EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   1 
	
	
	
	
	
EFFICIENCY AND EQUITY: TRANSPORTATION ACCESS  
IN FORT SMITH, ARKANSAS 
 
 
 
 
 
Jennifer Kohnke 
University of Oregon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TERMINAL RESEARCH REPORT 
 
Presented to the Department of Planning, Public Policy and Management and the 
Graduate School of the 
University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of 
Master of Community and Regional Planning 
 
June 2020	
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   2 
RESEARCH REPORT 
Jennifer Kohnke 
Master of Community and Regional Planning 
Department of Planning, Public Policy and Management 
June 2020 
Title: Efficiency and Equity: Transportation Access in Fort Smith, Arkansas 
 
     The City of Fort Smith is a small urban area1 (population 86,1222) in far western 
Arkansas. Like many cities everywhere in the U.S., Fort Smith has a rapidly growing 
aging population; there are also a significant number of residents who have disabilities 
which makes mobility a challenge. Fort Smith is not designed compactly and is typical 
of mid-century suburban sprawl. Senior citizens and those with mobility issues are 
forced to drive themselves or rely on friends or neighbors for basic transportation 
needs. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effectiveness and extent of access 
to the public transportation system in Fort Smith, called Fort Smith Transit, for these 
two populations: senior citizens and the disabled. A content analysis study is 
performed of transportation documents and GIS ArcMaps created from U.S. Census 
data to show the relationship between these populations and access to the Fort Smith 
Transit system. Documents reference the concept of transit equity repeatedly and refer 
to serving the disabled or those with physical mobility challenges so there is awareness 
of the need to serve this population. Findings from content analysis and GIS mapping 
show that city residents are moving eastward within the city limits. Senior citizens and 
the disabled who live closer to downtown are well served by transit but Fort Smith 
Transit has not yet caught up with service needs for residents moving eastward. 
Additionally, some newly built city services lie far outside a quarter-mile buffer zone 
surrounding all current bus routes. Findings indicate that representatives of the 
disabled community have been involved in local decision-making boards but continued 
strides are needed to directly involve this historically disenfranchised population. 
Several recommendations urge Fort Smith Transit to expand its bus routes further east 
to address the population needs. One land use option is for Fort Smith to upzone the 
northeast side of the city along the Arkansas River to allow multi-family housing 
construction including townhomes, condominiums, and senior living centers in what is 
currently single-family housing zones. Fort Smith Transit and the City of Fort Smith 
have several options in order to address the growing needs of area senior citizens and 
disabled residents.  
 
1 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018). Data. “Urban population by city size.” (data.oecd.org) 
2 United States Census Bureau. American Community Survey 2017. Fort Smith, Arkansas. “Population in households.” 
(data.census.gov) 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   3 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
I am extremely grateful to my thesis advisor, Dr. John Arroyo. He had immense 
patience throughout the whole process of the development my project, always 
supported its vision, and provided wonderful guidance. He always brainstormed the 
best ideas and was able to remain flexible as my topic evolved throughout the terms. It 
is a pleasure to know him. 
 
I would also like to thank my second reader, Dr. Yizhao Yang. She joined the project 
later in the process but provided excellent advice and suggestions about GIS and 
mapping and helped me to get started when I was lost. I am grateful she invited me to 
sit in on her class and learn more about how GIS can be applied to my project.   
 
Finally, I express my profound gratitude to my parents and brother for their support. I 
especially want to thank my dear friends William Wei-Ti Lien, Aqsa Khan, Rachel 
Doyne, Kaylee Wilkinson, Deanna Lynn, and Kelli Barker for their laughter, invaluable 
friendship, and advice, and for providing me with support and encouragement 
throughout my three years of Graduate School. They are friends who became family. I 
dedicate this thesis to the 2020 Master of Landscape Architecture cohort and the 2020 
and 2021 cohorts of the Master of Community and Regional Planning. Thank you all for 
your friendship and support. 
 
 
 
 
 
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   4 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Chapter 1: What is Transportation Justice? 
Introduction          10 
 
 Barriers and Equity Issues        16  
 
Research Questions        17 
 
Approach          17 
Methods and Methodology       18 
Chapter 2: Background 
 
History and Site Context        25 
 
History of Planning Efforts        32 
 
 Existing Conditions         37 
 
 
Chapter 3: Literature Review 
 
 Theoretical Framework        40 
 
  
Chapter 4: Findings  
Content Analysis         45 
   
GIS Analysis          56 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   5 
 
Chapter 5: Recommendations and Conclusion 
 
Conclusion          75 
References          77 
Appendices          82 
 
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   6 
LIST OF MAPS 
Map             Page 
1. Context map of Arkansas and surrounding states     25 
2. Context map of City of Fort Smith       26 
3. Garrison Avenue running west across the Arkansas River    31 
4. Fort Smith Transit Department Fixed Route Bus System Map   38 
5. Map from HOLC showing redlining in Philadelphia     41 
6. Disabled in Proximity to Emergency Services     59 
7. Disabled in Proximity to Healthcare       60 
8. Disabled in Proximity to Schools       61 
9. Senior Citizens in Proximity to Emergency Services    62 
10. Senior Citizens in Proximity to Healthcare      63 
11. Senior Citizens in Proximity to Higher Education     64 
12. City of Fort Smith Public GIS Viewer Zoning Parcel Map    66 
 
 
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   7 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table             Page 
1. Table 1. Key Policy Documents       82 
2. Table 2. Coding Analysis - Results, Calculations     88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   8 
APPENDICES 
Appendix            
1. Appendix A. Table of Key Policy Documents      82 
2. Appendix B. Summaries of Each Key Policy Document    82 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   9 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 1:  
WHAT IS TRANSPORTATION JUSTICE? 
 
 
 
  
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   10 
INTRODUCTION 
Across the U.S. and around the world, people are living longer than ever due to 
advances in medical care. Families are living with several generations of family 
members under one roof—or, many senior citizens aging-in-place continue to reside in 
homes they’ve owned for decades and now seek assisted caregiving while remaining 
as independent as possible. Other senior citizens choose to move out of their longtime 
homes to assisted living centers with other elders their age where they can continue to 
have socialization needs met while experiencing personalized healthcare. Whatever 
their living style, generations of Americans are living longer and need their continued 
long term health care needs met including regular visits to gerontologists or specialists 
as they age with chronic healthcare issues. Our older population holds the key to 
knowledge and a lifetime of experience for younger people. As our grandparents and 
now parents begin to fall into this demographic, they deserve to have their basic needs 
met with the least inconvenience. These services include public transportation which 
elders may become more dependent upon as they are able to drive less. 
 
By the same token, our disabled or differently-abled friends and family members 
already experience more challenges in life by the very nature of their limitations than 
someone without disabilities. Some disabilities are physical, mental, or invisible but all 
affect their lives in some way; in this, they are already challenged. Many of the disabled 
may not be able to drive for various reasons and so are dependent upon public 
transportation to get from place to place. For both senior citizens and the disabled, 
easy access to public transportation with minimal barriers becomes a human rights 
issue; specifically, a transportation rights issue. 
 
The disabled and senior citizen populations in Fort Smith, Arkansas, generally benefit 
from transportation services provided by the city’s transit authority, Fort Smith Transit: 
most of these residents live in the city’s downtown core where all six bus routes 
overlap. The routes serviced by Fort Smith Transit are clustered in this western half of 
the city. However, as residents of Fort Smith begin to expand further eastward within 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   11 
the city boundaries, U.S. Census and GIS data show Fort Smith Transit needs to also 
expand its routes eastward to continue providing sufficient services. 
 
The issue is that for many populations--but in this case, for senior citizens and the 
disabled—a disparate city design combined with lack of personal vehicle ownership 
and limited transportation options makes the ability to access basic needs infinitely 
harder. The burden is greater upon populations with limited time, mobility challenges, 
financial resources, and infrastructure access to reach necessary services than for 
those who may be more able-bodied or who own a personal vehicle. These necessary 
services include but are not limited to access to local grocery stores, places of work, 
schools and other educational opportunities. A lack of accessible grocery stores and 
similar shops for healthy food, for example, creates food deserts. Residents must 
travel disproportionately farther—and take more time out of their day—to reach healthy 
food sources than those with access to either personal or public transportation. 
Otherwise, food options may be available within a reasonable travel distance by foot or 
bicycle. This problem is an example of transportation justice. The purpose of this 
research is to investigate disparities in equity to public transportation access and 
propose recommendations that will better serve Fort Smith residents than what 
currently exists. 
 
This topic is important because the research takes place in a Mid-South community 
that has not been frequently studied. Not much research has been done on smaller 
cities and towns across the United States; instead, research tends to focus on large 
metropolitan areas. Specifically, there remains a gap in knowledge regarding equity 
and efficiency of transportation systems in how they serve vulnerable populations in 
these smaller geographic areas. However, there are many people living in the middle of 
the country who also need assistance planning their communities. Often, these citizens 
feel they have been forgotten as design and infrastructure processes move forward in 
other parts of the country; as a result, a cultural divide often occurs between these 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   12 
pockets of progress and slower development. Equity issues for various groups are not 
always addressed especially in medium-sized and smaller3 towns across the country. 
 
The purpose of this topic is to provide a practical analysis of current conditions and 
mobility needs for particular groups and determine how an improved transportation 
system will better serve them. The results from the research will provide a model of 
how to serve a small southern community that has experienced changing 
demographics in the past forty years. This project of using Fort Smith, Arkansas, as a 
pilot will build upon the momentum that is already taking place in the western half of 
the state particularly in the communities of Northwest Arkansas and further south to 
Fort Smith. Research findings will demonstrate an improved transportation system is 
more equitable for all Fort Smith residents. 
 
FRAMING TRANSPORTATION JUSTICE 
In the U.S., populations of individuals have historically—and to this day—had less 
access to the same basic rights as the majority (i.e., White) population. The fight for 
equal rights is numerous. It encompasses a variety of different sectors such as equal 
education (U.S. Supreme Court Case Brown v. Board of Education, 1954-1955)4, equal 
treatment of those with disabilities (Americans with Disabilities Act - ADA)5, access to 
equal housing as in the practice of redlining, and—for the purposes of this study—
equal access to public transportation. Transportation justice has been discussed by a 
number of social justice advocates who saw the connection between spatial 
geography, access to public transportation, and social exclusion of certain 
populations. These writers have argued that this access is not only necessary but a 
human right.  
 
 
3 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018). Data. “Urban population by city size.” (data.oecd.org) 
4 United States Courts. (n.d.) History – Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment. “The Road to Brown: Early Cases: Brown v. 
Board of Education (1954, 1955).” (https://www.uscourts.gov) 
5 U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. (n.d.) Information and Technical Assistance on the Americans with Disabilities 
Act. “Introduction to the ADA.” (https://www.ada.gov) 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   13 
One of the earliest planning theorists was Henri Lefebvre who in 1976 wrote that all 
citizens deserved equal access to amenities within their cities; not only that they 
deserved access but that access was a human right. Lefebvre’s writings still serve as 
the basis for many planning theory arguments on the justification of transportation 
rights and access. Many years later, in 2014, urban planning theorist Susan Fainstein 
wrote that there was a moral dimension to justice and to planning in general.6 She 
wrote of the need for peoples to be involved in the planning practice at the local level; 
she argued that localized democracy affects residents and that it plays a part in the 
planning process. Later, planning theorist Iris Marion Young stressed the importance of 
being politically active within the local planning process in order to effect sufficient 
change that benefits all. 
 
Some writers on the subject point to early cases in the fight for transportation justice 
as an example for necessary change. One such example was a challenge from the Los 
Angeles Bus Riders Union against the city’s Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA). In his 
book Seeking Spatial Justice, urban theorist Edward Soja cites the example of this 
challenge to the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority (LAMTA). In their case in 
1996, the Los Angeles Bus Riders Union successfully sued the Los Angeles 
Metropolitan Transit Authority7. They argued that the LAMTA was intentionally 
designed to bypass neighborhoods consisting mostly of Latinx, Asian-American, 
African-American, and low-income city residents. The resulting case decision by the 
courts forced the MTA over the next ten years to reorient their transportation system so 
that these populations of Los Angeles were better served in the future.  
 
In Seeking Spatial Justice, Soja asserts that the application of justice within a city’s 
boundaries is based on spatial geography; in other words, where a person lives within 
the city. This can be based upon certain populations who for various reasons tend to 
live in a particular enclave or section of a city. Often, those who are responsible for 
 
6 Fainstein, Susan. (2014). International Journal of Urban Sciences. “The Just City.”  
7 Soja, E. (2010, January 1). Seeking Spatial Justice. ProQuest Ebook Central. https://ebookcentral-proquest-
com.libproxy.uoregon.edu/lib/uoregon/reader.action?docID=548072 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   14 
designing amenities such as public transportation have designed them in a way that 
either consciously or unconsciously benefits wealthier (and more likely, White) 
residents of the city over those who may actually depend more upon these services—
they are frequently low-income or of ethnic or racial minority3. In the case of Fort Smith, 
it is important to examine data and published documents to determine whether Fort 
Smith Transit is best serving the needs of the city’s most vulnerable population. 
Specifically, this means studying where bus routes are sited in relation to where 
populations live and the services they rely on. Are bus routes sited near the block 
groups where these populations live? Do the populations live within an accessible 
quarter-mile buffer zone travel distance between their place of residence and closest 
bus route? Along the routes themselves, are there sufficient bus stations or benches 
placed at regular intervals so riders do not have to walk, or travel far to wait for the 
next bus? Regarding Soja’s explanation of spatial justice, it will be interesting to note 
whether the bus routes serviced by Fort Smith Transit are sited closer to populations in 
greatest need of public transportation—in this case, the disabled and senior citizens—
or whether they are conveniently located in wealthier neighborhoods, or where these 
populations are fewer in number. If data show that populations most in need of public 
transportation service do not have their needs met, this may show there is an existing 
inequity of access--and therefore an issue of transportation and spatial injustice. 
 
The argument that planning scholars and social justice advocates use is that every city 
resident is entitled to public transportation and fair access to basic amenities, to 
ensure that the low-income and others who are most dependent on these services 
have the access they need.  
PROBLEM STATEMENT 
The purpose of this study investigates equity in access to the public transportation 
system in Fort Smith, Arkansas, by senior citizens and the disabled. Particular attention 
is paid to where these populations live within the city limits in relation to the following 
amenities: public schools, emergency services (police, fire, etc.), and health care 
facilities (health clinics and hospitals). Access to health care facilities is important to all 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   15 
residents but especially for the disabled and senior citizens. Both groups have special 
needs that may require more time, attention, and specialized long-term care; both may 
also have to visit these facilities more frequently for follow-up care as a result. The 
ability to easily access educational institutions is important because of the opportunity 
education affords for a more successful future both in terms of long-term financial gain 
and greater access to capital. For the purposes of this study, the disabled population 
may be either an adult or a child; a disabled parent could potentially be accompanying 
their young child to school, the child themselves could be disabled and attempting to 
access the closest school every day, or a disabled adult might wish to attend the local 
institute of higher education. In the case of emergency services, senior citizens in ill 
health or who may suffer physical accidents need quick response time from police, 
EMS, etc.; some seniors for various reasons may need to transport themselves directly 
to a police or fire station. For the same reason, disabled and senior citizens may need 
to travel to the local hospital system or health care unit for regular doctors’ care, 
check-ups, or to visit family or friends in the hospital. These are all examples of cases 
in which it is important for disabled and senior citizen populations to be able to travel 
quickly and efficiently especially if they do not have access to a personal vehicle. 
RELEVANCE 
One issue for the City of Fort Smith is a lack of a comprehensive, integrated, multi-
modal public transportation system; however, a basic transportation shuttle service 
exists. Access to transportation among senior citizens and the disabled was analyzed 
by cross-comparing three main elements. One element was GIS data showing where 
these two populations live within Fort Smith at the block group scale; another was 
locating pre-selected necessary services and their structures (public schools, 
emergency services, and health care facilities) using access to GIS shape files. 
Additionally, the six existing Fort Smith Transit bus routes were mapped in ArcGIS.  
 
This issue is important because research has shown that these groups are often the 
largest users of public transportation systems yet when cities seek to streamline 
transportation infrastructure services, populations who have a harder time accessing 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   16 
services are often the first to have their routes eliminated. In addition, cities continue to 
fund major infrastructure projects that benefit personal automobile users over those 
who take public transportation. As a result, populations such as senior citizens and the 
disabled cannot access their workplaces and basic amenities. 
BARRIERS AND EQUITY ISSUES 
Research shows that senior citizens are one population group that is not served as 
effectively as it could be by public transportation options. According to research by 
Jon E. Burkhardt (2003), “Frequent, comfortable, affordable, spontaneous service to a 
wide variety of origins and destinations over a wide range of service hours is what 
seniors desire,” (p. 105). Burkhardt (2003) goes on to write that there needs to be a 
whole paradigm shift in how public transportation services are provided in order to 
better serve the elderly population including a focus on customer service, options of 
integrated transportation modes, an extension of reliable service operation times, and 
comfortable station waiting areas (p. 106). 
 
Research has shown that despite a need for addressing equity and access issues in 
public transportation, these criteria are not always addressed in metropolitan 
transportation planning particularly in smaller cities and rural regions (Karner, 2016, p. 
46). Planners in these areas tend to lack the capacity for analysis of this issue. 
Therefore, it is an important area which needs further study (Karner, 2016, p. 46). In 
response to demands from the U.S. Department of Transportation, environmental 
justice and equity issues often fall to Metropolitan Planning Organizations to ensure 
that these issues are being properly addressed. According to Karner, the metropolitan 
level is also the best for addressing these issues as access inequality is related to this 
level of service (2016, p. 46). 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   17 
RESEARCH QUESTIONS 
The primary research question for this project is: 
How would a more effective public transportation system in Fort Smith, Arkansas, 
address equity issues for disabled and senior citizen residents?  
 
Stemming from this main question are two sub-questions:  
 
• Which populations of residents are currently being served by public 
transportation and to what degree? 
 
• What are current barriers to using public transportation for these groups? 
 
In answering the above research questions, this report seeks to understand the current 
level of service offered to these populations, what may prevent them from choosing to 
take public transportation, what would encourage them to take public transportation, 
and how the current service could be improved. 
APPROACH 
This research will address the issue at three different levels. The first level of research 
is to analyze existing data regarding lack of equity and access, in general, to minority 
populations. For the scope of this study, this refers to senior citizens and the disabled. 
Previous data collected and plans created by the City of Fort Smith and the Western 
Arkansas Planning & Development District/Frontier Metropolitan Planning Organization 
will be analyzed to see if there are patterns found in the research or gaps in service 
provision. The second level is to analyze the current state of the public transportation 
system in the City of Fort Smith as provided by the city’s shuttle transit system, Fort 
Smith Transit. The third issue is to analyze the geographic locations of these 
populations within Fort Smith regarding where they are clustered in the city’s block 
groups as well as locations of amenities and services. Based on the preceding data 
recommendations will be made, if necessary, for the current public transportation route 
and timing; if there is time, a visual component will be proposed for an ideal 
transportation hub that best serves the sensitive populations researched. 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   18 
METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 
DATA COLLECTION  
The study involves performing data collection using three main strategies: GIS, 
archives, and ethnographical analysis. To find this information, the most recent U.S. 
Census data on the populations were researched and GIS shape files used to indicate 
locations of necessary amenities and services for the populations. GIS shape files were 
requested from the State of Arkansas GIS office. 
 
In the process of research several documents were collected: some provided by the 
City of Fort Smith via their website, and others from Western Arkansas Planning & 
Development District and the regional transportation authority, Frontier Metropolitan 
Planning Organization.  
ARCHIVAL 
The documents chosen for content analysis are divided into different eras beginning in 
the mid-2000s through the late 2000s. The document titled “2005-2009 ACS Census 
data - Languages spoken” is dated 2005-2009. The next two documents for analysis 
are dated from 2016. These are “2040: The New Frontier - Frontier MPO Metropolitan 
Transportation Plan” (September 2016) and “Fort Smith Transit: Ride Guide” 
(December 2016). In 2017, two other documents were made available to the public 
which were used for the purposes of this study: documents labeled “Title VI Program” 
and “Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan.” The document titled “Fort Smith 
Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary Report” is dated from December 2018 
and “Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit Plan of the Fort Smith Transit (FST) - 2019 [ADA]” 
is from 2019. “River Valley Transportation Providers” is undated. 
 
The majority of these documents are supplied by the City of Fort Smith on the city’s 
website, Transit Department page; the remaining documents study the issue of 
transportation at larger scales. It is important to study the issue of transportation 
locally, first, to understand the city’s policies on the issue because the City of Fort 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   19 
Smith is responsible for Fort Smith Transit. Therefore, the majority of the documents 
used for the study are sourced from the city itself. 
 
GIS  
Initially, the intention of the study was to focus on several populations: race or 
ethnicity, the homeless, senior citizens, and the disabled. However, during the course 
of research, with time constraints, and the evolution of the COVID-19 viral pandemic, 
the populations were reduced to a study of senior citizens and the disabled. These two 
populations were chosen for final study because they both potentially involve mobility 
issues and share spatial access challenges. At the same time, members of various 
racial or ethnic minority groups could also be classified as any one of the other groups 
and therefore a clear study of racial or ethnic minority groups in this case could not be 
parsed out. In addition, as U.S. Census data does not exist at this time to distinguish 
whether a respondent self-classifies as homeless, census data on the homeless could 
not be found. Therefore, the populations of senior citizens and the disabled were 
chosen. Data collection strategies used for this project were GIS ArcMap 10.7.1. 
software, Google Earth images (non-projected), and GIS shapefiles for structures, 
society, health, and boundaries.  
 
The intent of this research is to study the current level of access senior citizens and the 
disabled in Fort Smith, Arkansas, have to the following amenities: public schools 
including K-12 and four-year higher education institutions, emergency services, and 
health care. GIS shape files of data related to these topics were requested from the 
State of Arkansas GIS office. Access to education, emergency services, and health 
care are basic necessary amenities for a resident of any community. Originally, the 
intention was to also map access to local grocery stores or other food sources such as 
farmers markets but this data are not provided via GIS shape files. The data would 
have had to have been manually created. Therefore, this data was not studied but it 
would also be an important factor to measure.    
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   20 
ETHNOGRAPHY 
Based on spreadsheets provided by the Transit Department page on the City of Fort 
Smith website, very few of the numerous bus stops along Fort Smith Transit routes are 
either shelters or benches. Riders classified as either senior citizens or the disabled 
need a sufficient number of benches provided at regular intervals to sit and rest while 
waiting for the bus to arrive; both groups also need more shelters with canopies or 
tinted plexiglass to protect from the hot sun that is prevalent in Arkansas most of the 
year—or the intense hail and rainstorms.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   21 
 
Typical Fort Smith Transit bus shelter at Rogers Avenue and Old Greenwood Road (courtesy of GoogleEarth Street View. August 2019).  
Personal observation confirmed that very few of the existing stops are little more than a 
route sign and a short bench seat, or just a sign. The photograph below is 
representative of the majority of Fort Smith Transit bus stops: a nondescript white sign. 
In the photo below, the sign is just to the left of the University of Arkansas-Fort Smith 
Lions poster on an electrical box. 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   22 
 
 Fort Smith Transit bus stop sign at Grand Avenue and North Albert Pike Avenue (courtesy of GoogleEarth Street View. August 2019).  
DATA ANALYSIS 
Content analysis was performed on documents, data, and surveys provided by the City 
of Fort Smith and regional metropolitan transportation authorities. These were the most 
appropriate methods of research because content analysis provided policy-related 
data on existing conditions. 
 
Publicly available collected documents were coded by hand and data was analyzed 
using a grounded theory approach. Grounded theory is the process of developing a 
theory based on the methodical collection and analyzation of data; it was pioneered by 
researchers Glaser and Strauss during their study entitled Awareness of Dying 
published in 1966.8 Through this process of data analyzation, relationships were 
observed between where populations of senior citizens and the disabled live in Fort 
Smith—in particular, at the geographic block group level—and their level of access to 
 
8 Fulton, Robert. "Awareness of Dying. Barney G. Glaser, Anselm L. Strauss." American Journal of Sociology 72.3 (1966): 332-33. 
Web. 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   23 
the closest Fort Smith Transit bus route. Of particular note was whether these 
populations lived within a quarter-mile buffer zone of any given Fort Smith Transit bus 
route due to the limited physical mobility of these groups. 
 
These methods provided a well-rounded analysis of the existing situation. The resulting 
data will support literature findings that argue senior citizens and disabled populations 
tend to live farther from public transportation and yet are the most vulnerable in need 
of services. 
 
EXPECTED FINDINGS 
Findings are expected to re-enforce results of previous outside research and case 
studies regarding sensitive populations and public transportation access. In addition, it 
is expected that these sensitive populations in Fort Smith are not being adequately 
served by current public transportation in the form of longer wait times for 
buses/infrequent service, inconvenient routes, and disparate station locations. If these 
findings prove true, specific recommendations will be made in these areas to improve 
services and access.  
 
	
	
	
	
	
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 2:  
BACKGROUND 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   25 
HISTORY AND SITE CONTEXT 
CITY OF FORT SMITH 
The City of Fort Smith, Arkansas, lies on the juncture of what was once the native lands 
of the Osage, Caddo, Kiikaapoi (Kickapoo), and Oceti Sakowin (Sioux) peoples.9 
Spanish explorer and conquistador Hernando de Soto is said to have explored as far 
west as Fort Smith in the 1540s and a member of his exploration crew is rumored to be 
buried in a cemetery in a town just north of the city. 
 
Fort Smith had a long frontier history after European settler colonization: the fort at Fort 
Smith was established in 1817 to keep peace between the Cherokee and Osage tribes 
in the area.10 In the late 1800s, Fort Smith was considered one of the last ‘civilized’ 
U.S. Army outposts before crossing the Arkansas River to the border with Indian 
Territory in what is now known as Oklahoma. Cherokee Nation citizens were marched 
through Fort Smith into Indian Territory as part of the Trail of Tears. Today, the Trail of 
Tears Overlook at the Fort Smith National Historic Site seeks to educate visitors about 
The Five Civilized Tribes removed to Indian Territory.11 
 
 
Context map of Arkansas and surrounding states (GoogleEarth Pro) 
 
9 Native Land. https://native-land.ca 
10 Encyclopedia of Arkansas. “Fort Smith (Sebastian County).” https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/fort-smith-988/ 
11 Fort Smith, Arkansas. “Trail of Tears Overlook.” https://www.fortsmith.org/trail-of-tears-overlook/ 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   26 
 
 
Context map of City of Fort Smith (GoogleEarth Pro)  
 
In the 1870s, progressive Judge Issac C. Parker presided as U.S. District Judge for the 
United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas. He became known for 
his high record of convicting guilty prisoners to hang in the gallows. Lesser known to 
history is that Judge Parker spoke out about the unfair treatment of Native tribes in 
Indian Territory. The City of Fort Smith garnered popularity as the setting for True Grit, 
a 1968 novel written by Charles Portis and the 1969 film that followed featuring John 
Wayne. In 2007, after a nationwide search, Fort Smith was selected as the home for 
the future U.S. Marshals Museum.  
 
Bass Reeves was the first African-American deputy U.S. marshal to serve west of 
the Mississippi River. He was born a slave just north of Fort Smith in Crawford County, 
escaped slavery by living with the Cherokee, Creeks and Seminoles tribes across the 
river in Indian Territory, and gained his freedom during the Civil War. Because Reeves 
became fluent in the Indian languages, he was recruited as deputy U.S. Marshal.12 
 
12 Wikipedia. “Bass Reeves.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_Reeves 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   27 
There is a life-statue of Reeves in downtown Fort Smith today. In 1941 on the eve of 
World War II, the Department of War built Fort Chaffee on land acquired on the east 
side of Fort Smith to build a new Army base. It served as a training and POW camp. 
Elvis Presley was assigned there to train for the Army; there is a famous picture of him 
getting his hair cut in the camp’s barbershop.  
 
 
 Elvis Presley getting his hair cut for the Army at Fort Chaffee 
(RareHistoricalPhotos.com) 
 
 
 Fort Smith National Historic Site (TripAdvisor.com) 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   28 
 
Bass Reeves (Wikipedia.com) 
 
 
 
 
Statue of Bass Reeves in downtown Fort Smith (courtesy of Enid News & Eagle ) 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   29 
After decommissioning in the 1960s, Fort Chaffee “processed 50,809 refugees of the 
Vietnam War”13 and later became a resettlement center for Cuban refugees. In 2005, 
refugees from Hurricane Katrina were also processed there and for a short time they 
were housed at Fort Chaffee. Generations of immigrants from Laos and Vietnam chose 
to stay and raise their families in Fort Smith during the Vietnam War, and many 
refugees escaping Hurricane Katrina stayed on in Fort Smith as well. Today, 
redevelopment and revitalization of Fort Smith continues with the Fort Chaffee 
Redevelopment Authority and its creation of Chaffee Crossing, a new progressive 
mixed-use development site.  
 
In the past five to seven years, Fort Smith has been in the midst of a revitalization. In 
that timeframe, there has been a rediscovery and renewed energy starting with 
downtown redevelopment thanks in part to local non-profit 64.6 Downtown. The 
organization was formed by local Fort Smith businessman Steve Clark; its goal is to 
create exciting and dynamic placemaking and stimulate economic growth. The 
organization has done this by overseeing a number of large-scale public works 
projects downtown and by tapping into local resources—beginning with The 
Unexpected project. The Unexpected project annually unveils new surprise large-scale 
murals by local and international artists at prominent locations around downtown. The 
project has spurred residents to walk the city again, especially downtown, and 
rediscover local history that has been depicted and reinterpreted. The project has 
gained national and international press and has drawn tourists from all around the 
world. Below are just a few of the murals in downtown Fort Smith as part of The 
Unexpected project. 
 
13 Encyclopedia of Arkansas. “Fort Chaffee.” https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/fort-chaffee-2263/ 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   30 
“American Heros” by Guido Van Helten (unexpectedfs.com) “War Paint” by D*Face (unexpectedfs.com) 
 
This revitalization effort particularly stems from Fort Smith’s downtown historic core 
and main street—Garrison Avenue—which stretches to the Arkansas River before 
crossing into Eastern Oklahoma. Fort Smith is a former blue collar and factory town 
that is starting to see newer investments in other sectors such as health care. This 
could continue the trajectory of economic development and sense-of-place that has 
already begun.  
 
Garrison Avenue is the main street of downtown Fort Smith and the central economic 
hub. Leading from the footprint of the original fort and Judge Parker’s courthouse 
along the Arkansas River in what is now known as the Fort Smith National Historic Site, 
Garrison Avenue is one of two main parallel roads at the center of downtown. Garrison 
Avenue is also known as U.S. Highway 64 and crosses the Arkansas River from 
Oklahoma into Fort Smith. Garrison Avenue has served as a main point of commerce 
and tourism since the founding of the city. 
 
GARRISON AVENUE 
One of the biggest current issues with mobility and public transportation in downtown 
Fort Smith is the fact that Garrison Avenue serves as a main corridor and truck route 
for trucking companies (64.6 Downtown and Gateway Planning, 2017, p. 45). Garrison 
Avenue runs east-west as a downtown main street. At the far west end, it crosses the 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   31 
Arkansas River into Oklahoma; from there, it is a short distance to access I-40 
interstate, the main interstate running east-west across Arkansas. From the inception 
of Fort Smith as a city, Garrison Avenue was always the main thoroughfare for 
shopping, dining, saloons, and brothels. Streets in Fort Smith fan out in a gridded 
pattern north and south of Garrison Avenue into Belle Grove Historic District, into some 
of the earliest residential neighborhoods to the north and the city’s manufacturing and 
industrial areas to the south. Garrison Avenue is wider than a typical downtown street 
because it once contained the city’s earliest public transportation system: a downtown 
electric trolley similar to the ghost tracks that still run through the middle of University 
Avenue in Eugene, Oregon. The corridor today contains a number of restaurants, bars, 
and retail storefronts and is part of the city’s downtown revitalization focus. Because 
Garrison Avenue is also a U.S. highway, the original street paving bricks have been 
covered with asphalt and the corridor is heavily used by several local manufacturing 
trucking companies. Garrison Avenue is wide and traffic on it travels fast despite 
several stoplights along its length; due to its width, it takes longer for pedestrians to 
cross. Several residents have been injured and even killed.   
 
 
 
 Arkansas and 
Oklahoma Downtown Fort 
 Smith 
 
 Garris
 on Ave 
 
 
 
Garrison Avenue running west across the Arkansas River to Oklahoma, scale 2500 ft 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   32 
Any proposals for new transportation access downtown will need to address the 
efficiency and timing concerns of trucking companies who are hesitant to relinquish 
use of the U.S. highway. Instead, alternate shipping transportation routes satisfactory 
to all stakeholders will need to be proposed so that trucks can be diverted from the 
historic downtown. 
HISTORY OF PLANNING EFFORTS 
 
 
Early Garrison Avenue, undated (Experience Fort Smith)  
 
Looking south on First Street, man standing in front of T.H. Harrison Saloon. 
Circa 1896. (Fort Smith Historical Society Inc., Fort Smith Public Library) 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   33 
 
 
 (Fort Smith Historical Society Inc. – The Journal, April 1990; UAFS Library) 
 
R. Landry’s New Orleans Cafe on Garrison Avenue (cimls.com) 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   34 
 
 
 
Garrison Avenue, downtown Fort Smith (Best Hotel, YouTube.com) 
 
Cisterna Park and North 10th Street, downtown Fort Smith (courtesy Jennifer Kohnke)  
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   35 
 
In 1977, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) visited Fort Smith at the behest of 
local Fort Smith architects, planners, and business leaders. These residents requested 
the AIA perform a site analysis of downtown Fort Smith along with a proposed master 
plan and recommendations to increase economic vitality. The result was an eighty-
three page document called A Study of Garrison Avenue and the Central Business 
Improvement District: A Study of Garrison Avenue, Fort Smith, Arkansas, (AIA R/UDAT, 
1977). The study analyzed opportunities and barriers to development, provided both 
economic and urban redesign recommendations, and stated existing socioeconomic 
data of the time. There is still a question as to whether many—or any—of the 
recommendations were implemented. 
 
The history of Fort Smith Transit began in 1996 when the City of Fort Smith sought to 
create a citywide transportation network to meet residents’ needs. The city entered a 
contract with a private service called Community Resource Group (CRG) to begin 
serving the city.14 According to “Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit Plan of the Fort Smith 
Transit (FST)”: 
 
“The CRG began its initial service in Fort Smith with five 25 passenger 
buses...CRG chose to serve the Fort Smith residents by operating their entire 
fleet as demand response. In August of 1997, the City of Fort Smith assumed all 
operations of the CRG system. Upon separation of the private enterprise, what 
was known as the Fort Smith Public Transit became the City of Fort Smith, 
Transit Department or Fort Smith Transit... in 1998... Demand response services 
began operating in two different directions, clockwise and counter-clockwise. 
Routine points of interest were identified using this method of transportation 
which ultimately lead to the development of the fixed route system. The fixed 
routes were implemented in June of 1999 and expansion routes were added in 
2001... Ridership has been on a steady incline since inception of the fixed 
routes... In 2008 FST modified its paratransit system operations from the 
traditional hub and spoke fashion to a route assignment method to reduce the 
number of transfers and provide more efficient ride times for passengers. FST 
tightened its controls throughout the eligibility re-certification process to render 
availability for additional paratransit registrants. Some additional services were 
trimmed back to accompany the recertification process at that time.”9  
 
14 City of Fort Smith, Arkansas. (2019). Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit Plan of the Fort Smith Transit (FST). Transit Department. 
http://www.fortsmithar.gov/index.php/component/jdownloads/send/30-transit/2957-ada-paratransit-plan?option=com_jdownloads 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   36 
  
In 2017, under the direction of local non-profit organization 64.6 Downtown and 
independent planning consultancy firm Gateway Planning from Dallas, Texas, residents 
of Fort Smith were invited to participate in a community design charrette; visioning 
exercises helped to establish community identity and a cohesive vision for the future. 
Through a series of design workshops and brainstorming, the resulting feedback 
became the basis of a published document titled Propelling Downtown Forward: A 
Downtown Initiative: Fort Smith, Arkansas. This document can be found on the City of 
Fort Smith website. In the document, residents developed a Master Plan for the City 
including a vision for future mobility and transportation. One of the transportation 
suggestions provided by stakeholders was that the historic trolley route should be re-
envisioned as a viable form of public transportation; currently, it serves only as a tourist 
attraction (64.6 Downtown and Gateway Planning, 2017, pgs. 14 & 37). This suggestion 
is in line with the original historic use of the trolley beginning in 1893 when the first 
electric trolleys transported residents along Garrison Avenue (www.fstm.org). This 
trolley system was one of the first substantial measures taken toward planning in Fort 
Smith. 
 
The results from the charrettes showed that a major concern by residents is pedestrian 
safety. Due to the current width of Garrison Avenue, vehicular traffic travels at high 
speeds (64.6 Downtown and Gateway Planning, 2017, p. 45). The avenue also serves a 
high volume of traffic. “Garrison Avenue is a primary traffic artery handling over 20,000 
vehicles a day, many of which are passing through the community. A major challenge 
for this corridor relates to the truck traffic that passes through destined to industrial 
businesses and services within Downtown,” (64.6 Downtown and Gateway Planning, 
2017, p. 46). Community stakeholders present at the design charrettes provided 
feedback for the type of transit station amenities they would like to see downtown. 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   37 
EXISTING CONDITIONS 
CONTEXT 
The City of Fort Smith Planning Department classifies the city into a number of different 
development zones. These zones are mixed-use industrial, open space, general 
commercial, mixed-use residential, regional center, public/institutional land, residential 
attached, office research, office research and light industrial, greenway/parks, industry, 
extra territorial jurisdiction (ETJ) commercial neighborhood, commercial neighborhood, 
ETJ light industrial, and residential detached. These zones help explain the existing bus 
route patterns currently serviced by Fort Smith Transit. 
 
The City of Fort Smith lacks a large-scale public bus system with sufficient frequent 
routes. Although it requires further study, an additional concern is that the existing 
transportation system network in Fort Smith does not adequately access the sensitive 
populations in this study; therefore, it does not sufficiently serve their needs. The City 
of Fort Smith operates a fixed bus transit system called “Fort Smith Transit.” This 
transit currently operates Mondays through Saturdays during average workday times. 
Of the six routes currently in operation, five of them “begin and end Downtown, 
allowing for transfers,” (64.6 Downtown and Gateway Planning, 2017, p. 57). A map 
entitled “Fort Smith Transit Department Fixed Route Bus System” found on the City of 
Fort Smith website visually confirms the five downtown bus routes currently operated 
by Fort Smith Transit.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fort Smith Transit Department Fixed Route Bus System map 
 (fortsmithar.gov). See Appendix F. Fort Smith Transit Department Fixed 
Route Bus System. 
 
 
Per the Fort Smith Transit Department Fixed Route Bus System map, all but one route 
operate Monday through Saturday from 7:00 am to 6:00 pm; the other route only 
operates Monday through Fridays during the same time framt. Outside of the 
downtown area only one route travels throughout the north end of town; three routes 
cover the east and southeast, and two others take passengers into the southern part of 
the city. Bus route transfer times appear to be approximately once per hour. Along 
most of the streets, bus travel is in only one direction except on the busiest corridors 
where buses travel in both directions.  
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   39 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 3:  
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   40 
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 
In the city of Fort Smith and in particular for disabled and senior citizen residents, these 
populations and others have every right to equal and equitable access to public 
transportation services as any other resident. These populations should be able to 
count on a reasonable travel distance from home to bus stop, count on buses arriving 
in a timely manner, and that riders can expect to be dropped off close to their desired 
destination. The unique physical challenges for the disabled and senior citizens 
regarding mobility should not hinder them from arriving at their destination. Behind the 
concept of equal access to the city for all peoples lies several ideas, namely issues of 
transportation equity and mobility justice, a “right” to the city, and general planning 
theory. Several notable writers on these subjects are Henri Lefebvre, I. Marion Young, 
Susan Fainstein, Edward W. Soja, and Jon E. Burkhardt.  
 
One of the first modern-day conceptualizers of the idea that every individual deserved 
equal access to the place in which they lived was writer Henri Lefebvre. In 1967 he 
published the article “Le droit a la ville” (“Right to the City”) in the French journal 
L’Homme et la Societe (“Man and Society”).15 In his article, Lefebvre wrote about a 
need to redefine cities as spaces that are created by multiple entities and peoples to 
make it into a space that benefits all. Lefebvre wrote that cities were becoming 
increasingly unequal spaces (spatial inequalities). In this same way, the City of Fort 
Smith is prone to having developed spatial inequalities either consciously or 
unconsciously that pose challenges for particular population segments. In addition to 
physical spatial inequities, many cities have been created for people who hold 
positions of privilege and power by these very same people. A perfect example of this 
is the concept of redlining.  
 
As defined by the Consumer Compliance Handbook of the U.S. Federal Reserve, 
redlining is described as “the practice of denying a creditworthy applicant a loan for 
 
15 Lefebvre, Henri. “Le droit a la ville.” L’Homme et la Societe, no. 6, (1967): 29-35. 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   41 
housing in a certain neighborhood even though the applicant may otherwise be eligible 
for the loan. The term refers to the presumed practice of mortgage lenders of drawing 
red lines around portions of a map to indicate areas or neighborhoods in which they do 
not want to make loans,” (2006, p. 1). In the post-World War II era and through the 
1960s and 1970s, the practice of redlining was upheld by local real estate agents who 
used the drawn maps to steer families of color away from desirable (“White”) 
neighborhoods. Banks and other loan lenders participated in the practice as well by 
refusing to loan money to non-Whites for the purchase of new homes.  
 
 
 
Map from Home Owners' Loan Corporation showing redlining in the city of Philadelphia, 1936 
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redlining) 
 
Iris Marion Young discusses the concepts of exclusion in planning decisions and 
touches upon the idea that political discourse is inherently biased in her 2002 book, 
Inclusion and Democracy.16 In it, she provides suggestions for methods that are more 
inclusive of populations and argues for the concept known today as equity: that is, 
creating systems or tools that enable populations that have historically been 
 
16 Young, Iris Marion. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ProQuest eBook Central. 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   42 
discriminated against to have the same levels of opportunity as those who have 
historically held power. Although more research needs to be done in this area as part 
of Future Research, others may want to consider within the scope of planning decision 
making in Fort Smith and who has—and hasn’t--been traditionally involved in the 
process. Within the confines of Fort Smith’s city limits, populations of senior citizens 
and the disabled are expected to live more or less within the vicinity of a close bus 
stop. A study of GIS data will confirm approximately where these populations are 
located at the block group spatial data level in relation to Fort Smith Transit public 
transportation routes.  
 
In his paper entitled, “Transit Access and Population Change: The Demographic 
Profiles of Rail-Accessible Neighborhoods in the Washington, DC Area,” Brian 
McKenzie writes that his findings show that demographic populations who live closest 
to rail station hubs differ from populations found elsewhere in the city. For example, 
studies show that younger and more educated residents live closest to transit centers 
(McKenzie, 2015, p. 1). This lends itself to the idea that minority and disabled 
populations live farther from public transportation hubs and therefore have a greater 
need to access these systems.  
 
An article by Ruth Neal for the Transportation Equity newsletter reveals stark and 
specific data on discrimination of minority groups in public transportation. She writes: 
 
 “… According to 1991 and 1992 census data collected in its Survey of Income 
and Program Participation (SIPP), African Americans and other minorities are 
over represented among the disabled. The rate is highest among Native 
Americans (21.9%), followed closely by African Americans (20%). Census data 
further revealed that the rate of severe disability is highest among African 
Americans (12.2%), followed by Native Americans (9.8%). Data also revealed a 
higher level of disability among women, with minority women, Native Americans 
(21.8%) and African Americans (21.7%) leading the pack,” (Neal, 2001, p. 1). 
 
Neal goes on to explain that African-American women—and particularly, disabled 
African-American women—are the most likely to be discriminated against because 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   43 
they have all three discriminatory factors against them: being disabled, being a 
minority, and being female (Neal, 2001, p.1). 
 
Discrimination against minority populations does not just involve behavioral and related 
customer service measures. Infrequent service times and inequitable routes for 
minority populations also means they are at a greater disadvantage for access to 
healthy food and employment options. In “Considering Public Transit: New Insights 
into Job and Healthy Food Access for Low-Income Residents in Baltimore, Maryland,” 
Plano, Darby, Shaffer, and Jadud write that a large number of minority populations 
depend upon public transportation systems for access to these basic needs (2015, p. 
65).       
 
As examples of places where public transportation options have been seamlessly 
provided for residents, Burkhardt states case studies in Uppsala, Sweden; Mesa, 
Arizona; Big Stone Gap, Virginia; and London, England, (2003, pp. 107-8). Brian 
McKenzie notes successful case studies around the metro Washington, DC, area 
including Fairfax County, Virginia; Montgomery County, Maryland; Prince Georges 
County, Maryland; and Alexandria City, Virginia, among others (2015, p. 1).  
 
Other researchers analyzed the effectiveness of equity issues in transportation 
planning; they also monitored follow-up studies to determine how these are being 
measured. In their article, “Integrating Social Equity into Urban Transportation 
Planning,” Manaugh, Badami, and El-Geneidy find that measuring the effectiveness of 
equity outcomes are often not a priority; instead, jurisdictions tend to place emphasis 
on environmental issues and reducing carbon pollution from personal vehicles (2015, 
p. 167). In their study, they evaluated the effectiveness of equity measures in eighteen 
large metropolitan areas in North America. Their findings revealed this lack of attention 
to the problem; the findings pose both solutions and ways to “better [integrate] social 
equity into urban transportation plans,” (Manaugh, Badami, and El-Geneidy, 2015, p. 
167). 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   44 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 4:  
FINDINGS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   45 
The senior citizen and disabled populations of Fort Smith encounter equity barriers to 
public transportation in different ways. Both populations are similar in that they may 
encounter mobility challenges that make it difficult for them to travel a reasonable 
distance from their homes to the closest bus route. In addition, there may be timing 
issues in which it simply takes them longer to travel from Point A (e.g., place of 
residence) to Point B (e.g., the bus stop). However, some senior citizens may actually 
be quite physically mobile and so for them timing is not an issue; however, they may 
be dependent on public transportation because it is no longer safe for them to drive—
or it may just be more convenient to take public transportation instead. Also, those 
who have disabilities may not be physically challenged but they could be mentally 
challenged or vice versa. So, while both populations might potentially encounter the 
same mobility challenges this also might not be the case. Either way, both groups may 
be limited by their levels of personal independence and therefore rely on public 
transportation.  
Another challenge unrelated to the physical mobility of these two populations is that as 
residents expand eastward within the City of Fort Smith’s boundaries, infrastructures 
such as the public transportation system have not always caught up with ridership 
need.   
CONTENT ANALYSIS 
A content analysis was performed on several transportation related documents 
provided by the City of Fort Smith, the State of Arkansas, and regional planning 
organizations. The purpose of the content analysis is to determine the extent to which 
city and regional municipalities have prioritized the concepts of justice, equity, and civil 
rights for riders of Fort Smith Transit based on the terminology used in their official 
documents; this is reflected in the organizations’ written regulations and codification. 
This prioritization is demonstrated through the frequency of particular words, terms, 
phrases, or intention of meaning used in the documents themselves: the more 
frequently a term or phrase is used indicates a greater priority of the issue. If not 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   46 
mentioned, this indicates the concept may not have been considered in the planning 
process. In performing content analysis, the categories were liberally counted as 
existing within a given document if there was even a vague indication of the concept 
within the context of a sentence or paragraph. 
 
In order to properly analyze the transportation documents to determine the extent to 
which the agencies prioritized particular issues the following categories of terms, 
phrases, or concepts were considered in this study: transportation justice, civil rights in 
the South, civil rights in Arkansas, transit equity, mobility justice, and spatial justice.  
These concepts were selected for research because they indicate consideration of 
equitable access and accommodation of all member groups. They also indicate an 
awareness of past histories of lack of equal access to public transportation for others. 
The usage of these terms in written format are indicators of moving forward to rectify 
that past. Six documents are provided by the City of Fort Smith via their website 
(specifically the Transit Department webpage), and one document each is provided by 
Western Arkansas Planning & Development District and Frontier Metropolitan Planning 
Organization. The majority of the documents are provided by the City of Fort Smith 
itself as this is the entity responsible for the operation of Fort Smith Transit; the other 
sources indicate consideration of these study factors at the regional scale.  
 
The documents selected for content analysis were: “Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit 
Plan of the Fort Smith Transit (FST) - 2019 [ADA],” “2005-2009 ACS Census data - 
Languages spoken,” “Title VI Program, Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan,” 
“Fort Smith Transit: Ride Guide,” “River Valley Transportation Providers,” “Fort Smith 
Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary Report,” and “2040: The New Frontier 
- Frontier MPO Metropolitan Transportation Plan.” 
 
The methods used to calculate scores are numerical: an indicator score of 0 (“zero”) 
reflects that the term or concept is not present at all in the document, a 1 (“one”) 
indicates there is one mention of or reference to the concept, and a score of 2 (“two”) 
indicates the concept was mentioned two or more times throughout the document. 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   47 
Normally, intercoder reliability would be performed with at least one other reader to 
strengthen validity of the data but in this case the content analysis was performed only 
once. Therefore, it is possible some terminology may have been missed. [See 
Appendix B for summaries of each of the key policy documents.] 
 
CONTENT ANALYSIS CODES 
TRANSPORTATION JUSTICE 
According to The Praxis Project, a national organization committed to social change, 
the organization’s website describes transportation justice as “an equitable 
transportation system [which] provides users with access to safe, reliable and 
affordable modes of transportation including public transit, walking, and biking.” The 
site goes on to say, “Access to transportation is critical to promoting health because it 
allows individuals to move around freely and connects them to resources such as 
employment opportunities, schools, healthcare services, and parks and recreational 
spaces.”17 
 
CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE SOUTH 
The term Civil Rights is defined by Encyclopaedia Britannica as “[guaranteeing]... equal 
social opportunities and equal protection under the law, regardless of race, religion, or 
other personal characteristics.”18 “Civil Rights in the South” refers to Civil Rights in the 
American U.S. Southern region, specifically, so it is ensuring all peoples are equally 
protected by federal law within the U.S. South. 
 
CIVIL RIGHTS IN ARKANSAS 
The definition of civil rights is the same as above but “Civil Rights in Arkansas” refers 
to the protection of these rights specifically as they pertain to individuals within the 
U.S. State of Arkansas. 
 
17 The Praxis Project. “Transportation Justice.” https://www.thepraxisproject.org/transportation-justice 
18 Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Civil Rights.” https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-rights 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   48 
TRANSIT EQUITY 
According to a paper from the Victoria Transport Policy Institute, transit equity, also 
known as transportation equity, falls into one of three different classifications: 
horizontal, vertical pertaining to social class or income, and vertical pertaining to 
physical ability and mobility.19 In this case, the latter is most relevant to this study. A 
paper by Todd Litman describes vertical equity regarding physical ability as being “... 
concerned with the distribution of impacts between individuals and groups that differ in 
mobility ability and need, and therefore the degree to which the transportation system 
meets the needs of travelers with mobility impairments. This definition is used to 
support universal design (also called accessible and inclusive design), which means 
that transport facilities and services accommodate all users, including those with 
special needs,” (Litman, 2020, p. 4). 
 
MOBILITY JUSTICE 
A 2016 conference of justice advocates held in Atlanta, Georgia, developed a 
document called Principles of Mobility Justice. At this conference, they described 
mobility justice this way: “Mobility justice demands that ‘safety’ and equitable mobility 
address not only the construction of our streets but the socioeconomic, cultural, and 
discriminatory barriers to access and comfort different communities experience within 
public spaces. We must shift focus from the modes of transit people use to the bodies 
and identities of the people using those modes by centering the experiences of 
marginalized individuals and the most vulnerable communities. It acknowledges that 
safety is different for different people, and should be defined by those most 
economically and legally vulnerable,” (Untokening, 2016). 
 
 
19 Litman, Todd. “Evaluating Transportation Equity: Guidance for Incorporating Distributional Impacts in Transportation Planning.” 
Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2020): 1-70. Web. 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   49 
SPATIAL JUSTICE 
The term spatial justice was first developed by planning theorist Ed Soja in his book 
Seeking Spatial Justice. According to the website 100 Resilient Cities, the term refers 
to empowering the community via the equitable distribution of resources as well as 
realizing there is more than one accepted user experience.20 The concept recognizes 
that spatial relationships create inequalities which are replicated.  
 
KEY THEMES 
There are three major themes that stand out from the content analysis of documents; 
at least two of these themes nearly directly relate to the senior citizen and disabled 
populations. These three themes are: 1) awareness of and sensitivity toward vulnerable 
populations; 2) awareness of the need to reduce barriers; and 3) vocalized support for 
federal legislation. The themes of awareness of vulnerable populations and reducing 
barriers both relate to senior citizens and the disabled because both of these 
populations are considered vulnerable. Both groups would also benefit from a 
reduction of barriers to accessing public transportation. However, even the theme of 
support for federal legislation may indirectly apply to these populations if the particular 
legislation results in a benefit to senior citizens or the disabled. 
 
AWARENESS OF VULNERABLE POPULATIONS 
 
The first theme, awareness of and sensitivity toward vulnerable populations, is 
indicated in three of the documents: “Fort Smith Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey 
Summary Report,” “River Valley Transportation Providers,” and “Fort Smith Transit: 
Public Participation Plan.” This theme is referred to several times in the document titled 
“Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan.” 
 
In “Fort Smith Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary Report,” the document 
states: “Most of the on-demand riders had some sort of a disability," (Fort Smith 
 
20 Twombly, S. “Teaching Spatial Justice.” (2014). 100 Resilient Cities. http://www.100resilientcities.org/teaching-spatial-justice/ 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   50 
Transit, 2018, p. 4). The report writers did not indicate how the disabilities of 
respondents were determined but the report was based on a survey of riders; 
therefore, the presence of a disability was likely self-indicated. Still, it is important to 
note that analysis of the survey results indicates awareness of this vulnerable 
population.  
 
In “River Valley Transportation Providers,” the document states: "The formation of the 
River Valley Transportation Providers has been effective in the dissemination of 
classified informational documents relating to the nations [sic] security since 9-11 and 
proved valuable during the relief efforts of Hurricane Katrina,” (City of Fort Smith, n.d., 
p. 1). This statement vaguely refers to the concept of transit equity and by extension, 
awareness of vulnerable populations—in this case, Hurricane Katrina evacuees--
through the Providers’ work in making sure this vulnerable population received 
information it needed in a timely manner. Although the document does not specifically 
refer to senior citizens or the disabled, the awareness of the needs of vulnerable 
populations in general is key.  
 
Finally, the document “Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan” refers to 
vulnerable populations in three different places. First, it states: "Efforts will be made in 
the transportation planning and programming process to: Assure participation by 
traditionally underserved individuals, including elderly, low income and minority 
individuals, persons with disabilities, and persons with Limited English Proficiency 
(LEP). Ascertain what Non-English languages and barriers exist to provide participation 
in the Fort Smith area. Provide public meeting notifications in a manner 
comprehensible to all populations in the service area. Provide transportation to public 
meetings free of charge. Apply any and all concerns received from all populations on 
an equal manner,” (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 1). This statement directly refers to 
senior citizens (“elderly”) and “persons with disabilities”; it refers to other vulnerable 
populations as well so there is direct reference to the need for involvement of these 
populations in the planning process. There is no mention of the need to make the 
spatial design of buses more equitable or to otherwise ensure physical access to these 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   51 
populations in some way although the statement says they will assess what barriers 
may exist.  
 
The second statement in “Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan” is one of 
several in a bullet-point list that indicates in part: "...Seek out and consider the needs 
of those traditionally underserved by existing transportation systems, including but not 
limited to low-income and minority households,” (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p.8). This 
statement is referring to transit equity but it also indicates an awareness of and 
sensitivity to the needs of multiple types of vulnerable populations.  
 
The third and final reference to vulnerable populations in the same document is: 
"Pursuant to Executive Order 12898, Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice 
in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations, dated February 11, 1994, and 
the subsequent U.S. Department of Transportation Order 5680.3, issued April 15, 
1997, FST promotes Environmental Justice in all aspects of the transportation 
process," (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 4). This statement refers to the awareness of and 
need for protections of all populations. 
 
NEED TO REDUCE BARRIERS 
All three documents contain references to an awareness of reducing ridership barriers. 
The document titled “Fort Smith Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary 
Report” states as part of its conclusion, “More assessments for reducing 
transportation infrastructure barriers and improving transit for the community are 
recommended," (City of Fort Smith, 2018, p. 18). This quote is directly stating the need 
for reducing barriers to ridership.  
 
There are a few quotes contained in the document “Fort Smith Transit: Public 
Participation Plan” which indicate an awareness and prioritization of the need to 
reduce barriers. One of the quotes references transit equity for riders. This quote 
states: “Fort Smith Transit has identified agencies receiving transit voucher assistance 
through the Transportation Assistance Program (TAP) as stakeholders. TAP agencies 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   52 
provide great insight into the transportation needs of their clients. These agencies have 
been and continue to be instrumental in overcoming barriers that may not be 
understood by officials more familiar with the provisions of transit services.  Appendix 
B is a list of TAP agencies/stakeholders for the Fort Smith Transit Department,” (City of 
Fort Smith, 2017, p. 2). The quote is referring to a need for the use of vouchers in the 
form of payment for riders who cannot afford the bus fare; it also indicates overcoming 
any existing barriers for riders outside of cost. Both instances indicate that addressing 
barriers which limit passenger ridership or produce hardships for them is a priority for 
Fort Smith Transit.  
 
The other quote in “Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan” which indicates an 
awareness and prioritization of the need to reduce barriers states, “The Transportation 
Assistance Program (TAP) was formed by the Transit Advisory Commission to provide 
local human service agencies with limited free transportation vouchers to assist their 
clients in obtaining public transportation to access basic services in emergency 
situations. The TAP program was developed following numerous requests from 
agencies and individuals indicating the base transportation fare presented a barrier in 
obtaining basic needs. Human service agencies may complete an application for 
commission consideration and must present information regarding their agency’s 
needs and services. Each participating agency establishes select criteria for 
determining client eligibility. Approved agencies are issued an allotted quantity of 
tickets per month and are required to document the necessity of each passenger trip 
as it relates to the program purpose. Transportation vouchers will not be issued 
directly to individuals from the commission or Fort Smith Transit.  Please contact the 
Transit Department at 783-6464 for more information pertaining to the program,” (City 
of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 9). This quote, like the first, is also a reference to transit equity 
issues for riders. The second quote specifically notes the Transportation Assistance 
Program again and its vouchers as a method to overcome fee cost barriers. 
 
Finally, three separate quotes in the document titled “Fort Smith Transit: Ride Guide” 
refer to an awareness of the need to reduce barriers for transit riders. The first quote 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   53 
states: “For Hearing Impaired- Dial 7-1-1 For Arkansas Relay Service,” (City of Fort 
Smith, 2016, p. 1). Although the statement is direct and to the point it highlights a 
transit equity issue for the hearing impaired by providing an alternative method of 
information access. The lack of information access can, in itself, be a barrier for the 
hard of hearing. A second quote says, “A separate brochure titled “Fort Smith Transit 
Passenger Regulations” is available upon request and can be provided in an alternate 
language or braille,” (City of Fort Smith, 2016, p. 4). This statement like the one 
proceeding it refers to alternative methods of information access for those with sight 
limitations or blindness; the availability of a document in braille will reduce barriers for 
that population. Finally, the third quote says: “Please contact the transit office should 
you need special assistance,” (City of Fort Smith, 2016, p. 4). Although this statement 
is vague in many ways, it indicates a willingness of Fort Smith Transit to be available 
for any additional ridership needs thus further reducing barriers. 
 
SUPPORT FOR FEDERAL LEGISLATION 
Regarding stated support for federal legislation to ensure passenger civil rights, the 
document “Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan” references nearly the same 
quotation twice.  
 
The first time Fort Smith Transit refers to the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient 
Transportation Equity Act, the agency produces the statement in full. The full statement 
says: "As delineated in the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity 
Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), federal law and regulations require a planning 
process be conducted to consider projects, planning strategies, and implementation 
methods that will: 1. Support the economic vitality of the metropolitan area, especially 
by enabling global competitiveness, productivity, and efficiency; 2. Increase the safety 
of the transportation system for motorized and non-motorized users; 3. Increase the 
security of the transportation system for motorized and non-motorized users; 4. 
Increase accessibility and mobility; 5. Protect and enhance the environment, promote 
energy conservation, improve the quality of life, and promote consistency between 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   54 
transportation improvements and State and local planned growth and economic 
development patterns; 6. Enhance the integration and connectivity of the 
transportation system, across and between modes; 7. Promote efficient system 
management and operation; and 8. Emphasize the preservation of the existing 
transportation system,” (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 3).  
 
Taken as a whole, the full statement acknowledges overall an adherence to federal 
guidelines and by extension suggests an abidance by them. The second time these 
federal guidelines are referenced is also on page three but here the full statement is 
abbreviated. Instead of the full statement referenced above this quote says: “As 
delineated in the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A 
Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), federal law and regulations require a planning 
process be conducted to consider projects, planning strategies, and implementation 
methods that will: ...Increase accessibility and mobility,” (City of Fort Smith, 2017). 
Here, the statement only refers to the barrier of increasing accessibility and mobility. 
However, the fact that the federal guidelines are repeated throughout the document 
indicates Fort Smith Transit recognizes the importance of following these guidelines.  
 
The final indication of Fort Smith Transit’s support for federal legislation or guidelines is 
indicated in the following quote. The quote states: “Pursuant to Executive Order 12898, 
Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-
Income Populations, dated February 11, 1994, and the subsequent U.S. Department of 
Transportation Order 5680.3, issued April 15, 1997, FST promotes Environmental 
Justice in all aspects of the transportation process.  These procedures augment and 
reaffirm the policy to adhere to and advance the principles of the National 
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title 
VI), the Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 
1970 (URA) as amended, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 
(ISTEA), Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) as amended, the Safe, 
Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users 
(SAFETEA-LU), and other statutes, regulations and guidance that address or affect 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   55 
infrastructure planning and decision making; social, economic, or environmental 
matters; public health; and public involvement.  To these ends, notices of meetings 
and public hearings will be specifically provided in minority and ethnic gathering places 
to promote participation in the transportation planning process.  Minority and ethnic 
communities will be monitored through census data to guarantee their inclusion in the 
process as populations fluctuate over time.  Special accommodations (e.g. interpreter, 
sign language interpreter, large print copy, etc.) may be requested of FST during 
normal business hours at least five (5) business days prior to the meeting.  FST will 
attempt to accommodate all such requests,” (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 4). This 
statement contains within it several references to equity and environmental justice, and 
the rights of riders as framed by federal legislative policies. Its inclusion within the 
document and the continued reference back to the transit entity itself (Fort Smith 
Transit) indicates the importance the provider places on abiding by federal guidelines. 
 
CONTENT ANALYSIS TAKEAWAYS 
The results of the content analysis showed a number of patterns. One was that 
throughout all the policy documents analyzed, there is repeated indication or reference 
to the concept of transit equity. Although the term itself is not ever explicitly stated the 
intention behind the concept is always implied or inferred. There is also repeated 
reference to the disabled or those with physical mobility challenges. The transit system 
continually states how it is assisting in overcoming barriers for this population. The 
content analysis showed the most commonly inferred categories of analysis were 
transit equity (15+), mobility justice (6), and transportation justice (5+); the least 
mentioned concepts were spatial justice (4), civil rights in Arkansas (3), and civil rights 
in the South (2). (Of note: the specific population terms “senior citizens,” “seniors,” and 
“disabled” or “disability” were not counted although they were occasionally seen in the 
documents). 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   56 
GIS ANALYSIS 
A GIS analysis was performed using publicly available U.S. Census data and data 
requested from the State of Arkansas GIS Office. The GIS analysis visually shows 
readers where the populations reside spatially in relation to both the six main existing 
bus routes managed by Fort Smith Transit and necessary basic amenities such as 
schools, emergency services, and healthcare resources. This analysis is a visual 
representation of data that was not achievable via in-person interviews or surveys of 
Fort Smith residents due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 
 
As noted in the Introduction to this paper, populations of senior citizens and the 
disabled were selected for data analysis. These populations were selected because 
they both potentially involve mobility issues and share spatial access challenges; 
therefore, they encounter similar barriers in that sense. Both populations may have a 
limited distance they are capable of traveling from home to the nearest bus route to 
reach their intended destination.  
 
In gathering GIS data related to schools, emergency services, and healthcare 
resources, each of these broad categories was broken down into more specific 
entities. GIS shape file location data was requested from the State of Arkansas GIS 
Office on the following: K-12 public school structures, public four-year university 
structures, law enforcement structures, fire station structures, long-term health care 
facilities, hospitals, emergency medical services, community health centers, Veterans 
Affairs, long-term health units, and hospital related services. 
 
For the purposes of GIS mapping, each of the above entities was collapsed into a 
merged data layer in ArcMap in the following manner. Note that the only exception was 
for the senior citizen population where K-12 structure data was manually removed from 
the Schools map due to the unlikelihood of a senior citizen being enrolled in K-12. The 
Schools layer consisted of K-12 public school structures and public four-year 
university structures shapefiles; the Emergency Services layer contained Law 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   57 
enforcement and Fire station structures shapefiles, and the Healthcare layer contained 
the following health-related GIS shapefiles: Long-term health care facilities, Hospitals, 
Emergency medical services, Community health center, Veterans Affairs, Long-term 
health units, and Hospital related services. 
 
GIS ArcMaps was used to display U.S. Census data regarding senior citizens and the 
disabled in the form of percentage ranges with each block group instead of stating raw 
number ranges. The rationale for this is that showing percentages will demonstrate 
how great the existence is (or not) of the populations within the block group as 
compared to the overall population. Therefore, the percentages more accurately reflect 
the degree to which the study population is affected by public transportation access. 
The raw numbers pulled from the census data, while accurate, do not necessarily 
demonstrate this same degree of the population affected. 
 
The U.S. Census website (data.census.gov) was used to find disabled and senior 
citizen populations in each block group within Fort Smith city limits. The Advanced 
Search option permitted a search for all block groups in Sebastian County, Arkansas, 
under the ‘Geography’ filter. To find data on the disabled, ‘Health’ and then ‘Disability’ 
were selected. The survey years and survey used were the 2018 American Community 
Survey 5-Year Estimates as this is the most recent data provided for the desired 
dataset search. There was no data table in the U.S. Census in 2018 that exclusively 
related to numbers of the disabled so the desired data had to be drawn from the data 
provided in another table and the results were manually manipulated in a spreadsheet 
using formulas to achieve the desired data. The U.S. Census data table used to find 
data regarding the disabled population in Fort Smith was:  
 
• Title: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS BY DISABILITY STATUS 
BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS FOR THE POPULATION 20 TO 64 YEARS 
• Survey/Program: American Community Survey 
• Product: 2018: ACS 5-Year Estimates Detailed Tables 
• TableID: B23024 
• Universe: Population 20 to 64 years for whom poverty status is determined 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   58 
 
The find data on the senior citizen population living in Fort Smith, Arkansas, block 
groups, the same process was used as above except the topic filters used were 
‘Populations and People,’ ‘Age and Sex.’ Here, the resulting data was distilled in a 
spreadsheet to only show residents of the Fort Smith block groups who are aged sixty-
five and older. Since the data from the U.S. Census is divided into age ranges at 
regular given intervals, the data was manipulated using formulas to count the total 
number of residents aged sixty-five and older. The U.S. Census data table used to find 
data regarding senior citizens in Fort Smith was: 
 
• Title: SEX BY AGE 
• Survey/Program: American Community Survey 
• Product: 2018: ACS 5-Year Estimates Detailed Tables 
• TableID: B01001 
• Universe: Total population 
 
The above data tables were downloaded from the U.S. Census website, imported into 
spreadsheets, and cleaned and prepared for use in ArcMaps. Note that the margins of 
error vary widely in the original census data for both data sets and within each block 
group. Therefore, the accuracy of the data may be low. 
 
In the process of creating the six ArcMaps to show the senior citizen and disabled 
data, each map has a base layer of a Google Earth image of Fort Smith. The basemap 
is merged with a block groups polygon (2010) provided by the State of Arkansas GIS 
Office to create a new layer. This layer is overlaid by another layer showing the census 
data regarding the respective populations within each block groups; the data are 
projected using the Equal Intervals classification. The six main bus routes serviced by 
Fort Smith Transit were individually hand-drawn as separate layers in ArcMaps and 
then merged into one joined layer for easy readability in the final maps. A one-quarter 
mile buffer zone was created surrounding all bus routes in order to show the distance 
these populations live from any local bus route. This buffer zone visually represents the 
suggested maximum distance senior citizens and the disabled should have to travel 
from their residences to reach the closest bus route line as these populations are 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   59 
challenged by mobility issues. On all six of the maps, these layers are overlaid with the 
appropriate merged layers mentioned previously which are categorized as Schools, 
Emergency Services, and Healthcare. 
 
DISABLED 
Disabled in Proximity to Emergency Services
^
^ ^
^
^ ^ ^
^
^
^ ^
^
^ ^
^
^
^ ^
Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus
DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community
Legend
Percentage of Disabled
0.0% - 7.7%
7.8% - 15.5%
15.6% - 23.2%
23.3% - 30.9% 0 0.75 1.5 3 4.5 6
31.0% - 38.6% Miles ¯
 
 
 
The map titled Disabled in Proximity to Emergency Services shows the majority of law 
enforcement departments or fire stations are located in the downtown corridor in the 
area of Rogers and Garrison Avenues; this area is well-serviced by nearly all of the six 
bus routes which overlap here. In addition, these are also the block groups showing 
the largest percentage of the disabled so this is good siting of both the routes and the 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   60 
services. Nearly all emergency services appear to lie within the quarter-mile buffer zone 
with the exception of two structures in the far east part of town. In the future, Fort 
Smith Transit may want to consider extending either the Rogers Avenue Express route 
or the Towson Avenue east branch route farther east to run directly to these sites. 
Disabled in Proximity to Healthcare
E
E
EE EE EE
E E
E
E
E EE EE
E E
E
E
E
E
Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus
DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community
Legend
Percentage of Disabled
0.0% - 7.7%
7.8% - 15.5%
15.6% - 23.2%
23.3% - 30.9% 0 0.75 1.5 3 4.5 6
31.0% - 38.6% Miles ¯
 
 
 
The map titled Disabled in Proximity to Healthcare shows the majority of healthcare 
related structures are either clustered in the downtown area in the west central side of 
the map or along Rogers Avenue. Rogers Avenue is already serviced by the Rogers 
Avenue Express route so this route as well as the Jenny Lind and Towson Avenue 
routes running south are well sited close to healthcare services. There is only one 
healthcare facility located in the north side of town and this is potentially problematic 
because it means residents in the north are not conveniently serviced by healthcare. 
There are currently a sufficient number of bus routes that run in the northern half of the 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   61 
city. One healthcare facility lies outside the quarter-mile buffer zone in the southern 
part of the city which could be a potential access issue for those with mobility 
challenges; the Jenny Lind route may want to consider shifting a few blocks east to 
reach this site since the area where it now lies contains the overlap of two quarter-mile 
buffer zones. On the far east side of town along Rogers Avenue, there is one additional 
healthcare facility on the border with the City of Barling that is currently outside the 
scope of any bus route as well as a second site just north of Rogers Avenue. Fort 
Smith Transit may want to consider extending the Rogers Avenue Express route east 
to reach this site or also implement a route branch that offshoots Rogers Avenue at a 
northeast angle to reach the second healthcare facility. 
 
Disabled in Proximity to Schools
n
n n
n
n
n
n n
nn
n
n n
n
n n
n
nn n
n
n
n
nn
n
Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus
DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community
Legend
Percentage of Disabled
0.0% - 7.7%
7.8% - 15.5%
15.6% - 23.2%
23.3% - 30.9% 0 0.75 1.5 3 4.5 6
31.0% - 38.6% Miles ¯
 
 
 
The map titled Disabled in Proximity to Schools shows that the majority of K-12 
schools are located within the quarter-mile buffer zone which means they are also 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   62 
accessible by a current bus route. However, there is a school at both the north and 
south sides of town as well as two schools outside any bus route or buffer zone in the 
central part of the city. The current bus routes at the north and south sides of town, 
Midland Avenue and Jenny Lind, respectively, may want to consider adjusting their 
routes to accommodate these schools within the quarter-mile buffer zone. For the 
schools located in the center of town, new eastern lines may need to be added to the 
Towson Avenue route to accommodate these schools. 
 
SENIOR CITIZENS 
Senior Citizens in Proximity to Emergency Services
^
^ ^
^
^ ^ ^
^
^
^ ^
^
^ ^
^
^
^ ^
Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus
DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community
Legend
Percentage of Senior Citizens
2.4% - 11.6%
11.6% - 20.7%
20.7% - 29.9%
29.9% - 39.0% 0 0.75 1.5 3 4.5 6
Miles
39.0% - 48.2% ¯  
 
 
The map titled Senior Citizens in Proximity to Emergency Services shows the greatest 
percentage of senior citizens live in the far northeast side of town at the border with the 
eastern branch of the Arkansas River. It should be noted that no bus route currently 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   63 
runs to this far northeast side of town for those living in these block groups. A new bus 
route branch could be extended off of the Rogers Avenue Express route or the Rogers 
Avenue Walmart Supercenter route to reach these residents. As also noted on the prior 
Disabled in Proximity to Emergency Services map, there are two additional emergency 
service locations in the far southeast block group; another route should be extended to 
reach eastward to these. 
 
Senior Citizens in Proximity to Healthcare
E
E
EE EE EE
E E
E
E
E EE EE
E E
E
E
E
E
Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus
DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community
Legend
Percentage of Senior Citizens
2.4% - 11.6%
11.6% - 20.7%
20.7% - 29.9%
29.9% - 39.0% 0 0.75 1.5 3 4.5 6
Miles
39.0% - 48.2% ¯  
 
 
 
 
As noted in the map entitled Senior Citizens in Proximity to Emergency Services, the 
maps depicting senior citizens show that the majority of this population lives in the far 
northeast side of town at the city border. There are two healthcare facilities sited in 
these densely populated areas that do not have access to a nearby bus route. These 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   64 
two sites are located closest to the Rogers Avenue Express route so again, a new 
northeast extension off this route may want to be considered. 
 
Senior Citizens in Proximity to Higher Education
mn
Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus
DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community
Legend
Percentage of Senior Citizens
2.4% - 11.6%
11.6% - 20.7%
20.7% - 29.9%
29.9% - 39.0% 0 0.75 1.5 3 4.5 6
Miles
39.0% - 48.2% ¯
 
 
 
 
The University of Arkansas Fort Smith is the only four-year institution of higher 
education in Fort Smith. It lies within easy access to a number of bus routes serviced 
by Fort Smith Transit and within several overlapping quarter-mile buffer zones. 
However, if retired senior citizens want to take or audit university courses there, the 
greatest percentage of seniors living in the northeast corner of the city are not within a 
reasonable access of any bus route to reach the university. It is recommended that 
Fort Smith Transit extend their eastern bus routes into these block groups so that 
seniors can access university privileges. Seniors living, too, in the southeast corner of 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   65 
town cannot reach the university as well and so the Rogers Avenue Express route 
should be extended into these areas. 
 
GIS TAKEAWAYS 
The GIS analysis used spatial and U.S. Census demographic data to study the 
relationships between places of residence of senior citizens and the disabled and basic 
transportation needs. A few things were noted from the results.  
 
From GIS spatial data, the populations of both groups tend to live primarily in either the 
center of town or in the same block groups in the far southeast corner of the city. It 
was also noted that the greatest percentage of senior citizens live on the far northeast 
side of the city where it borders the Arkansas River; the percentages of senior citizens 
there range from 20.7% to nearly half the inhabitants of the block group at 48.2%.  
The greatest percentage of senior citizens live far outside the quarter-mile buffer zone 
without access to any bus route. Based on the scale of the GIS maps created for this 
study, senior citizens live three-eighths to three-quarters of a mile from the further edge 
of the closest buffer zone to the centers of the block groups with the highest 
percentage of senior citizens. In addition, there are bus routes that need to either be 
added or extended, mainly on the eastern side of town, to reach these populations. 
 
A side by side comparison of created GIS maps showing block groups with the highest 
percentages of senior citizens and disabled compared with the GIS parcel zoning map, 
below, from the City of Fort Smith website shows a few key things.  
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   66 
 
Web-based Public GIS Viewer map showing City of Fort Smith parcel zoning. No legend or scale 
provided. (City of Fort Smith, http://gisapps.fortsmithar.gov/javascript/ParcelMap.html)     
 
 
First of all, the greatest percentage of the disabled tend to be clustered mostly in what 
the city classifies as regional center zoning (in darkest red, below) on the far west side 
of the city. The next greatest percentage of the disabled live in mixed-use residential 
(olive green) and commercial neighborhood (yellow) zones, as well as general 
commercial (pink) and public/institutional zones (lavender). By comparison, the 
greatest percentage of senior citizens by far live in commercial neighborhood and open 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   67 
space (green) zones directly along the Arkansas River to the north on the northeast 
side.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   68 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 5:  
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   69 
ROUTE EXTENSIONS 
Fort Smith Transit should consider altering a few existing bus routes to better service 
disabled and senior citizen residents who live outside of the routes. For example, either 
the Rogers Avenue Express route or the Towson Avenue east branch routes could be 
extended farther east to run directly to two additional emergency services sites within 
the southeast corner of the city boundaries. Similarly, Fort Smith Transit should 
consider shifting the Jenny Lind route a few blocks east to reach a healthcare facility.  
 
The greatest density of senior citizens live in the far northeast side of town at the city 
border. No bus route currently runs directly to this far northeast side of town. Again, a 
new bus route branch could be extended off the Rogers Avenue Express route or the 
Rogers Avenue Walmart Supercenter (“Rogers SC”) route to reach these residents. 
There are two healthcare facilities sited there that do not have access to a nearby bus 
route. These two sites are located closest to the Rogers Avenue Express route so 
again, a new northeast extension off this route should be considered. 
 
POLICIES 
The City of Fort Smith and other regional transportation and planning agencies should 
continue to make strides that respect the rights and dignity of historically 
disenfranchised populations by specifically and directly involving these populations in 
the planning process; that includes members of these populations serving on decision-
making councils, etc. Another recommendation is that there should be greater 
emphasis placed on how the ideal goals stated within the planning documents will be 
achieved; that is, stated specific actions that will be taken, who will be responsible for 
the oversight and follow-through of these actions, and to set deadlines by which the 
goals will be achieved. 
 
Although not specific to the documents analyzed in the content analysis, it was 
observed via GIS maps that there is only one healthcare facility located in the north 
side of town. This is potentially problematic because it means residents on the north 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   70 
side of the city are not conveniently serviced by healthcare providers. The City of Fort 
Smith should prioritize the construction of multiple new healthcare facilities on the 
north side of town to sufficiently service these residents. 
LAND USE AND ZONING  
As stated earlier, GIS data show the greatest percentage of senior citizens live in block 
groups at the northeast edge of town bordering the Arkansas River. Residents who live 
in these block groups are spatially disperse. Personal observation notes that residents 
living in these block groups tend to be in a higher income bracket than residents in 
other areas of Fort Smith although a further study of land value overlay of this area 
needs to be included in order to confirm this observation. 
 
In order for public transportation to function most efficiently and to pay for its cost of 
operation quicker over the long run, it is more useful for public transportation routes to 
be sited where population density is highest and where residents are more inclined to 
use it. Therefore, the City of Fort Smith should consider upzoning in this area to 
encourage greater use of the Fort Smith Transit system by older, wealthier residents 
living in these block groups. Upzoning the block groups will discourage the number of 
single-family homes allowed on a lot space and encourage the use of multi-family 
homes. Townhomes or condominiums can be constructed with a design character that 
matches homes already present in the neighborhood. Combined with the change in 
zoning, the city should consider a marketing campaign based on an aging-in-place 
social support network to attract older retired residents to upscale multi-family housing 
and away from traditional single-family homes.  
 
ALTERNATIVE FUNDING 
Cities have increasingly limited resources to fund necessary services such a public 
transportation; the service provided by Fort Smith Transit is no different. Although the 
focus of this study was not on the particular funding sources that are currently being 
used to maintain Fort Smith Transit, a research paper by the Arizona Public Interest 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   71 
Research Group (PIRG) from 2009 highlights alternative funding sources which are still 
relevant. 
 
In particular, the paper documents in detail funding from other city budget funding 
sources such as city general funds; additionally, there are a number of fees and tax 
sources that can be re-routed for support of public transportation. Some of these 
specifically are gas taxes; a tax on weight of trucking vehicles per mile; title, license, or 
registration fees, rental car taxes; or battery or tire taxes. It may be more logical that 
taxes to fund the service come from the land use itself because expansion of public 
transportation services does involve land use.  
 
In some places cities have implemented real estate transfer taxes or development 
impact fees paid by developers before construction, or parking taxes.21 The latter 
would be more likely to encourage private vehicle owners to take public transportation 
instead of driving their own vehicles. Additionally, it may be less expensive for the City 
of Fort Smith to expand further Fort Smith Transit bus routes if existing routes are 
coordinated with other first-mile/last-mile transportation options. For example, the City 
of Eugene, Oregon, proposes and markets the use of other transportation options 
especially for shorter point-to-point distances. Eugene encourages coordinated, formal 
carpooling and car share programs as well as bike share and biking.22  
 
GREATER REGIONAL COORDINATION 
More coordination and contracting with existing transportation services outside of Fort 
Smith city limits is another option. For example, the Ki Bois Area Transit System (KATS) 
rural transportation shuttle service serves six counties in eastern Oklahoma23 and is 
 
21 Arizona PIRG Education Fund. (March 2009). “Why and How to Fund Public Transportation.” United States Public Interest 
Research Group. (https://uspirg.org) 
22 City of Eugene, Oregon. “Transportation Options.” Transportation Department. (https://www.eugene-or.gov/487/Transportation-
Options) 
23 Ki Bois Community Action Partnership. (http://www.kibois.org) 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   72 
frequently observed across the state line in Arkansas, transporting riders to and from 
destinations within Fort Smith city limits.  
 
The Ki Bois Community Action Partnership website states: “KATS provides a much-
needed service for people who have no dependable form of transportation. It 
generates income in the community by transporting people to their jobs. It helps 
people obtain an education by taking them to college and vocational schools.  KATS 
helps all Senior Citizens live more independently by giving them safe, dependable 
transportation services...KATS provides curb-to-curb or, based on special need, door-
to-door, demand response transportation on specially equipped vehicles designed to 
accomodate [sic] persons with disabilities,” (kibois.org). One option would be for Fort 
Smith Transit to develop a contract with KATS to offer additional transportation 
services to other destinations for KATS riders within Fort Smith city limits, thereby 
expanding the network of destination options for KATS clients while generating 
additional revenue for Fort Smith Transit.  
 
There are a few other public transportation service companies which operate in 
Northwest Arkansas, approximately sixty to eighty miles north of Fort Smith along the 
Interstate 49 corridor. These are Razorback Transit, a service of the University of 
Arkansas24, and Ozark Regional Transit, whose service area is within the City of 
Fayetteville and to neighboring Northwest Arkansas cities of Bentonville, Rogers, and 
Springdale.25  
 
Some students, faculty, and staff of the University of Arkansas commute daily via their 
personal vehicles the sixty miles from their residences in Fort Smith to and from the 
University of Arkansas in Fayetteville for work or school. Considering the long distance, 
time commitment, and both financial and environmental burden to make these trips, 
the City of Fort Smith should consider creating a subsidiary public transit service of 
 
24 University of Arkansas. “Razorback Transit.” Business Affairs: Transit and Parking. (https://parking.uark.edu) 
25 Ozark Regional Transit. (https://www.ozark.org) 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   73 
Fort Smith Transit to provide Monday through Friday transportation services along this 
interstate corridor. This, in turn, could provide another source of revenue for Fort Smith 
Transit. This concept is similar to the regional public transportation models provided by 
Oregon Express Shuttle and BoltBus. Oregon Express Shuttle is managed by Groome 
Transportation which runs a route between Eugene, Salem, and Portland, Oregon26, 
and BoltBus which runs regular service between a number of cities along the north-
south Interstate 5 corridor in western Oregon and Washington State.27 
 
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS 
When overseeing designs or siting resources spatially within the city, planners need to 
consider the locations of where particular populations live, consider travel times of 
residents and any barriers they may encounter. Those barriers may be physical, spatial, 
or temporal. Regarding public transportation in particular, planners need to consider 
such things as route locations, locations of amenities the public needs to access, travel 
times and distances, as well as hours of operation. 
 
For example, if the majority of users of a public transportation systems work late hours 
or on weekends, planners need to ensure public transportation modes run during the 
times workers need to arrive at or leave work even if the hours may be outside of a 
typical Monday through Friday job from eight in the morning to five o’clock in the 
evening. Considering this, Fort Smith Transit should survey riders of the public 
transportation system once or twice per year to address such questions as greatest 
travel destination needs, most convenient or necessary travel times including days of 
the week and time of day. Fort Smith Transit should consider that riders may need to 
access such amenities as childcare providers, schools, major employers, and grocery, 
shopping, and food sources.  
 
 
26 Groome Transportation. (https://groometransportation.com/portland-airport/) 
27 BoltBus. (https://www.boltbus.com) 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   74 
Service providers need to study data that spatially indicate where residents live in 
relation to public amenities in order to ensure city residents are being best served by 
public transportation. As populations move and shift over time, this data may also 
change. Therefore, the City of Fort Smith should regularly monitor GIS and U.S. federal 
Census data every few years to ensure public transportation services provided by Fort 
Smith Transit continue to align with rider needs. The most opportune times to make 
adjustments to systems are as planners notice data shifts reflecting new changes or 
when additional funding is received to upgrade services. 
 
FUTURE RESEARCH  
There were a few actions which did not necessarily fall within the scope of this 
research but which do require further study. One of these tasks is the need to map 
current bus stop locations/stations along each route to determine the distance each 
population must travel to reach a bus stop, not just the most convenient bus route; 
related to this is the additional step of mapping current bench locations to insure they 
are spaced at frequent intervals so that vulnerable populations with mobility issues 
have a space to sit and rest. Both of these interventions help address spatial justice 
issues. As an extension of this element, a future researcher might propose new design 
interventions to match updated physical-space oriented policy recommendations and 
other findings. 
 
Another area for analysis is to perform further studies regarding equity and access of 
other populations in Fort Smith not just the disabled or senior citizens. Special 
attention should be given to racial and ethnic minorities, the low-income, women, and 
a determination of the needs of the homeless based on last known place of shelter (in 
lieu of residential address). The latter data can be obtained from point-in-time surveys 
performed by local homeless shelters and related services. 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   75 
This study is limited in that GIS and spatial data did not locate other services utilized 
regularly by residents. To further study access to other amenities, future research 
should spatially locate other necessary public works structures such as post offices 
and public libraries; places of worship, grocery stores, and public parks/green space.  
 
In the course of research for this study, the cost of fares as a financial barrier to some 
vulnerable populations such as the low-income and homeless has been referenced as 
a potential equity issue. Future researchers may want to focus on how equitable 
existing fares are compared to riders’ income levels and consider alternative methods 
of payment such as vouchers, a form of barter service, or paying on a sliding scale 
basis. If data shows there are discrepancies between fare prices and the ability to pay, 
the City of Fort Smith and Fort Smith Transit should consider implementing multiple 
accepted methods of payment. 
 
Finally, as previously mentioned, in-person interviews of transit riders were not viable 
for this study due to outside circumstances. Researchers who wish to expand on this 
study may want to consider in-person surveys of vulnerable populations performed by 
established local non-profit agencies who already work closely with these populations. 
In-person questionnaires and surveys will help complete knowledge gaps. Residents 
may feel more comfortable sharing candid, personal experiences regarding Fort Smith 
Transit through these entities than through official city or planning agency channels. 
 
CONCLUSION 
While the City of Fort Smith and regional metropolitan planning organizations are 
making a great effort to ensure inclusion of different populations within the city 
regarding public transportation access, more can be done. It is important to always 
consider the voices that are not always heard, opinions that are not always expressed 
because their day to day experiences are not the same as the majority population. As it 
has been said, “Look around and ask yourself, ‘Who is not seated at the table?’” In 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   76 
order to ensure a transportation system that works for and serves all, these 
populations—in this case, senior citizens and the disabled—need to be included in the 
decision-making process and more space opened to them to serve on boards or other 
governing entities that affect them. The City of Fort Smith and other regional 
transportation planning agencies should meet regularly to set joint goals that impact 
residents of the entire region. Together, these stakeholders should hold each other 
accountable for achieving actions taken toward specific goals within an internal 
timeframe they set for themselves and which they state in publicly available, easily 
searched, official documents. To ensure a city is making the most strides toward equity 
and access for all populations possible is to create a city that benefits all, not just 
some. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   77 
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BoltBus. Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.boltbus.com 
 
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jdownloads/send/32-transit/516-appendix-1-6 
 
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Department. Retrieved from http://www.fortsmithar.gov/index.php/component/ 
jdownloads/send/28-transit/1496-ride-guide 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   78 
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https://www.fortsmith.org/trail-of-tears-overlook/ 
 
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summary report.” 
 
Fort Smith Trolley Museum. (2017). “Fort Smith streetcar history.” Fort Smith Streetcar  
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Frontier Metropolitan Planning Organization. (Sept 2016). “2040: The new frontier –  
Frontier MPO metropolitan transportation plan.” Retrieved from  
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Hess, D.B. “Walking to the bus: perceived versus actual walking distance to bus stops  
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Karner, A. “Planning for transportation equity in small regions: Towards meaningful  
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Lefebvre, H. “Le droit a la ville [Right to the city].” L’Homme et la Societe, no. 6, 1967. 
 
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EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   81 
 
Young, I.M. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  
ProQuest eBook Central. 
  
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   82 
APPENDICES 
APPENDIX A. TABLE OF KEY POLICY DOCUMENTS 
Table 1. Key Policy Documents  
 
Key Policy Documents 
   
Document Title Year 
River Valley Transportation Providers undated 
2005-2009 ACS Census data - Languages spoken 2005-2009 
2040: The New Frontier - Frontier MPO Metropolitan Transportation Plan 2016 
Fort Smith Transit: Ride Guide 2016 
Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan 2017 
Title VI Program 2017 
Fort Smith Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary Report 2018 
Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit Plan of the Fort Smith Transit (FST) - 2019 [ADA] 2019 
 
 
APPENDIX B. SUMMARIES OF EACH KEY POLICY DOCUMENT 
RESULTS 
River Valley Transportation Providers (undated) 
 
In the document titled “River Valley Transportation Providers,” there is one section of 
the document that vaguely refers to the idea of transit equity. However, in following the 
looser interpretations of the categories for the purposes of this paper, the quote was 
counted. 
 
The list of calculated categories for this document follows: 
 
- Transportation justice: 0 
- Civil rights in the South: 0 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 0 
- Transit equity: 1 
- Mobility justice: 0 
- Spatial justice: 0 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   83 
2005-2009 ACS Census data - Languages spoken (2005-2009) 
 
Note that the document “2005-2009 ACS Census data - Languages spoken” is not a 
text-based narrative report and is instead a spreadsheet of data related to the 
demographics of Fort Smith Transit riders and the languages they speak according to 
American Community Survey (ACS) census data from 2005-2009. Therefore, the 
document contains zero references to any of the categories. 
 
2040: The New Frontier - Frontier MPO Metropolitan Transportation Plan (2016) 
 
In “2040: The New Frontier - Frontier MPO Metropolitan Transportation Plan,” a 
particular phrase indicates the “area’s transportation needs”; this phrase is broadly 
interpreted to indicate transportation justice. The document contained the following 
quotes: 
 
“The metropolitan transportation planning process is required to be a 
cooperative, continuing and comprehensive multimodal process that monitors 
regional growth and any subsequent socio-economic changes resulting from 
growth,” (Frontier MPO, 2016, p. 13). This quotation is understood to refer to 
transportation justice. 
 
“Efforts were made to encourage participation at all stages of decision making in 
the transportation process to include underserved individuals, the elderly, low 
income and minority individuals, persons with disabilities, and persons with 
limited English proficiency (LEP). Staff worked closely with Federal, State and 
local agencies with interest in transportation issues with the development of 
transportation projects as well as working with professionals in all modes of 
transportation,” (Frontier MPO, 2016, p. 87). This quote is attributed to the 
concept of Civil Rights in Arkansas. 
 
The following list shows the number of instances of each category for “2040: The New 
Frontier - Frontier MPO Metropolitan Transportation Plan”: 
 
- Transportation justice: 2+ 
- Civil rights in the South: 0 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 2 
- Transit equity: 2+ 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   84 
- Mobility justice: 2 
- Spatial justice: 2 
 
Fort Smith Transit: Ride Guide (2016) 
In the document “Fort Smith Transit: Ride Guide,” the majority of the quotes found in 
the paper indicated references to transit equity and one referred to mobility justice or 
other mobility access needs. 
 
“"For Hearing Impaired- Dial 7-1-1 For Arkansas Relay Service," (City of Fort 
Smith, 2016, p. 1) 
 
"It is the mission of the employees of the Fort Smith Transit Department to 
provide safe, efficient, affordable, prompt, friendly, professional and clean public 
transportation to improve the quality of life for the citizens of Fort Smith, 
Arkansas," (City of Fort Smith, 2016, p. 4). This statement is listed in the 
document’s Mission Statement. 
 
“"A separate brochure titled “Fort Smith Transit Passenger Regulations” is 
available upon request and can be provided in an alternate language or braille," 
(City of Fort Smith, 2016, p. 4). 
 
"Please contact the transit office should you need special assistance," (City of 
Fort Smith, 2016, p. 4). 
 
The list of calculated categories for this document follows: 
 
- Transportation justice: 0 
- Civil rights in the South: 0 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 0 
- Transit equity: 3 
- Mobility justice: 1 
- Spatial justice: 0 
 
Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan (2017) 
 
The document “Fort Smith Transit: Public Participation Plan” contains a number of 
detailed quotes that refer to the categories researched. The majority of these quotes 
refer to transit equity while another specifically mentions the term ‘environmental 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   85 
justice.’ Although environmental justice is not, specifically, one of the categories 
researched for this study, because of the intention behind the term and the context in 
which it is used within the document, the quote indicating environmental justice was 
counted toward the category ‘Civil Rights in Arkansas,’: 
 
"Pursuant to Executive Order 12898, Federal Actions to Address Environmental 
Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations, dated February 11, 
1994, and the subsequent U.S. Department of Transportation Order 5680.3, 
issued April 15, 1997, FST promotes Environmental Justice in all aspects of the 
transportation process.  These procedures augment and reaffirm the policy to 
adhere to and advance the principles of the National Environmental Policy Act of 
1969 (NEPA), Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VI), the Uniform 
Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970 (URA) 
as amended, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 
(ISTEA), Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) as amended, 
the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for 
Users (SAFETEA-LU), and other statutes, regulations and guidance that address 
or affect infrastructure planning and decision making; social, economic, or 
environmental matters; public health; and public involvement.  To these ends, 
notices of meetings and public hearings will be specifically provided in minority 
and ethnic gathering places to promote participation in the transportation 
planning process.  Minority and ethnic communities will be monitored through 
census data to guarantee their inclusion in the process as populations fluctuate 
over time.  Special accommodations (e.g. interpreter, sign language interpreter, 
large print copy, etc.) may be requested of FST during normal business hours at 
least five (5) business days prior to the meeting.  FST will attempt to 
accommodate all such requests," (City of Fort Smith, 2007, p. 4) 
 
The following list indicates the category count from “Fort Smith Transit: Public 
Participation Plan”: 
 
- Transportation justice: 1 
- Civil rights in the South: 0 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 1 
- Transit equity: 4 
- Mobility justice: 1 
- Spatial justice: 1 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   86 
 
Title VI Program (2017) 
 
In the document simply referred to on the City of Fort Smith Transit Department page 
as “Title VI Program,” the only category found to be contained within it is the concept 
of transit equity. The following two quotes indicate where references to this category 
were interpreted: 
 
“Staff will work with transit providers and member jurisdictions to study and 
provide information on how transit systems/service can be expanded and/or 
improved within the region and a Customer Satisfaction Survey will be a tool 
used to get public opinion. (Responsible Agency: Frontier MPO, Fort Smith 
Transit, and AHTD),” (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 1). This quote is loosely 
translated to refer to Transit Equity. 
 
“Staff will work with Fort Smith Transit and member jurisdictions to 
study/educate how the current transit system/service operates and how the 
system could be expanded and/or enhanced within the region with additional 
revenue source,” (City of Fort Smith, 2017, p. 2). This is also loosely translated 
to indicate Transit Equity. 
 
The following list shows the number of instances of each category for “Title VI 
Program”: 
 
- Transportation justice: 0 
- Civil rights in the South: 0 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 0 
- Transit equity: 2+ 
- Mobility justice: 0 
- Spatial justice: 0 
 
Fort Smith Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary Report (2018) 
 
Scoring was performed on the document titled “Fort Smith Transit: Ridership 
Satisfaction Survey Summary Report.” There was only one implication of the concept 
of transit equity; this was listed in the Conclusion section of the document. All other 
categories were not mentioned nor indicated: “More assessments for reducing 
transportation infrastructure barriers and improving transit for the community are 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   87 
recommended,” (City of Fort Smith, 2018, p. 18). Another quote from the document 
noted: “Most of the on-demand riders had some sort of a disability," (City of Fort 
Smith, 2018, p. 4) but there was no elaboration on how this observation was 
determined or further explanation. The following list shows the number of instances of 
each term in “Fort Smith Transit: Ridership Satisfaction Survey Summary Report”: 
 
- Transportation justice: 0 
- Civil rights in the South: 0 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 0 
- Transit equity: 1 
- Mobility justice: 0 
- Spatial justice: 0 
 
 
Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit Plan of the Fort Smith Transit (FST) - 2019 [ADA] 
(2019) 
 
In the document “Fort Smith Transit: Paratransit Plan of the Fort Smith Transit (FST) - 
2019 [ADA],” there were references to five of the six metrics for evaluation of justice, 
equity, and civil rights. The concepts of transportation justice and transit equity were 
alluded to but the exact terms are not specifically mentioned. In coding for the word 
“right” or “rights,” these referred to civil rights in general but not specifically to civil 
rights in the South or in Arkansas specifically. Therefore, in these instances the 
mention of “right” or “rights” is loosely interpreted to refer to civil rights in the South as 
this is the larger of the two scales. The following list shows the number of instances of 
each term: 
 
- Transportation justice: 2 
- Civil rights in the South: 2 
- Civil rights in Arkansas: 0 
- Transit equity: 3 
- Mobility justice: 2 
- Spatial justice: 1 
 
 
EFFICIENCY	AND	EQUITY   88 
CODING ANALYSIS RESULTS 
 
Table 2. Coding Analysis - Results, Calculations  
 
 
Final Content Analysis coding calculations