1887 McGinn, Barry J. UO PDX LIBRARY RESERVES HP 1990 IN LIBRARY USE ONLY ALH Al 02158' FINES: $3.00/hour overdue RETURN TO UO PDX LIBRARY The Use, Manufacture, and Historic Preservation of Ornamental Electric Lighting Fixtures with the Work of Frederick C. Baker as a Case Study The Use, Manufacture, and Historic Preservation of Ornamental Electric Lighting Fixtures with the Work of Frederick C. Baker as a Case Study by Barry J. McGinn A Terminal Project Presented to the Interdisciplinary Studies Program : Historic Preservation and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science August 1990 APPROVED: ~~~ Arthur W. Hawn © 1990 Barry J . McGinn -- -- -------~-- . ,_ ___.____a_J f LL ---- - An Abstract of the Terminal Project of Barry J. McGinn for the degree of Master of Science in the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Historic Preservation Title: THE USE, MANUFACTURE, AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION OF ORNAMENTAL ELECTRIC LIGHTING FIXTURES WITH THE WORK OF FREDERICK C. BAKER AS A CASE STUDY Approved: Arthur W. Hawn In many restoration and rehabilitation projects today, there may be a lack of understanding of the central role historic lighting systems played in aiding architectural expression and spatially unifying interiors through luminaire design, lighting strategy, ornamentation and materials. The goal of this project is to establish a deeper understanding of the role of historic lighting as an informant to sensitive lighting rehabilitation. A general understanding of historic lighting is first developed through a study of historic luminaire design precedent, developments in twentieth century material processes as applied to luminaire manufacture, and to developments in illumination science. This understanding supports a more specific case study of a long established Portland, Oregon, luminaire designer, Frederick C. Baker. The evolution of Baker's luminaire designs in response to changing architectural styles and attitudes, developments in material processing and advancements in illumination science is examined. Eleven case studies of Frederick C. Baker lighting installations are included in the appendix and support the chapter on Baker. The background chapters and Baker case study are intended to inform the drafting of a set of lighting rehabilitation guidelines in the final chapter. iii VITA NAME OF AUTHOR: Barry J. McGinn PLACE OF A BIRTH: Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada DATE OF BIRTH: September 14, 1958 UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED : University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon DEGREES AWARDED Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering, 1981, University of Sask. Master of Architecture, 1989, University of Oregon Master of Science, 1990, University of Oregon AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST Historic building service systems Industrial Archeology Integrated service systems in new construction PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Building mechanical system design and related control system sales, 1981- 1986 Historic Preservation Intern, Oregon Department of Transportation, Highways Division, Environmental Section, Cultural Resources Group, August, 1989 - January, 1990 Department of Architecture faculty Research Assistant appointment to the Center for Housing Innovation's Energy Efficient Industrialized Housing Research Program, January 1989- iv AWARDS, HONORS AND PUBLICATIONS Paper presented to the 1990 annual meeting of the Society of Architectural Historians in Boston - "The Use of Povey Brother's Stained Glass Windows in the Split-flue mantel pieces of Northwest Residences," requested and submitted for publication in Professional Stained Glass magazine, June, 1990 Student travel scholarship to attend the 1990 annual meeting of the Society for Industrial Archeology V =---- -~ -------- 11J 9 _ _11__ _ LJ TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. Introduction ................ .. ............... .. ... ............. ................ .................. ........... . 2. A History of Ornamental Lighting Fixtures ......... ... .. .. ........... ....... .. ... .. .. 3 3. Materials and Processes ..................... .. ........ ... .. ................ .. .. ....... ... .... . 26 4. Development of Illumination Science ................ ..... .............. ............... . 47 5. Frederick C. Baker: A Case Study. ....... .................. ...... .... .. .. ..... ... ...... ... . 65 6. Lighting Rehabilitation Strategies ... ......................................... .. .... ........ . 76 Bibliography. .............. .......... .......· .. ........... ... .. .... .............. ...... .. ... ........... .. .... 87 List of Illustrations.. .......... .... .............................. ......................................... 93 Appendix - F.C. Baker Lighting Installation Case Studies vi -- ~- ------~- J.:IJI- ---- __LJ f LL ___ - architecture and by designing and locating luminaires to highlight the room suriace textures and colors through the play of shade and shadow. Metal casting, forging and detailed sheetmetal work were the most common material processes used in order to obtain the ornamental relief detail that would harmonize with the architecture. Luminaire and lighting scheme design continued to evolve through the 1930s in response to changing architectural styles and attitudes, advances in illumination science and lamp technology, and to advances and improved economies in material processing. Throughout this period of rapid change in the building illumination field, the integration of lighting fixtures into architecture to achieve spatial unity was a dominant theme. After World War II, the preference for the higher illumination levels possible with fluorescent lighting schemes, and the elimination of ornament from architecture, largely brought an end to the use of 1 ornamental luminaires in buildings. Chapter In many restoration and rehabilitation projects today, there may be a lack of understanding, even by rehabilitation Introduction professionals, of the central role historic lighting systems played in reinforcing architectural design intentions and spatially unifying interiors through design, lighting strategy, ornamentation, and Electric lighting design was an materials. The goal of this project is to establish a indispensable part of the architectural design deeper understanding of the role of historic lighting program of historic twentieth century buildings. By as an informant to sensitive lighting rehabilitation. In combining with architectural form and spatial this project, an understanding of historic lighting conditions to contribute to a unified whole, it developments in general is first presented in developed as a poweriul force in determining the support of a more specific case study of a long- experiential qualities of these buildings. Early established Portland lighting fixture designer, twentieth century luminaire design drew heavily on Frederick C. Baker. Baker's prolific career as an historical lighting fixture prototypes in order to ornamental lighting fixture designer and fabricator harmonize with the predominant period-revivalist spans from before 1913 to his death in 1981 , at the architecture . The low-intensity 16 candle-power age of 94. Through his close collaboration with carbon filament lamps allowed the simple design most of the prominent Oregon architects prior to duplication of gas fixtures with their multitude of World War II , he became a recognized regional open flame nozzles. As stronger incandescent leader in integrating high quality and original lamps were introduced and electric lighting became luminaires into their architectural settings. Eleven more popular with improvements in the electrical case studies of Frederick C. Baker lighting generating industry, illumination science installations, drawn as representatives from the five developed to cope with the physiological discernible design periods of his career, are concerns, luminaire design potential, and lighting included in the appendix and support the chapter scheme design. Throughout the 1920's, an on Baker. The background chapters and Baker underlying theme in the field was to exploit lighting case study are intended to inform the drafting of a for it's potential to aid architectural expression. This set of lighting rehabilitation guidelines in the final was done through a thoughtful sharing of chapter. ornamentation themes and materials with the ------ - ~ . I Ji::111-------_I__J 1 The background chapters address three studies were located among the 9000 Baker important areas necessary for the understanding of drawings bequeathed to the Oregon Historical historic electric lighting. These include: Society, and provided valuable insight into design and construction. The drawings also gave some i) a brief study of the development of the four major idea of Baker's skill as a draftsman and artist and his lighting fixture types - candelabra/torcheres, creativity and dexterity as a designer. Cassette suspended, wall bracket and lanterns - which tapes of two full length interviews of Baker, in the provided the historic design precedents for many collection of the Oregon Historical Society, early twentieth century luminaires; provided some valuable insights as well as a more personal connection to the man. Historical ii) a study of the predominant material processes photographs of original spaces showing the Baker used in the manufacture of luminaires; fixtures were also immensely helpful, again most of which are in the collection of the Oregon Historical iii) the development of illumination science and it's Society and University of Oregon Archives and effect on luminaire and lighting design. Special Collections. Most of the resource material in the area of h:storic lighting rehabilitation was from The following chapter on Baker explores contempora~, architectural journals, in conjunction how one talented lighting fixture designer's with site visits to rehabilitation projects. The author luminaires evolved in response to changing had the good fortune to be able to compare a architectural styles and attitudes, advances in feature length article of a lighting rehabilitation of illumination science and lamp technology and his the Colorado State Office Building in Denver, which eventual move to machining processes from appeared in Architectural Lighting magazine, with casting and forging processes. Of particular interest the actual project. Another site visit was paid to the to the project, are the means by which Baker Portland Theatre, rehabilitated in 1981, after an achieved the high level of luminaire integration, and interview with the original historic preservation sub- thus, spatial unity, on so many of his lighting consultant, Judith Rees. installations. The project also attempts to explore the The author established periods in Baker's potential of a desk-top publishing approach and career, based on the design, illumination makes considerable use of current 'scanning techniques and ornamentation of his luminaires, technology.' Most of the drawings in the document from which the eleven representative case studies were 'scanned' on to a computer disk and imported are drawn. The periods selected were : Early into the particular file . Although this approach, Illumination (1910-1914), Beaux-Art (1918-1929), when combined with a double column format, Decorative Art Deco (1929-1935), Planar Art Deco provides for quite an interesting visual experience, (1935-1940) and Modernist (1946-1965) . A page it is not without it's difficulties. Scanned computer footer identifies the case study by it's appendix images consume considerable quantities of entry. computer memory; in excess of twenty separate The research methodology pursued for the computer disks was required for this project. background chapters was predominantly period literature in the form of textbooks, manuals, catalogues, tradebooks, popular books, and architectural and engineering journals. This provided an historic account of how designers were using and responding to changes in illumination science and material processing. The greatest resource to the Baker chapter were the actual existing Baker lighting installations. Many retain their original character and provided a excellent opportunity to examine luminaire ·design, construction and ornamentation, the overall lighting scheme, and the integration of lighting into architecture . Some of the drawings for the case 2 ----- ---- • f:IJ- ___a___j__J fixture design through the ages. In order to fully understand the design intention, use of materials, lighting strategy and ornamentation of historic twentieth century electric lighting, it is important to understand the historic precedence set by earlier lighting forms. This chapter will provide an overview of the evolution of the four major types of ornamental lighting fixtures; suspended, candelabrumltorchiere, wall brackets and lanterns. Pottery oil lamps were fashioned from clay as early as 3000 BC and provided the most 2 common form of interior illumination during the Chapter period of the Roman Empire. They consisted of an oil chamber to hold the oil, which was A History of Ornamental Lighting Fixtures The Roman Period The provision of artificial illumination, through artfully designed ornamental lighting fixtures, has been a preoccupation of humankind for over four millennia. The ornamental lighting fixtures of these early societies provided influential prototypical forms which continued to inform Figure 2. Roman sanctuary lamp filled through a central filling hole, and a nozzle with a wick hole. A fibrous wick fed fuel to the flame by capillary action. Increased illumination was only possible by supplying more nozzles. This would continue to be a limiting factor for all open flame lighting fixtures until the advent of electric incandescen . lighting.' The Romans, through the use of oil- burning lamps and torches, developed the four major types ?f lighting fixtures, hanging, wall Figure 1. Two-spout hanging Roman bronze lamp ' Robert L. Smith, "Lighting Technology :from darkness to opportunity," Arcbecn,c::.I I iobtiog , November 1986, p. 56 3 - -- ------ aJi _ ___ll_____Lj bracket, candelabrum/torchere and lantern2 , which would provide much of the inspiration for lighting fixture design through the ages. The Roman ornamental hanging lamp was usually cast in bronze, as were most ornamental lighting fixtures of the period.3 Bronze was a material that lent itself well to the Roman penchant for decorative art suffused in rich high relief. The hanging lantern (figure 1.), with its extended nozzles, would be literally reinterpreted by nineteenth century French artists in an effort to strike an associative Figure 4. Roman lantern (cast re lationship between Imperial Rome and bronze frame) Napoleonic France: One of the types of Roman fixtures which survived the 'dark agers' \\~ through to the Renaissance period was the ~ -Ji~ sanctuary lamp (figure 2.). The classical candelabrum form, usually incorporating a column motif into its shaft, 4\ ~ .,9 ,' constituted the torchere fixture and was also given branches for the suspension of oil-burning lamps 111 , (figure 3.). It also became common to hang lamps TTJ : from wall brackets; a precursor of the ubiquitous wall bracket fixture, common to all subsequent periods.• The lantern fixture type was also present :- in the Roman period, albeit in a fairly unpretentious 11 i:i -] form (figure 4.). i Candles of tallow or beeswax were used by II the Imperial Romans, but were more common in the 'I 1, 1!: 11, northern provinces where access to olive oil was ! ' 1,g, I ' limited.• As medieval society progressed, the I --;]---: smoking torch was displaced by ornamental lighting ;i;• I ~-fi, fixtures supporting candles. Candlemaking was a tedious process which involved the coating of the 11\!~~ffi rush or linen wicks by dipping, pouring, or forming in molds. Because of this time-consuming process, ~fJ1 ~ candles were expensive and almost exclusively ~tN available to the wealthy or the ecclesiastics! ~ ---. ~~ The Gothic Period Iron became the predominant ornamental ~1~,,~~~ lighting fixture material during the Romanesque "iif\i) ~-~ and Gothic periods, except in Moorish Spain, where brass and bronze were common. Advances in metalworking techniques through the period Figure 3. Ensemble of Roman lighting 5 Henriot Gabriel , "Tome 1- Antiquite ,"fncvclooedia du I uminaire , Henriot Gabriel, "Tome 1-Anriquite,"focvc!noedia d11 I 11minairn . (Paris; Les edi tions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1934 - 1935.) , plates 1 - (Paris; Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani , succ., 1934 - 1935.), plates 1 - 24. 24. 6 Donald Strong and David Brown, ~ (London : 3 1bid. Duckworth , 1976), p. 93. 4 7 Glen Gould, perjod J jqhtjnq Fjxl\l(es .(New York: Dodd , Mead and Robert L. Smith, "Lighting Technology :from darkness to Company, 1926.), p. 158. opportunity ," Arcbecturnl I iabti og , November 1986, p. 57 4 - -- ------- 1 1:111_____11___LJ were accompanied by a move to more complex and ornate forms.• The fine wrought ironwork started to give way by the late Gothic to cast bronze; a material more amenable to embellishment with architectonic detail which became a central design theme in many fixtures.• The four major fixture types evolved quite independent of their Roman prototypes, primarily as candle-holders.' 0 Figure 6. 15 th Century Italian Tiered Corona design and ornamentation (Figure 6.)." If the candles were not extinguished every five to twenty minutes, there was a risk of the valuable tallow pooling-off into the grease pan and dripping to the Figure 5. 13th Century Spanish floor to become a fire hazard. The further 'Corona de Lux' inconvenience of always requiring a source of flame on hand required the rubbing of two sticks or flint and steel in tinder. Dry tinder was often carried about in a tinder box for this purpose and usually The suspended fixtures developed during this allowed a flame to be struck in a few minutes. 12 period from simple hanging ring fixtures, referred to By the late Gothic period, the corona form as 'Crowns of Light'('Corona de lux' in Spanish and had evolved into the massive gilded cast bronze 'Coronne de luminaire' in French). Early fixtures of ecclesiastical coronas of the French Gothic this type, such as t_he 13th century Spanish corona Cathedrals. Like most of the sculpture in these of Figure 5, were of crude strap metal and chain cathedrals, these coronas, which symbolized the construction with candle-sockets in drip pans biblical walled city with its gate and tower structures, dispersed around the concentric rings. By the 15th was intended to educate the illiterate masses century, the rings were being arranged in (Figure 7.). They were suspended from a expanding tiers, with a greater effort at complicated system of ball and rods (Figure 8.). The casting in bronze facilitated the incorporation of 8 Glen Gold, Period I igbtiOP fixtt1res (NeNYork: Dodd, Mead and sculpted massing and the architectonic Company, 1928), p. 44. 9 Henrie! Gabriel, "Tome II• Mayen-age;~ l.urDinairl!, 11 (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-1934.), Glen Gale Period I iobtiog Eixttires (New York: Dodd, Mead and plates 42-59. Company, 1928), p. 21. 10 12 Glen Gold, Period I jqbtioq fiXOffftS (New York: Dodd, Mead and Robert L. Smith, "Lighting Technology: from darkness to Company, 1928), pp. 39-42. opportunity," Archirectucal I igbtino- November 1986, p. 57. 5 -~ -- -------~~ I L:111~ , = - - Figure 7. 15th Century corona from the French cathedral Aix-la-Chapelle detailing that was sought. 13 Elaborate Gothic chandeliers also developed during this later Gothic period (Figure 9.). These tended to exhibit a stronger connection to the prevailing Gothic architectural idiom through the use of such ornamental devises as pointed arches with cusped tracery and foliated detailing." Figure 8. 15th Century corona from the French Cathedral at Reims Figure 10. Early Gothic Spanish wrought iron candelabrum The candelabrum (standing candle holder}/torchiere (torch holder} form evolved from rugged ironwork in the early Gothic period (Figure Figure 9. 15th Century Gothic chandelier 10.) to a decorative object of impressive size and ornamentaticn (Figure 11 .). As in the suspended 13 Henriot Gabriel, "Tome II - Moyen-age," ~ fixtures, the later fixtures relied on architecture for Luminaire , (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-1934 .), plates 56-57. 14 Ibid., plate 59. 6 Figure 13. Gothic torchere its design and ornamental themes." The intervening mode between the two above saw the corona motif adapted to a standard supported on Figure 11 . 13th Century Gothic tripod feet (Figures 12. & 13.). Ecclesiastical chandelier Wrought iron remained the preferred material for the wall bracket fixture form throughout the Gothic period and into the Renaissance period. The guality of workmanship in forging twisted multi- faceted bar and ornate foliated detail was very high. Figure 14. Figure 12. Gothic tiered corona candle-holder 15 Ibid. , plat,,s 42-59. 7 ----- - --------- 11::lf----_LJ ' The swiveling wall bracket of this period, with its The lantern form, either as hung, for hand emphasis on skeletal structure and utility, would use, or carried in processions, became common in reappear in nineteenth century swiveling gas wall the late Gothic period in Western Europe." The brackets (Figure 15.) .' " basic form had four or more sides of identical architectural window motifs, vertical outrigger bars at the corners, and a sculpted base and top (Figure 14., p. 7.).'" Toward the end of the Gothic period, cast bronze became an attractive alternative to wrought iron oecause of it's ability to accurately model architectural detail (Figure 16.). Figure 16. Late Gothic French Lantern Figure 15. Gothic Ecclesiastical bracket 16 Gaslinbting in Glen Goc,j, Period I inhtion Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead and Denys Peters Myers, America- (Washington D.C.: Company, 1926.), p. 93. National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division. 1978), p. 171. 18 Ibid. 8 Renaissance Period This period is marked by an embracing of the humanistic thought and values of classical Greece and Rome. Existing architecture and decorative art of the Roman period was re- examined for its design, proportions and ornamentation. The new classical aesthetic was quick to assert itself in the field of ornamental lighting fixtures, having its greatest impact on the candelabrum/torchiere and lantern forms." Figure 18. motifs. Although there is considerable variety in the bases, the center portion was generally composed of a collection of stacked classical vase forms, or was based on a classical column (Figure 17.) The limitless design potential of this fixture form attracted the artistic genius of such Renaissance Figure 17. men as Michael Angelo .2° The fixture form which underwent the most complete transformation during this period was the candelabrum/torchere. It's tripartite division of base, middle and top, lent itself particularly well to the borrowing of classical design and ornamental 1 Glen Gould, Period I iabtino Fixn,rns. (New York: Dodd, Mead and 20 Company, 1926.), pp. 10-11 . Ibid., p. H . 9 - -- ---- ---- 1 1:111 _ ____1l___LJ . Figure 19. The revival of bronze work in the 13th century left only a slight mark on the sharp lines of the Gothic Candelabrum. This impressionable material, however, proved to be ideal for the graceful shapes and detailed surface ornamentation of the Renaissance candelabrum. The fine Roman bronze work that was being excavated and collected at this time provided superlative examples for study and emulation.'' Wrought iron continued to be used for candelabrums, but was handled with increasing Figure 20. freedom. The appearance of extra inner volutes on the tripod base in the late Gothic period underwent The hanging sanctuary lamp was the only increased elaboration throughout the Renaissance Renaissance lighting fixture whose descendancy period (Figure 19.).22 from the Roman period was uninterrupted. The In this period of experimentation, carved Roman-style low basin shapes were common and gilded wood, silver, cut glass, and ceramics during the Renaissance and were elaborated to were also acceptable materials for candelabrums. include narrow-necked round-bellied vase The Italian expertise in that lustrous ceramic ware forms.These lamps were of bronze, brass and known as majolica, is particularly notable. These frequently silver, which was decorated in elaborate 24 ceramic candelabra lent themselves naturally to repousse work. An interesting variation vase and bowl forms and featured beautiful painting developed during this period, the lampadario, on the smooth white slip coating which covered this having a central bowl surrounded by branching ware (Figure 18.).23 candle sockets. This form (Figure 20. ) likely served as inspiration for the baluster-stemmed branching lbid., p.1 1. 22 Ibid., pp. 55-59. 23 Glen Gould. Period I jghtjng Eixn1res (New York: Dodd , Mead and 24 Company, 1928), p. 13. Ibid., p. 23. 10 -- -- ------~~ J::11- __II____Lj ::. - r u_:s__ Building on the scroll form so popular during the Renaissance (Figure 21 .), there was a progression toward more naturalistic forms (Figure 22.) . Italy and Spain were the hotbeds of lantern development during the Renaissance. Italian lanterns became essential embellishments to the Italian urban palazzi. The cast bronze lanterns tended to carry a Renaissance architectonic theme, while the wrought iron lanterns were generally based on the quatrefoil, a decorative motif rooted in the Gothic tradition." Most of the cast lanterns employed a free mix of Gothic and classical ornament, such as Gothic spikes and arched openings supported on classical columns (Figure 23.). The Renaissance Figure 21 . artist cast their lanterns in bronze, not only to achieve the fi.1e detail, but to make an associative brass chandelier which developed in Flanders in connection tQ the Roman period, when bronze was the late Renaissance.25 These Flemish chandeliers the most prevalent ornamental material for had a solid brass core of stacked vase forms and lighting.'• were extremely heavy. They were very Figure 22. Late Renaissance Wall Bracket popular, however, and were exported to France and England in great numbers to serve as a basic model for elaboration during the Baroque period.'6 The wall bracket remained primarily the domain of the blacksmith working in wrought iron. 27 Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrnuaht Iron to Architectt,ce , (New York: 25 Dover Publication3, 1929.), p. 30-32. 1bid. p. 23 28 Glen Gou rl . Period I ightino FixttJ(es (New York: Dodd, Mead and 26 1bid., p. 45. Company, 1928), ~P- 10-11 . 11 =~----- -- ------ -- ~ ·- ---.1-J The quatrefoil (four-lobed motif) was the most peNasive motif of Italian wrought iron work throughout the fourteenth, fifteenth, and early sixteenth centurys. At their inception in the fourteenth century, they were made by piercing Figure 24. sheets of iron. The individual quatrefoil units were then linked together by rings, similar to medieval chain mail armor. This labor-intensive technique was replaced in the fifteenth century by the banded C- scroll quatrefoil (Figure 24.). A modified and characteristic form of this C-scroll had spear-headed accents banded together:• The quatrefoil is an example of the peNasive influence of religious symbolism on Gothic period architectural ornament; the four lobes actually symbolize the four evangelists. 2 Gerald K. Geer1ings, Wrought Icon In Architecture-(New York: Dover Publications, 1929.), p. 30-32 12 - ~- ----------- aJI_______II_____Lj The Spanish lantern of the Renaissance exhibits a strong reliance on the Moorish tradition. Mosque architecture, with its stylized domes and arched openings, supplied the architectural model for quotation. They were usually constructed of gilded or polychromed tin or brass in the traditional Moorish pierced metalworking style (Figure 24.).3° A variation on the exterior hanging lantern, the hall lantern, made its appearance during the Renaissance. These were simple functional lanterns for use in vestibules, halls and stair landings, but would become the subject of considerable elaboration during the Baroque (Figure 26.).3' Figure 26. Hall Lantern Figure 25. Glen Goold. Perjod I jghtjng fiXUlces (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1928), P. 67. 31 Ibid., pp. 69-76. 13 --- -- -~----- B ___a____I_J Baroque and Rococo Periods The sumptuous elaboration of Renaissance forms, so characteristic of Baroque architecture, was also reflected in decorative art of the period. A greater emphasis on the use of lighting fixtures as decorative elements to reinforce interior architectural themes developed during this period. The most significant product of this trend was the development of wall appliques and varied wall brackets as well as the crystal chandelier. Although technical advances were made in gas lamp fixtures during this period, candle fixtures continued as the predominant ornamental lighting fixture during this period.32 Figure 28. curvilinear planar surfaces, and the over- emphasized and attenuated scroll , vase, foliated , and gadrooned motifs are among the repertoire of characteristics (figure 27.). Gilded copper and bronze were common choices of material for their malleability and surface luster. Improvements in wood sawing techniques allowed thinner veneers to be cut. This resulted in an increased use of inlaid · hardwood veneers, which were molded to the bowing profiles typical of decorative art of the period. Thesg veneered pieces were often set with Figure 27. cast metal mounts of gilded copper and bronze or The mutation and transformation of of ormolu. O,'Tlolu was the process of mercury Renaissance forms is apparent in the candelabrum gilding and was quite hazardous. It's use on lighting designs of this period. The three dimensionally fixtures helped integrate it with the rest of the Glen Gould, period I ighti nq Fixn1res (New York: Dodd , Mead and Company, 1928) , pp. 120-127. 14 room's furnishings featuring ormolu mounts.33 It was during this period that the A similar trend to elaboration of established suspended chandelier assumed it's role as a spatial Renaissance forms is also evident in the wrought focus. Using the Dutch Renaissance solid brass iron work of the period. The knobbed detail on the baluster-type chandeliers as a model, the Frenchexplored the full limits of this fixture type's possibilities. Most of the fixtures in this vein were of gilded bronze with branching arms extending from a central vase or baluster shape (Figure 30.). Rococo chandeliers were marked by the same dissymmetry and vigorous naturalistic ornament as the candelabrum forms (figure 31 .). 35 Figure 29. standard of the wrought iron candelabrums of Figure 29. are called knops and were quite common on this type of fixture. Even though Baroque artists transmuted Renaissance forms, they abided by the law of symmetry. The later stage of Baroque, the Rococo, was marked by a decorative ornament of swirling curves and crimps based on rocaille, water worn rockery, shell forms and flowing foliation . These were usually interpreted through dissymmetrical compositions for a more natural effect (Figure 28.).34 Figure 31 . Rococo chandelier The form of sanctuary lamps generally remained unchanged through the Baroque period, but were swathed in voluptuous detail (Figure 32.). Figure 30. Baroque baluster-type chandeliers Glen Gould . perjgd I jghtjng Fjxtwes (New York: Dodd, Mead and Figure 32. Company, 1928), P.11 2 34 35 Ibid., p. 117. Ibid., pp. 122·124. 15 ~- - --- -- -- --- - ~I___II___Lj . ~- : ·· ~-l. . - .~· ·' .. Figure 33. They were usually built of silver or brass and incorporated high relief repousse work.36 The process of repousse work has changed little from the Baroque period. First the rough shape Figure 34. is pounded out on a hollowed-out stump with various ball-peen hammers. Then the piece is sunk into a heated bowl of pitch (tar) and is allowed to cool. The design is then lightly hammered out from the inside, against the surrounding pitch, with a mallet and punch. During the Baroque period, France asserted the dominant influence over the prevailing lighting fixture designs, as well as over architecture in general. The applique, or decorative interior wall fixture , emerged as this period's most important contribution to the history of ornamental lighting fixtures .37 They were often dispersed about a room in order to integrate with a central suspended fixture of a similar character or with the furniture. Developing from the wrought iron bracket fixtures of the Gothic and Renaissance periods, appliques took on innumerable forms in cast metal Figure 35. Baroque Spanish lantern and carved wood (Figure 33. and 34.). The lantern retained it's importance as 36 37 1bid., p. 29 Ibid .. p.121. 16 --- -- -- ----- ---- lllli aJ__JL__ l_j Figure 36. Baroque Italian wrought iron lantern exterior and loggia lighting during the Baroque period, albeit in more elaborate forms. Both Italian and Spanish lanterns tended to incorporate fine glass-work, such as the hand-spun rondels present in the Italian lantern of Figure 36. and the detailed leaded glass in the Spanish lantern of Figure 35. The use of lanterns for interior lighting enjoyed considerable development during this period, particularly as hall lanterns and pole lanterns. The pole lantern was an invention of this period and evinces considerably more freedom in conception Figure 38. Baroque French hall lantern 17 ~-- -- - -~ - -------- ..1 :111- ---__LJ . and Spanish lanterns tended to incorporate fine pervaded the decorative arts. During the reign of glass-work, such as the hand-spun rondels present Louis XVI, there was a return to symmetry and a in the Italian lantern of Figure 36. and the detailed more accurate and obvious use of classical motifs leaded glass in the Spanish lantern of Figure 35. and details. This is also apparent in the work of the The use of lanterns for interior lighting enjoyed Adam brothers in England. Napoleon nurtured and considerable development t during this period, patronized this cult, with its illusions to Imperial particularly as hall lantems and pole lanterns. The Roman might and grandeur, in order to legitimize pole lantern was an invention of this period and his own regime through association. Directoire evinces considerably more freedom in conception Style ornamental lighting fixtures of this period are than exterior lanterns, whose general form was more rigidly cast in history. They were built of materials which allowed exuberant ornamentation, such as carved and gilded wood, cast and chased silver and brass, and gilded cast bronze (Figure37.). In Baroque architecture, stairhalls assumed a spatial focus and a grand suspended hall lantern over the landing reinforced this role. Because these were meant for interior spaces, they were often crowned with an open lacework. The light framework and clear glass surround encouraged a more decorative treatment of the interior candle holding apparatus (Figure 38.). Directoire and Empire Periods With the establishment of the study of archaeology in the last half of the eighteenth centu ry, and particularly the discovery of household decorative artifacts at sites such as Pompei Figure 40. marked by a clarity in design composition and boldness in outline, through the use of classical design motifs and detailing that is clearly derivative of classical prototypes. Egyptian forms and details became popular following Napoleon's Egyptian campaign.3• Careful engravings of Egyptian ru ins, made by artists who were in company with the invading army, were a valuable resource for decorative artists. The associative connection the Renaissance artists made with Roman candelabra form was resurrected with more vigor, exactitude, and imagination by the Directoire artists. The candelabrum underwent considerable Figure 39 . development during these periods and attained a and Herculaneum (Figure 3.), a cult of antiquity 38 Ibid. , p. 152 18 ~ -all___llL__Lj Figure 41. Directoire chandelier Figure 43. Nineteenth century crystal chandelier spatially dominant scale. Many of the candelabra of these periods are based on the form of an Egyptian column with a bulbous rounded base and slightly flaring lotus capital (Figure 39.).30 The branching candelabrums flanking the entrances to so many North American Neoclassical and Renaissance Revival buildings of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, were a direct descendant of the classically-inspired branching candelabra of these periods (Figure 40.). The central baluster-style stem of earlier chandeliers was replaced by a central classical vase motif, clearly derived from the hanging sanctuary lamps of ancient Rome and Renaissance Italy and Spain. The b:anches extending from these central for.ms were typically of a simple C-scroll shape, as opposed to tne more elaborate S-scrolls of the previous period (Figure 41 .). With the re- establishment of the roots of the hanging sanctuary lamp in ancient Roman culture, through archaeological discoveries, this form was Figure 42. Empire Style sanctuary lamps 39 Henriot Gabriel, "Tome VI - XIX siecle," ~ ~ . (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-1934.) 19 reinterpreted with impressive antiquarian exactitude ( compare Figure 2. and Figure 42.). Although glass pendants or natural Bohemia quartz crystals were employed with some of these cast bronze chandeliers, they were most common on the brass tiered-corona type crystal chandeliers that remained popular in England. Strings of glass pendants were draped from the various sized corona rings to form bowl-like shapes (Figure 42) . The glass pendants magnified the candlelight and thereby made it possible for these imposing fixtures to light their typically cavernous Figure 45. 1815 gas fixtures spatial settings. Appliques continued to be a critical interior ( Figure 45.). Gaslight fixtures still required multiple architectural element and were characterized by a burners to increase the overall illumination level; so similar use of bold classically-inspired forms (Figure the adaption of accepted candle fixture forms to 44.). gas lighting was quite easy. Technology advanced quickly, and by 1830 swivel extendible jointed connections in wall brackets were common.'° 1840 - 1860 By the early 1840s ornamental gas lighting fixtures were being manufactured in the United States. The fixtures of this period are notable for their exuberant Neo-Baroque/Neo-Renaissance Figure 44. Empire Style appliques Nineteenth Century Gas Lighting 1815-1830 Gas lighting became commercially available around 1820 in England. Ornamental gas-lighting Figure 46. bronze gas chandelier 1840 - 1860 fixtures generally took their forms from the established repertoire of candle fixtures - Denys Pe.er Myers, Gasliobtinn in America (Washington D.C .: candelabrum, chandelier, wall-bracket and lantern National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978.), pp.11-15. 20 Figure 47. rod gas fixture 1840 - 1860 Figure 48. Nee-Baroque gas fixture 1840 - 1860 character and striking contrasts of juxtaposed surface finishes. The suspended fixtures illustrated in Figures 46 and 47 are of cast bronze with contrasting applied ornament in burnished gilt (yellow tint) and matte gilt (orange tint) ." The bronze was often given a slight deep green patina for a different effect. Gas tubing would have run down the center of each of the suspension rods to supply the burners. Although the fixtures shown in Figures 48. and 49. are also of bronze and gilt, they were also often constructed of spun and lacquered brass with cast and gilded bronze for accenting. Pendant lights cantilevered on brackets, such as that of Figure 49, were referred to as toilets when located adjacent to dressing mirrors.• 2 The hall lantern forms common in the Baroque period were radically reinterpreted as gas hall pendants (Figure 50.). The examples shown would have, again, incorporated gas tubing into the suspension rods. They usually had glass or porcelain smoke bells, which had to be regularly removed and cleaned, so Figure 49. toilet gas bracket 1840-1860 clean electric incandescent lighting was a welcome invention. It was during this period that the candelabrum form became institutionalized as the gas pillar. Ett',er as the pillared candelabrum or as 41 Denys Peter Myer Gaslinbting in America (Washington D.C.: U.S. the branchea candelabrum, they became popular Department of the Interior, Technical Preservation Services Division, in commercial/retail establishments as counter-top 1978), p. 55. fixtures (Figure 51.) . 'Gas stands' as figural 42 1bid., p. 63. 21 ----- ---- -- ----- 1::lf--------_l_l compositions were also classified as gas pillars during this period. 'Gas stands' were smaller portable desk lamps which connected to a special gas connection on a suspended gas chandelier with a flexible hose." 1860-1880 Gas fixture design during this period was heavily influenced by English Aesthetic Era design based on conventionalized geometric and natural forms. A stylized outline was often sought in the chandeliers, wall brackets and hall pendants (Figures 52., 53., and 54.), which were typically composed of radial branches of a simplified angular character:• Although cast and gilded bronze continued to be popular, cast iron, which was widely used as a structural and building facade material during this period, also became common." Tubular, spun, stamped, and cast brass were often simultaneously combined in fixtures. The frosted shades of most of these fixtures were etched in conventionalized geometric and natural designs. Fixture design reflected the various styles prevalent in architecture of this time, such as the polychromed brass Gothic Revival wall bracket of Figure 50. hall pendants 1840 -1860 Figure 54. It was common to leave the gas jets exposed in the 'Gothic style' in these fixtures: • These fixtures would have integrated nicely into the polychromed interiors of Gothic Revival Figure 52. hall pendant 1860 - 1880 43 lbid .• ~. 111. 44 Ibid., p. 171. 45 Ibid. , p. 135. Figure 51 . gas pillar 1840 - 1860 46 Ibid., p. 171 22 -------- -- ~- ----- j::1)1~ . Figure 55. gas reflector Figure 53. Eastlake-inspired chandelier 1860/1880 buildings. Gas reflectors underwent considerable development during the 1870s. They were designed to be either suspended from the ceiling or inse.rted into the ceiling. "Reflectors were lined with either mirrored glass or silvered metal and were used wherever intense light was required. They were made in various sizes, depending on the area to be illuminated."" When ordering these reflectors, customers would send in the room dimensions and the manufacturer would select the appropriately sized fixture to provide the required illumination level. Inserted reflectors, such as the one in Figure 55., were connected to vents to draw Figure 56. Aesthetic Era gas chandelier off the heat and fumes. As a measure to increase reflection in this fixture, the striations on the inner cone are horizontal, while the striations in the outer 1880-1910 cone run radially. The angular Eastlake-inspired branched - baluster type fixtures of the previous period were simplified and refined with an emphasis on stylized natural and Japanesque forms.48 Tubular, spun, wrought and cast open-work brass were common f materials because of the delicate lightness they made possible. There was also an effort to create Figure 54. 47 p.197. 48 1bid., Ibid., p. 1J7. 23 Figure 59. combination gas/electric chandelier Figure 57. Aesthetic Era hall pendant a unified piece of decorative art by combining other types of decorative art with the fine metalwork.Examples of this are the fine Japanese- inspired etched glass cylindrical shade of the hall pendant illustrated in Figure 57. and the incorporation of an Ango-Japanesque ceramic vase baluster into the chandelier of Figure 56." A thriving market also existed for the sale of gas lighting fixtures to those with a more modest income. This was often done through fixture manufacturer catalogs or through general merchandise catalogs, such as Sears Roebuck and Co. During the early twentieth century these were typically feebly modeled on the major architectural styles, such as the 'Empire ' fixtures illustrated in Figure 58.50 Because of the frequency of power outages by the fledgling electrical generating industry, combination gas/electric lighting fixtures were common during this period. They were generally based on the popular gas lighting f ixture designs except the flaring gas light shades were ~ .:;; 0 set vertical and the the smaller electric light shades pitched down at forty-five degrees. The Figu re 58. catalog gas fixture 49 Ibid., p. 197. 50 Ibid. , p. ?.1 5. 24 combination fixture illustrated in Figure 59. is just a standard branched baluster type gas chandelier with alternate branches given over to an electric light socket and bulb. Pierced repousse work on the stem and branches in brass or iron was common, as was the fluted canopy or 'ceiling plate'." Electric Lighting 1890-1900 The early Edison-style incandescent sixteen Watt lamps had free-blown bulbs with seal- off tips (the pointed nib at the end of the bulb resulting from the evacuation process)." The low surface intensity of these bulbs allowed their use as exposed design elements in early electric lighting fixtures. This was particularly the case with the free- flowing Art Nouveau fixtures which were seeking a conscious aesthetic break with established gas lighting fixture design. A freedom from the constraints of open-flame lighting led Art Nouveau designers toward an entirely new aesthetic in lighting fixture design which encouraged the integration of the exposed bulbs into the design composition. (Figures 60. and 61 .) Figure 61 . Art Nouveau applique Figure 60. Art Nouveau fixture Ibid., p. 223. 52 Robert L. Smith. "Lighting technology: from darkness to opportunity," Accbitecn1ral I igbtiog. November 1986, p. sa. 25 -------- -- -----~----==:;- Ell- -----_LJ Materials Bronze True bronze, such as that employed in ancient Egypt and in the Greek statues of the Periclean period, was a copper alloy consisting almost uniformly of 88 parts copper to 12 parts tin. The Greeks perfected a means of soldering bronze in the early seventh century B.C.; a development which dramatically improved its formal possibilities. As mentioned in chapter one, the Romans made extensive use of bronze for ornamental lighting fixtures and would occasionally add lead to improve 3 the sculptura: workability. Any copper alloy that Chapter contains zinc is classified as a brass. During the Materials and reign of Empvror Augustus and later, zinc was often added as well to create a brass which allowed Processes pounded-out 'repousse· work in plates and sheets.' With the fall of Rome, the Byzantine and Introduction Arab empires revived and enhanced Roman bronze-working techniques. Damascening This chapter will provide a basic (ornamental incisions filled with precious stones) understanding of the key materials used in historic and cloisonne work (raised cells filled with baked ornamental lighting fixtures, as well as the principal enamels and natural oxides) on bronze and brass means of working those materials. Frederick C. were introduced to western Europe by returning Baker's choice of materials and processes during crusaders and Venetian traders. the evolution of his remarkable career will provide Based on sheer tonnage, copper and its the model for this chapter. His early luminaires alloys were t~e most plentifully produced metals in utilized the same ornate classical vocabularies as the world until the beginning of the fifteenth their Beaux-Art architectural settings. Cast bronze century, when iron became predominant. lent itself particularly well to intricate classical detail, European ccpper production was severely and where the budget allowed, it was Baker's curtailed, or in some areas, ceased all together preferred choice. Cast and wrought Mone! Metal, wrought iron, sheetmetal working, spun and tubular brass, cut glass pendants, and a variety of different pressed glass shades were also typical of this period in Baker's career. From the mid 1930s on, however, Baker made greater use of machining processes in the fabrication of his fixtures, in particular, lathe turning and lathe spinning. These developments are closely related to advancements in illumination science as well as developments in the architectural styles of the period and will be discussed in detail in later chapters. This chapter will provide the context for a more specific discussion in a later chapter of Baker's use of materials in the fabrication of various ornamental Figure 62. Water wheel powered tilt hammer lighting fixtures. Gerald K. Geerting, Metal Crafts in Architecture (New York: Bonanza Books. 1927), p.7. 26 ~ ~--- -- - --- -- -- ~-- --- ..1 :11- ~_LJ after the fall of Rome. Copper-winning was revived pickle, the casting must be perfectly clean. The by the Moors in Spain in the seventh century and casting is dipped into a cleaning solution of potash, had developed into a thriving industry in central nitrous acid or sulfuric acid and water, which Europe by 1000 AD. In the Middle Ages, greater restored its natural luster. advances were made in metalworking than in metal Bronze can be electroplated with gold or extraction through the development of such silver, but it was more common to give it a patina by mechanized appliances as the water wheel- immersion in an oxidizing bath (pickle) . "Almost any powered tilt hammer of Figure 62. Mechanical shade from brown to red can be obtained by timing forging allowed larger individual pieces of cast the immersion in a solution of nitrate of iron and bronze and brass to be handled. It also encouraged hyposulphite of soda, afterwards washing in water the diversification of the brass casting and bronze and drying in sawdust. To bring out the finishes, founding industry into specialized groups mechanical treatment is given, such as scouring fabricating brass pots, household items, bell- with sand and pumice, using various types of casting, gun-casting and architectural monuments. brushes and polishing with a lathe and dolly. For a Although there was a revival of work in architectural green or antique bronze, a solution may be used bronze initiated by Bishop Bernward of composed of acetic acid, carbonate of ammonia, or Hildensheim around 1045, it was the Italian sal-ammoniac and common salt, cream of tartar and Renaissance artists who exploited bronze's true acetate of copper. Light touches of ammonia impart plastic potential in the cast panel figures of a blue shade to the green parts."• Bronze was also monumental bronze church doors.' tinted with the fumes of chloride of lime over which True bronze is admirably suited to casting a small portion of hydrochloric acid had been because of its fluidity and its dense non-porous poured. composition. Bronze also lends itself to rolling, Although during the early twentieth extrusion and forging processes. century it was common to give architectural bronze Numerous alloys of bronze were a protective lacquer coating of shellac mixed with developed in the early twentieth century for methyl hydrate, it was understood even then that it specifically improved performance; Phosphor would wear off in a couple of years under wear and Bronze (0.8% phosphorous content) for increased environmental exposure. It would then require re- hardness and resistance to wear, Manganese lacquering after total removal of the original coat. Bronzes (6% ferro-manganese) for added strength The preferrec care of exterior bronze was a weekly at high temperatures and Aluminum Bronzes (2- wiping with a dry cloth, followed by another 10% aluminum) with enhanced color qualities for art moistened with crude oil, lemon, or linseed oil, or castings. Ornamental bronze of this period typically wax, to clean it and prevent excessive oxidation.• consisted of 89% copper and 11% tin. Current Ornamental bronze casting has always metal marketing has capitalized on bronze's noble been an expensive venture. A casting in bronze history and has labeled a number of commercially cost about three times the same in cast iron earlier available brasses as bronzes. Architectural Bronze, this century. The twelve 10 foot bronze lamps ostensibly used on Mies Van der Roh's Seagram installed in the San Francisco Post Office (1903) Building in New York, is actually a leaded brass cost $950.00 each, while the fourteen bronze composed of 57% copper, 40% zinc and 3% tin. lanterns (roughly 2'0"X8'0") cost $600.00 each. In Commercial Bronze is a brass composed of 90% 1912 the estimated cost of a bronze lamp standard copper and 10% zinc while Statuary Bronze was $600.0o.• consists of roughly 97% copper, 2% tin and 1% zinc.3 Brass Bronze can be chemically treated or electroplated for a variety of surface finishes. In The 1uantity of zinc in brass can vary from order to effect full adhesion of the electroplated metal or for a uniform surface finish in an oxidizing William A. tJewman, "Bronze,"Jbe Architect and EnaineecApril 1912, p.98. Leslie Aitchison, A Histnrv of Metals v2 (New York: lnterscience 5 Publishers, lnc., 1960), p.326. Gerald K. Geerling, Metal Crafts in Arcbitect11rn (New York: 3 Bonanza Books, 1927), p. 28. Margot Gayle and David W. Look, "Part I. A Historical Survey of 6 ~~1:!~a~g~a~sr~~f.~~~~~·~ ~ir~~fifo?~WJgH~ ~%~~h~~t~~.~·~7~). a. William A. Newman, "Bronze," Jbe Arcbirect and EnnineecApril p.1~ 1912,p.101. 27 - ----- --- - il I 1:l)I_ ___II__Lj j 5-45%, depending on the color desired; 10% for a the composition. Like, bronze, it can be forged, bronze color, 15% for a golden color, 20-38% for drawn and cast as well as worked in a sheetmetal yellow and above 45% for a silvery-white. From the form and spun into shapes on a spinning lathe. It Middle Ages through to the eighteenth century, lends itself to annealing, welding and soldering and brass was made by the old Roman method of brazing.• reducing calamine (an ore containing zinc) with When exposed to the elements, it takes on charcoal in the presence of molten copper. An a silver-grey patina which halts further corrosion. attempt to create differing grades of brass on order was made, but was necessarily quite difficult to do Aluminum with calamine. Zinc was not isolated as a separate metal until 1721; Champion's patent for the Alummum became common as a distillation and condensation of zinc for industrial production did not appear until 1738.7 As noted in architectural decorative metal during the 1930s. the previous chapter, there was a marked increase Being a light metal (about half the weight of iron, in the use of brass in ornamental lighting fixtures copper or brass) with a low melting point, it is easily during the eighteen century, particularly in crystal worked by most of the metalworking techniques noted for Monel Metal. Aluminum alloys used for chandeliers. Brass is as easy to cast as bronze and in casting usually contain silicon, silicon and copper, exactly the same manner and is easier to form as or silicon and magnesium. the copper content increases. It will anneal for ease Most architectural aluminum was left of forging (heating to make soft and workable after unfinished. A transparent and tough natural oxide becoming hard and brittle from hammering), and will patina forms instantaneously to effectively protect 0 take on a high polish. If left finished in its natural the metal from any further corrosion.' state, brass will take on a blackish tarnish in reaction Electroplating with nickel or chromium was also to the environment, and needs to be either practiced. Baker spun aluminum into a variety of constantly polished or given a protective shapes as reflectors in indirect luminaires. electroplated surface finish . Brass can be electroplated with gold or silver. One advantage Iron brass has over bronze is that it can be stamped to achieve fine embossed detail. It can also be Iron, ;n its pure form, is a relatively soft and pounded out by the repousse method for higher malleable grey-white metal and has seen extensive relief. Brass can be chemically treated to take on historical use, in its various alloy forms, as an special color effects, such as blue, black and architectural decorative and structural metal. shades of green.• Wrought iron is almost pure iron, having a carbon content of less than 1% (usually 0.02 - Monel Metal 0.03%). It has a characteristic laminated quality because it consists of slag (iron silicate) fibers entrained, but unbonded, in a ferrite matrix. Steel Monel Metal is a registered trademark name differs in composition as well as its method of for a nickel-copper alloy developed by the processing. "Steel is cast at a white heat into International Nickel Company in 1905. It consists of ingots; wrought iron is removed from the furnace at 68% nickel, 27% copper with the remaining five a lower temperature in a semi-molten plastic percent iron, manganese, silicon and carbon. After condition together with slag, then is formed into considerable use in the industrial sector, it gained bars with most of the slag hammered out. The popularity during the 1920s and 1930s as an presence of ;;lag in the composition of wrought iron architectural decorative metal; one of the new distinguishes it from steel"." Because wrought iron modem 'white metals'. It is capable of taking a high is malleable, fatigue resistant, and easily forged, polish finish or a dull matt finish , affording the possibilities of a contrasting surface appearances in Ibid., p.185 0 7 ' MargotG ,,le and David W. Look, "Part I. A Historical Survey of Leslie Aitchison, A History of Metals v2 (New York: lnterscience Metals," ~ -1merica's Historic Buildings (Washington D.C.: Publis:ers,lnc., 1960), p. 482. Preservation Press. National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1976). p. 150. Gerald K. Geerling, Metal Crafts in Architecn1ce ~New York: 11 Bonanza Books, 1927), p. 97. Ibid., p. 130. 28 ~- - ~ - ------ - ~-------~ Jlr J::ljl____ll__J_J . rolled and drawn, it has been employed as an enhance such characteristics as strength, ornamental lighting fixture material from the Middle resistance to abrasion, weldability, machinability, Ages right through to the mid-twentieth century. and corrosion resistance. Cast iron is an iron alloy with a high carbon Iron alloys, with the exception of stainless content which can vary from 1. 7% to 3. 7%. Being steel, oxidize rapidly when exposed to a damp atmosphere. Historically, painting was the necessary preventative measure. Processes Casting Drawing on a rich heritage, casting processes continue to involve a large segment of the metals industry. Prehistoric humans fabricated tools by pouring molten metal into open molds of baked clay or stone. As evidenced by archaeological finds, metal casting was practiced over 4000 years ago by the Egyptians, Assyrians Figure 63. Green sand mold with cope sectioned to reveal interior highly fluid in its molten state, it is easily poured into molds for ornamental or structural castings. The composition of cast iron is distinguished by the presence of free graphite in the form of flakes. This is what accounts for cast iron's extreme brittleness and high compressive strength. Cast iron was a common choice of material for larger exterior lighting luminaires, as well as less expensive gas chandeliers.12 Steels contain less than 2% carbon and can be alloyed to numerous other metals to Figure 65. One-piece flat-back casting and Chinese. 13 Simply stated, the process of sand casting involves pouring molten metal into a preformed mold or cavity. Metal die casting is suited to rapid production of many identical castings and has little application to the manufacture of historic Figure 64. One-piece flat-back casting 12 John Neely and Richard Kebbe, Modem Materials and lbid. Marnlfacn1tin2 Pmcesses (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), p. 145 29 - - ----- - --- --- -- - I B11----------_LJ • ornamental lighting fixtures, and will not be cope half of the flask is then placed in position on discussed. Sand casting played a major role, the drag and a slightly tapered wooden sprue pin is however, and will be covered in detail. located near the pattern where the gate will be Of all the methods of producing castings, constructed (Figure 64 C.). The cope is then filled green sand casting is the most common. The sand with sand, peenrammed, and struck-off the same as is called green because it depends on moisture the drag. A small venting hole for escaping gases is for it's bond. Casting is a science in itself and is best poked through to the cavity with a wire. The sprue understood by reviewing the process in a number of progressively more complex examples. Bench molds are so named because they are small enough to be manipulated by one person and are usually set on a short bench for convenience. Floor molds are larger and have to be constructed on the foundry floor.,. Medium sized casting are enclosed in a flask, the upper part of which is the cope and the lower part the drag. The plane separating the cope and drag is called the parting plane. The green sand is modeled around a pattern which is withdrawn (drawn in casting parlance) leaving a cavity into which molten metal is poured. The vertical passage into which the molten metal is poured is called the sprue, which connect to similar horizontal passageways at the parting plane, called gates, which convey the molten metal to the cavity (Figure 63.). The easiest and most economical casting are bench molds of one-piece flat-back patterns on a straight parting in the mold; that is, the pattern does not bisect the parting plane. The molding process begins with placing the drag half of the flask in an inverted position on the smooth flat molding board and placing the pattern within the flask (Figure 64 A.). A 1/4 inch coating of green sand is sifted on to the pattern and then the drag is topped off with green sand from the heap ('heap sand'). The sand is packed uniformly throughout the depth of the flask by a technique known as peenramming. The cylindrical butt end of the bench rammer is used to pack down the loose surface after peening (Figure 64 B.). The surface is leveled off (struck-off) and a thin layer of sand Figure 66. Two-part pattern (above) and casting scattered over the struck-off surface. A bottom board is then firmly pressed on the surface and the drag is flipped over. The flat face of the pattern pin is removed and the top of the opening enlarged which was next to the molding board now rests in in the shape of a funnel to expedite pouring (Figure the parting plane of the mold. Parting sand, which is 64 D.). The cope is then carefully lifted off and set fine-grained silica sand, is sprinkled on to the on its side near the drag. A thin stream of water is surface to prevent the drag from sticking to the applied to the edges of the pattern to lessen the cope when the mold halves are separated. The chance that ~dges of sand next to the pattern will break away during removal of the pattern. The Clarence T. ~ek, E1mdamentafs in the Production and Pesina ~(NewYork:JohnWiley & Sons, 1950), P.2. pattern is thGn rapped a few times to loosen it from 30 the clutches of the sand and then it is drawn (Figure 668.) . vertically out of the mold. The mold has been The protuberance at the bottom of the hub fashioned with a slight flaring taper with respect to will leave a core print cavity which will serve as a the parting line so that it will draw easily out of the guide for the insertion of the dry sand core into the sand. The gate is then cut from the bottom of the mold cavity when the pattern is removed. Parts of a sprue to the mold cavity. The mold cavity is then mold that are difficult to model or may experience dusted with graphite or talc to reduce the tendency excessive erosion during the pour, are made of the molten metal to fuse with sand of the mold independently as dry sand cores and inserted into (Figure 65 E.) . After the mold has been closed and the cavity after the pattern has been drawn. These screwed tight, a weight is placed on top to prevent cores are made of silica sand and bond, which the cope from being raised by hydraulic pressure become hard when baked and are molded in box- Figure 67. Two-piece core box Figure 68. Snap Flask due to the column of molten metal in the sprue. The mold is then poured and when it has Straight side jack~t sufficiently solidified the flask is emptied on the foundry floor and the casting removed. The gates, vents, and other appurtenances of the casting process are then cut off with a metal saw and the casting is ready for inspection and finishing (Figure 64 F & G.). 15 This type of one-piece flat-back pattern would have been used to cast the lower band of relief ornament on the Knight Library lanterns (appendix - Knight Library). There is always an attempt in a more complicated molding to split the pattern with the parting plane along a center line, so that the cope and drag halves can be molded similarly and the Figure 69. Slip Jacket mold parting remains flat. Prime candidates for this 0 type of casting are symmetrical objects such as a like forms called core boxes (Figure 67.).' Each candelabrum standard or a simple pulley, such as core has a protuberance, called a core print, which the one for which the patterns are illustrated in mates to the core print cavity left by the pattern. Figure 66. The drag half of the pattern contains the The r:ope half of the flask is then set in dowel-pin-hole and is molded with its flat back down place on the drag, exact placement aided by the on the molding board similar to the one-piece flat dowels of co Hse, the sprue pin located, and the back pattern (Figure 66 A.). After being molded in sand moldec lFigure 66 C.). The cope and drag are sand, the drag is flipped over on to its bottom board then separated, and the slightly tapered patterns 15 16 Ibid .• pp. 25.-30. Ibid., p.3. 31 - -~ ~ --- ---- ~- -- ----- -- - llf BJ!___II___L_J . are drawn (Figure 66 D.). The core is then set in shell of solid metal forms next to the surface of the place after providing for a small vent hole that is cavity. As the thickness of this shell increases inserted to channel off gasses caused by the core's burning bonding agents (Figure 66E.). Flask Sprue Gagg or This casting was done in a snap flask. The rs diagonal hinge and latch arrangement expedites . removal of the completed casting (Figure 68.) . A slip jacket is slipped down over the snap flask to ensure against swelling or bursting when the mold is poured (Figure 69.). 17 As the size of the casting increases, more effort is directed at controlling the purity of the molten metal as well as controlling the flow of molten metal to limit erosion to the sand mold. A Pouring basin Figure 71. toward the center, the cumulative effect of volumetric shrinkage is manifested in the formation of a shrinkage cavity at the exterior of the mold cavity where the thin shell started. The feeder either connects directly to the mold cavity or is connected by a feeder gate. The feeder is constructed large enough so that its center is kept in a molten state well after the pour in order to feed Figure 70. pouring basin is often constructed adjacent to the sprue which slopes upward toward the sprue connection (Figure 70.). The molten metal is poured fast enough to keep the basin full, so that the denser molten metal flows at the bottom and the lighter slag impurities float on top of the pool where they are skimmed off." Like most liquids, molten metal expands when it is heated and contracts when it is cooled. Molten metals will continue to shrink through their solidification range. The shrink rate is a Figure 72. characteristic of each metal (cast iron -1/8 inch/foot, brass - 3/16 inch/foot) and is reflected in the patternmaker's shrink rule in production casting work." Custom casting, such as specialty lighting that last bit of molten metal necessary to fill the fixtures which are often modeled outside of the shrinkage cavity (Figure 72.).2° foundry, utilize a secondary system, called feeders, Because of the larger size of floor molds, for introducing molten metal after shrinkage has the copes are often fitted with cross bars called occurred. As metal cools in the mold cavity, a thin flask bars to support and reinforce the sand. The pattern is set in the flask so as not to interfere with ,. Ibid., p.31. the flask bar system. If additional support is - Ibid., p.39. Manu;;!~;~~;~c:~e~i~~~ :ae~bj~h~9$fie~ ~~~g;,s, gg$). Clarence T. tv1arek, E11ndamentals in the Pmd11ction and Design p. 149. .9U&SJing. (New 'I ,rk: John Wiley & Sons, 1950). p. 39. 32 --- --~-~---~ - - - - - ■11r a1_____._____Lj . pattern is set in the flask so as not to inte~ere with the flask bar system. If additional support Is needed, L-shaped rods called gaggers are wired to the flange bars. Figure 71. illustrates an_ alternative means of casting a two-piece pattern with the help of flask bars and gaggers. Sometimes the arrangement of flask ba~s can i~te~ere "."ith the _ construction of the pouring basin, in which case It can be built in a rectangular frame on top of the hancilH o 0 Fin0 l<~0 o~~~tt,m 0 0 ThNM>-pan. .lluk. c=:::-:::::=rorag pattern Figure 73. elmR/l ~:; :;·;-~U; ;))j'J;;:/¾lt OTHt~ I0Hl&ILITIES A!..l:- Sc10LL Fou, Figure 92. scroll form )(a)(o){o)(o)W Fa\ \2) Fo\\;;Jro ever tighter scroll forms such as that in Figure 92. The hot and cold chisels (Figure 93.) are 0//o\\0\\ //o IOU O Io Uo ! used with the hardie for cutting but are also used for simple but effective chisel mark ornamentation (Figure 94.) Twisting bars is a simple operation 0 IO IO I O l >(o>,' involving muscle power and a long-handled bar with a number of different shaped holes at the center which the hot bar is threaded through. Twisted bars were a popular and effective ornamental devise, with the four left bars of Figure 95 being the most Figure 94. Ct-.isel mark ornamentation common.32 point to be pt:netrated by the other bar. An aperture is quickly opened and the bar threaded [fl through before the aperture has a chance to cool and tightly contract around the bar (Figure 97.) The pronounced swelling that occurs at the pierced joint is an attractive characteristic of this joint.33 Figure 93. chisels The technique of welding is central to wrought iron work. Two pieces of iron at white heat are pounded together until they fuse as one. A variety of different welds are possible, such as lap welds and butt welds. A traditional and in many cases a more 'honest' means of joining two Figure 95. Decorative twisted bars members is by collaring and threading. In a collar joint, a thin piece of metal is wrapped around the two bars to be joined and lap welded (Figure 96.) The first operation in threading is to pierce the heated bar with a chisel or punch on the anvil at the [Il] Figure 96. 32 lbid .• pp.13-21. 33 Ibid .• pp. 13-26. 39 -- ~ - - ~---- LL_IIL- j BB Figure 97. wrought iron can also be worked cold with the help Figure 100. Scroll volute machine of a few simple bench tools. A scroll is started in the tool illustrated in Figure 98 by squeezing a bar spiral in the same plane as the upper lever pressing between the 'comma' shaped temple! and a die by down on it as it is twirled through the volute. The a hand operated lever. The first convolution of the twisting of ba:-s is facilitated by the machine spiral is complet~d in this machine illustrated in Figure 101 . A flat bar is inserted into :I, the slot in the crank face, an appropriate length of pipe set between the two faces (to limit transverse movement of the twisting bar) and the slotted piece ~ Figure 98. Bench scroll machine - step 1 Figure 101 Bar twisting machine Figure 99. Bench scroll machine - step 2 (Figure99.) .The spiral is then hooked in the center Figure 102. Bar kinking machine portion of the volute attached to the rotating disk of the machine illustrated in Figure 100. Because the dropped into the pocket in the left face to secure shaft connected to the disk is screw threaded , the the bar protr. iding through. The more the advancing disk maintains the revolutions c,f the crank, the tighter the twists. 40 -- - ai~ _LJ . ,r LL,. J- I-L--------- blade ascends, cutting the sheet that has been inserted.34 Figure 105. Figure 104. Wrought iron gate lantern When twisting is completed, the slotted piece is removed and twisted bar is removed out of the end. Another machine (Figure 102.) makes short work of making ha~ twists, useful in making light grille-work. Figure 106. Wrought iron continued to be a popular material for lanterns in the era of incandescent electric lighting, either as brackets (Figure 103.) or integrated into wrought iron entry arches (Figures 104. and 105.). The material also lent itself admirably to the nature-inspired brackets that were partially derivative of the American interpretation of the European Art Nouveau movement (Figures 106-107). Sheet Metalworking Sheet metal has always been part of the electric ornamental lighting fixture manufacturer's Figure 107. repertoire and a few sheet metalworking techniques need to be touched on. The principle sheet metal materials are tin plate.sheet iron, brass, copper and aluminum. A sheet metal shape starts with a pattern etched on to the sheet. The pattern is either cut out with a pair of hand snips or with the aid of a squaring shear (Figure 109.). Gauges on the bed of the shear allow positional adjustment of the sheet with respect to the cutting blade plane. Figure 108. When the foot treadle is depressed, the upper blade simultaneously descends while the lower 34 Jeannen, T. Adams, Metalworking Handbook (New York: Arco Publishing Company Inc. , 1976), pp. 107-109. 41 .. ,. --~ ------ --- LI_IIL 1111111 machine used to make both sharp and rounded angle brakes or folds. The piece is clamped in place on the bed by the upper jaw and the bending leaf is raised to make the fold. Curved shapes (Figure 111 .) can also be made on the brake by clamping molds (Figure 112.) to the bending leaf. The brake can also be used to make interlocking seams, which are the principal means of connecting sheet metal sheets, although interlocking tabs and rivets are also common. The bar folder (Figure 113.) is used to bend flat bars used in frame and sheet metal constructions." SHARI' ANO ROUNDED BRAKES MOLD WORK PI TTS8Uf!GH LOCK TYPES Of." WORK MADE WI TH STANDARD HAND BRAKE. Figure 111 . Brake profiles Figure 109. Squaring Shear MOLDS J FRICTION CLAMI' Figure 110. Hand Brake Figure 112. 35 lbid., pp.130-131. 42 LL--~_ ~ II--L------~-- F19. 6 . A 15-lnd, ~p inn in; lathe. 1. "r';;!i._ ~:t:·'T"~ ~'.•~ .. :·.:""~~IMk. Figure 115-a. Spinning lathe Metolblank t-,\ Figure 114. Slip roll forming machine Slip-roll forming machines are extensively used for curving sheet metal or forming cylinders and cones Heods spindl of various diameters. The machine consists of a housing supporting three solid steel rollers connected to driving gears and operated by means of a hand crank. To form the tapered cylinders so T·Rut popular in sheet metal luminaires of this century, the rear roll set is adjusted for the desired splaying angle, and sheet cranked through (Figure 114.).36 Figure 115-b. Elements of the spinning lathe Metal Spinning in reflect ing luminaires since the 1930's. Spinning lathes are quite similar to wood- Although metal spinning is an ancient art, it is one turning lathes but are more powerful and ~a~e ~ mechanical process that has lent itself very well to wider range of speeds to deal with the variation In motorized mechanization. Metal spinning is a metal physical properties. Typical speeds vary f~om process by which a flat piece of metal is formed to a as low as 6 ravolutions per minute (rpm) to as high desired shape by the application of pressure with a as 3500 rpm. As illustrated in Figures 115-a and spinning tool on the piece against an attached 115-b, the lathe is equipped with a tailstock; the wooden form, called a chuck, while rotating on a metal blank i3 held against the chuck by a follower spinning lathe. The most efficient forms tend to be which is attc1,·hed to a revolving center attached to 1 radially symmetric circular and cylindrical the tailstock: shapes.Spun shapes have been used extensively The +iinner manipulates the spinning tool 36 Roger w.-B~;,-ed ., Metal fnoioeminn Processes ~New York: Ibid., pp. 147-149. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. , 1958), p. 109. 43 Round Nose with the arms, hands and body in order to flow the metal over the chuck to the desired shape. The choice of tool (Figure 116.) is dependent on the spinner's personal preference, severity of the spin, -c:q:::-nz .-.,~ and type and gauge of the metal. The spinning ~ tool, which is usually levered against a pin on a T- rest for steady pressure, is usually about 18 inches ~ib:':<:~'-"_ _.. ,,..,.... \ \?"""--:;;,, long, although seven foot monsters for turning (S:=' Beading Toof huge shapes are not uncommon.38 Most of the forms, which constitute the chuck, for spinning luminaires were made from Figure 116. Spinning tools wood. These forms would have been built up from I solid pieces of maple, turned on a wood lathe to the appropriate profile, sanded smooth and oiled to -~~~ resist weathering. When the design configurations ---- ---- are of an extreme nature, a number of chucks 'IIIIC·F= · _l_ -- ·---rpa:,-Louv""(rol,oC!m,,.c)- - l:U.VATION · · .ltCTION · · DITAIL· 01=- · CblLING · l=IXTURf; · · JeOle; 1~•-1•-o· · ·Ar,,.;.uc.AN· iNO(.J("fFIIAl.•Al>.T· Cillll~lT Ml:Tuorot.lTJ\N · Ml.lf't;UM• •J:UG!;;Ni;:•/tl-lO!;N·c·iDNJ · AP-Cl-llHCT· ·LIGl-nDui;:µ, .co. ·CAATTrMAN· ~!an -Mat=· Figure 148. Suspended luminaire · DI;TAIL·OI=· L!<='1l-ff!NG·UNIT- . 'vOOl;;lJ ...n ;:g-. GMbUN ?W ALJ(bP.. · ARrnmar· ·AANTAC!~ · INC· · · -C~JMAN· Figure 149. 61-b ------~- r Ji::111~ ·:•:~ r- ""' !ii~..) PL N .,,... i t'o· I I1 Mete.I ,,,n,,dor Ai:cr-.rr Joo,·· -~~~h,,B:Ll ~B)~I GIGrrJr~ . ~ Mr.l~i ~;~~~-➔ ~rr ,',, -~, - r· f4:'(3} , .;I?' . 'ubulAr l,>.mrr ~ 1 sa;L.~,?\~ei,~ILS . I 1~ 1~-..atfr ,..,,d, A;VI A'vll::l'llCAN \emu.rrP,i,\L ,\RT f:.XHIF',;T . Mr-n>,CPOI ITAN M1.1n;u,-1 Dff!GNkP-, Figure 150. Indirect lighting in a residence RICHARD J. NCUTP.,._ ..,fu:Jufa/. Figure 151 . Suspended luminaire 61-c -----·~ -------- r ~I recessed direct do":'n lighting. The Rambusch rte patented 1n 1934 by Rambusch oownr~ti~g company, consisted of a deep elliptical Oethed reflector with a powerful lamp at the base po is cting through a control lens in the flush- ~~~ented ceiling plate. Except for t~e ceiling ~l_ate~. the entire assem?IY ~as recessed into the ceiling. Indirect lighting systems became more complicated in their placement (cornice cove, behind bench seating cove, and vertical slo~s) as II as their efforts to conceal the source (Figures 1:o.)." suspended semi-indirect and indirect fixtures tended to be of mach!ned_o r spun metal, ~ha concentric linear or vertical linear 9haracter. w one form of interesting landscape lighting, which influenced entrance lighting, was the luminous pylon. This form of lighting was ·ntroduced as promenade and pavilion forecourt :ighting at the large expositions of the early thirties, such as the Century of Progress Exposition in Figure 153. Building luminous pylon Light Sources Incandescent lamps In addition to the standard 'A' lamps (15 to 100 watts) and the 'PS' (pear-shaped, 150 to 1500 watts) were a range of lamps more suited to decorative or indirect lighting applications. These included tubllar lamps (25 to 150 watts), round lamps (25 to 40 watts) , low wattage lamps for Figure 152. Promenade of luminous pylons at the candelabra and exposed studded applications (3 to Copenhagen Exposition of 1931 10 watts) and double-ended lumiline lamps (40 to 60 watts). Lumiline lamps were tubular lamps Chicago and the French Colonial Exposition in requiring support at both ends in special sockets Paris (Figure 152.). Their marketing advantage as and readily lent themselves to installation in narrow beacons to passing motorists was quickly realized concealed spaces for indirect lighting spaces. All by the automobile service industry, often these lamps could be had as clear, inside frosted , incorporating luminous pylons in the gas station's clear co lored and diffuse colored. Three intensity advertising. They also saw service as building lamps, having two filaments of different wattages entrance lighting, sometimes incorporating exterior which could be lighted singly or together by means building illumination lamps, as in Figure (Figure 153.) ." of three circuits, were also developed.6 1 High Voltage Discharge Lamps These were a type of arc lamp employing "The Rambusch Decorating company; Jbe 1o 11ma1 91p ecoratiye glass tubes one-third to one-half inch in diameter ~-summer. 1988, p. 36. sealed with a particular gas, and a transformer to pp.ss. ,"Modem Interior Lighting: Amerjcan Archjrecr November, 1934, step up the 11 Jltage across the electrodes. The 7 "W.M. Potter, "The Luminous Pylon as an Architectural Element; "Modern Interior Lighting; American Architect , November, 1934, ~.J une, 1935, pp. 305-3 10. p. 64-65. 62 ":~ - ------- - . LLJIL lor of the low intensity light was dependent on control of light was brought about by an equally ~ie gas used. This lamp saw extensive decorative functionalist view to architectural design in general, use as the familiar 'neon sign·.•• as well as advances in optical physiology and lighting equipment. Hot cathode Gaseous Conductor Lamps The white light source, so intently sought after during the previous period, was finally found This was a new type of low voltage neon with the introduction of the fluorescent lamp. light with a high lumen output per wattage input. "These lamps, which usually contain mercury and They produced a very bright red light for decorative argon gas, convert energy to light by using an purposes and generally had to be concealed in electric discharge to excite gaseous mercury atoms reflectors for indirect lighting. It was possible to use within a phosphor-coated tube. The ballast these lamps in conjunction with mercury vapor provides the high voltage to initiate the discharge lamps, which emitted a greenish blue light, in a and subsequently limits the current through the specially designed reflector to produce a visually lamp. Excited mercury atoms decay back to the white light more economically than with ground state, producing ultraviolet (UV) photons. incandescent/mercury vapor lamps.•• The tubes The UV photons that are absorbed by the were one inch in diameter and varied in length from phosphor coating are converted into visible light as 27 to 50 inches and required a transformer and the phosphor fluoresces and emits photons in the control apparatus, measuring four inches across, at physical spectrum".73 Circular and semicircular one end.'0 fluorescent lamps were developed for domestic use in table lamps and kitchen luminaires." Mercury Vapor Lamps Because of the increased surface area of the fluorescent lamp, the surface brightness was These were another type of arc lamp decreased, which subsequently reduced contrast producing light rich in the blue-green position of and glare. This reduced threat of glare prompted a the spectrum, and could be combined with general increase in the general lighting intensity: incandescent lamps, occupying the red and yellow general illumination averaged 15 to 20 footcandles, end of the spectrum, to produce a white light. while intensities for visually intensive activities ranged up to 50 footcandles. This might be The 1940's compared with the suggested library intensities of 1 to 2 footcandles in general and 3 to 4 on the reading table during the early illumination period This period sounded the final death knell of (1898 - 1914). Shadows played no role in the decorative lighting fixture, as expressed by two architectural expression and were simply controlled leading illuminating engineers of this period: "The by artificial and daylight as an aid in the visual illuminating engineer is departing from the primary perception of surfaces. In general, it was felt that an emphasis on the lighting fixture as a medium for object's own shadows tended to clarify the form, expressing the physics of light control. Along with while cast shadows tended to confuse it. "A very the architect he now thinks of the interior as an extended source of light, occupying about half of integrated whole - a functional environment to the perisphere, practically eliminates cast shadows, serve specific needs"." Ornamental lighting while it emphasizes plastic form by soft own fixtures gave way to "new equipment for1planned shadows".75 This environment of nearly lighting".72 indiscernable soft shadows could be provided by a This new approach to the strictly functional grid of fluorescent fixtures or lamps set above reflecting louvered ceilings. Ibid. The integration of lighting in architecture " Eugene Clute, 'luminous Tubes for Lighting; ~ . 73 February, 1935,p.66. M.A. Piette et all , Tecbnolonv Assessmenr Foernv-Fffieient 70 Commerdal I iqbtinq {Berkeley California: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, "Modem Interior Lighting," American Architect , November, 1934, 1988), p. 3-2 p.65, 71 ,. C.l. Crouch and R.W. McKinley,"New Equiptment for Planned . . C.L. Crouch and AW. McKinley ,"New Equiptment for Planned Lighting ," Arcbitectwal Bemrd, December, 1947, p. 119. Lighting,• Archirecn1cal Becmd , December, 1947, p. 111. 75 72 Hans Blumenfield, "The Integration of Natural and Artificial Light," Ibid. Arcbitect11ral Bemrd , December, 1940, p. 51. 63 -- ---------------- ] i:11~ j •!,- - ------ ' :.LL_C__ tended to mean subsuming the lighting fixture into thec eiling space overtop of a louvered ceiling, or at thev ery least, setting a combination fluorescent fixture/air supply diffuser in the plane of the ceiling. 11 was thought that these luminous overall ceilings of translucent louver sections presented "a clean- cut appearance covering up all the structural non- uniformities and mechanical equipment"'" and it was concluded that it "often gives the feeling of 77 latticed daylighting". This period is also characterized by a rediscovery of the virtues of daylighting in architecture. Many of the strategies used to introduce and control daylight, such as refracting glass blocks and reflecting exterior surfaces, were an integral part of architecture before electric artificial illumination. A combination of controlled natural light and artificial light was generally considered the most desirable.'" Lighti~: :~ ~rouch and R.W. McKinley ,"New Equiptment for Planned • c 1tectwat Becmd , December, 1947, p.117 77 Ibid. 78 Archi,~~~•n~l~m~nfield, "The Integration of Natural and Arti ficial Light," -=•A pril .1 941 . pp. 71-73 64 --- --------~ ----- 1::1)1~ The Making of a 'Lighting Man' Frederick Charles Baker considered himself a student of ornament and a draftsman; a modesty that belies his creation of some of the finest crafted and imaginative luminaires in the country. His modesty may derive from his humble beginnings. He was born in Bay City, Michigan in 1887. "His father had visited Oregon as a cowboy employed by William Cody, and after marrying, the senior Baker brought his family to Oregon in 1892". ' The Bakers, including five-year-old Fred, settled on a ranch in southern Oregon until the 5 outbreak of the Spanish American war. The Chapter hostilities bet"Neen the Spanish Empire and the United States, prompted by the sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in the Havana harbor in 1898, Frederick C. Baker: created apprehensions of Spanish attack on the West Coast. "The Bakers returned east for the A Case Study duration of the conflict, but later returned to southern Oregon, ultimately settling in Portland".2 Baker was fortunate enough to get his early Introduction drafting training under Ellis F. Lawrence, a graduate of the Beaux-Art style architectural program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a man Frederick C. Baker's sixty-eight year career, with a passion and gift for education, and an as Portland, Oregon's foremost designer and architect with a thorough understanding of manufacturer of ornamental lighting fixtures, ornamentatior"l's role in architecture. Before presents an unusual opportunity to examine the evolution of one designer's decorative lighting fixtures from the Early Illumination and Beaux-Art periods, through to the Art Deco and Modernist periods. The interactive forces driving this evolution included advances in material processing and illumination science and changing architectural design attttudes. The constant element in this progression was the successful integration of the decorative luminaires into their architectural settings; something only possible through the thoughtful collaboration of a talented lighting designer and the architect. This chapter's greatest resource is the group of Building Case Studies highlighting ex1st1ng Baker lighting installations in historic buildings, which are located in the appendix. These Figure 154. Frederick C. Baker in his younger years case studies are drawn from the progressive stages of Baker's fixture design - Early Illumination, Beaux-Art, Decorative Art-Deco, Planer Art Deco, 1 Charles i)( cmer, "The Draftsman as an Artisr, ~ and Modern. ~-Sunda, November 19, 1978. 2 Stephen B. Schuber, "Frederick C. Baker: making art of lighr, ArchitAct! 1cal I igb1ing, January. 1987, p. 46. 65 - --- - ~-- ------- 1 i::l]I____III__Lj oming the first Dean of the School of ~e\itecture and Allied Arts at the University of 0~~gon, Lawrence taught night classes in drawing d drafting architectural ornament and an hitectural history at the YMCA from about 1908 ar\ 91 0.' Baker said that he enrolled in the first 1 ~ass offered and "studied all kinds of old books ~bout the architectural periods".' Baker b~came acquainted with_m a_ny of th~ Portland architects during this time 1n his capacity as a freelance draftsman and a moonlighting luminaire designer. Her esponded to an add, b~ a Buffalo, Ne~ York, decorating firm, for an architect to do drawings and floor plans of prospective Portland residential interiors. As he told an interviewer in 1978: "I thought I was an architect, of course I was not; they hired me. I would go to these houses, make sketches of the interiors, and a rough floor plan and send tt to a company in Buffalo, New York - decorating outfit. I would receive 50 cents for a sketch of an interior and 50 cents for a plan of a small house that I would generally make right on the job. That job would pay me more than anyone else I Figure 156. F.C. Baker drawing of the exterior knew, because that job could pay me between 2 lantern of the Temple Beth Israel 112 and 3 dollars a day. After this ended, I made drawings for architects, and then there seemed to manufacturer. The winning of the commission be a call for fixtures. After the Pittock job picked up, wasthe result of a beautifully rendered set of I could make more money doing fixtures".' drawingsand a bit of unabashed marketing on Baker's first major lighting commission was Baker's part. Baker asked Pittock, directly, if he the Henry Pittock mansion; a commission that could do some drawings of the light fixtures for the established his reputation among architects as the architect. As Baker later explained: "I didn't know area's premier lighting fixture designer and anything about lighting, but I knew something of architectural design. I did some drawings and went up to the old Pittock place and showed them to Pittock, who sat in a chair flanked by his two daughters. I sat on the floor. He asked his daughter if they liked them and they said 'yes, their pretty'. I had worked out a price for him, didn't think he'd be interested enough to ask, but he did. So he said 'Well go ahead young man, put them in, let's do it.''" About 1912 Baker opened a small shop at Second and Mill streets, ' in connection with J.C. English and company, for whom he served as a freelance draftsman. English came to Portland in Figure 155. The English-Baker shop of the 1920's 1909 and traveled around to the wealthy homes on Morrison Street, later replaced by the freeway selling for the Oxley Ennus decorating and furnishing company. A wealthy Portlander was so Personal Interview of Frederick C. Baker by Sheila Finch on July 5, impressed wi;h his services that he set him up in 97 t a,,oregon Historical Society Cassette, 720.9791 1 B 168 F nos.1-2. business. Ba1- Piette M.A. et all, Technology Assessment: Energy-Efficient Commercial Lighting. 'Berkeley, California: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1988. "?5th Anniversary Issue." Electrical West, August, 1962. Articles Blumenfield, Hans "The Integration of Natural and Artificial Light." Architectural Record. December, 1940. Blumenfield, Hans "The Integration of Natural and Artificial Light." Architectural Record. April,1941. Cromfield, David "Illumination and the Architectural Treatment of Lighting Fixtures." The Architectural Record. December, 1907. Clute, Eugene "Luminous Tubes for Lighting." ~i.l.m. February, 1935. Crouch, C.L. and McKinley, R.W. "New Equipment for Planned Lighting." Architectural ~. December, 1947. Curtis, Kenneth "Artificial Lighting in Churches." The American Architect and Architectural Review, December, 1924. 'The Design of Lighting Fixtures." The American Architect. April, 1925. Eckstein, W. "Interior Lighting." The American Architect and Building News. October, 1898. Godinez, F. Lavrent "What do we know about lighting? - Introductory Note." Architectural Record, v. 33., 1913. Godinez, F. Lavrent "What do we know about lighting? - Elements of the technique of ighting - II." Architectural Record, v. 33., 1913. Godinez, F. Lavrent "What do we know about lighting? - Elements of the technique of lighting - Ill." Architectural Record. v. 33., 1913. Godinez, F. Lavrent "What do we know about lighting? - On indirect lighting." Architectural Record, v. 34., 1913. Godinez, F. Lavrent "What do we know about lighting? - On Opaque Reflectors." Architectural Record, v. 33., 1913 89 Graves, Nathan "Lighting - An Integral Part of Good Design." Architect and Engineer, February, 1940. "Interior Architecture - Shade and Shadows in Interior Design." The American ~. April, 1925. Jones, Bassett Jr. "Indirect Lighting." The American Architect. December, 1909. Jones, Bassett Jr. "The Lighting of Churches." The American Architect. September, 1909. Kantack, Walter, W. "Fundamentals in Providing for Good Lighting." American Architect. September, 1931. Logan, Henry L. "Store Lighting." Architectural Record, July, 1935. Luckiesh, M. "The Functions of Lighing Fixtures." Architecture, September, 1920. Marks, L.B. "The Lighting of Public and Semi-Public Buildings." The Brickbuilder, September, 1913. Millar, Preston "Recent Developments in the Development of Illumination." Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute, 1914. "Modern Interior Lighting." American Architect, November, 1934. "Modern Lighting - Comparitive Details." Pencil Points, October, 1935. "Modern Lighting - Comparitive Details." Pencil Points, December, 1938. Pickhardt, Harry "The New Lighting." The Architectural Record, February, 1913. Potter, W. M. "The Luminous Pylon as an Architectural Element." Architecture. June, 1935. Rambusch, Harold W. "The Problem of Light in Fixture Design." The American ~. January, 1927. Smith Robert L. "Lighting Technology: from darkness to opportunity." Architectural Lightin_g, November, 1986. 90 ..,. Chapter Five - Frederick C. Baker: A Case Study Articles Deemer, Charles "The Draftsman as an Artist," Northwest Magazine, (Portland), 19 November, 1978. "Fred c. Baker - King of Ornamental Lighting Fixtures," Business Success. May, 1979. "Fred c. Baker - King of Ornamental Lighting Fixtures," Business Success. June, 1979. "Frederick C. Baker, designer, dies at 94," Oregon Journal, (Portland), 3 October, 1981 . Guernsey, John "Light Fixture designer, 94, leaves mark," Oregonian (Portland) , 27 September, 1981. Mershon, Helen L. "Prolific lighting fixture designer made many Oregon buidings brighter," Oregon Journal. (Portland), 13 April, 1982. Schuber, Stephen P. "Frederick C. Baker: making art of light," Architectural Lighting. January, 1987. Sterrett, Frank "This Lamplighter Not So Old At 80," Oregonian (Portland), 14 April , 1968. Other Interview tapes of Frederick C. Baker by Charles Digregoria, Oregon Historical Society Cassette 720.97911 B168 D 1977. Interview tapes of Frederick C. Baker by Sheila Finch, Oregon Historical Society Cassette, 720.97911 B 168 F 1978 nos. 1-2. Oregon Historical Society's Collection of 9000 ori ginal F. C. Baker design drawings Chapter Six - Lighting Rehabilitation Strategies Benya, James, R. "Low-voltage light sources," ~tural Lighting, January, 1988. Harwood, Ron "Fox Theatre - A designer journeys to the past... ," Architectural Lighting , March, 1990. Heffley, Mike "With lighting help, restorat ion outsh ines original," Architectural Lighting. 91 r J:-:_:· -- --- - f LLJIL■IID1: October, 1988. Heffley, Mike "Church_l ig~ting: Meeting the challenge of a high dark ceiling," Architectural ~ . October, 1988. Heinemeyer, Richard, R. "Artful design created enduring luminaires," Architectural .1..i,g,b1io.g, November, 1986. Jankowski, Wanda "Elegance Restored," Architectural Lighting. May, 1990. Linn, Charles "The best of both worlds : Historic luminaires and modern illumination," Architectural Lighting. March, 1987. Linn, Charles "Creating new lighting for the historic Willard Hotel," Architectural !..[g_b1Lo_g, December, 1987. r- .'!;· ~----- ----- LL_31_- f: List of Illustrations Chapter One - Introduction Title mustration - Oregon Historical Society photographic album #797 - (photographs of F.C. Baker lighting fixture design drawings) Chapter Two - A History of Ornamental Lighting Fixtures Title illustration - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome II - Moyen-age," Encyclopedia du ~. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 47. Figure 1. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome I - Antiquite," Encyc!opedia du Luminaire. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 19. Figure 2. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome I - Antiquite," Encyclopedia du Luminaire. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 20. Figure 3. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome I - Antiquite," Encyclopedia du Luminaire. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 16. Figure 4. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome I - Antiquite," Encyclopedia du Luminaire. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 24. Figure 5. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 40. Figure 6. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 21. Figure 7. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome II - Mayen-age," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 57. Fig~re 8. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome II - Mayen-age," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Pans: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 56. Fig~re 9. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome II - Mayen-age," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Pans: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 59. ~igure 10. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & ompany, 1926), p. 40. Figure 11 . - Henriot Gabriel," Tome II - Mayen-age," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, 93 v' (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 52. Figure 12. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture, (New York: Dover Publications, 1929), p. 186. Figure 14. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & company, 1926), p. 9. Figure 15. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome II - Moyen-age," Encyclopedia du Luminaire. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 56. Figure 16. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & company, 1926), p. 94. Figure 17. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome Ill - Renaissance," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 103. Figure 18. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome Ill - Renaissance," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 102. Figure 19. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 50. Figure 20. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 24. Figure 21 . - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 20. Figure 22. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome Ill - Renaissance," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 112. Figure 23. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture. (New York: Dover Publications, 1929), p. 183. Figure 24. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Arct1itecture. (New York: Dover Publications, 1929), p. 185. Figure 25. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 69. Fig~re 26. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome Ill - Renaissance," Encyclopedia du Luminaire (Pans: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 107. Figure 27. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome V - XVIII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, 94 (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 174. Figure 28. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & company, 1926), p. 57. Figure 29. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome V - XVIII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 174. Figure 30. - Henriot Gabriel, 11 Tome IV - XVII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris : Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 142. Figure 31. - Henriot Gabriel, 11 Tome V - XVIII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 186. Figure 32. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 30. Figure 33. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome IV - XVII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 139. Figure 34. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome IV - XVII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 166. Figure 35. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture, (New York: Dover Publications, 1929), p. 184. Figure 36. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 82. Figure 37. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Metal Crafts in Architecture, (New York: Bonanza Books, 1927), p. 174 . Figure 38. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1926), p. 148. Figue 39. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome VI - XIX siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 202. Fig~re 40. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome VI - XIX siecle," E'lcyclopedia du Luminaire, (Pans: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 201. 6igure 41. - Glen Gould, Period Lighting Fixtures, (New York: Dodd, Mead & ompany, 1926), p. 154. Figure 42. - Henriot Gabriel," Tome V - XVIII siecle," Encyclopedia du Luminaire, 95 r .. ·. -- -~-- LLIIL- f ~ - - (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 189. Figure 43. - Hen riot Ga~~iel, " Tom~ VI -XVIII - XIX _siecle," Encyclopedia du ~. (Paris: Les ed1t1ons Guennet, R. Panzarn, succ., 1933-34.), plate 222. Figure 44. - Henriot Gabriel, "Tome VI -XVIII - XIX siecle," Encyclopedia du ~. (Paris: Les editions Guerinet, R. Panzani, succ., 1933-34.), plate 217. Figure 45. - Denys_P eter Myers, ~asliqht!nq in ~~:rica, (Washington D.C. : National Park service, Technical Preservation Services D1v1s1on, 1978), p. 12. Figure 46. - Denys Peter Myers, Gasliqhtinq in America. (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 54. Figure 47. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslighting in America, (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 54. Figure 48. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America, (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Techn ical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 62. Figure 49. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America. (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 62. Figure 50. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslighting in America. (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Techn ical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 86. Figure 51. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America, (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division 1978), p. 108. Figure 52. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America. (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 158. Figure 53. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America, (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 170. Figure 54. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslighting in America, (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Techn ical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 172. Figure 55. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America, (Washington D.C. : National Park Service, Techn ical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 180. ~i gure 5_6. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslightinq in America, (Washington D.C.: National ark Service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978) , p. 196. Figure 57. - Denys Peter Myers, Gaslighting in America, (Washington D.C.: National 96 Park service, Technical Preservation Services Division, 1978), p. 192. Figure 58. - Denys_P eter Myers, ~asl ight!ng in ~'.11.erica, (Washington D.C.: National Park Service, Technical Preservation Services D1v1s1on, 1978), p. 214. Figure 59. - Roger Mo~s, Lighting for ~isto:ic Building~. (Washington D.C. : Preservation Press, National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1988), p. 129. Figure 60. - Roger Mo~s, Lighting for ~isto_ric Building~. (Washington D.C.: Preservation Press, National Trust for H1stonc Preservation, 1988), p. 127. Figure 61. - Roger Moss, Lighting for Historic Buildings. (Washington D.C. : Preservation Press, National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1988), p. 127. Chapter Three - Materials and Processes chapter 3. title - John E. Neely and Richard R. Kibbe, Modern Materials and Manufacturing Processes (New York: John Wiley & Sors, 1987), p. 145. Figure 62. - Leslie Aitchison, A History of Metals (New York: lnterscience Publishers, 1960), p. 309. Figure 63. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 1. Figure 64. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 27. Figure 65. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 28. Figure 66. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals jn the Productjon and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 33. Figu_re 67. - Clarence T. Marek. Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 114. ~i~g~~;~:_68. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 30. ~~g~~;~:-69. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 31 . 97 -~ ~----- ~ . aJi__ll__l_J - v1 Figu re 10. - Clarence T. M~rek, Fundamentals in the Production and Desic;in of >- ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 39. Figure 11. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 41. Figure 72. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 42. Figure 73. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production- and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 44. Figure 74. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of Qasting_s_ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 44. Figure 75. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 46. Figure 76. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 45. Figure 77. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 47. Figure 78. - John E. Neely and Richard R. Kibbe, Modern Materials and Manufacturing Processes (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), p. 148. Figure 79. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Metal Crafts in Arch itecture (New York: Bonanza Books, 1927), p. 22. Figure 80. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Metal Crafts in Architecture (New York: Bonanza Books, 1927), p. 22. Figure 81. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Metal Crafts in Architecture (New York: Bonanza Books, 1927), p. 23. Figu_re 82. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~t1~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 255. ~i~"~;~:_83. - Clarence T. Marek, Fundamentals in the Production and Design of ~ (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950), p. 262. ~gure 84_. - John E. Neely and Richard R. Kibbe, Modern Materials and ...aillJfactunng Processes (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), p. 162. 98 ,;r· ~-------- :i LL__lll_lllDII Figure 85. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 13. Figure 86. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 13. Figure 87. - Gerald K. Geerlings. Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 13. Figure 88. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Arcr~ (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 13. Figure 89. - Gerald K. Geerlings. Wrought Iron in Archjtecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 14. Figure 90. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 14. Figure 91. - Gerald K. Geerlings. Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 15. Figure 92. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Arcr~ (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 15. Figure 93. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 15. Figure 94. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 22. Figure 95. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 21 . 99 --~-- ----------- . J1 :lli___a__I_J Figure 96. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover :: v1 t. Books, 1929), p. 25. Figure 97. - Gerald K. Geerlings, Wrought Iron in Architecture (New York: Dover Books, 1929), p. 18. Figure 98. - "Ornamental Metal Work," International Library of Technology )\ ~ = v.,-C1....,__,1 ·v--.s light, rather than the 'spots of light' achieved with just exposed bulbs, could have been possible with the use of a continuous reflector trough in the cove or with silver- backed reflectors; both strategies were in common use during this period.' A suspended minor hall lantern also punctuates this space. FIIJ.Jre5. Bassett Jones Jr.,"lndirect Lighting," The Arnerjcan Archjtect. December, 1909, p. 247. A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 4 ,.- e- ) \ I-"'\. = ..!,_./'("'c.._v-.J1 ·"':i Library The library is indirectly lighted from a cove situated in the plaster cornice that is finished in a good imitation of the room's wood paneling, a precaution prompted by the owner's fear of the indirect lighting being a fire hazard.' As the paneled wall surfaces reflect little light, the cove lighting merely highlights the ceiling plasterwork and contributes to the dark rich ambiance. Cove reflector Figure 7. Library wall brackets troughs or silvered reflectors would also have benefited this lighting installation. The clear-cut silhouette and the apparent mass of the reserved Neo-Baroque chandelier, and its related four wall brackets, are well suited to this somber interior. A close Figure 6. Library chandelier correlation between the suspended fixture and wall bracket is achieved by using the same scrolled branches, 5 Pinock Mansion tour notes A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 5 I,....~ I ~ \ f-\. ~ VY-C1.v-.J1 v- ::i r. - bobeches a nd shades. The w all bracket a lso use s the echoes the prime architectu ral theme o f the room, a dome. same vocabulary ot stacked v ase shapes as the chandelier. Entrance Vestibu le The stone-lined drum and dome of the entrance vestibule, with its plaster domed oculus, provide a perfect foil for the large luminous opal glass bowl semi-indirect luminaire. The cast bronze frame features a small balustrade containing a foliated Figure 8. Entrance vestibule Figure 9. Entrance vestibule rinceau motif and is punctuated by blocks topped.with classical urns. This fixture's predominant direct lighting component accentuates the horizontal architectural lines of the room by casting shadows from the prominent projecting wainscot molding, while the indirect component A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 6 ~- .. JI f--'\ c;;:, .!.,/'f""C1.v-Jl"'-S Living Room This room's three major window apertures and the generally light-colored decorative treatment, provide the light airy backdrop for Baker's two crystal chandeliers. The crystal beads and pendants, which are 24 percent lead content Czechoslovakian crystal', are draped between the structural armature. The lower part of this armature, includino the main horizontal hoop, and the radial Figure 11. Living room crystal chandelier members connecting to the decorative base, are cast bronze, while the upper radial members connecting to the decorative cast bronze crown, are wrought brass bars with applied bronze ornament. Besides the candle lamps, the interior of the bowl is illuminated by six light sockets supported on brackets connected to the Figure 10.Living room crystal chandeliers inside of the hoop; three sockets projecting below the hoop into the bowl and three sockets projecting above the 'Ibid. A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward _J. Foulkes 7 ,- ] JI\ I---'\ C, ..!../Y-C1.v-J1 ..,.,_ s I, hoop toward the upper sweep of draped crystal . The Smoking Room rubbed-out polychromy is very subdued to provide maximum retlection off of the metal. The exotic character of this room·s fixture is well The four wall brackets are of the same character as suited to the rest of the decor, which features exquisite the chandeliers, utilizing the same bobeches and also polychromed plasterwork in the 'Turkish manner' . Rubbed- draped in crystal. These brackets feature very rich cast out finishing has been used here to give the main body a bronze sculptural relief and a beveled qlass mirror. streaked appearance and to leave a colored paint residue in the crevices for a mysterious 'antiqued' look. The half- moon motif of the finial has lono been associated with tf\\!"·I; '.·: r,:· ,.. '. . · ¢ \{ ..; ~ :,J) . . ~,~ . . . ·t ~·, . •~•J ,4!,'f, ' · ,r \ t· · .,. . '-tt;4fil:i,rU >-,A, . .., · r1.· .i·i, , \ . .: . , i t\i,&,~..~ -;' \ ·.. ·..•. .,' ) ttt:. It-, I l . ;, ,:'<'•' : r!!1~c+:\' .·: )· ;. ;,llb'.ifi. '-ill···•·f __; · £.~i .;/. t·.v~-~:.~ . ..S J\,, .) ,-.,·.·I, ,.,:· .... ,.\ ,d .? ; .~" !,i\• , .,_'t. .f.,. , '.;: - •. "" ,,., .,GJ'1 , .,. 1 ·N . • ~ V ' 1- '~ ,/_\ ~ -- , ,,.,. . \ ·: -{ • .• ·•~ ' ~ .-,,~ .... ~ ~ t L· ~-Eh:c=. -;:.~Jr::, 'l;,i'a:~~-~ .. Mk~' ~►-1·'.\:~:..f.t~ _ ·•• Tf'.'.~l'!i~'-~•Jtd'lil1~.! .. ..:. . .: ·· . ~::· :, .ms~~;~;;;;.~.;;;;~7;·~·~: :: figure 12. Living room wall brackets Figure 13. Smoking room lamp A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 8 ) \ \ I--'\ C> V'<°'"l.\-".)1Y\.S I. Near-Eastern mysticism and is quite appropriate here. The Although the dining room fixture has an open bowl three identical 'wick spouts· would have been cast from the in the character of a semi-indirect fixture, the dark light- same Baker plaster model and then brazed to the cast absorbing ceiling of mahogany beams and dark plaster body. suggests that the luminous opal glass bowl served primarily as a direct lighting source. An integration of cast Dining Room metal and glass components is achieved through a repetition of a scalloped gadrooned motif. . \ \ ---=-' - , \ i ,:· n~.L~I ·:· , ·,\ .•,._ __ -::-~i_-,_--;-__ -i 1;:_.-.· ._ _ i__ ' '(t· / / .;~ . ' 'l ." . ' ·~;~ .. 1/// ·.: \~ ~J;:_1,... , 1 I ,., Figure 14. Dining Room suspended lighting fixture Figure 15. Dining Room wall bracket A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 9 t' r JI~ t--", .!.-,/Y-"1.V-J)V'-.':) '· The close correlation between the suspended fixture and the wall brackets, all sharing the same scalloped bobeches and deep rubbed-out color palette , helps to unify the interior decor. Breakfast Room The light transparent character of this lantern suits the breakfast room, which is flooded with daylight from a bank of windows alonq one full side. The horizontal frame Figure 17. Stair landing hall lantern Stair Landing The sweeping split grand staircase is matched by an equally magnificent hall lantern. It is modeled after the grand French Baroque hall lanterns (Figure 37. in text), complete with the internal cluster of cast candle holders. The specially made convex plate glass panes have a beveled edge. The brazed connections between the cast Figure 16. bronze members are difficult to detect; a result of patient A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect : Edward T. Foulkes 1 O ,- J l.,\)\t ,_....._ .!.,/'(""1.v-..J 'l"'-:) fjnjshing with tiles, riflers . and chisels by Baker himself . polychromatic treatment. The ceiling plate is of spun copper with repousse detailing. The copper chain Writing Room connections which wedge on the bowl's upper rim, is an interesting detail. This room is adequately illuminated by an attractive semi-indirect luminous bowl fixture. The pressed glass Bathroom fixture bowl is articulated by low relief sculptural detail, including decorative swags near the rim, which have been hiohliohted with a rubbed-out blue and yellow Figure 19. Bathroom wall bracket fixture Figure 18. Writing Room fixture A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 11 ,- 'I JI /-",,, ..!.,/Y-0\v-Jl Y'-:) -~---==== LL_III_- The nickel-plaled wall bracket, near the shower in the while the motif of the decorative loliated band on the bathroom, solved the corrosion and hygiene problem. The inside edge of the ceiling plate is repeated on the finial. electroplated nickel surface resists corrosion and the fixture's smooth surfaces facilitates cleaning. Bedrooms The bedrooms are all graced by ceiling fixtures which feature a cast brass ceiling plate, a spun brass drum concealing the wiring and the threaded rod and housing which supports the scalloped opal glass shade similar to the dining room fixture. A decorative cast brass finial nut screws on to the support rod. The scalloped detail of the shade is reflected_ on the .outer edge of the ceiling plate, The cast brass wall plates of these fixtures also reflect the scalloped detailing present in the ceiling fixture . Figure 20. Bedroom ceiling fixture The extruded tubular brass branches are a considerably less expensive route than cast bronze, and could have A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 1 2 ~r··,.,. 8, \,,\,)\\ - \ '"' ~ .!-/~G>\~1v--.5 I, influenced the decision to use brass instead of bronze in Original exterior bracket fixture these more utilitarian areas. This original bracket was damaged in the Columbus Day Storm and removed to a display window in the house museum's basement. With its abundant classical detail and deep weathered patina, it is indeed an attractive fixture. figure 22. Dressing closet and entry ceiling fixture The decorative foliate band of the bedroom ceiling fixture is repeated again on the simple closet fixture. Figure 23. Original exterior bracket A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 1 3 _,,...r . ~ ) \ \ ,-...., c;;..,, .!,_,/.,..-01.vJ1V-...':) l, Basement stair landing fixture Bas ement Stairhall This unusual fixture was designed for dimmer low A bronze lantern made from the same cast parts as wattage 'A' type exposed lamps which would have the lantern of Figure 3, was fitte for four 100 watt tungsten presented a less bulbous appearance than the modern bulbs and an decoratively etched bowl to control the glare. lamps; the voluptuously detailed cast bronze shade was The entire bowl has been lightly sandblasted, with deeper only meant to conceal the hardware and not as an indirect sandblasting for thEl_1iattern. shade. Baker reused this fixture in the utilitarian areas of A.E. Doyle's U.S. National Bank three years later in 1916.' Figure 24'. Basement stair landing ceiling fixture Site visit.June 21,1990 8 Figure 25. Basement stairhall All the figures in this case study are part of the austhor's collection, the house plans are reprinted from the architect's original blue prints A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 1 4 I,. J \ \ ,-... ..!.,,/'("'O(v.JlV'\.S ~ l,' ' i LL___IL_ ... Port Cochiere lantern followed, Baker would push the lantern 1orm, in its cast, wrought and sheet metal manifestations, to its veritable The port cochiere lantern was assembled of cast limits. bronze parts and titted with bevelled glass panels. Although this is one of the less imaginative and decorative lighting fixtures in the Pittock Mansion's collection, it was the start of a venerable Baker lineage. In the years that Figure 26. Porte Cochiere lantern A-1 Pittock Mansion Period: Early Illumination Architect: Edward T. Foulkes 1 5 , ,--- V. '.I,\,)\ \ I---'\ = v.,..-e-tv-..J1"'-S - ----= ) LLIIL- u1 ? t o1 / ~ 3 5 I 3 l f ~ \. i.. ~ ~ Q [ 4. -~ ai1----_LJ - -----~ -- ~-- LLIIL- V 1\1 ::. v1 vi -; t ~ : 3 3 (_ f j \. \. ~ 0 D · 1 ~I [ I 1/ I , - ;'t ii '-,/~"./ / ,' >~/\ / . .' if / -- - ~rem~----=:=y I , f LLIIL- ~ i - 3 (_ f \. :) D [ .. ~<- \r!~:. ~i-·_· • I . /\',' . -~; , : IY/,. : ; I .. ·:. :.. !Ir// -~; . I .\ ~:1·I f\'/ I i I{ - If) >- 3 ~ I- \.. ~ ~ I i ~- ~ .., ~ - ~ . ~ ~-: ~ ·- V ~ ::, ul 5,. 3 ~ I,.. ~-1,.;~,: \ :) ~ I :{ ! \ ~ ::.~:,, h . ! ·1- t'.)t \· \ \: \ \ \ -----= LI_IIII_- I ::. ,J, $ >- ◄ 3 ~ ~ \ ~ f-) I i · ~ '' ~ I I/ I ~ I :i:: ~ I 0 ,..; i:,.. 'O C: .... ..,,.,,.- . -~-- - - -- LLJIIL. ... ..... -.... - ...... ; If) >- 3 L ~ ~ \.. ~ ~ I :( Temple Beth Israel Original Luminaires The twenty-two luminaires suspended from the auditorium This notable Portland religious edifice, erected in the dome are of four different types ; three of these are directly related Byzantine stylistic tradition, was the collaborative design effort of through an aggregation of repeated elements, while the other is a Morris H. Whitehouse and Herman Brookman, both long term repetition of the two foyer fixtures, thus relating the foyer to the collaborators of Frederick C. Baker, who 'lighted it'. The building auditorium through lighting. was completed in 1928 after a fire ravaged the Beth Israel's second Addressing the aggregate fixtures mentioned above, synagogue in 1923.' Fixture 1, is an opal glass cylinder contained in a cast bronze The main body of the temple is a 100 foot high dome circular frame with a opal glass bowl and suspended bronze supported on an elongated octagonal base, oriented east to west pendant at the bottom (Figure 2.). This element is the (Figure 1.). The exterior shell of the dome is a steel-ribbed cage compositional core of Fixture 2 (Figure 3.), which has a more with concrete and terracotta tile covering, from which the interior elaborate framework to support elongated opal glass cylinders at dome of steel and plaster is suspended. The interior dome has the four cardinal points . These outrigger tubes have elaborate cast been surfaced in Gustafino acoustical tile, laid up in a herringbone bronze upper and lower finials~~~~~1. v-J 1"' S I. The lantern is a combinat ion of materials and material processing. Most of the lantern is of wrought and cast bronze, inc luding hand forged diamond linked chain, upper frame and scrolled housing bracket, and the cast bronze shade retainer ring . The Star of David has been cut from a plate of brass, stock brass balls have been used in the upper frame, extruded brass tubing frame the decorative horizontal band and the lower globe retainer late and ~al nut are respectively spun and cast brass. The wide \\\ .A ft f Figure 17. Loggia lantern •· l decorative band is a hand-tooled sheet of pewter. -.• (·v_\ The loggia extending from the south tower to the semi-I circular drive houses two suspended brass lanterns. Two sides at a time were cut from a sheet of brass and then bent to the desired . \j:\ angle in the brake and carefully brazed together along their seems. The lanterns flanking the main entrance (photograph 1.') are Figure 16. Detail of Stair Hall Lantern Oregon Hislorical Society • organized 101 116, overs ized folder 1-5 A-3 Temple Beth Israel Period: Beaux-Art Architect: M.Whitehouse & Herman Brookman 9 A·,- Vi ~.vJ\\ A-'6 ..L).,-"l.v-J1"'-':) mounted on cas t bronze brackets with an inleresling chiseled Ornament edge, tt,e top bracke t mounted on perforated bronze panel backed by a cavity in the stone block wall for an intriguing play of The ornamental vocabulary is overtly non-classical. Shade depth . The body is of sheet brass and the domed top is the same retainer rings and finials show no affinity to classical vase shapes or shaped brass form used in the loqqia lantern. moldings. Sur1aces incorporating sculptural re lief are avoided in favor of two-dimensional pe rforated and scribed detail. The principal design motifs are a simple scribed zig-zag framing small circles which occurs on horizontal bands, scribed elongated hexagons joined by lines which occur on ve rtica l bands and the Star of David , used as an accent on many of the fixtures The Lighting Rehabilitation In about 1963 Baker rehabilitated the auditorium ligl1ting fixtures of Te mple Beth Israel. His commission was to increase the Figure 18. Fixture 1 as rehabilitated Figure 19. Fixture 4. as rehabilitated A-3 Temple Beth Israel Period : Beaux-Art Architect : M.Whitehouse & Herman Brookman 1 O ,,... ') I ~ ) \ \ A-'6 ..!.. . h-t:-1.v-J'"'-:i - --- ----- ~ LI_IIII_- lig ht 300 p e rcent . S o, in p laces with 5 footca ndles, they wante d 20 footcandles. In Baker's words , he "changed the o ld fixtures very little . Baker's major modification was to replace the large central lower domed opal shades from all of the luminaires and install a flood lamp and a concentric ringed louver in the plane of the lower frame element (Fiqures 18. to 21.). This modification sacrificed the Figure 21. Fixture 3 as rehabilitated principle unifying element of the lighting scheme, the central domed opal glass shade of each luminaire. This element related the auditorium fixtures to the lobby, stair tower and altar area and it's removal has compromised the high level of unification which originally characterized the lighting scheme. Figure 20. Fixture 2 as rehabilnated A preferable approach would have been to set up a separate set of projecting lights attached to the structure and on a A-3 Temple Beth Israel Period: Beaux-Art Architect: M.Whitehouse & Herman Brookman 11 ,,.., 'l I JI A-'6 .. L.h--c._v-J,"'-':) L-L-I-II-L----- se parate dimmable circuit. This wouJd have preserved the original Jighling intentions ot the architect and lighting designer as well as allowed tor the potential of higher light intensities that are also occasionally required by the congregation. A-3 Temple Beth Israel Period: Beaux-Art Architect: M.Whitehouse & Herman Brookman 1 2 ,__.. 'l 1 '-JI' A- '6 ..! ..h--otv..J1 "'- ::i - LL-_-_I-II_-_-- LL_III_- -- ' v - u1 f. University of Oregon 1 Museum of Art 3 ~ The Museum of Art was designed by Ellis ~ Lawrence and erected in 1930 in an exotic style \. :) most accurately described as Lombardian Romanesque. The entrance lanterns are based on the seventeenth century pole lantern (below), <~ although the lantern itself is based on the Northern I Italian (an area encompassing the state of c( Lombardy) open-work lantern (known as a cresset) of the same period. The lantern encloses an opal glass globe which houses the lamp. A-4 U of O Museum of Art Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence 1 - L-L--I-II-I_- -- u1 1 t. 3 ~ I,. \. :) :fl I :( The scrolled volutes at the base have been The material used for the lanterns is Monel forged by the blacksmith.Traditionally, the ~~roll _was Metal. It is a trade-name for a nickel-copper alloy formed by heating the strip of metal and dnv1ng 1t manufactured by the International Nickel Company. around the inside of the heavy scroll tool, shown to It is generally composed of 68% nickel, 27% the right of the anvil (the process is illustrated in the copper and the remaining five parts of iron, small box above the tool collection). The scroll manganese, silicon and carbon.' It is one of the was started in the tool shown inserted into the left 'white metals' that became popular in the twenties the side of the anvil. 3 A table-top scroll devise was later and thirties as modem architectural metal for the 'modern architect'. developed which allowed the forming of scrolls without forging (heating). It combines the highly desirable attributes of being able to be cast, like bronze, and being able to be forged, like wrought iron. It can be welded and soldered and is very corrosion resistant, acquiring a silver-grey patina that halts further corrosion.' The floral verticals on the lantern were cast, while the stem rising up the standard was wrought (right) . Gerald K. Geertings. Mera! Gcalts in ArcbiiflCD/Cft (New ~k:Bonanza Books. 1927). p. 185. 2 Gerald K. Geet1ings, Wm11nbt Icon in Accbitecn l(ft (New York: 1bid. Dover Publications, 1929), p. 15. A-4 U of O Museum of Art Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence " LLII~LIIIIIJ The torchiere fixtures in the four corners of the domed pavilion of the cloister at the rear of the museum (access through the front doors) are conspicuously based on Roman torchieres (bottom right) . Many fine examples of these fixtures were excavated from Herculaneum and Pompeii, two Roman citys dating from 100 BC, that were buried under volcanic ash. The torchieres cast their light up on the gold-backed tile dome to create a very unusual ambiance that reinforces the space's role as a memorial. Baker's bronze casting process started with ac lay model used to create a plaster mold. Lead was then poured into the plaster mold to create a lead casting on which he could sharpen his details. This was then used to create the final plaster mold for the molten bronze. The final bronze would then be chiseled and filed for crisp detailing. T A-4 Museum of Art Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence 3 n~ ----111__1_J - --~--- - LLIILIIIID United States Court House, Portland Morris H. Whi tehouse and Associates designed this building in 1931, with construction complete in 1933.' The doughnut-shaped stone-clad Neo-Renaissance structure adheres to the classical arrangement of a rusticated base, applied colossal pilaster trunk and an articulated attic story with a pronounced projecting cornice. The flattened facade ornament and the oversized blank corners of the trunk of the building are manifestations of the Art Deco movement. This application of Ar1 Deco detailing to a basic Beaux-Art composition is as true for the interior architecture as it is the lighting fixtures, which were designed by Frederick C. Baker. Lighting Scheme Exterior Lighting The main north facade is composed of nine bays, the center bays corresponding to the three centrally located doorways. Most of the facade ornamentation is limited to the attic story. "The. frieze is terra cotta with alternating triglphs and metopes with an incised stylized floral pattern. A modified egg and dart ovolo moulding beneath a moulded cornice and a solid parapet with a cheneaux finish the facade".' The only ornamentation of the rusticated base are the ornamental mouldings surrounding the three main entrqnces on the main north facade (photograph 1.' ) . "A stone star-in-a-circle pattern is repeated at roughly 2 foot intervals on the surrounds with a garland pattern added across the lintel. A Decoesque stone eagle with wings outspread and clutching three arrows surmounts the center Figure 1.' Main Street entrance lanterns door. "' These last two ornamental motifs, as well as classical, floral and geometric motifs, constitute FC. Baker's ornamental Two 8 1/2 loot high bronze lanterns flank the main entrance on masonry cheekblocks (Figure 1. and photograph 2.). 1 Knsune Bak, "Uniied S1aies Courthouse Nauonal Register of H1s1onc Places" Nm1cnal This lantern marks a steady progression from Baker's more Or·c:1s1c·r pf H1s1oric Places. (Washington D.C.: National Park Service), p. 8-6 2 historically correct lanterns on standards to the luminous pylon 1bid.,p . 7-1 lantern type marking entrances, such as those found at the 31b1d, photograph 2. (Photographs 2and 3 . of this case s1udy are the same source) 4 5 lb1Cl All figures, except Figure 19., are photographs (collec1ionof the author) A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse ,,:- v •\J\ µ.,_- '6 ..!..)y-(:,\_v,J) h. ':) Urnvers,ty o f O regon Library. The abundance ot c lass ica l and stylized foliat e cast bronze detai l, set the se lanterns off, like a piece o t jewe lry, against the plain austere facade. As noled in Drawing 1 ., the lantern is entirely assembled of cas t pieces; some of it ornamented st ructure, and some of it applied ornament. A number of the members have been cast and then turned on a metal lathe to obtain a smooth polished appearance lo contrast with the sculptural relief of a more elaborate juxtaposed cast element. An example of this is in the flat cylindrical 'column capital' that supports the lantern (Figure 2.), where the top and bottom plate are cast as large washers and turned on a lathe tor polishing and to tool the projecting ridges to receive the ornate cast spacer band. The larger cylindrical base is constructed in the same way. The ornate foliated ·column base· and lantern base are cas t as separate parts, while each overhanging leaf of the column shaft was cast separately and applied to a cast core. Inside strips of sheet metal were used to s~u~l the alass to the ornate v · ·· ~· cast corner frames. Drawing 1.' indicates that the decorative perforated lantern top was cast as one piece and notched into the lower canted casting. An inside ledge was allowed on the perforated casting for the installation of the stained translucent glass panels, which were held in place from behind by soldered strips. The cast bell cap (Figure 3.) rabbeted on to the top of the 6 Ofegon I listorical Society collection o.f F .C. Baker drawings A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse A-,,,.,.. Vt-·· v-.)1 1 A- '6 ..!..h-c-t.v-.J1 "'- :i p e rt o ra te d cas ting a nd w as a tt ac h e d to th e c rowning finia l, whic h There is an inte re sting d esign com po sitiona l wa s cas t a s thre e separate m e mbe rs, the center one b e ing turne d correspondence . albeit at a reduced scale, between the Broadway fo r a contrasting effect with other two. As noted above , a Street entrance flanking wall lanterns (Figure 4.), and the main complicated but coherent set of concealed rabbets faci litated ease street pedestal lanterns (Figure 1.) . A high relief overhanging leal of assembly and provided internal ledges for supporting glass . base supports a strong ly framed decorative band; the same The ornament is a mixture of stylized floral motifs , some of elements that occur in the pedestal lantern , but at a reduced scale. which are based on classical models such as the acanthus leaf of The same casting as the pedestal lantern is then used as a base for the lantern base (Figure 2.) and the anthemion of the pertorated the lantern. Instead of the larger pertorated casting on top, a rille o f Figure 3-"~s_ well a~_c:_las__si~al and geo_111Eitric mouldings. smaller solid castinq of a similar abstract f2.[iate design is used. The Figure 4. Broaa.vay Street entrance lanterns Figure 5. Lantern over Northeast entrance A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse A ,, 'Vt--~-vJ1 1 p,_- -o VY-c-t.v-J1 v-. S same bell cap and cast finia l is used in both lante rns. This n ot only saves money through using the same expensive casting molds, but provides a direct correspondence between the two fixtures which helps unify the lighting scheme (Drawing 2.). The half-lantern of Figure 5. (Drawing 3.). is located overtop of a ground level entrance on the northeast corner of the building 's east facade that leads directly into the basement and to a stairway and elevator up. The pierced base provides some downlighting for this descent. The fixture was actually constructed differently than shown in Drawing 3.; the lower portion with the open leaf arrangement was actually cast as one piece, including the bottom frame of the glass panes. The drawing indicates a separate piece for the bottom frame . The upper part of the glass frame may well be as complicated as indicated in the drawing. The cast bronze star-in-a-circle ornament on the diagonals of the upper frame (the center ones are now missing) echo similar cut stone motifs in the Main Street entrance door mouldings, as well as on many of the luminaries used throughout the building. As on the other lanterns, internal sheet metal strips are screwed to the outer vertical cast members to secure the glass panes. The glass was specified to be a translucent light diffusing glass with a textured exterior and surface colored as selected. Provision of a threaded nipple and surface thumb nut was made to easily lift off the top for relarnping . The Madison Street entrance on the south facade was illuminated by two of the large cast bronze ceiling fixtures shown on Drawing 4. The vertical members of the frame and the removable bottom hub are reeded and provide a pleasing contrast with the rectilinear moulded frame and base. This contrast is accentuated by turning the cast base element. The stepped radial framing members were cast as one piece and notched on the inside to fit like a glove over the horizontal framing members. Two Figure 6. Main Street foyer lantern different sizes of translucent glass cylinders were used for the two vertical glass surfaces, while the two levels of horizontal glass facade of the building. The author did not have access to this area sections were set on ledges formed on the inside of the horizontal and can not confirm this. framing members. These fixtures housed six porcelain sockets and were about two feet in diameter. As the Madison Street Foyer lighting entrance was primarily a service entrance, the size of these fixtures suggests that they were possibly installed within the three-bay The bronze Main Street entrance doors lead from the wide recessed mailing platform on the south Madison Street landing through to the foyer, which is 18 '5" tall, 42' wide and 20' A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse A- 1-::' Vr-\1,,\JWC \ p.,_-'6 V'f"'c-t~,Y\.':l I. - --------= ! LL_III__- '= deep . Daylight is e m itt ed lhrough lhe b ro n ze framed e ntra n ce ou ts ide o f the vert ical members; th e lower ones providing a n doors and overligh l s and lransmilled lo lhe lobby lhrough lhe inside ledge lor the support of the glass cyli nder. The partially bronze and brass framed south glass wall of the foyer, which also open bottom is composed ot cast stylized leather groups and has three bronze-framed doors matching the entrance doors. This brazed to the same cast and tu rned rim to which the vertical bars daylight, plus the light-colored plaster ceiling and co rnice , make are attached. A threaded 1/4 inch nipple screws into a bridge /his quite a light room The lobby is lighted by two attractive cast across this rim to suppo rt the removable (for re/amping) bottom bronze lanterns (Figure 6 , Drawing 5.) These lanterns support a ornament. The outside framework is attached near the top to an translucent glass cylinder in a framework of cast bronze parts. The internal cast horizontal spider section . This member resembles a cast and turned horizontal bands are notched to fit around the spoked hub with an intermediate rim and provides the rigidity to the upper framework and also rabbeted ledges for the support of translucent glass panels to diffuse the uplight. Apart from the reeded and geometric motifs, this fixture imaginatively incorporates the building's customized ornamental motifs announced by the main entrance's ornamental moulding· the star in a circle , the eagle and the acorn (the Oregonian factor) . Cast bronze stars are applied to the cast and turned section half way up the stem. A cast acorn is embraced by a splayed surround of cast feathers (an eagle's, no doubt) on the bottom ornament. As mentioned, cast feather shields are incorporated into the base of the lantern. The cast bronze frame of the Broadway Street foyer lantern was assembled in much the same way as the Main Street foyer lantern, including a ledge to support a translucent glass cylinder and a cast spider on the inside of the upper frame . This spider was also !edged to support glass panels . A threaded nipple connected the cast bottom ornament to a metal strap (web) that spanned across the bottom. This suspended ornament, which was open all around, consisted of the same acorn-in-feather motif pendant used on the Main Street foyer lantern, but set in a star and stylized feather plate (Drawing 6.). A feather and acorn motif was also worked into the upper rim ornamental band. The attractive canopy (ceiling plate) was of a star character. As seen in Figure 8 , the bottom ornament, together with it's supporting web have been removed, supposedly to minimize the inconvenience of relamping. Fortunately, this is a rare incident of slothful maintenance in this building. The attractive semi-indirect ceiling fixture of Figure 9. (Drawing 7.)was installed in the northeast entrance basement foyer as well as in the 6th floor corridor connecting the District Court Figure 7. Base of the Main Street foyer lantern lobbies and in the District Court lobbies. Light reflected from the A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse Ar§ K \l.,\J\I. < I µ._-'6 J...)-,-(:,\1.A.J'"'-S I. - --~ ----- - --- ! LLIIL- f ~I-•.•·· in s ide o f the cas t b ro n ze b ow l a nd th e n o ft o f the spu n b rass inte rior re flecto r to spi ll o n th e base and ce iling. The ape rture o f th e cas t b o wl was notched to rece iv e a domed glass shade /or direct lighting. As seen in the figure , the glass shade has been removed to accommodate a larger lamp; the effect of which is a blinding glare and obliteration of any detail on the fixture. Except for lhe four ribbed 'feet', the ornament is of an expertly crafted classical nature; a vine rinceau and beaded edge on the cast bronze bowl and an acanthus leaf moldinq on the rim of the base Figure 9. Ceiling fixture casting . Another simple but elegant ceiling fixture which graced the east vestibule on the first floor (bottom left of Drawing 4.) utilized the same acorn in feather pendant as the other foyer luminaires. Figure 8. Broadway Street foyer lantern A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse A -§' ~(,\vJIV\S \. A--o ..!,..)'(""t:1.1.>J1-V--:i T : .:~::•::~- --- . LL_III__Dllllr 11· ma ·n lobby spa co ·s '..>ou l "1 25 · w·do by 25 'deep w"lh 1r1ree 14· x 11 · a lcoves, corresponding 10 u-,e coffered cei ling, a lternat e ly ex tending off of til e lobby lo the south. The south wa ll and a lcoves contain bronze lockboxes and postal service windows. The axis of the lobby is east-west, with the bronze- framed glass wall/main enlry being situated centrally, the Broadway Street foyer at the west end and a vestibule leading to stairs down lo the Sixth Avenue northeast entrance at the east end of the lobby. Four elaborate cast bronze writing desks are arranged along this axis , with bronze wall clocks mounted high up on the east and west walls.' The ceiling is 18' 9" high' and articulated by decorative plaster beams whose spacing along the axis reflects the external bays of the facade, and also corresponds to the dimensions and location of the alcove spaces and the three bronze- framed bays of the main foyer glass wall . The most spectacu lar luminaries in the building are suspended from alternate bays along the length of the public lobby ; a total of five (Figures 10. to 13, Drawing 8.). A 1/2 " pipe connects the lowest of the cast rings support ing the fixture with a central heavy cast and turned disk at the level of the cylinder bands, by threaded connections. Another pipe suspends a thinner cast and turned disk at a level corresponding to the bottom of the cylinders . The radiating elongated fan shaped castings (Figures 11. and 12.) are screwed to the underside of this disk and tangentially brazed to the cylinder bases, for their prime structural support. The open foliated castings on the base play a deceptive role by occupying the most likely location for a structural support but appearing too light to support the cy linders; they are purely ornamental. The vertical cast members between the cylinders are supported by the structural fan shaped casting and notched to support the cast and turned cylinder bands . A 3/8" solid rod connects the vertical member to Figure 10. Public lobby luminaire 11,e heavy central disk for rigidity. This upper disk is rabbeted to rece ive the cast flaring feather ornamental casing, which were cast seen in Figure 13., which conceals the screwed connections on as separate feathers and soldered to the internal cast ring. An the underside of the lower disk. internal pipe sandwiches all the lower ornament between the The star-in-a-circle motif is prominently emblazoned on the bottom cast finial and the base of the lowest disk which it screws vertical cast members separating each of the eight cylinders at the into . One of these pieces of ornament is the decorative cast plate level of the cylinder bands. The lower part of these vertical bands may in fact represent the shaft of a feather, since from many sight lb,d.,p.7·2 lines from the floor of the lobby the flaring feather ornament on the 6 it>1d A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse A-§ 'Kf,\,l,\JIV\:i \ . µ..,_- "i:5 ..!..) '(""<:,\ l..,J'"' ':) I. s t o,n cou l d be r akc n as a n ox r e n s·o n o t th e l o w e r · r ca n-.e r s h a t Eact, cylinder accommoda t ed two l a m ps. as ind icat ed in Or~w,ng a . T ,-1e c ylinde rs w e re a l so equipped w ith r e m ovable tops to faci li ta t e re /a mping . T h ese cas t a nd turned tops provided a n allrac ti ve terminu s to these elaborate fi xtures. The removal of lhese cast bronze tops has diminished the aesthetic impact of these attrac tive fi xtures as well as adve rsely effected the intended lighting scheme. As indicated by the original fixture arrangement, upliqhtinq was never the design intention here. The conversion of Figure 12. Detail of tM Public Lobby luminaire these fixtures for ceiling reflected light has resulted in an imbalanced light distribution in the lobby by overlighting the alternate bays where the fixtures hang. It also washes out the subtle shades and shadows of the low relief plaster coffers. The Public Lobby alcove luminaries (Figures 14. and 15., Drawing 9.) is very closely related the larger lobby luminaries Figure 11 . Base of the Public Lobby luminaire through repetition of parts and similarity of design and A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse A·'-- p.._- 'l!5" YY-C-1.v-Jl "'-':) Figure 13 . Public Lobby Figure 14. Public Lobby alcove luminaries construction . These fixtures seem perfectly scaled for their alcove spaces and provide a strong connection between the alcoves and the lobby. These fixtures have also been robbed of their tops with a subsequent overlighting of their spaces. A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect : Morris H. Whitehouse A -l' p..,_- '6" ..!...)'("'c-t_\.,.J)"':) (- ~ - ----- ' LL_IIL_- f: Figure 15. Base of Public Lobby luminaire Figure 16. Stair lobby luminaire The two stair lobbies at either end of Public Lobby were lighted by the lanterns shown in Figures 16. and 17. and Drawing 10. Their construction is similar to the other lanterns, including a feathered stem shroud (Figure 17.) which was cast as one piece. This fixture has suffered another effort to increase lighting levels, as the ornamental hinged cast bottom has been removed . A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse 1 0 A -§' 0c-\vv lV\S \ p.,_- 'i:5° V\"c-tl.,.J,"'::i T:· Figure 17. Detail of stair lobby luminaire Figure 18. Second floor stair landing ceiling light The top landing of these stairs are illuminated by the attractive ceiling fixture depicted in Figure 18. and Drawing 10. The reeded ornament at the bottom of the translucent shade is purely ornamental as the shade is secured to the cast and spun base by t11u mb screws at it's indented rim A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse 11 A ~§' 0-c,\L,\J I V\S \ µ.,_- 'z5° ..!..)Y--C1.l.>J' 'v'- '=> T-:- , , -.,._. Court o r ,.o,..ppcn l s lobby -.a corr-dor o n 11-.0 SO'-'C nlt-. 11oor a lso / oaruro , · n o l an terns (ph o tog r a ph 3 ., Dra vv ·ng s 11 _ and 1 2 . r espective ly) The two s i.,.:-rh floor Distric t Courtrooms have a 24' 4" high ornamenta l cottered ceiling, whi le the seventh floor Court of Appea ls has a 1s · 6" high plaster coffered cei ling.' The semi- 1ndirecr fixtures employed in these rooms as we ll as the Judge's Chambers we re des igned primarily for indirect lighting but employed a system of apertures and reflecting surfaces to illuminate the exterior of the cast bronze luminaire. The luminaries in the Court of Appeals courtroom (Figures 19. - 21 , Drawing 13.) , are typical of these three room's fixtures . A central cast housing supports eight sockets with silver mirrored reflectors and 150 Watt incandescent lamps for indirect lighting. Three 50 Watt lamps are supported on the lower part of this housing to provide a source of light that will be reflected out of the two apertures to illuminate the side of the cast bronze bowl and the fairly plain underside of the bowl ; the latter effect was to provide a halo of spilled light around the outside of the elaborately cast lower pl ate The building's customized ornament of a star-in-a-circle , t11e eag le (feathers adequately qualifying) , and acorns become dominant ornamental elements on these fixtures . The lower ornamental plate features a live pointed star on a bed of leathers, while cast feathers have been applied individually to the internal sp inning for the bowl. Figure 0 19.' View of the Court of Appeals courtroom ,,i lo,o 0 ' o regon His1orical Socie ty Nega11ve # CN 01 5552 03212010 A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect: Morris H. Whitehouse 1 2 A -t- p.,_- '6" J..)y--C>l.v.Jl v,_:) Figure 20. Court of Appeals luminaire Figure 21 . Court of Appeals luminaire A-5 U.S. Courthouse, Portland Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect : Morris H. Whitehouse 1 3 A ~'-,_ A- '6"" YY--t:1.1..,....J,'v\.S -,---, .. -s oe>- 5 ,.. - 3 ] ~ ~ I,. Q~ \.i) <1_ ~ E. Ye,• NO. 22. GUAGI::.. REEDED CA S ING CA.SI CA5T CA~T %" PIPE. CA!>T CA5T ~ ru R-N ED CAST ._ __C A~T. f:-_ jU11.."1 7D ::>OC.K.C:T:'.> --CAST tit.AN~LUCt:NT GLA~::> CYLlNO~R. ~ ,. . C.AST flNl5H TUR.NE.D l!>0TTOM REMOVABLE FOR RELAMPINQ \\; 11 3 .\_) 0 - V\ I I -<( :{ ~ -.o=1® il ·~, ~1. -...-·.· - --··~-- ~- .~ -vii3-i ·;_~~ , E LE.CTROLIE.R ~ 0CKE.T, F 1't.TU'2.E::. To e.~ l NNE «. WH~. eD ~W• n .s-3"'-- c;;:,sT ~ TUR.IH.0 RE: 1\,.,p:O~CECI LA.MP """tnr----;,-- C A ST C.O~O,F IN \S ~ 'TO MA'TCM F !.J'.TUrl.f , COM P0/ 1l ' ICH,1 CAP, 0 __ C A~T 5 r: s H .. AiVY c,~T !)IL<>~Z-t. !!>•:;,:_ ~ FE.LT PAD '°'-,) f RONT 5 IDE. ~ No. 20 I) .::.,S. G U AG t:_ ,===::I -"1:1,,, / '_ ~PINNING~ PLAN \\I :: t.oJil« OF .P- \0 BASE. 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U\ ul \J 5,- -:s: J 3 ~ ~ I- G ~ \.1\ I -- l fl 3 . - · - ------ . __II___I_J ~-~~ ~ ---- . LLJIL-B)I I :[ --~ - LLIIL:_lllllllf 6)1 ----~*-'~.f~ -~ --·· ,.._~ ~,.,-t;"z~~;:t . 1j;;{:J',P,.. ,:0~~': !if~-::c .. :1~f' I 1 [ Li_a_lllllli Bl~ I 1 ---- ---- LL_IIL_. ..f :111 :r ,,·,. v1 /,:··: .,-,· ·,: ·, t. .r). :.:~ :{(t~ I 6-: ' t c( • ! ~ • ; :, I ·: I~ i ,;J j t .,.··/ .r . )I ( ' ,_~ -~ ; . 1 '.:,'. . ;· i / ~/ · ··· •"i '"•'ii/4 i i._lf~i / .'j i : ',f. it --··--=--- - -------------- - ~ . LI_~ - 11(1:1)1 University of Oregon Library The University of Oregon Library was db etween 1935 and 1937 with funding by ct~A Ellis Lawrence designed the building in a P •~ed Lombardy and Greco-Byzantine' style • ~;~;ingfixtures by Frederick C. Baker.' The 1 minaires which flank the "'."'o entrances to the r/ exhibn that abstraction of design and rnentation so characteristic of the early Art : period. The large fan motifs in the lower band dcasl bronze ornament have actually been ;istracted by Baker from the classical Greek anthernionm orn (middle right') and the lower fan ms have been abstracted from a classical Roman ianthus morn (lower right' ) . By strongly framing the library q.iadrangles's north-south walks, these lanterns ~inlorce Lawrence's cloister parti for the mall itself. Thesel anterns are matched by another set of •ntems atop the wrought iron entry gate at the rthe nd of the mall on Franklin Boulivard ~ootographs 1. and 2. ' ). The glass was specified as an opalescent ssetched and stained on the outside, but the ning of the glass seems to be the result of lying a dark brown/orange film of celophane University of Oregon Medical School Library in lerial tot he inside of the glass. An attractive Portland, so the originality of this glass seems to be alesoent glass was used on similar lanterns at the questionable. 1 o~•:•1·.! chael Shellen 19891 barger. Ems I awreoce $qryey rEugene OR:U of ~ ~xucrepstin !his case snidy eue photographs in the author's , · esroted .~~. . ~9~~: ~1st0'Y of Qrnamem (New York: Cooper Square 1 •~d., p.1s1. ' An attachedpho r . s, ~ lection 123~ aphs and drawings - University of Oregon A,/ColoC1Jonnegativ~~J~~~cept photograph 4., which is u o U 01 Oregon Library Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence 1 . -L·-LIIL-&:: The strong north-south axis set Jlel walks of the campus 1:~;~orced by the twin lanterns a 1he identical east an_d west of the library's main north . \ iven a dramatic terminus 1n ,ai;a~east and west vestibules. nt uspended vestibule lumma1re_ ~ys ac ritical role in achieving this nl sense of place. The cast and wrought bronze ~cenlrally placed in this . sly proport ioned vestibule. As 11 architect's intent to set up a ~space capable of terminating_ the 1urn generated by the man axis, ce of an intensely centralized such as a compass star, was · 1e,if not brilliant. Ref lection off of the gold leaf would have provided rably more illumination prior to val of much of the gold leaf by r-zealous cleaning staff. nol light from the luminous 1hrough the thin gold layer to the undercoat and subsequent nw ould have resulted in a rich ;n tint of reflected light. The ly polished marble-clad walls have augmented the reflection of the space. ~he anthemion motif of the and support members was a ornamental motif of the lantern nt. The repetition of cast bronze lalparts is again apparent here, numerous cast bronze floral Ill in the wrought bronze frame exterior ring. U0 1 Oregon Library Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence - ------ --- l~ _I_J . - . ~- -~-- . LLIILllllllfi :IJ. The vestibule luminaires were 1110 rnentarily stop the lo °f the mall; the luminaires in n1urn d . cent to the vestibule are 1wiaYh~t !~e axis n_inety degrees in 1~1swith the building's _ea.st-west !his cast bronze lu_m,~aire s strong nl with the buildings east-west effeclively makes this trans1t1on. The suspended globe es down this hallway set up a linear rhythm between the sand also serve as a plain foil edecorative fixtures in the lrocrns. These luminaires lobe 1950s replacement for the ones, which had spun brass hemispheres and would have ~ed nicely with the other spun IKlirect luminaires in the browsing tlhe left and the delivery room to I ol photograph 3. U0 1 Oregon Library Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect : Ellis F. Lawrence --- ------ 1----_I_J ' More decorative globe fixtures reeded cast bronze nuts securing opal glass globes accent the main ,al circulation space and sub-lobby es (right and lower right of Drawing Three decorative metal bands ring center of the globe. Uo f Oregon Library Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ell is F. Lawrence smaller decorative globes (right suffic iently pertorated with a star design upper right in Drawing 4 .) wer_e also to pass light. ailed in ancillary public circulation es Along with the lobby spaces, principal rooms of the library were cedwith attractive decorative indirect ierni-indirect luminaires (Drawings 2. 4)These drawings were prepared .C Baker for Ellis Lawrence as part eb id document specifications. The ones installed in the Upper sion Reading room were the most rative and sophisticated in their 1ment of light (lower right of Drawing ,oo Photograph 4.). The iltcations indicate that the main pywas cast bronze, which would ebeen turned on a lathe to get it th and polished. The specifications ate an opening in ihe bottom of this sing, so the housing would have ncast as a shallow cylinder wnh a ral opening in the bottom. A red rabbet cut into the bottom outer ol the cylinder and tooled entric grooved rings on the bottom are two ornamental possibilities of etal lathe applied here. Baker also 1ed a casting and turning edure on various portions of the nor standing lanterns at the U.S . !house in Portland of 1931. The bronze ornamental band around the body of the fixture incorporates a ag and anthemion ornamental er on the upper and lower edges . The translucent glass disc on ltom face is suspended slightly , and projects slightly beyond the ing so that no direct light could be and also to provide a reflected ol ltght' on the polished underside bronze housing. Baker achieved a reltect with the courtroom fixtures U.S. Courthouse in Portland in I The bronze ring on top of the lucent glass plate , and also nded from the opening with it, is back lrom the edge of the glass lo allow for edge lighting. The cast enJal disc below the glass is U Of Oregon Library Period : Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence :-_ -- -_~._ -_-J-_-J~ ' A direct correspondence between this 6.). Fixture F. was not specified for any other room fixture and the ones in the vestibule is achieved and was apparently not used.• through this ornamental cast bronze star motif, as it Fixture E., lower left of Drawing 2., was is the base design of the vestibule luminaires. The installed in the Lower Division Reading Room, the use of a reeded ornamental motif on the stem adjoining study, and the Periodical Reference (which was just a casing over an internal 1/2 inch Reading Room (Photograph 7.) on the first floor pipe), cast holder (upper part of socket apparatus) and the Map Room and Special Collections Room and the bottom cast nut supporting the housing is on the second floor. The fixture was basically a repeated on many of the other luminaires as well as spun brass indirect bowl with a cast bronze the building ornamentation; note the reeded door ornamental rim, base plate and ornamental finial. jambs in photograph 4 . The reeded stem and cast bronze break are in An internal housing supported five sockets character with the more ornamental fixtures in the within commercial silvered mirror reflectors, which building.' were equipped with 200 Watt incandescent The luminaire specified for the third floor lamps.' It is also most likely that this internal library class room was a "Pittsburgh Reflector housing also supported, beneath the silvered Company's luminaire No. B-51 or a Curtis Lighting reflectors, several sockets for low wattage (50 Watt) Inc. luminaire No. 5070.". As seen in Photograph incandescent lamps as a direct lighting source. The 8., the fixture actually installed is quite different lamps mounted in the silvered mirror reflectors from the specified fixture depicted in the upper would have provided no downlighting. This right of Drawing 3. It is, in fact, the standard English- arrangement of lamps was used in the similarly Baker luminaire shown in the upper right of A-8 conceived luminaires of the courtrooms in the U.S. Drawing 7., and used in various locations of the Courthouse Building in Portland. State Capitol Building. Since the Capitol Building The low relief of the ceiling panels and the was finished a year after this building, it is quite high relief of interior cornice would have provided possible Baker developed this simple inexpensive for a generous play of shade and shadow. This luminaire to compete with similar products marketed aspect of the lighting scheme is not discernible in by the large national lighting fixture companies, photograph 4 ., as it has been shot with a remote and added it to his standard line of fixtures. This flash. Fourteen fixtures were originally installed in fixture was also used in the graduate reading room this room, a pair per window bay. as well as various offices and workrooms The delivery room, where books retrieved throughout the building. from the stacks were delivered to waiting borrowers (Photograph 5.), were lighted by spun brass indirect bowl fixtures, as depicted in the lower left of drawing 1. The fixture consisted of a one inch diameter stem and a cast bronze 'break' capping and connecting the larger reeded socket to the stem. A large cast bronze reeded ornament supported the bowl. The bowl was equipped with one 750 Watt lamp and a porcelain or glass reflector to reflect light to the ceiling. The spun bowl was given a bronze finish! Fixture F. , in the lower right of Drawing 4. was specified to go into the first floor Browsing Room, flanked by fixture E., lower left of Drawing 2., in the Homer Collection and Choice Books areas. Instead fixture G., the same as in the Delivery Room, was installed, albeit with a different cast bronze finial at the base of the bowl (Photograph 'Lawrence, Holford, Allyn, Architects, ~ ll!Qmiiml l.ilialct : ~~~~~~i~~2.~:';:'~~ii;~~i~n 8 Ibid. 7 1bid. 9 1bid. A-7 U of Oregon Library Period: Decorative Art Deco Architect: Ellis F. Lawrence 6 f LLIIL1 1111111) E _ . ll ,~ J ,. ·,,, ,1.. ,J7 : i ' ·;·:--~ f t- ' , . . . \fl . ,o ·. 0 ' ' , . •. Cl.. / r-- / ' / ;4 ll' ~ I I i l I f LLIIILllllllf E - N vl -{ >- 0 '- 3 \[ ~ ( ► ~ ;:.') ,,...s. µ. I r- ;( ~ \ \ \ -i _-_-__--_---_ -l_--J- 1 ; I ' [~ ( LLIIL-f: f LLIIIL-.e Vi' v1 _s 5,. D- f 3 \) ~ 0 ► ~ ~ ~ ~ :I-) I I' I ~ . 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