­ mills: The Pacific Lumber Trade to 1900" (Ph.D. diss., Uni­ versity of Oregon, Eugene, 1969), 34; and Robert W. Vin­ nedge, "The Pacific Northwest Lumber Industry and Its Development," address presented at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, December 18, 1923. "Erickson, 110. 34 in the slopes of the Coast and Cascade Ranges or on the cliffs above the Lower Colwnbia River. It was the stimulus of the Gold Rush, however, that did catapult the lumber in­ dustry into becoming the mainstay of western Oregon's econ­ omy. 36 The embryonic lwnber industry of the Pacific Northwest in the nineteenth century was dominated by California capi­ tal, operated by New England lumbermen and dependent on water transport. This is referred to as the Cargo Era, when steam powered sawmills dominated production and sailing ships carried export lumber to San Francisco and to ports on the southern and western Pacific Ocean. 37 A cargo trade did exist, however limited, in Oregon along the Lower Columbia and in a few bays on the Pacific coast. In 1887, Hobsonville, on the northeast rim of Tilla­ mook Bay, had a steam-driven lumber mill. Coos Bay had an active lumber trade with California in the 1850s. A rela­ tively safe harbor and proximity to California were reasons for its early activity, along with an accessible supply of 36Ibid., 5, 111-112; and Cox, "Sails and Sawmills," 63- 104. 37Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 299; and Erickson, 55-56. Douglas fir and Port Orford cedar that grew in pure stands right down to the coast. 38 35 Early-day lumbering on the coastal fringe was described in Green Tie. 39 Its editor, Daniel Strite, also wrote: The three pioneer sawmills in Tillamook County were all operated by water wheels and were run solely for the purpose of filling local building requirements. One man operated each mill, cutting about 2,000 board feet daily. Logs sufficient to operate the mills throughout the winter were gotten out of the surrounding timber by means of oxen during the summer or early autumn. At this ti.me standing timber had little or no value. It was generally thought of as a public nuisance and for­ est fires were welcomed as land-clearing agents. As soon as the fall rains had swollen the small streams the sawmills began to cut. 40 With a steady influx of settlers into the agricultural lands of the Willamette Valley, a supply of sawn timber was needed for the building of local communities and farms. With no access to cargo trade, th~ industry served local needs, using small water-powered mills. During the Cargo Trade period, the Willamette Valley had established a well- 38william G. Robbins, Hard Ti.mes in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 12-19; Ada M. Orcutt, Tillamook: Land of Many Waters (Portland, Oreg.: Binford & Mort, 1951), 222-226; and Erick­ son, 123-124. 39Green Tie, written by Daniel Strite, was published monthly from December 1925 through March 1927. Named for the green twine used to tie bundles of products produced by the planing mill, it was the Whitney Company's newspaper and included articles about lumbering and logging in the Tilla­ mook area. 40Daniel D. Strite, "Up the Kilchis, Part IV," Oregon Historical Quarterly 73 (September 1972): 226. 36 structured domestic lumber industry. By the time the lumber industry became a major part of the Valley's economy in the 1920s, the towns were already well-established as agricul­ tural centers and the mills had long been supplying local demands. Another trend which has given Oregon a distinct region­ al lumber history was the transference of public land to private ownership. Federal and state land policies allowed the acquisition of public lands by private lumber interests, resulting in a few companies owning huge, concentrated tracts of land. A momentous result of this ownership pat­ tern was the establishment of towns and rural communities entirely dependent on the lumber industry. 41 Mechanized and industrial innovations brought alter­ ations to the industry beginning in the 1880s and 1890s. The market had changed from one of local demand to widespread national markets with an increasing population and transcontinental railroads. Manufacturing increased its production by replacing water power with steam, and, shortly thereafter, to electricity. Bridal Veil Lumber Company, located 28 miles east of Portland near Bridal Veil Falls, employed innovative 41William G. Robbins, Land: Its Use and Abuse in Ore­ gon, 1848-1910 (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 1974), 4-22; Erickson, 14-21; and Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 309-315. 37 techniques to unite its timber supply and transportation ar­ tery. In 1886, the Company built a sawmill in the midst of a vast timber supply on the bluffs overlooking the Columbia River. The rough topography required one sawmill community above, Palmer, and one below, Bridal Veil, with a flume connecting the two. In 1879, the Oregon Railway and Naviga­ tion Company brought rail transportation to the lowland sawmill community (Bridal Veil). AV-shaped flume, sup­ ported by trestles and, in one place, a huge bridge, de­ scended 1,200 feet within a two-mile stretch joining these two enterprises ( see figure 8). 42 In the manufacturing of logs into lumber, there was an evolution of saws from the primitive sash and muley to cir­ cular saws, a principal of continuous motion utilized in America during the 1820s and 1830s. By the 1880s, the band­ saw superseded the circular saw and was widely used in the Michigan pineries. Not only did this new elaborate type of manufacturing significantly raise production, it also 42Lucia, 44-45; Elizabeth Hagen, "Bridal Veil Joins the Past," The Timberman 37 (January 1937) (Knight Library, Uni­ versity of Oregon, Eugene): 12-16, 58-60; Erickson, fn. 46. 38 required the large investment of a substantial building and a steady supply of timber. 43 Figure 8. Bridal Veil Flume, date unknown. Source: Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene. 43Horn, 136-141; Thomas Richard Cox, Robert S. Maxwell, Philip Drennon Thomas, and Joseph J. Malone, This Well­ Wooded Land: Americans and Their Forests, from Colonial Times to the Present (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 158; and Robert C. Loehr, "Saving the Kerf: Introduc­ tion of the Band Saw Mill," Agricultural History 23 (1949): 168-172. 39 During the Oregon lumber boom of 1900 to 1940, both the band and circular saws were used in lumbering, although the handsaw mill meant a larger complex, employing more workers and yielding higher production than the circular sawmill plants. These dominating two-story structures exceeded the height of any building in town and were a sharp contrast to the small worker housing provided by the company. These huge facilities handled the heavier, larger trees previously too massive for many of the circular sawmills. 44 Just as steam had met the demands during the early days of lumbering, these "mammoth production units" powered by electricity became "the largest in the world lumber indus­ try" and responded to the demanding markets of the time. Between 1910 and 1930, when many of these mills were estab­ lished, four components were essential for any timber corporation: a fixed location, considerable capital, a sizable labor force, and a constant timber supply. 45 In 1899, a lumber trade magazine, The Columbia River and Oregon Timberman, was founded by Portlander George M. Cornwall; at this time there were two trade publications issued in Tacoma and Seattle, and another in Chicago. The journal was devoted to the "lumber interests of Oregon." 44Horn, 142-143. 45Erickson, 50. 40 The name was shortened to The Timberman in January, 1905, and the geographical focus expanded to encompass the entire Pacific Northwest. 46 The arduous terrain of the Douglas fir region required more aggressive logging and sawmilling technology. Such methodology came into practice in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Moving up the steep slopes of the mountains became possible with the intensive equipment of rail milling. Such development required large amounts of financing, most of which came from outside the state, large­ ly from the Lake States. Development of the lumber industry required technologi­ cal improvements in transportation to link forests and mar­ kets. The exhaustion of timber on easily accessible land and changing technology were instrumental in causing a shift in the location of the Pacific Northwest timber supply. Not only was there a shift from tidewater to inland forests, but also from Washington to Oregon. However, it was not until 1936 that Oregon out-produced Washington in lumber produc­ tion. 47 46Gage McKinney, "A Man Among You, Taking Notes: George M. Cornwall and the Timberman," Journal of Forest History 26 (April 1982): 76-83. 47Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 326-328. 41 The lumber industry did not take hold until 1900 in Oregon, and it was not until 1913-14 that the Gazetteer, a regional business directory, recognized that the Oregon lumber trade "had become a great industry ... with ports laden with lumber for foreign ports," and stated that "shin­ gle making and railroad ties are important industries. "48 Viewing population as an indication of economic growth, St. Helens, a town on the lower Columbia, climbed 34 percent between 1910 and 1920, and the tidewater town of Garibaldi on Tillamook Bay swelled in the mid-1920s. 49 From isolated beginnings in the pioneer days to the giant handsaw mills at the turn of the century, Oregon's lumber development revolved around her geography. Small, poorly located sawmills gave way to large corporations when rail milling came into the picture, along with a large labor force and capital to finance the latest technology for the mill and logging operations. Western Oregon's lumber indus­ try did not flourish during the Cargo Trade period, but gained momentum when the Lake States timber became depleted and land speculators looked to the Pacific Northwest for a 48State Gazetteer and Business Directory. Polk's Wash­ ington and Oregon (Kansas City, MO: R. L. Polk, 1913-1914) (Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene); hereafter, title only, with dates. 49State Gazetteer and Business Directory, 1919-1920. 42 new supply. In the Rail Era, new forms of transportation, mills, and markets activated a boom that lasted until 1940. In a 1949 editorial in The Timberman, George F. Corn- wall reflected on the time: The dawn of the twentieth century marked the beginning of a great migration of lumbermen from the Lake States to the timbered regions beyond the Rockies, where mil­ lions of acres of virgin timber lands were to be had at bargain prices, where mills could be set up with vast supplies of raw material near at hand. It was a lush era of buying and building. 50 Layout and Function of the Sawmill Manuals, trade journals, and publications were avail­ able to assist lumb~r men in planning the layout of the mill complex. Even suggestions regarding work ethic and practi­ cal organization were included: "Plan each day's work so that the lumber is always on hand at the machine, full loads are removed promptly and other transportation duties are performed in time to forestall unnecessary crew idle- ness. "51 After the turn of the century, mills became larger in size for several reasons. Rail trade rather than cargo 50George F. Cornwall, "Thoughts on Becoming Fifty," The Timberman 50 (October 1949): 47 (Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). 51Vern Johnson, Sawmill Practices Manual for the West­ ern Pine Region (Portland, Oreg.: Western Pine Association, ca. 1925), 38. 43 shipping required a larger mill site because lumber shipped by rail was based on weight rather than volume. Therefore, large yards were necessary to store the lumber until excess moisture disappeared. After the lumber was dry, subsequent­ ly lighter in weight, it was shipped by rail. Larger mills needed greater organizational skills to accompany the maxi­ mum capital return. The tendency now (1920) is to build very large plants equipped elaborately for the twofold purpose of secur­ ing profits from the more finished products and of manufacturing into by-products raw material that would otherwise have to be thrown away or burned. Such plants may include planing mills, box factories, etc., and be equipped with machinery for turning slabs and other "waste" into lath. 52 The tree was the influence in this trend toward greater mills after the turn of the century: The necessity for giant machines with commensurate power requirements in the fir mill are better appreci­ ated when it is understood that the massive logs, each weighing from three to five tons, are elevated from 30 to 40 feet, reduced to huge cants by being shot back and forth against the main saw at from 300 to 500 feet per minute; that each of these cants from 4 to 12 inches thick from 24 to 60 inches wide is cut to widths at a feed of from 200 to 300 feet and that the result­ ing numerous pieces are trimmed to lengths and depos­ ited on a sorting table all in the course of five or six minutes. During the same period from one to three tons of sawdust, slabs and waste wood and bark are mechanically conveyed to the boiler plant, lath mill and refuse burner respectively. 53 52H. B. Oakleaf, Lumber Manufacture in the Douglas Fir Region (Chicago: Commercial Journal Co., 1920), 3. 53Ibid., 5. 44 Along with the massive mill complex came the need for a large reliable work force. Advisory guidebooks recommended the hiring of married men. Each position now required more specialization and skilled laborers, such as saw filing, millwrighting, engineers, in addition to numerous superin­ tendents and foremen of the various departments. The efficiency of the plant relied on the interrela­ tionship of multiple functions that included log storage, sawmill proper, sorting and grading tables, transportation equipment for moving the products around the plant, dry kilns, storage and seasoning yards, a rough lumber shed, planing mill, dressed lumber storage, shipping spurs, a power plant, a refuse burner, and machine and a blacksmith shop. It was necessary for all these functions to operate as one unit and produce lumber from the log. 54 Beginning in the 1920s, advertisements appeared in The Timberman for designing a mill layout by specialists. Such an advertisement from the 1923 journal read, "Twenty-five years' practical experience in designing and building saw­ mills," along with a picture of a tidy sawmill complex and all the components. A lithograph from that era also illus­ trates how a common lumber mill complex would be efficiently laid out (see figures 9 and 10). 54Ibid., 17. •-. ,,.,,..._,.;,;~ J . ' .n--a-:.:..~i~,,if.:!~ f~•j-j. 1, -~-\. ♦ 'i,;, ' - • ' ....... . " ...... ,,,_ Figure 9. Proposed Site Plan for Mill Complex. Oregon Historical Society. Source: ~.;;,;;: "'"' u, RO AD \, Figure 10. Layout of O-A Mill Complex in Ver­ nonia. Shown without yard. Source: "Oregon­ American Lumber Company Begins Construction," The Timberman 23 (April 1923): 37 (Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). l> 0 46 47 CHAPTER II LUMBERING LOCATIONS Early traders and explorers investigating the coastal waters were among the first to fell some of these mag­ nificent spires that grew straight as a ship's mast and so tall that their tops were often hidden from view by low hanging mists. 1 The Douglas fir region is divided into six lumbering areas. Within five, a small town was selected for this study, described, and then researched for its lumber re­ sources. In the Lower Columbia region, St. Helens is a representative town for that lumbering location. It was an important river town with the early activity of a lumbering cargo trade. St. Helens had mills, shipyards, and a steamer landing; later, rail transport was added. Along the tide­ water, Garibaldi, located on the northern edge of Tillamook Bay, was a small settlement prior to becoming a mill town in the 1920s. The location made it possible to export lumber by ocean vessels and the railroad, although the operations was totally dependent on rail for their logging supply. The Coast Range area is represented by the mill town of Vernonia. Sheltered in the midst of a dense forest, it was 1Sam Churchill, Big Sam (Portland, Oreg.: Binford & Mort, 1965), 115. 48 a mere agricultural hamlet prior to the introduction of rail lumbering. It became a boom town after the Oregon-American Lumber Company from Kansas City, Missouri, built a large mill complex in the mid-1920s to log their timberland deep in the mountains. The Willamette Valley itself had no timber supply, but did have level land for a mill site and a steady labor sup­ ply for its mills. How agricultural-based towns became mill towns and developed a morphology specific to their location is shown by Cottage Grove, on the upper end of the Valley. Within the Cascade Range is the former company town of Westfir, 2 where a railroad, river, timber supply, and a lumber man created this village in the woods. Void of the mill presence today, it is more like a mountain resort (see figure 11). Lower Columbia and the Mill Town of St. Helens The Lower Columbia River was one of the first lumbering areas in all the Pacific Northwest. The Hudson's Bay 2A company lumber town is a settlement where a large sawmill (usually over 100M), townsite, utilities, and three­ quarters of the structures are owned by the company. Erick­ son, 346; see also James B. Allen, The Company Town in the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966). ~ LOWER COLUMBIA RIVER lli]TIDEWATER ~ WILLAMETTE VALLEY ~ COAST RANGE ~ CASCADE RANGE ~ KLAMATH MOUNTAINS (not discussed) Figure 11. Locations. Douglas Fir Region and Town Source: Author. 49 50 Company made a pioneering attempt at an industry about 1827. It was also on this river that Hunt's mill was established in 1844, about 30 miles upstream from Astoria. The mill was built for export trade with the Hawaiian Islands and China. It was difficult to get vessels to carry lumber from the treacherous and then seldom-used Columbia River. The mill prospered for several years, but the navigability of the river proved too precarious for market transport. 3 The lower Columbia River was confined mainly to logging operations, with the exception of some milling focal points at Astoria, Rainier, and St. Helens. There were other small, singular mill sites operating along the river and on the Washington side, but they were not as enduring. Logging camps floated their logs to mills at these already estab­ lished centers. 4 Even with the establishment of mills and logging activ­ ity in the area, many lumber dealers and sea captains began to look for other sources of supply. This was partly due to the nature of the Columbia River. Though Oregonians pro­ tested that the river was not a graveyard of ships, the fact remained many vessels went aground there, and other ships waited for days, or even weeks, to cross the bar. The 3Cox, Mills and Markets, 25-26. 4Sherman, 13; and Erickson, 243-245. 51 voyage upstream against the current was time-consuming, costly, and also hazardous due to the river's shifting shoals. Lumbermen looked to other areas, such as the Puget Sound and the redwood coast of California. Lumber develop­ ment along the Columbia followed a different course; com­ pared to northern ports, production fell behind in the 1860s. 5 In 1880, the active lumber areas in the Pacific North­ west--Puget Sound, Gray's Harbor, Coos Bay, and the Lower Columbia River--had patterns of production that varied wide­ ly. Within the Lower Columbia, mills were expanding, due in part to the building of the Oregon Central and the Oregon and California Railroads during the 1860s. The state itself was experiencing economic growth that stimulated the lumber industry. The mills in the area were smaller than the ones that dominated the Puget Sound area, and were less dependent on outside capital. Though the mills were small, vessels were carrying lumber from the area to distant markets. These mills, generally financed by local money, also had a regional market for their lumber. The broad business base of the Lower Columbia lumber industry was one of its main characteristics. 6 5Cox, Mills and Markets, 56, 138. 6Ibid., 158-160; and Cox, "The Lower Columbia Lumber Industry," 160-162. 52 It was not until the 1920s that "the river was lined with sawmills and active towns, beginning with the water­ front milling complex in Portland and moving downstream." 7 The activity along the lower river was not only sawmills and lumbering, but, like the previous era, there were log dumps, booming grounds, and logging centers. Sam Churchill wrote this description of the scene from the deck of a steamer heading from Astoria to Portland in the 1920s: Log rafts by the dozen, guided by sturdy little tugs, nosed from secluded sloughs and other convenient log­ ging railroad unloading sites and headed for the never silent mills that stood almost within sight of each other along the Oregon and Washington shores. Smoke from the stacks of these mills sometimes clung to the shoreline for a hundred miles. On the night trips up the river the glow of their waste burners and dock lights outshone the feeble efforts of the towns of which the mills were supposedly only a part. 8 The town of St. Helens is situated along the Lower Columbia River 20 miles downstream from Portland. 9 Bar­ tholomew White had a sawmill and a grist mill that were erected in 1844 in the area now known as St. Helens. In 1845, Captain H. M. Knighton settled on the site as his donation land claim. He laid out the town in 1847, 7Erickson, 243. 8Churchill, 115. 9St. Helens is two towns: the old St. Helens faces the river; about a mile away, along the highway strip, is the new St. Helens, formerly called Houlton. The old town with the river setting is the focus of this study. intending that it be a competitor to Portland by claiming the location to have deep-sea navigability (see figure 53 In the 1870s, the Muckle brothers, Charles and John, purchased the mill site on the St. Helens waterfront. A lithograph of their mill illustrates the steamers during the Cargo Era, and the town laid out behind the river front and mill site (see figure 13). In 1904, a fire destroyed the Muckle brothers' mill and many of the surrounding buildings. Four years later, Charles and Hamlin McCormick purchased the burned mill site and made plans to reconstruct it for their own lumber en­ deavor. The two brothers had ventured west from their na­ tive Michigan, where the older of the two, Charles, had been employed in lumbering. Prior to arriving in St. Helens, the brothers were both engaged in lumber sales in San Francisco. Realizing that the Pacific Northwest had a promising future in the lumber industry, they sought a place within the re­ gion to establish a business. For a while, Hamlin McCormick had a sawmill in the upper Willamette Valley near Cottage Grove, but he finally chose a site on the Columbia River be­ cause of the waterfront location, deep harbor, and available 10Lewis A. McArthur Oregon Geographic Names (Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press, 1992), 732-733. Oll&CON . WASHING\ I I Figure 12. Regional Map of St. Helens. Source: Author. i 54 Figure 13. Lithograph of Muckle Brothers Mill, St. Helens, date unknown. Mill burned in 1904. Source: OHS. 55 rail service. The railroad's main line ran 5 miles to the northeast at Goble. 11 Construction of the McCormick's enterprise, the St. Helens Lumber Company, was completed in 1911. The lumber produced was not shipped by rail until 1919, when a rail 56 spur was laid from the main line. When the brothers discov­ ered there were not enough commercial ships available, they launched the St. Helens Shipbuilding Company and built their own vessels (see figure 14). Hamlin "Ham" McCormick, always concerned about waste at the sawmill, started St. Helens Wood Products in 1923 to manufacture broom and mop handles from the ref use. 12 In 1916, Charles R. McCormick and Company ran adver­ tisements in The Timberman for both wholesale lumber and ocean-going wooden vessels. The ad for lumber stated it was shipped by both rail and ships, although some sources state rail shipping did not come until several years later. The fleet of steamers carried lumber to his lumberyard in San Diego, California. The main office was in San Francisco, with a branch office in Portland (see figures 15 and 16). 11Pearl Becker, "H.F. McCormick," Columbia County His­ .t.Qn 4 (1965): 33 (Special Collection, Knight Library, Uni­ versity of Oregon, Eugene). 12Richard Spiro, "McCormick Name Synonymous With City's Early Industry" The Chronicle, March 1, 1989, 5 (Columbia County Historical Museum, St. Helens, Oregon); and Becker, 33. Figure 14. Sailing Vessels at McCormick Dock, date unknown. St. Helens Mill Company was also known as Chas. R. McCormick and Company. Source: OHS. VI --.J /Helens Shipbuilding Co. PLANT: ST. HELENS, OREGON 5CBNll IN SlllP!Hlt!-!)!NQ l'AIIP:l AT !IT. Blll..iiN:I, OREGON, (coLOllBIA R IVER} Our Ve .. el• are Cla .. ified in the Bureau Verila.a Builders of Large Ocean­ Going Wooden Vessels With the pres­ ent pr iee of steel veesels. now is the t ime . to take advan t• age of wooden con, truction. Wooden Vessels Coming Back to Their Own WRITE FOR INP ORl4ATION :·-CHAS. R. McCORMICK & CO. AGENTS 800 FIFE BUILDING, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 58 Figure 15 . Advertisement for St. Helens Shipbuilding Company. Note use of "Douglas Fir (Oregon Pine}" designation. Source : Advertisement, The Timbennan 18 (December, 1916): 3 ; OHS. Chas. R. McCormick & Co. CHAS. R . M cCORMICK. President S IDNEY M . HA U.I"TMAN. Scc';.rTreaa. WHOLESALE LUMBER Creosoted Piling MANUFACTURERS AND R AIL AND CARGO SHIPPERS 0~' Douglas Fir Annual Shipments 226.000.000 !eet Ties and Lumber MILLS AT ST. HELENS, OREGON H. F. M cCoRKICK, Manager B ranch Ol li~~• .: PORTLAND. ORE .. E. H MEYER. Munag• r LO S ANGELES, CAL.. JOHN OLSO N, Manag er NEW YORK. N. Y., 17 Battery Place. E. 0. KE&VENY, Ar<"en\ CREOSOTING PLANT, ST . H ELENS, OREGON W. 8. WICCl>IS, Manager YARDS AT SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA F. J. GARLAND, Manager STEAMERS " KLAMATH" " WI.LLAMETTE" ''YOSEMITE" " MULTNOMAH" "CELILO" " WAPAMA" BUILDING 1.000.000 fL Capacity BUILDING 1.000.000 ft. Capacity A UXILIAR Y SCHOONERS BUILDING Z,000,000 ft. Capacity BUlLDlNC Z, 000, 000 ft. Capacity BUILDING 2,000,000 fttt Capacity MAIN OFFICE: 800 FIFE BUILDING, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 59 Figure 16. Advertisement for Chas. R. McCormick & Co. Note branch and main offi ce locations. Source : Adver­ t i sement, The Timberman 18 ( Dec ember 1916)~ 3; OHS. 60 Hamlin McCormick was somewhat of a folk hero within the community and resided in the town, whereas his brother, Charles, president of the Company, had a residence and of­ fice responsibilities elsewhere. Hamlin McCormick's fine Craftsmen home remains on Second Street today, facing the river overlooking the mill site. He was referred to as the "leader of the industrial life of the city. "13 The 1922 Abbey's Register, a directory of Pacific Northwest sawmills, logging companies, and lumber manufac­ turing, listed St. Helens as having four sawmilling enter­ prises, all under the McCormick management. By the 1920s, "St. Helens was quintessential mill town. "14 Although mill ownership changed in 1926, the name re­ mained the Charles McCormick Lumber Company. In the 1926 Abbey's Register, a cedar pole and piling company and 13Becker, 33, 34; and "St. Helens Downtown Historic District," National Register of Historic Places Inventory: Nomination Form (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1984), item 7, p. 75. 14Abbey' s Register and Year Book of the Western Log­ ging, Lumber and Wood Using Industries (Portland, Oreg.: The Industrial Service Co., 1922) 93, 95 (hereafter Abbey's Register, with appropriate date); "St. Helens," The (Scap­ pose, Oregon) Spotlight, February 22, 1989, B-5 (Archive, St. Helens Public Library); and Erickson, 152. 61 another mill were listed for St. Helens. The other sawmill had a 60M capacity, compared to McCormick's 2S0M. 15 The mill site is located at the edge of the Multnomah Channel, a slough of the Columbia River. This wet-point location gave the milling complex access to water for ship­ ping and log storage. The mill had steam fuel and supplied the town with lights. Today, the mill site is fenced off; on the south end, Boise-Cascade occupies a plant. A few deteriorating pilings in the channel suggest the location of the former log storage ( see figure 17) 16 • A cursory survey of the residential buildings around the McCormick mill site reveals housing of the popular Bun­ galow and Craftsman styles. It is difficult at this level of research to determine precisely how much housing was developed by the McCormick Company. The 1984 Historic Dis­ trict Statement noted, in regards to the modest bungalows: "It appears that some of these may have been built by the McCormick's for mill employees" ( see figure 18) . 17 15Spiro, 5; and Abbey's Register, 1926, 127. "M" des­ ignates board feet of lumber per day. 16Sanborn Insurance Fire Map, "St. Helens, 1921" (Ar­ chives, Kerr Library, Oregon State University, Corvallis). This housing was not mapped on the 1916 map; however, it is shown on the 1921 map. 17 "St. Helens Downtown Historic District," item 8, p. 3. 62 Within the McCormick sawmill nucleus, a worker housing cluster was identified. Not located on the cliffs (where prominent residents lived), but below a bluff without a view of the waterfront, between Fourth (formerly known as "Win­ ter") and Fifth ("Summer") streets , it is still referred to as "Bungalow Flats." Figure 17. Aerial View of St. Helens Lumber Com­ pany. The mill across the water is the Island Lumber Company, one of the four plants operated by the McCormick in St. Helens. Drying lumber was shipped by rail. Source: Aerial View: Sidebar, The Timberman 23 (July 1922), 62; OHS. Figure 18. St. Helens Sawmill Nucleus. Square indicates location of "Bungalow Flats." Source: Author. 63 On the 1921 Sanborn Map, a planked curved road dissects the usual rectangular grid. On the 1921 map, Cowlitz was a through-street . A tennis court , with a wooden surface, was located at the corner of the block, no doubt built as recreation for the mill workers. Some houses face Fourth Street while others face the supplementary wooden road, giving the one-block arrangement a clustered appearance. 18 Four uniform, wooden houses of simple, one-story rec­ tangular construction with a low-pitch, gable roof face Fourth Street. The porch and its roof are supported by plain posts and cover only the front entrance door. There 64 is only a slight variation in their outside appearance. The remaining houses in this group have more variation, yet are modest and one story (see figure 19). From its early beginnings as a cargo lumber town to the introduction of rails, St. Helens' development was based on the lumber industry. During the McCormick's ownership of the mills, the town's population increased 34 percent (be­ tween 1910 and 1920). The revitalization of the commercial core was related to the lumber activity. The name McCormick is well remembered; a recent article in the local newspaper summed it up in the title, "McCormick Name Synonymous With City's Early Industry. "19 18Sanborn Insurance Fire Map, "St. Helens, 1916" (Ar­ chives, Kerr Library, Oregon State University, Corvallis). 19Spiro. Figure 19 . Four Houses in "Bungalow Flats "' on Fourth Street, 1992. Source: Author. Tidewater and the Town of Garibaldi 65 The coastal fringe or tidewater is a narrow strip be­ tween the Pacific Ocean and the Coast Range. Lumber activ­ ity along this coastline has a varied lumber history, begin­ ning with small sailing ships exporting lumber to China and the Sandwich Islands. The mill towns along this coastal ribbon of land vary greatly, from the former mill town of 66 Garibaldi in Tillamook Bay to the well known and still ac­ tive town of Coos Bay in the bay of the same name. Some towns no longer exist, such as Hobsonville, and others have changed from their bygone lumbering days, such as Florence, Lincoln City, Gardiner, or Bay City. 20 Oregon's forbidding coastline was a deterrent for ocean-going vessels. The timber supply of the Coast Range was notably extensive, but the unfriendly rugged coast did not allow ships a good harbor and therefore the timber sup­ ply remained unapproachable. There was some activity in the bays or bar harbors. 21 On Winchester Bay at the mouth of the Umpqua River was the Gardiner Mill Company. This bay was not without a sand bar causing the usual expected prob­ lems for shipping vessels. The Company's central office was in San Francisco. 22 Coos Bay, formerly Marshfield, was an early sprawling lumber town along the bay. In the mid 1870s, there were four sawmills in operation in the area. 23 20The transference of names from one lumbering region to another was common. Gardiner, Oregon, was named after Gardiner, Maine; Bay City, Oregon, for Bay City, Michigan. 21A bar harbor is difficult to enter because the bay's entrance is clogged by sand deposits from ocean currents. 22Cox, Mill and Markets, 165. 23Ibid., 191. 67 To the north, Tillamook Bay also had a budding port town of Hobsonville. A bayside lumber mill was constructed there in 1883. This steam-driven sawmill was accompanied by mess halls, a company hotel, and worker housing. The mill shipped lumber south to California by schooners. At the peak of production, it employed 40 men. After closing in 1907, it never reopened and the buildings fell into ruin ( see figure 20) . 24 Interest in lumbering along Tillamook Bay was not re­ kindled until the First World War when the United States Army organized the Spruce Production Division to build and man new sawmills on the West Coast. Sitka spruce was par­ ticularly in demand for airplane construction. A southern company, Cummings-Moberly, started building the Garibaldi mill in 1917, with civilian engineers and soldiers as labor­ ers. 25 Sam Churchill witnessed the army's involvement at one of their logging camps and gave this account: Camp 7 was a Spruce Division camp supervised by the Spruce Production Corporation set up by the War Depart­ ment to log spruce timber used in airplanes. Millions of board feet of spruce from the Pacific Northwest took to the air in World War I as wing frames and fuselages of Allied warplanes. There were about three hundred 24Daniel D. Strite, "Hurrah for Garibaldi," Oregon His­ torical Quarterly 77 (September 1976): 222; Orcutt, 222-226; and Erickson, 157. 25Strite, "Hurrah for Garibaldi," 213. 1-IOBSONVILLE, 1890. This mill built in the I 880's in spite of great odds grew to be the largest, most impanant mill in the cou nty. and then dropped into disuse and decay. Figure 20. Hobsonville, Oregon, 1890 . Mill operated from 1883 to 1907. Source: Ada M. Orcutt, Tillamook: Land of Many Waters (Port­ land , Oreg.: Binford & Mort, 1951) , 118f . 68 and fifty men at Camp 7, all of them in the Army. They had their rifles and ammunition with them at the camp even though the nearest fighting trench was some seven thousand miles east in a land I knew only by name, France. 26 The Coastal town of Garibaldi is located o n the north­ ern edge of Tillamook Bay, across Miami Cove from the former 26Churchill , 123. 69 lumber town of Hobsonville. Tillamook Bay is formed by the estuaries of the Tillamook and Wilson rivers. Situated in the sheltered Miami Cove, this location offered an ideal mill site location because the bay provided both log storage and ship docking. Ships of medium draft could enter the two-mile-wide bay. There was accessible rail transportation for rail shipments, as well as level ground large enough for milling operations and a lumber storage yard. The adjacent hillside was suitable for housing (see figure 21). 27 The timber source for the Cummings-Moberly mill was to be supplied by the Whitney Company. Whitney had purchased timberlands up the Kilchis River drainage. The Whitney family had been in the lumber business since approximately 1850 in Massachusetts and New York. After the depletion of the eastern forest, they moved their business to Detroit, Michigan. When the Lake States forests were cut out, they bought heavily from 1900 to 1904 in Oregon and Washing- ton. 28 The critical demand for airplane spruce was probably an incentive for Whitney to open his timberland up the Kilchis River, where heavy stands of gigantic spruce grew on the 27E. R. Huckleberry, M. D. , The Adventures of Dr. Huck­ leberry: Tillamook County, Oregon (Portland: Oregon Histori­ cal Society, 1970), 21; and Dicken, 33. 28Daniel D. Strite, "Up the Kilchis, Part I," Oregon Historical Quarterly 72 (December 1971): 300. •I ... ,,., -: ,, ••.. · , . - I, . ... . .. -· ' ... ., . ,., • . I - ~ \;· , . • ... • \.. ~ ' .,, \ "' ..,I C ,• • •• .. r •, •• ~ ~ .. J !. • • ~ _, • • \ • \ ... • L • "' I ,.., # r '"~ I , ., J •. • !'lI.IJQK>olt .,· , • •' 1_ . , ; - \ ~ .. \ .. • '\ -.. I ' •. Figure 21. Regional Map of Garibaldi. Source: Author. 70 river flats . An engineering crew made plans for a logging railroad and accompanying necessities for this logging ac­ tivity {see figure 22) . 29 The mill of Cummings -Moberl y was under construction until 1919, when one of the partners died and further 2 9Ibid., 308. Figure 22. Whitney's Logging System. Source: Author. 71 construction was halted . After Whitney's logging operation was completed in late 1921, the unfinished Cummi ngs-Moberly mill was purchased by Whitney in order to have an outlet for his timber . The unfinished mill had been designed by a Southerner who was not familiar with how large the trees of the Pacific Coast were c ompared to the southern yellow pine. The mill therefore had to be redesigned to handle the huge 72 Douglas fir, cedar, and spruce that ranged up to 12 feet in diameter. The Whitney mill began the manufacturing of tim­ ber in summer 1922, with the timber supply being rafted down from Idaville ( see figure 23). 30 Figure 23. Whitney Mill Under Construc­ tion, ca. 1921. Source: OHS. 30Strite, "Hurrah f or Garibaldi, 11 213-214. 73 Construction of the SO-acre mill site included the dredging of mud and sand to form a ship channel and prepare a level building site. The building of the mill was not the only preparation needed to establish a lumber operation. Gathering a dependable work force was equally important. A convenient physician who could attend to the many industrial accidents helped to entice workers to the area; on a con­ tract basis Dr. Huckleberry became the available physician who saw to the workers needs. In his remembrances, he re­ called the mill's advanced planning: To attract a permanent crew, the company had laid out a townsite and sold lots to employees for a low price. They also allowed the men to buy lumber, to be paid for by monthly payroll deductions. The power plant was built large enough to supply juice to the town as well as the mill. When we got there, the only completed houses belonged to some of the original fishermen or Indian families, but all over the place people were building their own homes. 31 The first log at the newly constructed mill was sawed in June 1922, and the plant was described as "one of the largest in the entire country." It was the largest single handsaw mill on the Oregon coast at the ti.me. Whitney had a branch office in Portland and his main office in Detroit, 3 1Huckleberry, 21 . Michigan. Interestingly, no ads for the Whitney Company were carried in the local trade journal, The Timberman. 32 In 1927, Whitney merged with A. B. Hammond, another lumber baron whose general office was in San Francisco and who had mills in Mill City and Astoria, Oregon, and San Pedro, California. The name changed to the Hammond­ Tillamook Lumber Company. Hammond needed cargo lumber for his distribution yard in California, so the acquisition of the Garibaldi mill was a welcome addition. After Hammond became the major shareholder, logging on the Kilchis River was discontinued. 33 74 Economic hardships came to the mill at Garibaldi, as it did to the rest of the United States in the 1930s. The depression, plus the disastrous Tillamook fire of 1933, caused the mill's production and labor force to diminish. 34 In April 1935, the mill closed after the death of Hammond and remained closed for eight years. In 1943, the Oceanside Lumber Company was established in its place, and in 1944 a plywood plant opened. In 1974, that plywood operation closed and the machinery and equipment were sold at auction 32Strite, "Hurrah for Garibaldi," 214-216; and "Gari­ baldi Lumber Plant One of Most Modern in Country," Sunday (Portland) Oregonian, August 20, 1922, sec. 4, p. 6 (Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). 33Strite, "Up the Kilchis, Part IV," 222-223. 34Orcutt, 141-144. 75 the following year. The mill structures slowly deteriorated over the years and were torn down in the mid 1980s. 35 The mill site located on the water front had the advan­ tage of both rail and water for export markets. On the 1929 Sanborn map, the mill layout included the ship dock and a large yard for drying lumber that would be shipped by rail. The wet-point location of the bay also allowed for ample log storage. Visually, the mill dominated the waterfront for both the residences and the townsite across the cove (see figures 24 and 25). Garibaldi was not a company town, although it so nearly appeared to be one that this explanation appeared in the Oregonian for clarification: A new town is being developed at Garibaldi. It is not to be a mill town in the sense that the company is to own and control the activities of the community. Lots are being sold at reasonable rates to employees. Homes will be built by the purchaser and in time the little city will be incorporated. Its citizens will elect their own officers. The mill owners will take no more part in the administration of the city's affairs than will their employees . 36 On the city map, the street pattern is different from the grid formations to the north. Within the sawmill 35Jack Graves, interview with author, Garibaldi, Ore­ gon, April 22, 1992; and Daniel D. Strite, "Hurrah for Gari­ baldi, Part II," Oregon Historical Quarterly 73 (March 1972): 365-368. 36 "Garibaldi Lumber Plant One of Most Modern," (Portland) Oregonian, August 20, 1922, sec. 4, p. 6 (Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). Figure 1930. 24. Hammond-Tillamook Lumber Mill, Source: OHS. 76 ca. .. . . . .. ... ~~::.;"'· ·~·- \ Figure 25. Garibaldi Sawmill Nucleus, detail. Source: Derived from Garibaldi City Map, Tilla­ mook County (Salem: Oregon Department of Trans­ portation). 77 nucleus itself, a parallel row of worker housing was located just northeast of the mill complex across the highway. These houses were used by the foremen or supervisors of the plant and built by the company: the street was tagged "Mill Row. '' On the 1929 Sanborn map, near the Whitney Hotel there was a tennis c ourt. In 1925, Dan Strite saw Garibaldi for the f i rst time and recalled seeing "the double row of company hous i ngs l ining the plank road leading from the Coast Highway to the Whitney Inn " (see figure 26) . 37 Figure 26. Company Housing and Garibaldi Mill, ca. 1925. Note planked road between houses and Whitney Inn in the foreground. Source: OHS. 78 37Strite, "Hurrah for Garibaldi, Part II," 356; Jack Graves, interview with author, April 22, 1992; and Sanborn Insurance Fire Map, "Garibaldi, 1929" (Archives, Kerr Library, Oregon State University, Corvallis). 79 The houses are uniform in age, closely-spaced, without garages, and have only slight modifications in porch design. Built for management workers, they were within easy walking distance from the mill. Lining both sides of the street these one-story bungalows with low gable roofs were built in 1921 and remain today (see figures 27) . All that remains of the mill complex from its industri­ al golden age is the concrete smoke stack and the rapidly deteriorating planing mill . These two industrial artifacts are a mere segment of the mill unit that had a milling ca­ pacity of 250M, or 250,000 board feet of lumber per day. The impact of the Whitney Company and later the Ham­ mond-Tillamook Lumber Company brought tremendous growth to this coastal town. From a population of 400 in 1923, the town increased to 1,200 by 1925 . The lone smoke stack has now become a milestone for passing tourists along the Coast Highway. It is a reminder of a previous lumbering era. The Coast Range and the Town of Vernonia A dense forest of large old-growth firs was located in the northern end of the Coast Range . The terrain is rough and in places steeply mountainous, making the timber inac­ cessible by the early logging methods of the axe and oxen. By the 1890s, throughout the Pacific Northwest, steam donkey Figure 27 . Porch Variations, Garibaldi Company Housing, 1992. Source: Author. 80 81 engines and railroads were giving loggers entrance to these outlying timber supplies. With access into these remote regions, large industrial complexes followed to manufacture the timber into lumber. The initial activity in this wilderness came at the turn of the century, when timber barons began to speculate on the land. A decade or two later, loggers arrived in these unbroken forests. The area appeared to have enough trees to cut for "a thousand years. "38 Within this rugged interior, heavy rainfall and a mild climate produced some of the biggest trees in the entire Douglas fir region. In the midst of these trees was the Nehalem Valley, named after the Nehalem Indians from the Salish tribe. The town of Vernonia is located on the Nehalem River 30 miles west of St. Helens and 45 miles northwest of Portland (see figure 28). 39 In 1876, settlement began in the area of Vernonia. Pioneers purchased land from the federal government and cleared it for farming. Vernonia was an isolated agricul­ tural village where a sawmill was a necessity for the gen­ eral building needs: "About 1880, or a little later, Sam Lowell built a small sawmill on his place about a quarter of 38Churchill, 7 . 39McArthur, 8 6 7 . OREGOPl I .. !:. ~: g--r,_ __ "' i. ~ .,: . ~ ·,-: ST. 0 • • . f ·:= ,. ·r: ... . . . ... , __ [ ·•; .. .... , .. .. \ : .. ;, ·.r ! ... ., 8 ~ E § .. 1111 ~ ..i .. > • Figure 28. Regional Map of Vernonia. Source: Author. Ill C, ! Ill ~ "" l5 a mile from the mouth of Beaver Creek and when someone wanted lumber they helped saw it. Sometimes Sam had only one helper. "'0 The town was incorporated in 1891, and locals looked for ways to advance their economy. At the time, the ' 0 "Last Load Ends Era, " Vernonia (Oregon) Eagle, July 28, 1966, n.p. 82 83 railroad was anticipated as the answer to ease their isola­ tion. Ever since the narrow gauge line from Astoria to Seaside was laid in 1886, there were attempts to project a rail line into the timber-rich northwest coast country. A railroad was laid down the Nehalem River in 1911 through the settlements of Banks and Timber, but it bypassed Ver- nonia. 41 Lacking a good transportation route, Vernonia remained outside a trading network. All that began to change in 1922, when land to the east of the community was being cleared by the Oregon-American Lumber Company (commonly, referred to as "O-A"). Vernonia was chosen as a base for the Company because of level land for the large milling plant and the proximity to their timber source, and the small community was perceived as a foundation for dependable workers. Initially, a logging camp was established to ensure the supply of raw logs. The camp was set up in 1922, and for two years logs were hauled by rail to the Columbia River, where they were sold on the open market. The mill was com­ pleted in 1924, and all the logs were then sent to the mill in Vernonia . 42 41Howard McKinley Corning, ed., Dictionary of Oregon History (Portland, Oreg.: Binford & Mort, 1989), 174. 42 "Last Load Ends Era. " 84 While the mill complex was being built, there was great anticipation of the town's economic future. The 1923, Colum­ bia County Chamber of Commerce promoted Vernonia as the "center of important new industrial development. "43 The Oregon-American Lumber Company had been organized by Central Coal and Coke Company from Kansas City, Missouri. In 1923, a spokesman for the company gave an address in Portland, entitled "Lumber Production of the West and South," In his talk, he stated there was a "serious deple­ tion of lumber production in the South," adding that "our next source of timber supply is the West Coast." The entire speech was printed in The Timberman with a following arti­ cle, "Oregon-American Lumber Co. Begins Construction," giv­ ing the dimensions of all the buildings as well as a diagram ~f the mill layout. It showed the mill site situated be­ tween the rail spur and the Nehalem River and abutting the log pond. The monorail track illustrated the movement of the lumber from the dry storage shed to the planing mill (see figure 29). 44 43 "An Invitation To Visit and Make a Home in Columbia County" (Columbia County [Oregon] Court and Chamber of Com­ merce, 1923), 27 (Special Collection, Knight Library, Uni­ versity of Oregon, Eugene). 44Charles S. Keith, "Lumber Production of the West and South" The Timberman 24 (April 1923): 36-37 (Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene). Figure 29. Monorail at 0-A Mill, Vernonia, 1928 . Source: Lumber Industry and Trade, A4263, Special Collections, University of Oregon, Eugene. 85 Construction of the mill site, mill office, and worker housing began in 1923 and was completed the following year. When the mill opened, there was not enough housing available for the workers. A tent city was established where the Washington School is now located. Many of these workers had 86 migrated from southern states. In 1925, the mill employed 750 men operating two shifts: Vernonia became a "boom" town in the Coast Range. O-A developed 175 acres, with the log pond alone being approximately 42 acres. The Nehalem river was the water source for the log pond. 45 Company housing built by O-A was located on the near-by hill and on both sides of Bridge Street. All houses were an easy walk to the mill for shift work. They were simple, one-story rectangular cottages with a low-pitched gable roof. The uniform style had slight modifications in the roof and porch. Every house had a detached single car ga­ rage located behind the house at the end of a spacious back yard. Attached to the garage was a narrow wood shed. An employee from the mill traveled the alleys and kept the sheds stocked with slabwood from the mill. The road pattern on the hillside is a web of alleys and streets that hug the slope. The names of the streets--Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi--reflect the owners' southern roots (see figures 30 and 31). On the hillside, there is a visible ranking of housing. At the base of each street is a palatial home for the presi­ dent, vice-president, and supervisor, obviously much larger 45Robb Wilson, interview with author, Vernonia, Oregon, April 10, 1992; untitled article, Vernonia (Oregon) Eagle, July 29, 1966, n.p. (Archives, Columbia County Historical Muse