EVENT CONSTRUAL AND ITS LINGUISTIC ENCODING: TOWARDS AN EXTENDED SEMANTIC MAP MODEL by YONGTAEK KIM A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Linguistics and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2009 11 University of Oregon Graduate School Confirmation of Approval and Acceptance of Dissertation prepared by: Yong-Taek Kim Title: "Event Construal and Its Linguistic Encoding: Towards an Extended Semantic Map model" This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Linguistics by: Eric Pederson, Chairperson, Linguistics Scott DeLancey, Member, Linguistics Doris Payne, Member, Linguistics Kaori Idemaru, Outside Member, East Asian Languages & Literature and Richard Linton, Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies/Dean of the Graduate School for the University of Oregon. September 5, 2009 Original approval signatures are on file with the Graduate School and the University of Oregon Libraries. © 2009 Yongtaek Kim 111 IV An Abstract of the Dissertation of Yongtaek Kim for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Linguistics to be taken September 2009 Title: EVENT CONSTRUAL AND ITS LINGUISTIC ENCODING: TOWARDS AN EXTENDED SEMANTIC MAP MODEL Approved: Eric Pederson This dissertation investigates constructional alternation among the English verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions. The primary purpose is to lay a fundamental conceptual framework on the interrelation between how we perceive a situation in an external world and how we construe it as an event structure in a conceptualized world to encode it linguistically. This study suggests an Extended Semantic Map (hereafter ESM) model. It presents an in-depth analysis of the three constructions, derived from the BNC (British National Corpus), and resultative constructions in Korean and Japanese. I argue that language has conceptual bases rooted in perception and cognitive construal. Construal allows one to view the same situation in a number of alternative ways. Construal is closely related to distribution of attention, which has two main patterns: focus of attention and windowing of attention. Focus of attention is mainly based on perceptual prominence. It is placed on participants and is typically encoded in the selection and arrangement of nominals. Windowing of attention operates on cognitive prominence. It is a vcognitive process to segment some relation(s) out of an event structure. It is typically encoded in predicate or adverbial expressions. I further argue that any mismatch between perceptual and cognitive prominence requires overt marking. For example, the English passive construction requires the overt marking of 'belget + past participle,' which directs an addressee's primary focus of attention to a perceptually secondary but cognitively primary patient. It also places windowing of attention on the perceptually secondary but cognitively primary Change. Windowing and focus of attention will be used to define the X-and Y-axes of the ESM. The X-axis consists of five causal relations - Volition, Activity, Force Transfer, Change, and State, on which attention is windowed. The Y-axis is composed of four types of configuration for the semantic roles of the participants - Agent, Agent-Location, Agent- Theme, and Theme. The ESM visually maps relations among constructions within and across languages. It illustrates how event structures can be categorized typically as either [Activity]-windowing or [Change]-windowing. Finally, it also allows us to represent cross- linguistic differences in the available constructions for construing event structures. VI CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Yongtaek Kim PLACE OF BIRTH: Seoul, Korea DATE OF BIRTH: February 11, 1968 GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, Linguistics, September 2009, University of Oregon Master of Arts, Linguistics, March 2000, Sophia University Bachelor of Arts, English Language and Literature, February 1997, Yonsei University AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Cognitive-functional linguistics Historical linguistics Typological linguistics Construction Grammar Force dynamics Voice and transitivity Perception, cognition and language Event construal and linguistic representation Second Language Teaching!Acquisition Contrastive study ofKorean and Japanese PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, 2001-2002, 2005-2006, 2007- 2009 Classes taught as instructor include: Vll Japanese 303 Third Year Japanese Linguistics 150 The Structure ofEnglish Words Classes taught as teaching assistant include: Linguistics 301 Introduction to Linguistics Analysis Japanese 101, 102, 103 First Year Japanese Japanese 201,202,203 Second Year Japanese Japanese 301,302,303 Third Year Japanese Part-time Instructor, Lane Community College, 2006, 2008 Classes taught include: Beginning Korean Acting Assistant Professor, Kanazawa University, 2006-2007 Classes taught as instructor include: Outline ofEnglish Linguistics 1, II Special lectures on English Linguistics Special lectures on English Grammatical Theories English I GRANTS, AWARDS AND HONORS: Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research, Contrastive analysis of relative clauses in Japanese and Korean, Japan Society for the Promotion of science 2007-2010 (as a co-researcher (-August 2007) and collaborator (September 2007-)) International Students Awards, University of Oregon, 2002 Japan Ministry of Education Scholarship, 1997-1999,2000-2001 PUBLICATIONS: Kim, Yong-Taek. (in press) "Relations between the Conative and Verb-Out At constructions: An Extended Semantic Map Approach," Proceedings ofthe 34th Annual Meeting ofthe Berkeley Linguistics Society, Berkeley Linguistics Society. Kim, Yong-Taek. 2008. "Multifunctionality of the Key Construction in Korean: In Terms of Cognition, Typology, and History," Proceedings ofthe 8th Annual Meeting ofthe Japanese Cognitive Linguistics Association 8, Tokyo: JCLA. Kim, Yong-Taek. 2007a. "Multifunctionality of the Key Construction in Korean: V111 Historical-Cognitive Linguistics Approach." Proceedings ofthe 3rd Seoul International Conference on Discourse and Cognitive Linguistics, Seoul: Hankwuk Munhwasa. Kim, Yong-Taek. 2007b. "A Contrastive Study ofResultative Constructions in Korean and Japanese." The 15th Japanese/Korean Linguistics. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI). Kim, Yong-Taek. 2001a. "A Contrastive Linguistic Analysis of Korean Tey and Japanese Tokoro: From the perspectives of semantic extension and grammaticalization," Proceedings ofthe First Seoul International Conference on Discourse and Cognitive Linguistics. Seoul: Hankwuk Munhwasa. Kim, Yong-Taek. 2001b. "The Grammaticalization of Lexemes Encoding Anteriority/Posteriority in Korean and Japanese," Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the Japanese Cognitive Linguistics Association 1, Kyoto: JCLA. IX ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation could not have been written without the support and friendship of others. I would like to take the opportunity to thank them here. First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor, Eric Pederson. Eric was willing to take time to discuss my ideas and provided me with invaluable feedback, encouragement, and support. lowe him a tremendous debt. I am also indebted to the other members of my committee, Scott DeLancey, Doris Payne, and Kaori Idemaru, who carefully read through this dissertation and provided numerous insightful comments that enhanced the quality of this dissertation. I also wish to thank quite a few people who have contributed to this dissertation. I would like to specifically mention several who assisted me along the way, including Carey Benom, Jesse Blackburn-Morrow, Brian Butler, Joana Jansen, Naoko Nakadate, Yoshihisa Nakamura, Fujii Noriko, Russ Tomlin, Rosa Vallejos, Jae-Hak Yoon and the members of Cognitive Linguistics Workshop at the University of Oregon, Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family. Without the enthusiastic support and encouragement of my wife, Sangeun, this dissertation would have been impossible. I also thank my son, Puroom, for his understanding of busy Dad. Sangeun and Puroom, I am deeply grateful for your support in innumerable ways. Lastly, but not least, I am profoundly indebted to my mother-in-law Myungja Hong, who came to Eugene from Korea and helped me to concentrate on this dissertation. xWithout many people's prayer, this project would not have been completed. It is to them that I dedicate this dissertation. Xl TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Goal, Scope and Overview..................................................................... 1 1.1 Background 3 1.1.1 Three Ways ofApproaching Language 3 II. PREVIOUS STUDIES 7 2.0 Introduction 7 2.1 Previous Studies ofthe Verb-at Construction 8 2.1.1 Lexical Semantic Approach 8 2.1.2 Compositional Approach 14 2.1.3 Cognitive Grammar Approach. 16 2.1.4 Construction Grammar Approach 18 2.2 Previous Studies of the Verb-away-at and Verb-away Constructions 19 2.2.1 Bolinger (1971) 20 2.2.2 van der Leek (1996) 22 2.2.3 Lombardi (1984) 25 2.3 Summary 27 III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 28 3.0 Introduction 28 3.1 Construction Grammar 31 3.2 Semantic Map Model 37 3.3 Perception, Construal and Linguistic Representation 43 3.4 Focus ofAttention and Windowing ofAttention 49 3.5 Integration of Construction Grammar and Talmy's Model of the Attentional System 53 3.5.1 The ESM Model.............................................................................. 53 Xll Chapter Page 3.5.2 Predictions of the ESM Model 60 3.6 Summary 63 IV. DATAAND METHODOLOGY 65 4.0 Introduction 65 4.1 Data 65 4.2 Methodology........ 66 4.2.1 The Verb-at Data 67 4.2.2 The Verb-away-at Data 70 4.2.3 The Verb-away Data 73 4.3 Summary. 77 V. CORPUS ANALYSIS RESULTS MAPPED ONTO THE ESM MODEL 78 5.0 Introduction 78 5.1 Results of the Three Constructions 78 5.1.1 English 'Verb-at' Construction 78 5.1.2 English 'Verb-away-at' Construction 82 5.1.3 English 'Verb-away' Construction 85 5.1.4 Mapping of the Three Constructions onto the ESM 87 5.2 The Interaction between Construction and Verb...................................... 97 5.2.1 Carve vs. Carve away: The Shift of the Windowing ofAttention... 102 5.3 Summary 107 VI. APPLICATION OF THE ESM MODEL TO THE KOREAN AND JAPANESE RESULTATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 108 6.0 Introduction 108 6.1 Resultative Constructions 109 6.2 Resultative Constructions in Korean and Japanese 11 0 6.3 Cognitive and Historical Relations between the Causative Construction and the Resultative Construction 115 Chapter 6.3.1 Historical Linguistic Evidence: Diachronic Change of {-I} and {-Key} in Korean .. 6.3.2 The Causative and Resultative Construction: [Activity]-windowing vs. [Change]-windowing Construction .. 6.4 Summary . VII. CONCLUSION AND THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS . APPENDICES .. A. ABBREVIATIONS .. B. CORPUS DATA FROM THE BNC (BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS) .. Verb-at Constructions from the BNC . Verb-away-at Constructions from the BNC .. Verb-away Constructions from the BNC .. BIBLIOGRAPHY . xiii Page 115 121 124 126 128 128 129 130 166 171 177 XIV LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Conative Construction (Goldberg 1995, 63) 18 2. Caused-Motion Construction (Goldberg 1995, 152) 35 3. Composite Structure: Caused-Motion + sneeze 35 4. Conceptual space for indefinite pronouns (Haspe1math 2003,222) 38 5. The Semantic Map of English some-, any- and no- indefinites pronouns .... 39 6. MDS analysis of Haspelmath's data in Croft and Poole (2008) 40 7. Semantic space of English voice 42 8. The Extended Semantic Map 54 9. The ESMs ofHe hit away, He hit at it, He hit it, He broke it, It broke, ........ 55 10. The ESM of X touch Y, X hit Y, X cut Y, and X break Y 56 11. The ESM ofHe broke the window and The window was broken 60 12. Concordance setting for (X) (X) (X) at (Y) (Y) (Y) in the Sketch Engine .. 69 13. Sketch Engine's concordance of the (X) (X) (X) at (Y) (Y) (Y) 70 14. Concordance setting for (X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y) 72 Figure xv Page 15. Sketch Engine's concordance of the (X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y) 73 16. Concordance setting for (X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y) 75 17. The concordance of the (X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y) from the BNC 76 18. The results ofthe corpus analysis of the three constructions 93 19. The ESM ofthe verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions ....... 96 20. The ESM of the X verb-at Y, hit, eat/chew spank, and change of state ...... 100 21. The ESM of the X verb-at Y, cut, and carve constructions 102 22. The ESM of the verb-away, carve away, verb-at, and carve 104 23. The ESM of the verb-away, carve away, verb-at, carve 106 24. The diachronic changes of the causative construction in Korean 118 25. The ESM of the causative and resultative constructions 121 26. The ESM of the causative and resultative constructions 124 XVI LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Levin's classes of verbs that participate in the conative alternation 11 2. Interrelation among perception, construal and representation 47 3. Data derived from the BNC 66 4. Verbs occurring in the conative construction 68 5. Verbs occurring in the verb-away-at construction 71 6. Verbs occurring in the verb-away construction 74 7. Verbs occurring in V-at, V-away-at, V-away 77 8. Verbs occurring in the conative construction 79 9. The results of the analysis of the conative construction 79 10. Verbs occurring in the verb-away-at construction 82 11. The results of the analysis of the verb-away-at construction 83 12. Verbs occurring in the verb-away construction 85 13. The results of the analysis of the verb-away construction 86 14. Distribution of syntactic properties of the three constructions 89 1CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.0 Goal, scope and overview The goal of this dissertation is to lay a fundamental conceptual framework on the relation between how we construe a situation in an external world as an event structure in a conceptualized world, and how we represent it linguistically. In particular, this study will discuss the relation between verb and construction in tenus of event construal and its linguistic representation. The approach follows the theoretical framework of Cognitive Linguistics: Construction Grammar (e.g., Croft 2001; Goldberg 1995,2006), Talmy's attentional system (Talmy 2000a) and the semantic map model (Croft 2001; Haspelmath 2003). This study provides an Extended Semantic Map (ESM) model (Kim 2008a, 2008b) by integrating Construction Grammar and Talmy's attentional system (Talmy 2000a) with the traditional semantic map model. This study presents an in-depth analysis of the English conative construction (,verb-at' construction, e.g., he hit at the fierce dog) and two related constructions, verb- away-at (e.g. he hit away at the fierce dog), and verb-away (e.g., he hit away blindly), derived in large part from an analysis of the BNC (British National Corpus).! 1 Construction Grammar defines constructions to be any stored (typically highly frequent) pairings of form and function; according to this definition, words and morphemes are technically constructions as well (Goldberg and Jackendoff2004, 2). 2I address four unsolved problems regarding the English conative and its related constructions: 1) why all conative constructions seem acceptable with away; 2) why some verbs such as carve are acceptable in the conative construction only if away is present (e.g., *he carved at the roast vs. he carved away at the roast)2; 3) why it is impossible for away to occur in transitive constructions (e.g., *he carved away the roast) unless it is interpreted as a resultative construction (=he carved the roast away); and 4) how we can predict which verb types can and cannot occur in the conative construction. In addition, this study explores whether we can predict which verb types can and cannot occur in any given construction, by means of event construal and its representation. The ESM model will lay comprehensive conceptual foundations for case assignment, transitivity and voice phenomena within and across languages, because it can explain the relations among constructions by mapping them onto the ESM. The remainder of chapter 1 serves as background to the relevant academic disciplines, locating this study in the context of Cognitive Linguistics. Chapter II develops research questions by examining the limitations ofprevious studies: 1) the lexical semantic approach (Levin 1993; Pinker 1989, 2007); 2) the compositional approach (Dixon 2005; van der Leek 1996); 3) the Cognitive Grammar approach (Broccias 2003); and 4) the Construction Grammar approach (Goldberg 1995). Chapter III discusses the theoretical frameworks of the present study: the Construction Grammar approach (Croft 2001; Goldberg 1995,2006), the Semantic Map approach (Croft 2001; 2 Acceptability judgments are marked as follows: For syntactic ungrammaticality, an asterisk (*) will be used. For semantic or pragmatic unacceptability, a pound sign (#) will be used. For questionable or unclear cases, a question mark will be used. 3Haspelmath 2003), and Talmy's attentional system (Talmy 2000a). Chapter IV introduces the data and methodology of the current research. Chapter V provides the results of the corpus analysis, and presents the Extended Semantic Map of the English conative and related constructions. Chapter VI applies this Extended Semantic Map model to the resultative constructions ofKorean and Japanese. Finally, chapter VII presents a brief conclusion and discusses the theoretical implications. 1.1 Background 1.1.1 Three ways of approaching language According to Taylor (2007, 5), there are three primary approaches to the study of language: behaviorist, formalist, and cognitive. Behaviorist approaches study language as observed behavior. The only reliable data is actual recorded utterances and the observable circumstances of their use. Linguistic analysis collects data and identifies linguistic patterns, such as phonemes and morphemes. The roots of this approach go back to the American Structuralists, the so-called Bloomfieldian linguists, and to behaviorism in psychology. The second approach is a formalist linguistic approach. It regards language as a self-contained independent system. This perspective is characteristic of logical and mathematical approaches to language. Their main concern is to formalize linguistic rules which can generate all and only grammatical sentences. The truth-conditional model and Generative grammar (e.g., Chomsky 1957), Categorial Grammar, and Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar are all formalist. 4Neither behaviorist nor fonna1ist linguistic approaches are cognitive approaches in the sense that they make little reference to the relation between human cognitive ability and language. They focus mainly on structures, fonns and rules. The third approach claims that language is a mental phenomenon, or that it exists in the minds of its speakers. Cognitive Linguistics emerged in the 1980s, largely as a reaction to the excesses of the Chomskyan approaches, and has established itself as a viable and explanatory model oftheoretica11inguistics. This perspective focuses on the meaning of an expression, where meaning consists of both its content and a speaker's construal of it. In other words, in contrast to behavioral and fonna1 approaches, it puts the language user in the center of linguistic theory. Cognitive Linguistics claims that not only is language an integral part of our overall cognitive abilities, but it also provides a window to the lmderlying cognitive system. Linguistic analysis should be explained in tenns of human cognitive abilities. Cognitive Linguistics argues that language cannot be explained only by lexicon and grammar, unlike the assumptions of the fonnalist approach. Too many grammatically acceptable utterances are pragmatically unacceptable in a specific given context. The only way to account for this unacceptabi1ity is to consider a speaker and his or her interaction with a hearer, hislher context-appropriate selection of words or phrases. Furthennore, Cognitive Linguistics claims that a grammar is not just a long list of fonna1 rules. Language should be considered human beings' cognitive achievement that generations of speech community members have developed by trial and error to communicate with each other. In other words, language is a very useful tool which has 5been adapted to meet our needs throughout human history. Goldberg (1998) also points out that the patterns of experience are reflected in the patterns of language. As human products, the words and grammatical structures of a language reflect their human creators' psychological and social experiences. The distinctions made by the grammar of a language reflect recurrent and generalized experiences (Radden and Dirven 2007, xi). For example, all languages have nouns and verbs, which represent things and processes respectively. Nouns and verbs reflect how humans generalized the recurrent experience ofphysical things and processes in their environment into the grammatical categories of noun and verb. This idea of grammar as generalized experiences can be easily understood when we consider grammar as a network of schemas which are abstracted from various instances of constructs. A construction can be defined as any conventional form-function pair. Thus, it can include morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences and even discourses. For example, the English transitive construction [A V 0]3 is a schema which is abstracted from various instances of transitive verb constructs, such as he ate an apple and she threw the stone, etc. The consideration of the word-grammar relation as instance- schema denies any clear distinction between lexicon and syntax. Like words, grammar is meaningful, too. The meaningfulness of grammar is crucial particularly in the Construction Grammar approach (Goldberg 1995,2006; Croft 2001, among others). The main purpose of this dissertation is to provide an Extended Semantic Map Model to demonstrate that event construal is the foundation of linguistic representation. 3 Following Dixon 1979, A and a indicate Subject and Object ofa transitive construction respectively. S symbolizes Subject of an intransitive construction. V stands for Verb. 6This study also lays a comprehensive conceptual framework for case alignment, word order, transitivity and voice, etc., in terms ofthe relation between language and thought. I believe that among all the many linguistic frameworks put forth, the Cognitive Linguistics framework has the most explanatory power, due to its foundation on consistent cognitive principles. It will be discussed in Chapters III, V and VI. 7CHAPTER II PREVIOUS STUDIES 2.0 Introduction A large number of theoretical studies have addressed which verb types can and cannot occur in the English conative verb-at construction: Hale (1982), Gawron (1983), Guerssa1, Hale, Laughren, Levin and Eagle. (1985), Ikegami (1985), Laughren (1988), Pinker (1989,2007), Dixon (1991, 2005), Levin (1993), Goldberg (1995), Frense and Bennett (1996), van der Leek (1996), Jackendoff (1997), Croft (1998), Okamoto, Sasaki, Nakamoto and Washio (1998), McIntyre (2001), Broccias (2003), and Beavers (2006). The current paper focuses on four main frameworks evident in some of these studies: 1) Pinker (1989, 2007) and Levin (1993) examine the conative construction in terms oflexica1 semantics; 2) van der Leek (1996) and Dixon (2005), through a compositional approach; 3) Broccias (2003), in terms of Cognitive Grammar; and 4) Goldberg (1995), via Construction Grammar. Each framework's strengths and limitations will be pointed out in the following sections. Although the verb-away-at construction is distinct from the conative construction, it has attracted little independent attention. Typically, this construction has been studied only as a subcategory of the conative verb-at construction, as in the work ofBolinger (1971), Bresnan (1982), Lombardi (1984), van der Leek (1996), Jackendoff (1997), McIntyre (2001), and Broccias (2003). 8This chapter will pose research questions by analyzing the previous studies of the conative construction in section 2.1, and studies of the verb-away-at construction in section 2.2, before a brief summary in section 2.3. 2.1 Previous studies of the verb-at construction 2.1.1 Lexical semantic approach In this section, the previous studies of the conative verb-at construction in terms of the lexical semantic approach will be discussed: Pinker (1989,2007); Levin (1993). Pinker (1989,2007) argues that the verbs participating in the conative verb- at construction must signify a type of motion resulting in a type of contact.4 The argument is based on the assumption that verbs of hitting (hit, beat, elbow, kick, punch, poke, rap, slap, strike, etc.) and verbs of cutting (cut, slash, hack, chip, etc.), both of which signify motion and contact, enter into the conative verb-at alternation; whereas verbs of touching (touch, kiss, hug, stroke, contact, etc.), signifying contact alone, and verbs of breaking (break, shatter, crack, split, crumble, etc.), signifying neither motion nor contact, fail to enter into it. There are many counterexamples to Pinker's argument. First, there are some verbs which do not indicate 'motion' but occur in a conative construction, as below: (1) He pushed/pulled at the door. 4 Pinker (1989) does not specify the type of motion or the semantic role that is its source. However, I assume that Pinker's 'motion' originates from the agent. 9Example (2) shows that the verb push/pull in (1) does not necessarily indicate any motion. (2) He pushed/pulled at the door, but it did not budge. On the other hand, there are many verbs which do signify motion and contact, but cannot participate in the conative construction. Some verbs of touching (e.g., hug) signify motion as well as contact since it is impossible to hug without bodily motion. However, they cannot occur in a conative construction. (3) *He hugged at her. There are many other verbs which signify motion and contact but cannot occur in a conative construction, such as spank, carve, etc., as shown below. (4) *She spanked at her son. (5) *He carved at the roast. 10 Even though 'touch' is not a prototypical [+motion, + contact] verb, it actually can signify both motion and contact as in (6a) unless the sense of motion is eliminated III a progressive construction, as in (6b). Under this semantic interpretation of touch, the verb should be able to participate in the conative construction, and yet an example like (6c) remains ungrammatical for another reason. (6a) #NancYi touched the wall, but shei did not move at all.s (6b) The dead body was touching the wall for several days. (Pinker 1989, 104) (6c) *Nancy touched at the cat. (Pinker 1989, 104) In sum, Pinker's verbal semantic constraint of [+contact, +motion] is an insufficient account of which verbs participate in the conative construction. Levin (1993, 41-2) lists ten classes of verbs as potential candidates for the conative alternation. Her list is summarized below:6 5 With the appropriate pronoun change, this utterance might be acceptable were it the wall that moved/did not move. However, 'move' indicates not the agent's but the theme's (=wall) motion. 6 The non-participating verb classes are indicated by an asterisk, and "etc." indicates the verb class is only partially listed. 11 Table 1 Levin's classes of verbs that participate in the conative alternation Verbs of Contact HIT verbs bang, bash, hit, kick, lash, strike, etc. by Impact SWAT verbs bite, claw, paw, peck, punch, scratch, shoot, swat, etc. *SPANK verbs belt, brain, clobber, knife, spank, etc. POKE verbs dig, jab, poke, stick Verbs of Cutting CUT verbs chip, cut, hack, saw, etc. *CARVE verbs bore, bruise, carve, chip (potatoes), etc. SPRAY/LOAD verbs dab, rub, splash, spray, squirt, swab *Alternating verbs *BREAK verbs break, chip, crack,!racture, snap, etc. Of Change of State *BEND verbs bend, crease, crumple, fold, etc. *TOUCH verbs kiss,pat,pinch, stroke, touch, etc. PUSHIPULL verbs heave,jerk, pull, push, yank, etc. *DESTROY verbs annihilate, destroy, exterminate, etc. Verbs of Ingesting EAT verbs drink, eat CHEW verbs chew, gnaw, lick, nibble, pick, sip, etc. *GOBBLE verbs gobble, gulp, swallow, wolf, etc. *DEVOUR verbs consume, devour, imbibe, ingest, swill *Verbs of Sending *SEND verbs airmail, deliver, hand, post, send, etc. and Carrying *SLIDE verbs bounce,float, move, roll, slide Levin's classification is based on syntactic tests, such as whether a verb shows the body-part "possessor ascension" alternation (e.g., cut his arm vs. cut him on the arm) and the middle transitivity alternation (e.g., cut the bread vs. the bread cuts easily). However, this syntax-based classification leads her to group bite, shoot, and scratch (which do not share many semantic properties) into the same class as SWAT verbs, as mentioned in Broccias (2003, 300). It is also not clear how to differentiate between verbs of CUTTIJ~Gand alternating verbs of CHANGE OF STATE, and how and why to differentiate the GOBBLE verbs and DEVOUR verbs. Levin's categorization of participating verbs does not account for semantic properties in a satisfactory manner. 12 Levin classifies verbs of Contact by Impact into HIT, SWAT, and SPANK subgroups, but does not explain why HIT and SWAT verbs are acceptable in the conative construction whereas SPANK verbs are not. (7) He hit at the boys. (8) He swatted at the boys. (9) *He spanked at the boys. Similarly, Levin classifies verbs of Cutting into CUT and CARVE subgroups without any semantic explanation of why CUT verbs are acceptable in the conative construction but CARVE verbs are not. (10) *Margaret carved at the roast. (11) Margaret cut at the roast. 13 In the same way, Levin classifies verbs of Ingesting into EAT, CHEW, GOBBLE, and DEVOUR verbs, but does not explain why EAT and CHEW verbs are acceptable in the conative construction, whereas GOBBLE and DEVOUR verbs are not. (12) She rolls her fries in ketchup and nibbles at them vaguely. (BNC: ACP) (13) *The mouse devoured at a piece of cheese. While Levin argues that chop (CARVE verbs) and pat (TOUCH verbs) do not occur in the conative construction, corpus data suggest otherwise: (14) There were men chopping at the trees. (BNC: FNT) (15) It began patting gently at Mildred with its gigantic paws. (BNC: CCA) After her lists of verbs, Levin (1993, 42) notes that the conative alternation appears to be found with verbs whose meaning includes both contact and motion, following the argument in Pinker (1989). 14 As shown in this section above, the verbal semantic constraint of contact and motion is an insufficient description to explain all examples of and exclusions from the conative construction. 2.1.2 Compositional approach In this section, the previous studies ofthe conative verb-at construction in terms of the compositional approach will be discussed: van der Leek (1996); Dixon (2005). Van der Leek (1996) argues that the meaning of the conative construction is compositional, such that the verb and the preposition at both contribute their semantics. The semantics provided by the verb and a minimally necessary context are considered the construction's 'skeletal meaning' (van der Leek 1996, 372). The skeletal meaning is merged with that of the at-phrase, which designates a point of contact without signaling a path. Van der Leek further specifies that 'point of contact' with verbs of forceful motion is merely estimated-point-of-contact (as in (16)), while it is actual point-of-contact with verbs implying a bit-by-bit process (as in (17)): (16) Sam kicked at the glass. (17) The mouse nibbled at a piece of cheese. 15 This analysis provides a more detailed description of the conative construction. However, there is no explanation of why the point-of-contact semantics of the at phrase differs by these verb types. Also lacking is an explanation of why forceful motion and bit-by-bit process verbs, but not other verb types, participate in the conative construction. Above all, the compositional account cannot explain the source of the possible iterative interpretation of the verbal activity in (I8b). (18a) The policeman knocked the door. (I8b) The policeman knocked at the door. Iterative meaning is not derived from the verb knock because it does not express iterative meaning in (I8a), and the preposition at alone has no iterative sense. Dixon (2005,297-8) discusses the meaning difference between Verb NP and Verb Prep NP in general. A prototypical transitive sentence will refer to a complete unit of activity, involving a specific NP, whereas a preposition may be inserted between verb and l\TP to mark the deviation from an 'ideal' transitive construction (Hopper and Thompson 1980). Dixon (2005,299) argues that a preposition can be inserted before the Object NP of a transitive verb to indicate that the emphasis is not on the effect of the activity on 16 some specific Object (the nonnal situation) but rather on the Subject's engaging in the activity. For example, (19) could be used to focus on the fact that he was angry and just kicking out in fury; what the kicks made contact with are claimed to be of secondary importance. (19) He kicked at the door. Dixon's approach is based upon the insertion of the preposition at in the conative construction. This semantic compositional approach is very insightful in that he classifies events into those focusing on the Subject's activity and those focusing on the effect to the Object. However, as with the work of van der Leek (1996), Dixon's compositional approach cannot account for the meaning which does not come from overt sentence elements, such as the iterative interpretation of the verbal activity in (18b) above. Furthennore, it does not explain why the addition of the preposition at shifts the emphasis from the effect on the Object to the Subject's activity. The approach is limited to a description of the conative construction. 2.1.3 Cognitive Grammar approach Broccias (2003) postulates three schemas to address the conative construction: an allative schema (translational motion toward a target with possible but not necessary 17 contact, e.g., kick at), an ablative schema (continuous actions accompanying movement from a target or a change of state of a target, plus necessary contact without translational motion, e.g. pull at), and an allative/ablative schema (translational motion with necessary contact, e.g. nudge at). This classification is very stimulating in that it proposes more detailed verbal constraints about motion and contact. And yet, Broccias' model, like Pinker's and Levin's, is still dependent on these verbal constraints. Once again, classification of conative construction instances into the three schemas is not always clear. For example, Broccias classifies the verb stroke into an ablative schema by arguing that it codifies the emission of a perceptual state (=sensation). (20) his fingers stroking at the base of her neck, sending delightful shivers, signals of desire, up and down her spine. (BNC: HGT 4112) [sensation felt by entity referred to by her] This argument is problematic since sensation is not necessarily entailed in the activity denoted by the verb stroke. Broccias' model of three schemas further develops the verbal constraints of the lexical semantic approach, but assignment by verb type is still not always straightforward. 18 2.1.4 Construction Grammar approach Goldberg (1995) argues that constructions carry meaning, independently of the specific words in the sentence. Goldberg defines the syntactic structure of the conative construction as V , and its semantic structure as 'Agent DIRECTS ACTION AT Theme,' where the semantic roles ofAgent and Theme are represented as subject and oblique at-complements syntactically. She further argues that a verb in the conative construction designates the intended result of the activity denoted by the construction. Her model of the conative construction is represented below?: Sem DIRECT-~CTION-AT R I I R: intended PRED < > result +motion +con!act Syn V SUBJ OBL"at" Figure 1 Conative Construction (Goldberg 1995,63) Attributing independent meaning to the conative construction solves the shortcomings of the compositional approach. Any meaning not derived from particular 7 A solid line indicates that the roles of the construction are obligatorily fused with the roles of the verb. 19 words must come from the whole conative construction itself. For example, the iterative meaning of knock at the door comes from the conative construction verb-at phrase rather than the verb knock or the preposition at. However, Goldberg also assumes that a verb in the conative construction must be [+motion, +contact]. Thus, her analysis is also partly dependent on a lexical semantic approach, like Pinker (1989) and Levin (1993). Therefore, it also cannot explain why many verbs (e.g., spank, carve, sculpt, etc.) which do signify motion and contact cannot participate in it, nor why a subset of verbs signifying motion and contact but not others should occur with it. Although it is correct to say that constructional meanings exist independent of the lexical items which instantiate them, Goldberg's account does not determine in a principled way which verbs fit in the conative construction and which verbs do not. This suggests that a more fine-tuned constructional approach is necessary. There are two common limitations of the previous studies of the conative construction. First, they depend on a lexical semantic approach to a greater or lesser degree, which can explain only some ofthe conative phenomena. Secondly, their foundations are primarily authors' intuitions rather than an analysis of natural data. 2.2 Previous studies of the verb-away-at and verb-away constructions We now tum to verb-away-at and verb-away constructions. Discussion of the conative construction often includes these two constructions, which are related to but (in the present author's opinion) distinct from the conative construction. 20 Jackendoff(1997), McIntyre (2001) and Broccias (2003) briefly describe the verb-away-at construction. Without any explanation, these authors mention that some verbs such as carve can occur with the conative construction only if away is present (Broccias 2003,377; Jackendoff1997, 539; McIntyre 2001,132), as in the examples below: (21a) *Simmy was carving at the roast. (21b) Simmy was carving away at the roast. (Jackendoff 1997,540) The unacceptability of(21a) and acceptability of(21b) is further evidence of the explanatory limitations of Lexical Semantics and the appeal of a Construction Grammar approach: The verb in (21a) and (21b) is the same (= carve) but the acceptability is different. Let us review Bolinger (1971), van der Leek (1996) and Lombardi (1984), all of which discuss the verb-away-at and verb-away constructions in more detail. 2.2.1 Bolinger (1971) Bolinger (1971, 102-103) argues that the verb-away construction displays two semantic areas. The first centers about the literal meaning of "to (at) a distance from the 21 scene," the second is aspectual-a kind of intensive perhaps definable by the legal phrase "without let or hindrance". The first meaning can occur with either intransitive or transitive verbs, as below: (22) The thief got away. (23) Mother took away all my toys. The second meaning normally occurs only with intransitives. Bolinger (1971, 104) mentions that the object in the verb-away construction is regularly introduced by at when the underlying meaning is "transitive".8 (24a) He keeps writing away at his books. (24b) *He keeps writing away his books. (24c) *He keeps writing his books away 8 It seems that what is meant by "transitive" is affectedness. 22 He argues that this restriction makes it impossible to use away with verbs whose meanings do not imply an incisive effect on the object:9 (25) *The hen kept laying away at her eggs. (Bolinger 1971, 104) The concept of object affectedness does seem to account for many instances of the verb-away-at construction. However, there is no explanation why the preposition at triggers this meaning. 2.2.2 van der Leek (1996) Van der Leek (1996) also mentions the verb-away-at construction within the context of the conative construction. This author argues that the verb carve, involving an action that we can recognize by its result, not by the activity alone, occurs in the conative construction provided we can compositionally identify the (partial) result. Thus, example (26a) pictures Sam as cutting some ofthe turkey into slices or pieces: (26a) Sam was carving away at the turkey. (van der Leek 1996,376) 9 Bolinger does not defme "an incisive effect" but again, it seems that it can be interpreted as affectedness of the object. 23 However, it is unclear how (26a) identifies compositionally the (partial) result. Her claim that this construction involves a result is problematic since the (partial) result is not entailed, in that it can be denied, as shown below: (26b) Sam was carving away at the turkey, but the knife was too dull to carve. In contrast to van der Leek's interpretation, (26a) is a construction where Sam's activity is in focus, rather than the effect on the turkey. Furthermore, a compositional approach cannot explain the existence of the verb-away-at construction that involves a verb typically used intransitively, as shown in (27) to (29) below: (27a) This is a potential time bomb ticking away at the fabric of society. (BNC: HJ4 364) (27b) *This is a potential time bomb ticking at the fabric of society. (28a) The men were sweating away at this in the hot sun. (BNC: AR8 693) (28b) *The men were sweating at this in the hot sun. 24 (29a) John whizzing away at the computer and me in the (cane) rocking chair with my feet up on another, reading away (BNC: HD4) (29b) *John whizzing at the computer and me in the (cane) rocking chair with my feet up on another, reading away The verbs, tick, sweat and whiz are typically used to represent one participant situations and occur in intransitive constructions. However, they can be used to represent a two participant situation in the verb-away-at construction. Interestingly, they cannot occur in the conative construction, as shown in (27b), (28b) and (29b), which indicates that the conative and the verb-away-at construction are related but distinct constructions. Since the meaning ofthe verb-away-at construction cannot be systematically attributed to the verb, the particle away, the preposition at, or their combination as in the examples (27) through (29), we attribute its meaning to the construction itself, X verb- away-at Y, following a Construction Grammar approach. The meaning of X verb-away- at Y is not just X's continuous activity, but persistent Force emission. For example, a potential time bomb is emitting force by ticking itself consistently toward the cohesiveness of the fabric of society in (27). In (28), the men were emitting force by working on a broken vehicle. In (29), John was emitting force by typing on the computer. This persistence does not come from anyone element of verb, away, at or their specific combination. This problem can be solved by taking a constructional approach. In other 25 words, the independent meaning ofpersistence comes from the whole X verb-away-at Y construction, yielding a distinct meaning of 'X DIRECTS FORCE AT Y PERSISTENTLY WHILE DEFOCUSING Y'S CHANGE.'. This Constructional Grammar approach will be discussed in detail in section 3.1 and 5.1. 2.2.3 Lombardi (1984) Lombardi (1984) argues that some otherwise transitive verbs can occur in the verb-away-at construction, and that using away with a transitive verb is only possible in cases when the purpose of the action implied by the verb is intended to make physical contact and have an incisive affectedness on the object. Thus, those verbs whose action does not directly affect the object (e.g., discuss), or verbs where the action creates or destroys an object (e.g., bake, destroy respectively) cannot occur in the verb-away-at construction: (30a) *We discussed away at John. (30b) *We baked away at cookies. (30c) *We destroyed away at cities. r26 However, the verb carve, which can mean to create an object, can occur in the verb-away-at construction, as in (31): (31) He was carving away at the wooden turkey. In addition, Lombardi notes there is no apparent semantic reason that away detransitivizes the verb to which it is added. However, this paper will explore semantic reasons in chapter III and V. As for syntactic reasons, Lombardi turns to the contrasting acceptability of the passivized conative and verb-away-at constructions, as in (32a) and (32b), respectively: (32a) John is being sworn at. (32b) *John is being sworn away at. She argues that the conative swear at forms a single lexical unit with the prepositional object as direct object, enabling the conative to be passivized. Similarly, swear away at does not form a single lexical unit, thus it cannot participate in the passive construction. 27 Lombardi does not go into further detail with this line of reasoning. The present author will discuss such syntactic phenomena in chapter V. 2.3 Summary Previous studies have failed to answer the question of what verb types can and cannot occur in the conative construction. Further, no studies have satisfactorily addressed the conative's relationship to similar constructions. To address these issues, an Extended Semantic Map model will be explored, which integrates the traditional semantic map model (Haspelmath 2003, Croft 2001) with Construction Grammar (Goldberg 1995) and concepts grounded in the cognitive attentional system (Talmy 2000a), from the perspective of event construal and its representation. This new model will be explored in detail after introducing the three elements of its framework in chapter III. In chapter V, the function of the conative and the verb-away-at constructions will be discussed by analyzing corpus data from the BNC. 28 CHAPTER III THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3.0 Introduction The previous chapter demonstrated several limitations of both lexical semantic and compositional approaches to linguistic analysis. Yet the majority of current semantico-syntactic theories still assume that verbal semantics determine the argument structure of a sentence, and that sentential meaning is directly attributable to verbal semantics: the aspectual approach (Vendler 1967, Tenny 1994, and many more) and the lexical semantic approach (Pinker 1989,2007; Levin 1993; Levin and Rappaport Hovav 1995, and many more). This study argues that the interaction between verb and construction should be integrated for linguistic analysis. According to Nakamura (2004, 15-16), a verb which occurs frequently in a construction of high frequency can be 'coerced' to have an extended verbal meaning from the construction. Coercion is the phenomenon whereby the environment in which a word occurs can "force" a specific reading of that word. Drop a book coerces the interpretation of book as a physical object, whereas translate a book coerces the interpretation of book as a text in a given language (Taylor 1998, 194). Similarly, the meaning of 'kick' in 'kicked his shoes off is not 'to hit something with his foot' but 'to move your legs as if you were kicking something,' which is coerced by the resultative construction, verb-NP- off. Verbal activity in a resultative construction is often interpreted as cause or means for 29 the resultative predicate. As the verb'kick' occurs in a resultative construction frequently, it comes to have an extended meaning of 'moving your legs as ifhe were kicking something' in the lexicon. This shows how a word develops an extended meaning by interacting with a construction. Likewise, what verb sets can or cannot occur in the English conative construction and its other related constructions should be analyzed from the perspective of the interaction between verb and construction. In other words, we need to explain to what extent verb sets can or cannot be coerced by the conative and other related constructions. The theoretical framework I take in this study is a complex model - the Extended Semantic Map model (hereafter, the ESM model), which integrates Construction Grammar (Goldberg 1995,2006) and Talmy's model of the attentional system (Talmy 2000a) with a traditional Semantic Map model. Construction Grammar will be discussed in section 3.1, the Semantic Map model, in 3.2, and the relation between perception, construal, and linguistic representation, in 3.3. Talmy's attentional system and the ESM model will be explored in 3.4 and 3.5, respectively. Before beginning, our perspective shift to a cognitive approach prompts a crucial clarification: The feature of Object Affectedness is not dependent on the physical Change of an Object in the external world, but rather on how a speaker construes the Affectedness (= the Change) in his/her conceptualized (mental) world. For example, the locative alternation will be discussed in terms of the construal of holistic vs. partial affectedness, as below: 30 (33a) He loaded the hay onto the truck. (33b) He loaded the truck with the hay. (34a) He sprayed the paint onto the wall. (34b) He sprayed the wall with the paint. Many linguists (e.g., Anderson 1982, DeLancey 2000, Beavers 2006) argue that (33a) and (34a) indicate the change oflocation of the hay and the paint so that the truck does not need to be full, and the whole wall does not need to be painted. In other words, these Objects are not totally affected. By contrast, (33b) and (34b) conceptualize the change of state of the truck and the wall so that it entails that the truck is full and the whole wall is painted. However, it seems possible that (33b) and (34b) are used when a speaker thinks the truck is quite full or that most of the wall is painted, although it is not completely full or painted in reality (Scott DeLancey, p.c.). A crucial distinction to make when discussing linguistic encoding of event construal is that the concern is not the affectedness ofthe Object in the so-called objective, physical external world but rather how we construe it in our conceptualized world. It is not total or partial affectedness but where the speaker puts his/her focus of attention on the participants in an event. For example, the secondary focus of attention (after the Agent in Subject position) is on 'the hay' in (33a) and 'the 31 paint' in (34a), while it is on 'the truck' in (33b) and 'the wall' in (34b). This argument is also supported by examples below: (35a) The boy sprayed Picasso's painting which his father bought yesterday with water. (3 5b) The boy spilled water onto Picasso's painting which his father bought yesterday. To the father, even one spray can mean the total affectedness of Picasso's work in (35a), but spilling an entire glass of water only partially affects the painting in the boy's construal in (35b). These examples show the importance ofcognitive construal. In this regard, no linguistic analysis is complete without considering a speaker's construal; in fact, linguistic analysis should treat the speaker as central to our understanding of data. 3.1 Construction Grammar This section provides a basic introduction to Construction Grammar. The tenn Construction Grammar covers a family of linguistic approaches: Unification Construction Grammar (Fillmore, Kay and O'Connor. 1988), Cognitive Construction Grammar (Lakoff 1987; Goldberg 1995,2006), Radical Construction Grammar (Croft 2001), and embodied Construction Grammar (Bergen and Chang 2005). 32 The basic tenet of Construction Grammar is that constructions carry a meaning of their own, independent of the specific words in the sentence. Construction Grammar defines constructions as any stored (typically highly frequent) pairings of form and function. According to this definition, words and morphemes are technically constructions as well (Goldberg and Jackendoff2004, 2). This dissertation follows Cognitive Construction Grammar (hereafter Construction Grammar), particularly Goldberg (1995, 2006). Goldberg (1995) elaborated on the work of Fillmore and colleagues by extending it from peripheral idiomatic expressions to core constructions, e.g., verb argument constructions. Let us look at an example to support the existence of independent constructional meaning. Sneeze is commonly regarded as an intransitive verb when taken by itself. (36) Frank sneezed violently. Example (36) does not indicate caused-motion meaning, i.e., X causes Y to move (Goldberg 1995, 152). However, sneeze can occur in a transitive construction, as below: (37) Frank sneezed the tissue off the table. 33 The caused-motion construction coerces the verb sneeze into a caused-motion meaning. It may be paraphrased as 'Frank sneezed and it caused the tissue to move off the table'. Lexical semanticists may argue that sneeze simply has two uses: an intransitive and a transitive use. The problem with such an argument is that sneeze occurs in a transitive construction only if there is a path expression (off the table) as in (38). (38) *Frank sneezed the tissue. Further, there are other verbs which behave similarly to sneeze: (39) They laughed the poor guy out of the room. (Goldberg 1995, 152) Lexical semanticists may still argue that they can simply give a rule which converts an intransitive verb to a transitive verb with a path expression. However, the problem is that there are many counterexamples against it: 34 (40) *Frank breathed the tissue off the table. lO Lexical semanticists can make up more elaborate rules, but it will be less parsimonious than associating the semantic relation directly to the construction. By contrast, Construction Grammar's account ofthis issue is simple and elegant. It posits an argument structure construction (i.e., a construction in which verbs are linked with their arguments), namely the caused-motion construction, which licenses the object and the path expression. Let us discuss the caused-motion construction in detail. Goldberg defines the syntactic structure of the caused-motion construction as V , and its semantic structure as 'X causes Y to move Z,' in which the argument roles of cause, goal and theme are syntactically represented as Subject, Oblique, 11 and Object respectively. She further argues that a verb is related to the caused- motion construction by the relation of instance or means (i.e., a verb in the caused-motion construction should designate an instance or means of the activity denoted by the construction). Her overall model ofthe caused-motion construction is represented below:12 10 This example is from Brian Butler during a Cognitive Linguistics Workshop at the University of Oregon. It seems unacceptable even if Frank is a giant so that his breathing is forceful enough to send the tissue off the table. 11 Goldberg does not mention any particular preposition for OBL. 12 A solid line indicates that roles of the construction are obligatorily fused with roles of the verb, while a dashed line indicates that roles of the construction are not obligatorily fused with roles of the verb. 35 Sem CAUSE-MOVE < cause goal theme> IR I I III R: instance, PRED < > means 1 1 1 1 Syn V SUBJ OBL OBJ Figure 2 Caused-Motion Construction (Goldberg 1995, 152) Now let us discuss how sneeze can be fused with the caused-motion construction. Sneeze has a single participant role, sneezer. It integrates with the caused-motion construction, as below: Sem CAUSE-MOVE < cause goal theme> IR I III R: means SNEEZE < sneezer > ~ ~ ~ ~ Syn V SUBJ OBL OBJ Figure 3 Composite Structure: Caused-Motion + sneeze The argument role of cause is fused with the participant role, sneezer, and represented as Subject, while goal and theme are licensed by the construction directly, whereby each role is syntactically represented as Oblique and Object, respectively. She further argues 36 that sneeze is related to the caused-motion construction by the relation of means (i.e., sneeze designates means of the activity denoted by the caused-motion construction). Another crucial achievement of Goldberg (1995) is the argument that constructions are patterns abstracted from human experience. For example, the caused- motion construction is abstracted from recurrent experiences of someone causing something else to move. One of the main principles of Cognitive Linguistics is that language reflects our experience of the world. With this basic concept, Construction Grammar is a useful approach to explain the relation between psychological event construal (something humans undeniably do) and its linguistic representation. In sum, Construction Grammar is based on the idea that the primary unit of language is a construction. It also argues that linguistic structure can be exhaustively described in terms of constructions rather than separate models of lexicon and syntax, one ofwhich lists the words, and the other the rules for combining those words into phrases and sentences. Thus Construction Grammar concerns semantically and pragmatically appropriate utterances actually made by speakers. Construction Grammar (Goldberg 1995) also claims that the grammatical constructions are directly associated with highly schematic meanings, and that concrete verbal meaning must be compatible with constructional meaning so that it can occur in the construction. It is a very insightful assumption, but Goldberg does not explain how we decide the degree of compatibility between verb and construction. It seems that the compatibility is not dichotomous but a matter of degree. The degree of compatibility will be discussed in detail in section 3.5. 37 This study will assume the constructional meanings of the verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions to be as follows: 1) X verb at Y can be defined as 'X DIRECTS FORCE AT Y VOLITIONALLY WHILE DEFOCUSING Y'S CHANGE.'; 2) X verb-away-at Y can be defined as 'X DIRECTS FORCE AT Y PERSISTENTLY WHILE DEFOCUSIJ'JG Y'S CHANGE.'; 3) X verb-away is 'X IS ENGAGED IN AN ACTIVITY CONTINUOUSLY WITHOUT A FOCUSED Y. 3.2 Semantic Map model This section introduces the Semantic Map model, and points out its strengths and limitations. A semantic map can be defined as a graphical representation (a geometric layout) of semantic similarities among individual constructions in a conceptual space. Following Croft (2003, 138-39), the conceptual space is hypothesized to be a universal conceptual structure in the minds of human beings. The underlying conceptual space is a universal arrangement of language functions, whereas a semantic map is a map of language-specific categories on the conceptual space. 13 The use of one and the same construction for a cluster of functions implies that speakers conceptualize those clustered functions similarly. In other words, similar semantic functions are clustered in a connected area in a conceptual space and expressed similarly, although there are some differences in how languages allocate one form to neighboring functions (i.e., differences in how the semantic cluster might be deemed to include slightly more/less/different [3 There are many variants of terminology: 'semantic space' (Pederson 1990), 'semantic map' (Kemmer 1993, van der Auwera and Plungian 1998), 'conceptual space' (Croft 2001), 'implicational map' (Haspelmath 1997). The defmition of 'semantic map' (broad sense) in 'a semantic map model' includes both 'language-specific semantic map' (narrow sense) and 'conceptual space.' direct negation 38 functions assigned to a linguistic fonn). In short, similar meanings are represented in similar ways. The Semantic Map model is a relatively recent approach, put forth by authors like Anderson (1982), Croft, Shyldkrot and Kemmer (1987), Haspelmath (1989, 1997,2003), Pederson (1990), Kemmer (1993), Marin Arrese (1997), van der Auwera and Plungian (1998), Croft (2001), Clancy (2006), Lehmann (2006), Shibatani (2006), van der Auwera and Temiircii (2006), Narrog and Ito (2007), Croft and Poole (2008), Janda (forthcoming), and Benom (manuscript). The Semantic Map model can explain the relationship between constructions (e.g., causative, resultative, middle, or passive construction, etc.) and the patterns of multifunctionality ofa construction within and across languages. Let us discuss Haspelmath 1997 and 2003, two widely cited studies. Haspelmath explains the functions of indefinite pronouns by a semantic map model. Here is the conceptual space of indefinite pronouns: indirect question -- negation specific specific -- irrealis < I known --mlknown nonspecific . conditional - comparative - free choice Figure 4 Conceptual space for indefinite pronouns (Haspe1math 2003,222) 39 The functions of indefinite pronoun fonus from each language can be mapped onto this universal conceptual space typologically. For example, the English indefinite pronouns, some, any and no can be mapped onto it as follows: no- anv- some- specific specific irrea1is II question-I- indirect--- direct known - unknown- nonspecific \ I negation negationI conditional :...comparative-free choice Figure 5 The Semantic Map of English some-, any- and no- indefinites pronouns (Haspe1math 1997) The semantic map above shows the relationship between the various semantic functions of indefinite pronouns in English. A language specific semantic map for indefinite pronouns can be made by mapping their distribution on the conceptual space above. If typological exceptions are found which do not fit the conceptual space, the conceptual space can be refined. However, it has some theoretica11imitations. First, it lacks universal criteria with which to specify the geometrical arrangement of the geometry of semantic functions and the distance among them. Second, a conceptual space makes little reference to cognitive operations like perception and construal, which indicates that this model still neglects the role of the speaker. 40 Croft and Poole (2008) solved the first problem by introducing the computational, statistical method ofMultidimensional Scaling (MDS), utilizing Poole's Optimal Classification (DC) method. The basic idea is that similar objects are placed close to each other, and less similar objects are placed further away from each other. A semantic map developed with this method can capture the actual degree of similarity between specific semantic functions because distance between semantic functions on the conceptual space accurately indicates similarity between them in Euclidian space. It also displays the arrangement of similar functions onto a two dimensional conceptual space. Croft and Poole replicated Haspelmath's conceptual space by MDS as shown below: t specJ: Agent ~ -LOC/Patient ~ >-3 >-< ~ Patient State Patient ... LOC Patient ... ... ChangeForce Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 8 The Extended Semantic Map Agent Agent Agent . ... ... Volition Activity The arrows on the X-axis indicate directionality of the whole causal relation, which reflects the natural order of an event in the real world. The nodes represent participants. To illustrate the Extended Semantic Map above, we turn to the same event discussed earlier, where a boy swung a bat several times, finally hit a vase, and the vase broke. Ifwe window our attention on the boy's Volition to initiate his bodily motion and the Activity of swinging, downplaying the other sub-causal relations, such as Force Transfer, Change of state, and resultant State of the vase, we may say He hit at it. If we window our attention on the boy's repetitive hitting Activity while downplaying the others, we may say He hit away. Ifwe window our attention on the boy's Activity and Force Transfer, downplaying the others, we may say He hit it. Ifwe window our attention 55 on Force Transfer and Change of state, downplaying the others, we may say He broke it. If we window our attention on the Change of state of the vase, downplaying the others, we will say It broke. Ifwe window our attention on the resultant State of the vase, downplaying the others, we will say that It is broken. These mappings are shown below: C3 Agent n c::: r:fJ ~ Agent- ~ LOCI >-l Patient ~ >-l ...... ~ Patient He hit away. He hit at it. He hit it. He broke it. It broke. It is broken. Patient •• State Patient •• Change LOC •• Agent •• Activity Agent •• Volition Agent • Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 9 The ESMs of He hit away, He hit at it, He hit it, He broke it, It broke, and It is broken. This selective windowing of attention directs a hearer's attention to selected sub-causal relations of an event and backgrounds the others. This ESM is a good tool to help explain the relation between verb and construction both within and across languages. Constructional alternation can be 56 analyzed as alternative windowing of attention over certain portions of the whole causal relation. Let us show the differences between 'X touchlhit/cutlbreak Y' constructions by mapping them onto the conceptual space below: Agent ""I'j o n C [/J o ""I'j ~ Agent-LOCI ~ Patient Z >-3 ...... ~ X touch Y X hit Y X cut Y X break Y Patient Agent Agent . ~. Agent ~. LOC Patient ~. ~. Patient ~. StateChangeVolition Activity Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 10 The ESM of X touch Y, X hit Y, X cut Y, and X break Y First, 'X touch Y' can be interpreted as an Agent-LOC configuration where X (=Agent) is the primary focus of attention and Y (=LOC) is the secondary focus of attention. Windowing of attention is placed on X's Activity alone because a touching activity can happen by accident (=non-Volitional), and X does not exert any Force transfer to Y. If it 57 exerts Force, the activity will be represented as 'X push Y' or 'X hit Y.' To borrow Talmy's force-dynamic terminology, it can be argued that Y cannot function as an Antagonist18 in a touching event because there is neither X's force to transfer as an Agonist nor Y's resistance as an Antagonist. On the other hand, a pushing and a hitting event include X's (=Agent & Agonist) exerting force and Y's (=LOC & Antagonist) resistance. Second, 'X hit Y' can also be interpreted as Agent-LaC in that it does not entail Y's Change. Again, the Agent is the primary focus of attention while the LaC attracts the secondary focus of attention. Windowing of attention is put on Activity and Force Transfer because it does not entail X's Volition or Y' s Change. Before moving on to the third construction 'X cut Y,' let us discuss the difference between Change and State. A Change sub-causal relation requires X as an Agent and Y as a Patient in a two-participant event (e.g., he opened a window) and needs X as a Patient in a one-participant event (e.g., The window opened). On the other hand, the State sub-causal relation requires X as a Patient as a one-participant event (e.g., The window is open). The crucial difference between the Change and State sub-causal relations is that the Change sub-causal relation can be used for a one- or two-participant event, while State is used only for a one-participant event. In Change, the primary focus of attention is the Agent in a two-participant event and the Patient in a one-participant event, whereas Patient is the primary focus of attention in State. 18 The Agonist is the entity that receives focal attention; the Antagonist is the entity that opposes the force of the Agonist. 58 Third, 'X cut Y' is an Agent-Patient configuration because it entails Y's Change. As is typical for these roles, the Agent is the primary focus of attention, while the Patient attracts the secondary focus of attention. Windowing of attention is put on the Activity, Force Transfer and Change because it does not entail X's Volition. Y's State cannot be windowed because Y cannot be understood as State in a two-participant event such as 'X cut Y.' Lastly, 'X break Y' is an Agent-Patient configuration in that it entails Y's Change. Focus of attention follows the default allocation for an Agent-Patient configuration. Windowing of attention is put on Force Transfer and Change because the event does not entail X's Volition. X's Activity also does not receive windowing of attention because a breaking event is not concerned with the type of activity. For example, we can break a vase by pushing, hitting, throwing, etc. Y's State cannot be windowed because again, Y cannot be understood as State in a two-participant event 'X break Y.' Let us talk about the relation between the windowing of attention on an event (X- axis) and the focus of attention on participants (Y-axis) in terms of event construal and its encoding. First, in a two-participant event, a participant who controls an event (X) is more likely to have the speaker's primary focus of attention, and this controller is construed as an Agent, as in the Agent-Loc and Agent-Patient configurations. In the case of the Agent-Loc configuration, the Agent's Activity but not the Patient's Change necessarily receives windowing of attention; thus this is called an [Activity]-windowing construction. On the other hand, in the case of the Agent-Patient configuration, the Patient's Change attracts windowing of attention, thus, a [Change]-windowing 59 construction. An event structure can be typically categorized into an [Activity]- windowing or [Change]-windowing construction, although there are some constructions which window both Activity and Change, such as a resultative construction (e.g., He hit the window into pieces). Constructions will be distributed diagonally from the top left (Volition; Agent) to bottom of the right (State; Patient). However, due to cognitive construal or discourse context, a mismatch between perceptual and cognitive prominence may happen as mentioned earlier. Let us compare the two sentences below: (43a) He broke the window. (43b) The window was broken (by him). In example (43a), the Agent is the primary focus of attention and his activity is windowed. By contrast, in example (43b), the Agent can be the secondary focus of attention or is not focused at all. This mismatch is reflected in the overt marking (=was + -en (by)) and the change of location in the ESM, as below: 60 (jAgent n c:::: ifJ o 'Tj ~ Agent-LOCI >-l Patient ~ d ~ Patient He broke the window. The window was broken. Agent Agent • •• Agent •• LOC •• Patient •• Patient ~. StateChangeActivityVolition Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 11 The ESM ofHe broke the window and The window was broken 3.5.2 Predictions of the ESM model This study assumes that [Activity]-windowing constructions are more likely to occur with imperfective aspect, as imperfective aspect also indicates an ongoing and incomplete event. 19 Another assumption is that manner adverbials modifying X's Activity will frequently occur in [Activity]-windowing constructions. The speaker's interest is typically in an Agent in [Activity]-windowing constructions. [Change]-windowing constructions are assumed more likely to occur with a perfective aspect because the Change of a Patient can be windowed only after an event is complete. It is also highly likely that a [Change]-windowing construction can easily 19 The close relation of Subjects of transitive constructions to imperfective aspect is discussed in Song (2001: 174). Lazard (2002) also discusses semantic correlates between oblique constructions and incompletive aspect. 61 become a stative passive construction as in (44b), because the Patient receiving windowing of attention (as in an Agent-Patient configuration) is a good candidate for the primary focus of attention, which is the Subject X in a passive construction. This is why [Change]-windowing constructions are less likely to occur with manner adverbials. (44a) He broke the clock. (44b) The clock was broken (so we did not know what time it was). [Activity]-windowing constructions cannot be passivized with a stative meaning as in (45a), although it can with an eventive meaning as in (45b). (45a) ?He did not want to buy the door because it was touched. (45b) My shoulder was touched while I was reading a book. Furthermore, it is assumed that [Activity]-windowing constructions are less likely to participate in resultative constructions as in (46a), whereas [Change]-windowing 62 constructions are more likely to participate in them, as in (46b). (46a) ??He touched the door open. (46b) He broke the door open. In sum, the semantic properties of[Activity]-windowing and [Change]- windowing constructions should be reflected in syntactic structures, i.e. manner adverbials, aspect, resultative and stative passive constructions. This study assumes the following: Assumption I: [Activity]-windowing constructions will occur with manner adverbials more often than will [Change]-windowing constructions. Assumption 2: [Activity]-windowing constructions will occur with imperfective aspect more often than will [Change]-windowing constructions, while [Change]- windowing constructions will occur with perfective aspect more often than will [Activity]-windowing constructions. 63 Assumption 3: [Activity]-windowing constructions will more often occur in the eventive passive than the stative passive, while [Change]-windowing constructions will more often occur in the stative passive than the eventive passive. Assumption 4: [Change]-windowing constructions will more often include resultative constructions than will [Activity]-windowing constructions. The ESM model can be used for mapping any event structure, giving it more explanatory power than that of Croft and Poole's MDS model. However, in this dissertation our main concern is with the three English constructions: the X verb-at Y, X verb-away-at Y, and X verb-away constructions. 3.6 Summary To account for the troublesome constructional phenomena detailed earlier in this paper, this study proposes the ESM model. It integrates Construction Grammar and Talmy's attentional system with the traditional Semantic Map model. The ESM model consists of two dimensions: the X-axis (focus of attention on participants) and Y-axis (windowing of attention on causal relations). This model assumes that events can be divided mainly into two types: [Activity]-windowing versus [Change]-windowing constructions. 64 The ESM model provides a universal conceptual space for any event so that any language specific semantic map of events can be superimposed onto it. However, this dissertation is primarily concerned with the three English constructions: the X verb-at Y, X verb-away-at Y, and X verb-away constructions, and these will be analyzed and discussed in detail in chapter V. 65 CHAPTER IV DATAAND METHODOLOGY 4.0 Introduction One ofthe basic assumptions of Cognitive Linguistics is that speakers' knowledge of language emerges from language use (Croft and Cruse 2004, 1). In other words, linguistic knowledge is shaped by how we use it, and how it is used determines linguistic categories. In this regard, an empirical corpus-based study examining naturally occurring data is superior to studies based mainly on acceptability judgments of sentences. This dissertation analyzes the three English constructions: verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb- away constructions, using data from the British National Corpus (hereafter BNC). 4.1 Data The British National Corpus is a IOO-million-word corpus of samples ofwritten and spoken English. The corpus covers British English ofthe late twentieth century from a wide variety of genres. The written portion includes samples from newspapers, magazines, books, letters, and school/university essays, etc. The spoken part consists of spontaneous conversations, business and government meetings, radio shows, and phone- ins. Furthermore, the BNC is annotated with part-of-speech information. Levin (1993) lists 79 verbs which participate in the conative alternation and Lapata (2001) includes 48 additional verbs. However, some of them are not found in the BNC in the conative construction. Many of the missing constructions involve spatial (e.g., 66 at schoo!), temporal (e.g., at noon) or metaphorical clauses (e.g., Cold winds knifed at them). Only non-metaphorical conative constructions are included here, because this study investigates how participants in a specific event are perceived, construed and represented into language, and the motivation among perception, construal and linguistic representation. This dissertation analyzes the verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions with 98 verbs, all of which were derived from the BNC, as summarized below: Table 3 Data derived from the BNC Constructions Verbs Token Verb-at 59 1241 Verb-away-at 68 148 Verb-away 34 Total 98 4.2 Methodology The purpose of this corpus analysis is not just to detail the properties of the three constructions under study but also to discern the relation between how we perceive and construe an event and how we represent it linguistically. The corpus data will be analyzed in terms of the assumptions 1 and 2 in the previous chapter: 1) manner adverbials modifying a Subject and 2) verbal aspect (occurrence in imperfective aspect). This methodology is based on the assumptions that 1) [Activity]-windowing constructions 67 should be modified easily by manner adverbia1s because manner adverbia1s describe how an Agent's activity is conducted rather than how a Patient changes; 2) [Activity]- windowing constructions should occur easily with imperfective aspect because both [Activity]-windowing constructions and imperfective aspect are describing uncompleted events.20 These two criteria are crucial factors which reflect the relationship between a speaker's construal of an event and its linguistic representation. The corpus for this study is built with Sketch Engine, a corpus query system of Lexical Computing Limited (http://www.sketchengine.co.uk!).ltis implemented in C++ and Python. It is designed for use over the web, with a server holding the data (BNC for this dissertation), queries issued to the server from a web browser, and the browser presenting query results. The Sketch Engine concordance tool currently displays sentences from the BNC which contain the target word or phrases. The overview screen displays 20 concordance matches. We can further refine this query by choosing the part of speech of the target word or a 1exeme in the left/right context and its size. This will be shown in detail in the sections below. 4.2.1 The verb-at data Altogether, 1,241 tokens of the conative construction with 59 verb constructions were derived from the BNC by Sketch Engine. Table 3 shows the verbs occurring in the conative construction: 20 Please refer to Anderson (1982) for the relation between imperfective aspect and a progressive construction. 68 Table 4 Verbs occurring in the conative construction verbs in the conative construction bang, bash, batter, beat, bite, carve, chip, chop, claw, cut, dab, dig, drill, drum, gobble, gouge, hack, hammer, hit, jab, kick, knife, lash, lick, nick, nudge, pat, paw, peck, pinch, poke, pound, pummel, punch, push, rap, rip, rub, saw, scrape, scratch, shred, slap, slash, smash, snap, snip, spray, stab, strike, swat, swipe, tap, tear, thrash, thump, whack, whip, yank On the homepage of the Sketch Engine, the target word 'at' was typed in the Lemma slot and its part of speech was set as a preposition in the Keyword(s) section. In the Context section, window size was set at three tokens for both left and right context, and the part of speech of a lexeme in the left and right contexts was set as verb and noun respectively, to achieve a '(X) (X) (X) at (Y) (Y) (Y)' concordance. The (X) and (Y) indicate any token of verb and noun respectively. The number of (X) and (Y) is determined by the window size. In this dissertation, the window sizes were all set at three tokens for both left and right context. As for the Text type, all types oftexts are used in this dissertation. A screenshot ofthese Sketch Engine settings is shown below: 69 Concordance Window Size: Lemma: Qnery: 1.....- _ Keyword(s) B .----------L at~============:::::::=..: Phrase: I onu: 1==============:::::;-1P:--oS-:-;:=u=ns=p=e=c=ifi=ed=:::" Figure 12 Concordance setting for (X) (X) (X) at (Y) (Y) (Y) in the Sketch Engine With this setting, we have 180,387 tokens of the (X) (X) (X) at (Y) (Y) (Y) construction, as seen below: 70 1~~Jrc=Jlf902f) 3 Next. Last AGO infected are heterosexual. women are twice as at risk from infec.tion as men . In the lJK AOOinfections by the year 2000 .<./p>

' We arl! just at the beginning ofthe worldwide epidemic. AGO out ? I did and 1 was absolutely amazed at how much stuffl sold and the kind ofthings A(}O jumble. Do n't plan on selling too much at more than lOp an item . 3 . SPONSORED Rli'N AGO time in hospital unless there is someone at hume who can help and look after them . AOO figures suggest that ACET provided care at home for up to one in fOll! of an those AOO retain maximum control and continue to live at I,ume as independently as we can . 1 have AOO responsible for grants and equipment loans, left at the end June to develop her OWI1 business AOO 1representative , Ana T..Tt-eche . A similar course held at the beginning ofthe year in B1rllSOV , attended AOO pmcess. ''-;::I»

He added, , Weare just at thebegbming of the worTh"ideepidemic AQO the total number ofACET clients cOl'eyed at anyone time by our on call service in AOO difference to someone who/eels unsafe alone at home or to partners or friends.

AOO are met. '

Peter studied astronomy at University College, London, and worked AOO career in nursing. He spellt three years at Charing Cross Hospital School ofNursing AGO retain ffia'llmum control and c=!irme to live at hmff£ . I have in recent years edited a AOO ACET VolunteerMonday 8.55am -- 1 arrive at the office for what looks like a quiet AOO 11.OOam -- Tony has been gil'en an appointment at the local hospital. I will be able to AOO direction of the A4 .<:J»

2.3Opm -- I arrive at Andrew's house. Although he is suffering AOO the hospital.<,·p>

3.35pm -- Aniveback at hospital no. 1 . Tony is to be admitted AQO variety ofpossessiOlls, finaIIyarril'mg at hospu,al no.3 .<:p>

4.55pm -- Tony is 1'~~I[I:::J~~~~ ~till Ne>;t; Last Figure 13 Sketch Engine's concordance ofthe (X) (X) (X) at (Y) (Y) (Y) from the BNC From the results, 1,241 non-spatial, non-temporal, and non-metaphorical instances ofthe , . 1 d 21conatIve constructIOns were se ecte . 4.2.2 The verb-away-at data Altogether, 148 tokens of the verb-away-at construction with 68 verb 21 The process of checking and selecting appropriate sentences was done by the author with the assistance of many native English speakers: the graduate students of the linguistics department, particularly Joana Jansen, the members of the Cognitive Linguistics Workgroup and the staff of the Writing Lab and the Career Center at the University of Oregon. 71 constructions were derived from the BNC by Sketch Engine. Table 4 shows the verbs occurring in the verb-away-at construction: Table 5 Verbs occurring in the verb-away-at construction verbs in the verb-away-at construction bang, bash, batter, biff, blast, blaze, bone, chafe, chew, chip, chomp, chop, crop, cut, dig, eat, file, fire, gnaw, graft, grind, hack, hammer, heave, hew, jab, lash, mumble, munch, nod, paddle, pat, paw, peck, pick, poke, pound, prod, puff, pull, pump, punch, rasp, rattle, rip, rub, rust, saw, scalpel, scrape, scratch, scribble, scrub, sculpt, sip, slap, slash, slosh, snap, snip, squirrel, stitch, tap, tear, thrash, trim, tug, wear On the homepage ofthe Sketch Engine, the target query'away at' was typed in the Query slot. In the Context section, window size and part of speech of lexemes in left and right contexts were set in the same manner described previously, to achieve a '(X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y)' concordance. The (X) and (Y) indicate any token of verb and noun respectively. This is shown below: 72 Context EI Query Type: I Te:rt Types EEl Make Concordanc Match case: 0 Figure 14 Concordance setting for (X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y) in the Sketch Engine With this setting, we have 472 tokens of the X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y) constructions, as below: 73 [.~~~~[IEj)f;!4 ·qq.11 Next! Last AU8 War and Peace and poor old Sartre banging .away at his trilogy and Hemingway paring it down AOK or so here, and then he'll be off and away at junction 8 , on to his chief 's job somewhere Aut herself, when a flow ofdesire swept her away at the thought ofbeing with Lucy, time aBotted AIN in smprises , Sutton Coldfie1d won 2-D away at Chehnsford with goals from Jane Swinnerton AIV thought the session would coJttilllU!: to chip awa~' at the broad right to abortion. ' The court AIY casino-type operation -- money which wil1fly away at thepl'ospect ofa Labourwctory . ' A30 granny' by the Wlgallant right -- blazed away at the mood ofmeek obeisance abroad in Brighton A35 fellow who, after a hard day slogging :fway at the National Theatre. goes home and dips A3l\'! c.ompartment in my dark city snit • working away at the bright knitti-ng ClUIseda lot of second A3U Hundreds of Western tourists were again tumed away at C'fossingpoints in the Bedin Wall yesterday A57 ofits 23 pem1anent commissions beaver away at the mountain oflegislation that is being A5X where, after a night oflove , he slippedaway at dawn ",ithont her. There are lots ofwonderful A61 II way to spend the morning. hammering away at the base ofII bomb that is likely to go A61 any other soldier? ' As the jeep 1tW1'edaway at speed I could still hear him shouting , A61 was worth and after the meal he puffed away at his pipe as ifhe had n'ta care in the A61 I left the old Frenchman stillpuffing away at his pipe and returned through the~e A65 restricting my movement. It is slightly cut away at the rear and so does n't put pressure. 011 A65 good. although I've notices it 'l'eanng away at the top oftheanlde seam . <1'> The boots A68 in the school hbrary . He liked to wOl'k away at Latin or Greek. or to pick books of history A6J quicklime of the morgue. The acid began to eat away at the edge of her tunic • the bottom strands Ir~$¢IT::B9f~ ~.·Last Figure 15 Sketch Engine's concordance of the (X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y) from the BNC From the results, 148 non-metaphorical clauses of the X) (X) (X) away at (Y) (Y) (Y) constructions were selected. 4.2.3 The verb-away data Altogether, 124 tokens of the verb-away with 34 verb constructions are found in BNC. Table 4 shows the verbs occurring in the verb-away construction: 74 Table 6 Verbs occurring in the verb-away construction verbs in the bang, bash, batter, blast, blaze, carve, dig, drill, eat, fire, grind, hammer, verb-away heave, kick, lash, munch, paddle, pound, puff, pump, rub, saw, scribble, construction sip, slash, snap, stitch, tap, thrash, thump, tug, whack, whip On the homepage of the Sketch Engine, the target word 'away' was typed in the Lemma slot and its part of speech was set as an adverb in the Keyword(s) section. Window size and part of speech were set in the same manner already described, to achieve a '(X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y)' concordance. The (X) and (Y) indicate any token of verb and any lexeme respectively. This is shown below: 75 Corpus: British Natiooal Query: L..-- -.J Keyword(s) B r------ Lemma: Phase: Window Size: Lemma: Figure 16 Concordance setting for (X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y) in the Sketch Engine With this setting, we have 29,632 tokens of the (X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y) constructions, as exemplified below: 76 1~~~~n:::~~!7~ ES90 Next··Last AOO stigma ofbeing HIV positive had driven away about 60% ofmy circle offtiends . Despite AUO stigma ofbeing HIV positive had driven away about 60% ofmy circle offriends. Despite A03 • ' said the King , as she was tfNlgged away , . I CM see those in charge, but it A03 there was a prison ? ' They were tn.ken away for questioning .• 1,\110 is spreading these AD3 visa from an embassy often situated far away could be dangerous and could therefore A04 most lasting, impt-essioll that one carries away, is of the conlrast between the golden-cream AD4 Articles 011 exhibitions sometimes glide away into topics which have little to do with A04 right angles to the other, is just a little away from the third position in classical Western AOS . You're too greedy. You gil'e yours.elf away when you kiss like that . A woman's whole A05 traveling up from the south , andfloating away to the west, dump after clump , with A05 jagged edges ,,,here bits of tread had/allen away. Some had abnost no tread left. Plaster ADS was only natural -- nntil the women broke away for good . All author is taking his revenge AOS the painting and how his wife then ran away with the painter ( see also the sOllllets A05 the air like that balloon , I couldftv away with it , choose any ofthe four points A05 even the humiliated ones, the onespushed away • the third-raters and the defeated ones AOS wmer 's moody adolescent brother, and ran away with him .<.]:»

Away ! They were offon AOS shrugged my shoulders, turned , and walked ;nvay .

<'P>The shrogger does n't care whether AOS briefly. He looked at Pat but Pat looked away. Nor was Pat going to say anything further AD6 fault v.'ithal ; But ifthey will not • throwaway that spirit • And I shall find you empty A06 the play wilen death has blnwl1 all comedy away . Her challenge is • in itself. abnost Ir=P~l!g-..e"".l:C::J=l====roI~1-4-82-··••-?'--.9""!·3 Next Last Figure 17 The concordance of the (X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y) from the BNC by the Sketch Engine From the results, 124 non-metaphorical clauses of the (X) (X) (X) away (Y) (Y) (Y) constructions were selected. Table 7 summarizes the selected verbs occurring in the three constructions: 77 Table 7 Verbs occurring in V-at, V-away-at, V-awai2 verbs occurring in all bang, bash, batter, dig, hammer, lash, pound, rub, saw, slash, three constructions snap, tap, tear, thrash verbs occurring in chip, chop, cut, hack, hammer, jab, pat, paw, peck, poke, V-at & V-away-at punch, rip, scrape, scratch, slap, snip, tear, thrash, thump, whack, whip, yank verbs occurring in beat, carve, drill, kick, thump, whack, whip V-at & V-away verbs occurring in blast, blaze, eat, fire, grind, heave, munch, paddle, puff, pump, V-away & V-away-at scribble, sip, stitch, tug verbs occurring in bite, claw, dab, drum, gobble, gouge, hit, knife, lick, nick, V-at only nudge, pinch, pummel, push, rap, shred, smash, spray, stab, strike, swat, swipe, yank verbs occurring in biff, bone, chafe, chew, chomp, crop, file, gnaw, graft, hew, V-away-at only mumble, nod, pick, prod, pull, rasp, rattle, rust, scalpel, scrub, sculvt, slosh, squirrel, trim, wear verbs occurring in none V-away only 4.3 Summary This chapter collects and analyzes the three English constructions: verb-at, verb- away-at, and verb-away constructions, using data from the British National Corpus (hereafter BNC). Results of the corpus data analysis will be discussed in chapter V. 22 The distribution of the verbs in the three constructions is shown in the Appendix. 78 CHAPTER V. CORPUS ANALYSIS RESULTS MAPPED ONTO THE ESM MODEL 5.0 Introduction This chapter presents corpus analysis results for the verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions. The distribution of 1) manner adverbials modifying Activity and 2) the verbal aspect (occurrence in imperfective aspect) were examined. Using these results, each of the three constructions will be mapped onto the ESM, which visually indicates not only the properties of the three constructions but also their relations to one another. It will be demonstrated that the ESM model is a good tool to explain what verb types can be coerced by a construction in English. The ESM also illustrates how an event structure can be categorized typically as either an [Activity]-windowing or [Change]- windowing construction. 5.1 Results of the three constructions 5.1.1 English 'verb-at' construction The number oftokens of the conative construction is 1,241, which is the largest count among the three constructions. This indicates that it is the most frequently used construction of the three constructions. The number of verbs is 59 in this construction, which indicates its high productivity. The verbs are shown again below: 79 Table 8 Verbs occurring in the conative construction verbs in the conative construction bang, bash, batter, beat, bite, carve, chip, chop, claw, cut, dab, dig, drill, drum, gobble, gouge, hack, hammer, hit, jab, kick, knife, lash, lick, nick, nudge, pat, paw, peck, pinch, poke, pound, pummel, punch, push, rap, rip, rub, saw, scrape, scratch, shred, slap, slash, smash, snap, snip, spray, stab, strike, swat, swipe, tap, tear, thrash, thump, whack, whip, yank The distribution of manner adverbials modifying an Agent's Activity and occurrence of imperfective aspect is summarized in table 9: Table 9 The results of the analysis of the conative construction23 Verbs Verb AT Tokens VtIFreouencv Tokens ADV IMPF 59 1241 140 53(=11.3%) (=4.8%) strike 2687/7139 (=37.6%) 154 7 6 tear 1030/2662 (=38.7%) 89 8 6 peck 49/264 (=18.6%) 86 6 1 dab 81/216 (=37.5%) 81 7 3 kick 1229/3493 (=35.2%) 68 7 1 push 4506/10098 (=44.6%) 62 4 5 claw 97/292 (=33.2%) 57 1 1 stab 468/1007 (=46.5%) 50 6 2 rub 1142/2085 (=54.8%) 44 11 1 scratch 571/1141(=50%) 43 5 2 tap 1004/2074 (=48.4%) 35 7 1 hammer 279/766 (=36.4%) 34 5 2 hack 135/472 (=28.6%) 33 2 7 bite 919/2446 (=37.6%) 30 7 iab 114/224 (=50.9%) 29 4 1 poke 333/685 (=48.6%) 29 5 1 slash 429/668(=64.2%) 26 2 23 Vt/Frequency: Verb + Object construction/Total frequency ofa verb in the BNC, ADV: Adverbials modifying Activity, IMPF: Imperfective aspect beat 3869/7859 (=49.2%) 23 2 lick 547/883 (=61.9%) 23 6 3 paw 29/91 (=31.9%) 23 3 hit 5471/10344 (=52.9%) 18 6 1 lash 139/503 (=27.6%) 16 3 slap 444/929 (=47.8%) 16 8 die 838/2623 (=31.9%) 14 1 2 bane 460/1313 (=35%) 11 1 1 scrape 370/810 (=45.7%) 11 1 swipe 23/58 (=-39.7%) 11 1 whip 263/786 (-33.5%) 10 batter 179/456 (:-39.3%) 9 2 2 cut 8531/17863 (=47.6%) 9 nudee 205/418 (=49%) 7 2 punch 382/927 (=41.2%) 7 rip 463/1155 (=40.1%) 7 chop 317/966 (=32.8%) 6 2 pat 409/777 (=52.6%) 6 4 chip 80/352 (=22.7%) 5 pound 142/412 (=34.4%) 5 3 smash 768/1454 (=52.8%) 5 1 20Ul?:e 41/111 (=36.9%) 4 pummel 33/66 (=50%) 4 1 rap 95/311 (=30.5%) 4 snip 48/148 (=32.4%) 4 thrash 140/447 (=31.3%) 4 thump 157/521 (=30.1%) 4 1 saw 79/189 (=41.8%) 3 1 swat 25/58 (=43.1 %) 3 bash 98/313 (=31.3%) 2 drill 513/1086 (=47.2%) 2 knife 25/62 (=40.3%) 2 pinch 269/593 (=45.4%) 2 snap 560/2573 (=21.8%) 2 spray 398/751 (=53%) 2 carve 528/1153 (=45.8%) 1 drum 90/265 (=34%) 1 eobble 35/150 (=23.3%) 1 nick 222/490 (=45.3%) 1 shred 72/124 (=58.1%) 1 1 whack 39/125 (=31.2%) 1 yank 59/159 (=37.1%) 1 80 Table 9 shows the results of analysis of the conative construction. The most frequently 81 used verb (=strike; 154 tokens) appears first and the least frequently used verbs (=carve, drum, gobble, nick, shred, whack, yank; 1 token each) are listed last. It is interesting that some verbs, such as dab (81/216=37.5%), peck (86/264=32.6%), paw (23/91 =25.3%) and claw (57/292=19.5%) occur highly frequently in the conative construction. Particularly, the verb peck occurs even more frequently in the conative (86/264=32.6%) than in the transitive construction (49/264 =18.6%). This suggests that for verbs such as this, their typical usage is a conative rather than transitive construction. The conative construction occurs frequently with adverbials indicating Volition (=76 out of 140 adverbials): aggressively (1), briskly (1), busily (2), carefully (1), daintily (2), desperately (4), energetically (1), enthusiastically (2), experimentally (1),ferociously (1),jiercely (4),frantically (5),furiously (9), gingerly (1), greedily (1), hard (8), heavily (1), hungrily (2), hurriedly (2), industriously (1), maliciously (1), methodically (1), playfully (1), relentlessly (1), savagely (5), smartly (1), surreptitiously (1), valiantly (2), viciously (4), vigorously (4), violently (1), warily (1), wildly (3).24 (47) He tapped furiously at his wrist. (BNC: HTU) The adverb 'furiously' describes the manner of the Agent's Activity, which indicates volitionality. The high incidence (=76/140) of the adverbials indicating Volition suggests 24 The numbers in parentheses indicate number of tokens. 82 high volitionality of the conative construction. Because of the high incidence of the X verb-at Y constructions that window X's volitional activity, this author proposes the meaning of this construction is 'X DIRECTS FORCE AT Y VOLITIONALLY WHILE DEFOCUSING Y'S CHANGE.' It is a [Volition + Activity]-windowing construction. 5.1.2 English 'verb-away-at' construction The token count of the verb-away-at construction is only 148, which indicates that it is not a frequently used construction. However, it is interesting that in this construction the number of verbs is 68. Thus, its productivity, in terms of the range of allowable verbs, is higher than that of the conative construction. The verbs in the verb- away-at construction are shown again in table 10: Table 10 Verbs occurring in the verb-away-at construction verbs in the verb-away- at construction bang, bash, batter, bijJ, blast, blaze, bone, chafe, chew, chip, chomp, chop, crop, cut, dig, eat, file, fire, gnaw, graft, grind, hack, hammer, heave, hew, jab, lash, mumble, munch, nod, paddle, pat, paw, peck, pick, poke, pound, prod, puff, pull, pump, punch, rasp, rattle, rip, rub, rust, saw, scalpel, scrape, scratch, scribble, scrub, sculpt, sip, slap, slash, slosh, snap, snip, squirrel, stitch, tap, tear, thrash, trim, tug, wear The distribution of manner adverbials modifying an Agent's Activity and imperfective aspect is summarized below: Table 11 The results of the analysis of the verb-away-at construction Verbs VAWAYAT Tokens VtlFrequency Tokens ADV IMPF 68 148 17 (11.5%) 19 (12.8%) chip 80/352 (=22.7%) 11 2 eat 5055/13823 (=36.6%) 10 1 4 j?;naw 69/197 (=35%) 8 1 puff 45/320 (=14.1%) 6 1 1 blaze 167/688 (=24.3%) 5 1 1 scrub 251/533 (=47.1%) 5 bane: 460/1313 (=35%) 4 1 hack 135/472 (=28.6%) 4 hammer 279/766 (=36.4%) 4 pound 142/412 (=34.4%) 4 bash 98/313 (=31.3%) 3 1 2 batter 179/456 (=39.3%) 3 1 blast 376/869 (=43.3%) 3 1 chew 336/945 (=35.6%) 3 dij?; 838/2623 (=31.9%) 3 scratch 571/1141 (=50%) 3 2 tap 1004/2074 (=48.4%) 3 tear 1030/2662 (=38.7%) 3 1 2 wear 8451/14138 (=59.8%) 3 chomp 18/52 (=34.6%) 2 1 e:rind 393/919 (=42.8%) 2 munch 95/192 (=49.5%) 2 peck 49/264 (=18.6%) 2 1 pick 2446/14276 (=17.1%) 2 rasp 23/217 (=10.6%) 2 rub 1142/2085 (=54.8%) 2 saw 79/189 (=41.8%) 2 1 scrape 370/810 (=45.7%) 2 1 snap 560/2573 (=21.8%) 2 1 stitch 205/536 (=38.2%) 2 1 biff 14/26 (=53.8%) 1 bone 17/53 (=32.1%) 1 chafe 18/82 (=22%) 1 chop 317/966 (=32.8%) 1 crop 72/390 (=18.5%) 1 cut 8531/17863 (=47.6%) 1 file 793/1446 (=54.8%) 1 fire 1637/3360 (=48.7%) 1 1 e:raft 81/192 (=42.2%) 1 1 heave 2211709 (=31.2%) 1 hew 23/47 (=48.9%) 1 jab 114/224 (=50.9%) 1 lash 139/503 (-27.6%) 1 1 mumble 89/560 (=15.9%) 1 83 84 nod 433/5399 (=8%) 1 paddle 75/373 (=20.1%) 1 pat 4091777 (=52.6%) 1 1 paw 29/91 (=31.9%) 1 poke 333/685 (=48.6%) 1 prod 131/305 (=43%) 1 pull 4534/13134 (=34.5%) 1 1 pump 474/972 (=48.8%) 1 punch 382/927 (=41.2%) 1 1 rattle 274/737 (=37.2%) 1 rip 463/1155 (=40.1%) 1 rust 44/181 (=24.3%) 1 scalpel 0/1 (=0%) 1 scribble 114/327 (=34.9%) 1 sculpt 47/102 (=46.1%) 1 sip 574/861 (=66.7%) 1 slap 444/929 (=47.8%) 1 slash 429/668 (=64.2%) 1 slosh 12/51 (=23.5%) 1 snip 48/148 (=32.4%) 1 squirrel 2110 (=20%) 1 thrash 140/447 (=31.3%) 1 1 trim 425/837 (=50.8%) 1 tue 142/695 (=20.4%) 1 Table 11 shows the results of analysis of the verb-away-at construction, again ordered by most frequent verb (=chip; 10 tokens) to least frequent verbs (=bifj, bone, chafe, chop, etc.; I token each). Compared with the verbs used in the conative construction, verbs occurring in the verb-away-at construction do not show high frequency, such as gnaw (8/197=0.04%). However, the productivity of the verb-away-at construction (68 different verbs out of 148 verb-away-at constructions) is higher than that of the conative construction (59 verbs out of 1241 verb-at constructions). This suggests that frequency and productivity are not interdependent. The verb-away-at construction mostly frequently occurs with adverbials indicating persistence, such as still (6 out of 17 adverbials). 85 (48) He was still tapping away at it. (BNC: GWG) Because of the high incidence (=6/17) with which the X verb-away-at Y construction windows X's persistent activity, this author argues the constructional meaning of X verb- away-at Y is 'X DIRECTS FORCE AT Y PERSISTENTLY WHILE DEFOCUSING Y'S CHANGE.' It is a [Volition + Activity + Force Transfer]-windowing construction. 5.1.3 English 'verb-away' construction The token count of the verb-away construction is 124, and the number of verbs is 33, which indicates that it is an infrequently used construction. The verbs in the verb- away construction are shown again below: Table 12 Verbs occurring in the verb-away construction verbs in the verb-away construction bang, bash, batter, beat, blast, blaze, carve, dig, drill, eat, fire, grind, hammer, heave, kick, lash, munch, paddle, pound, puff, pump, rub, saw, scribble, sip, slash, snap, stitch, tap, thrash, thump, tug, whack, whip The distribution of manner adverbials modifying an Agent's Activity and imperfective aspect is summarized below: 86 Table 13 The results of the analysis of the verb-away construction Verbs VAWAY Tokens VtlFreQuencv Tokens ADV IMPF 34 124 27 (21.8%) 20 (15.8%) pump 474/972 (=48.8% 13 2 3 blaze 167/688 (=24.3%) 12 puff 45/320 (=14.1 %) 12 5 2 ban!! 460/1313 (=35%) 9 3 3 blast 376/869 (=43.3%) 9 2 2 scribble 114/327 (=34.9%) 7 1 fire 1637/3360 (=48.7%) 6 3 hammer 279/766 (=36.4% 6 3 pound 142/412 (=34.4% 6 2 lash 139/503 (=27.6% 5 3 saw 79/189 (=41.8%) 4 1 bash 98/313 (=31.3%) 3 1 rub 1142/2085 (=54.8%) 3 1 thump 157/521 (=30.1%) 3 2 kick 1229/3493 (=35.2%) 2 munch 95/192 (=49.5%) 2 1 1 paddle 75/373 (=20.1 %) 2 1 sip 574/861 (=66.7%) 2 snap 560/2573 (=21.8%) 2 tap 100412074 (=48.4%) 2 beat 3869/7859 (=49.2%) 1 batter 179/456 (=39.3%) 1 carve 528/1153 (=45.8%) 1 1 di!! 838/2623 (=31.9%) 1 drill 51311086 (=47.2%) 1 1 eat 5055/13823 (=36.6%) 1 !!rind 393/919 (=42.8%) 1 heave 221/709 (=31.2%) 1 slash 429/668 (=64.2%) 1 stitch 205/536 (=38.2%) 1 1 thrash 140/447 (=31.3%) 1 1 tU!! 142/695 (=20.4%) 1 1 whack 39/125 (=31.2%) 1 whip 263/786 (=33.5%) 1 Table 13 shows the results of analysis of the verb-away-at construction. Again, the table is ordered from most (=pump; 13 tokens) to least frequently used verbs (=batter, carve, 87 dig, etc.; 1 token each). Like the verb-away-at construction, verbs occurring in the verb- away construction do not show high frequency, e.g.,pujf(12/320=0.03%). It also shows the lowest productivity (34 verbs) out of the three constructions. The verb-away construction is mostly used to express continuous activity with adverbials either indicating continuation or presuming a continuous activity: busily (1), constantly (1), simply (1), assiduously (l), patiently (1), mightily (l). In addition, imperfective aspect is frequently used in the verb-away construction (=20/124). (49) He thumped and jumped about the house, or would lie and watch television with his hands and feet tapping and banging away constantly (BNC: BM1) With the core meaning of continuity, the constructional meaning of X verb-away appears to be 'X IS ENGAGED IN AN ACTIVITY CONTINUOUSLY WITHOUT A FOCUSED Y' It is an [Activity]-windowing construction. 5.1.4 Mapping of the three constructions onto the ESM The common feature of the verbs occurring in the conative verb-at, verb-away-at and verb-away constructions is the potential to transfer force between two participants, whether these verbs entail motion and contact or not. The summary of syntactic property 88 distribution for the verb-away, verb-away-at and verb-at constructions is shown in table 14: Table 14 Distribution of syntactic properties ofthe three constructions VERB VERB AWAY VERB AWAYAT VERB AT (34 verbs) (68 verbs) (59 verbs) Tokens VtlFrequency Tokens Adv Impf Tokens Adv Impf Tokens Adv Impf 98 124 27/124 20/124 148 171148 19/148 1241 140/1241 53/1241 =21.8% =15.8% =11.5% =12.8% =11.3% =4.8% bang 460/1313 ( 35%) ·•..••·.. ··••i~q.i>;i,i3· 4 .. i.i,·..·.··.i· ····l'·.liJ1'/1 1 bash 98/313 ( 31.3%) .••. 6 ····••••·.•·.·.······1."'·' ··.··,··········.3'··.. .."l·····i~ , batter 179/456 ( 39.3%) 1 ...• ·······••·· •.• ;·3' ..••• ·····.·.·1. ....."i, 22 dig 838/2623 ( 31.9%) 1 ··.i'; 3 [4 I' I'.'ii;) hammer 279/766 (-36.4%)'6>' ...........••. ..·•...·.3·· 4 34,. I ..·.·) ~,., ·"·i2 •.• ·, lash 139/503 (27.6%) i',t'·S'/ ..••.. ' •••••...••.. ...•.. •..,...•.•.. :."J•..•• ' .. 1!~.i'., I...,.~ ,i' '. pound 142/412 ( 34.4%) 6 .••• ,i".' 2 •••••..,•••.•.••..... !.. ··'i.i,·'.'..·.··.. ,·; '.' ,.,'" .. ( rub 1142/2085 (=54.8%) ...• 3 l,i.,··.·.~ . , ' ..•..... " ' , ,( 11 1 saw 79/189(-41.8%) •• ·.·.ci1·,············· .. ,..• " 2·' 1 'i 1·.·'········•• · ..•.. ,. slash 429/668 (64.2%) •.•.... ·········'·•.1.'· .. '.\" ..,·... ..i,i . 1 ". ..•. 26 .')·....",·,'11.· snap 560/2573 ( 21.8%) 2 ··i'·.ii,. ·:'·'.'i,i./. ....•... '.,,·II·i>··•• ......•......., tap 1004/2074 (=48.4%)i ...4- ····,···.·····.,.':.·'3'. 1/.'.11.. ,ii ..'i.,.: l.i~.~i·'17 1 thrash 140/447 (=31.3%) I ','i'lt,· '. ......• 1 .,'," 1 J' ········,·.···....Ii,·i'~' .. blast 376/869 (=43.3%) 9 2 2 3 1 blaze 167/688 (=24.3%) 12 5 1 1 eat 5055/13823 (=36.6%) 1 10 1 4 fire 1637/3360 (=48.7%) 6 3 1 1 grind 393/919 (=42.8%) 1 2 heave 221/709 (=31.2%) 1 1 munch 95/192 (=49.5%) 2 1 1 2 paddle 75/373 (=20.1%) 2 1 1 puff 45/320 (=14.1%) 12 5 2 6 1 1 pump 474/972 (=48.8%) 13 2 3 1 scribble 114/327 (=34.9%) 7 1 1 sip 574/861 (=66.7%) 2 1 stitch 205/536 (=38.2%) 1 1 2 1 tug 142/695 (=20.4%) 1 1 1 00 \0 chip 80/352 (=22.7%) 11 2 5 chop 317/966 (=32.8%) 1 6 2 cut 8531/17863 (=47.6%) 1 9 hack 135/472 (=28.6%) 4 33 2 7 jab 114/224 (=50.9%) 1 29 4 1 pat 409/777 (=52.6%) 1 1 6 4 paw 29/91 (=31.9%) 1 23 3 peck 49/264 (=18.6%) 2 1 86 6 1 poke 333/685 (=48.6%) 1 29 5 1 punch 382/927 (=41.2%) 1 1 7 rip 463/1155 (=40.1 %) 1 7 scrape 370/810 (=45.7%) 2 1 11 1 scratch 571/1141 (=50%) 3 2 43 5 2 slap 444/929 (=47.8%) 1 16 8 snip 48/148 (=32.4%) 1 4 tear 1030/2662 (=38.7%) 3 1 2 89 8 6 beat 3869/7859 (=49.2%) 1 23 2 carve 528/1153 (=45.8%) 1 1 1 drill 513/1086 (=47.2%) 1 1 2 kick 1229/3493 (=35.2%) 2 68 7 1 thump 157/521 (=30.1%) 3 2 4 1 whack 39/125 (=31.2%) 1 1 whip 263/786 (=33.5%) 1 10 biff 14/26 (=53.8%) 1 bone 17/53 (=32.1%) 1 chafe 18/82 (=22%) 1 chew 336/945 (=35.6%) 3 chomp 18/52 (=34.6%) 2 1 crop 72/390 (=18.5%) 1 file 793/1446 (=54.8%) 1 gnaw 69/197 (=35%) 8 1 graft 81/192 (=42.2%) 1 1 hew 23/47 (=48.9%) 1 mumble 89/560 (=15.9%) 1 1.0 o - --- - - ----- nod 433/5399 (=8%) 1 I pick 2446/14276 (=17.1 %) 2 prod 131/305 (=43%) 1 pull 4534/13134 (=34.5%) 1 1 rattle 274/737 (=37.2%) 1 rasp 23/217 (=10.6%) 2 rust 44/181 (=24.3%) 1 scalpel 0/1 (=0%) 1 scrub 251/533 (=47.1%) 5 sculpt 47/102 (=46.1%) 1 slosh 12/51 (=23.5%) 1 squirrel 2/10 (=20%) 1 trim 425/837 (=50.8%) 1 wear 8451/14138 (=59.8%) 3 bite 919/2446 (=37.6%) 30 7 claw 97/292 (=33.2%) 57 1 1 dab 81/216 (=37.5%) 81 7 3 drum 90/265 (=34%) 1 gobble 35/150 (=23.3%) 1 gouge 41/111 (=36.9%) 4 hit 5471/10344 (=52.9%) 18 6 1 knife 25/62 (=40.3%) 2 lick 547/883 (=61.9%) 23 6 3 nick 222/490 (=45.3%) 1 nudge 205/418 (=49%) 7 2 pinch 269/593 (=45.4%) 2 pummel 33/66 (=50%) 4 1 push 4506/10098 (=44.6%) 62 4 5 rap 95/311 (=30.5%) 4 shred 72/124 (=58.1%) 1 1 smash 398/751 (=53%) 5 1 spray 398/751 (=53%) 2 stab 468/1007 (=46.5%) 50 6 2 strike 2687/7139 (=37.6%) 154 7 6 '-0 92 93 Table 14 summarizes the distribution of verbs as a transitive, verb-away, verb-away-at, verb-at constructions, and the co-occurrence with manner adverbials and imperfective aspect with the verb-away, verb-away-at, verb-at constructions. Thirteen verbs occur in all three constructions: bang, bash, batter, dig, hammer, lash, pound, rub, saw, slash, snap, tap, and thrash. Fourteen verbs occur in the verb-away and verb-away-at constructions: blast, blaze, eat, fire, grind, heave, munch, paddle, puff, pump, scribble, sip, stitch, and tug. Sixteen verbs occur in the verb-away-at and verb-at constructions: chip, chop, cut, hack, jab, pat, paw, peck, poke, punch, rip, scrape, scratch, slap, snip, and tear. Seven verbs occur in verb-away and verb-at constructions: beat, carve, drill, kick, thump, whack, and whip. The rest ofthe verbs occur in only one of the three constructions. These results can be represented as a graph for a better comparison of the three constructions: ----""~--- 25 20 15 10 5 o • adverbial imperfective v away v away at vat Figure 18 The results of the corpus analysis of the three constructions 94 These results show that the verb-away construction occurs with the manner adverbials modifying Activity more frequently (=21.8%) than do the conative (=11.3%) and the verb-away-at (=11.5%) constructions. The verb-away (=15.8%) and the verb-away-at (=12.8%) constructions occur with imperfective (=progressive) aspect more frequently than does the conative construction (=4.8%). This would suggest that the verb-away construction is more of an [Activity]-windowing construction than the conative verb-at and the verb-away-at constructions are, because it occurs with manner adverbials and the imperfective aspect most frequently. As for the verb-at and the verb-away-at constructions, there are no crucial differences that would indicate which is more of an [Activity]-windowing construction. In terms of the distribution of the imperfective aspect, the verb-away-at construction is more of an [Activity]-windowing construction since the imperfective aspect occurs with the verb-away-at construction (=12.8%) more frequently than with the conative construction (=4.8%). However, we can see that the verb-away-at construction windows Force Transfer, while the conative construction does not, as shown below: (50) He poked at the soup, but missed it. (51) ?He poked away at the soup, but missed it. 95 This indicates that the verb-at construction is more of an [Activity]-windowing construction than the verb-away-at construction. In terms of the occurrence of the adverbials modifying an Agent, there is not much difference between the two constructions: verb-at (11.3%) and verb-away-at (11.5%). Further, neither construction can occur with a resultative construction, as shown below: (52) *He hit at the door down. (53) *He hit away at the door down. All of these results suggest the possibility that the difference between the two constructions is not significant. In sum, all three constructions are [Activity]-windowing in a broad sense because noneofthem window Y's Change. The X verb-at Y construction is a [Volition + Activity]-windowing construction, the X verb-away-at Y construction is a [Volition + Activity + Force Transfer]-windowing construction, and the X verb-away construction is an [Activity]-windowing construction. The X verb-at Y construction indicates X's directing force at Y but does not transfer force to Y. This is why it is a [Volition + Activity]-windowing construction rather than [Volition + Activity + Force Transfer]- windowing construction. 96 However, it appears that the X verb-away construction is the most [Activity]- windowing construction because 1) it is a one-participant event involving no Patient for Change,25 2) only the Agent's Activity and not Volition receives windowing of attention, as in (54) below. (54) He snored away all night. (Eric Pederson, p.c.) The ESM of the three constructions is provided below: Agent ""Ij o n C Vl o ""Ij >-: Agent-~ LOCI ~ Patient ...., ....... o Z Patient X verb away X verb atY X verb away at Y Agent • Agent ~. LOC ~. Patient ~. Patient ~. StateChangeActivityVolition Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 19 The ESM of the verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions 25 The resultative construction of X verb away Y (e.g., The acid ate away the finish) is a [Change]- windowing construction. It is not treated in this study. 97 5.2. The interaction between construction and verb According to a constructional approach, sentential meaning comes from the interaction between the meaning of a verb and that of a construction. The constructional meaning of the X verb-at Y is 'X DIRECTS FORCE AT Y VOLITIONALLY WHILE DEFOCUSING Y'S CHANGE.' This constructional meaning is mapped onto the ESM in· which it windows [Volition + Activity], as shown in section 5.1. The semantic map of the X verb-at Y construction and its constructional meaning reflects that verbs in the conative construction emit Force which is volitionally produced, but do not window Change. This semantic constraint of the X verb-at Y construction can solve some of the unexplained problems in Levin (1993). First, TOUCH verbs such as touch are less likely to occur with the conative construction because there is no transferred Force in the event structure of touching, as shown in section 3.5. This is in contradiction with the constructional meaning of the conative verb-at construction where emission of Force is necessary, as shown in section 5.1.1. Second, Verbs of SENDING and CARRYING such as send, move, etc. are also less likely to occur since they window Change in that they entail the Change of location of a Patient. This constraint of the constructional meaning can also explain why HIT and SWAT verbs are more likely to occur in the conative construction, whereas SPANK verbs are less likely to occur in it. HIT and SWAT verbs are [Activity + Force Transfer]- windowing constructions, as shown in section 3.5, while SPANK verbs are [Change]- windowing since they entail a Patient's Change, such as the sensation of pain. The purpose of spanking is to inflict pain, and the typical target of the spanking activity is 98 children's bottoms which are very vulnerable and easily feel pain, although not with a long-term resultant state (=damage). (Eric Pederson, p.c.) (55) ??A young mother spanked her little boy, but he did not feel any pain. The property of [Change]-windowing is in contradiction with the constructional meaning of the X verb-at Y, which involves defocusing Y's Change. Similarly, the constructional meaning of the X verb-at Y can explain why CHANGE OF STATE verbs, DESTROY verbs, GOBBLE verbs, and DEVOUR verbs cannot participate in the conative construction. All ofthem are [Change]-windowing, which entails Y's complete Change of state, as shown below: (56) *Janet broke the glass, but she did not affect it. (57) *They destroyed the building but did not affect it. (58) *He gobbled the second sandwich, but he did not finish it. (59) *He devoured a can of beans but did not finish it. 99 Unlike the CHANGE OF STATE verbs, DESTROY verbs, GOBBLE verbs, and DEVOUR verbs, EAT and CHEW verbs, such as eat, gnaw and chew are more likely to occur in the conative construction since they window both Activity and Change, but Y's Change is not necessarily construed as complete Change. (60) He ate some popcorn but did not finish all of it. (61) The dog gnawed a bone but did not finish it. The fact that the Object of EAT and CHEW is often omitted also indicates that they participate more often in an [Activity]-windowing construction, which is shown as an [Volition + Activity]-windowing construction in figure 20. In sum, the conative X verb-at Y construction is less likely to occur with the touch construction because it does not window Force Transfer, which is a necessary meaning of the verb-at construction. The hit and EAT and CHEW verbs are more likely to occur in the conative construction since the verb hit is [Activity]-windowing and the EAT and CHEW verbs window both Activity and partial Change. By contrast, spank, CHANGE OF STATE verbs, DESTROY verbs, GOBBLE verbs, and DEVOUR verbs are less likely to occur in the conative construction since they window Change, a sub-causal relation in contradiction with the constructional meaning of the X verb-at Y construction, which 100 defocuses Y's Change. This is shown in the ESM below: Agent >-rJ o n C C/J o >-rJ >: Agent- ~ LOCI ~ Patient :j ~ X eat/chew X verb atY touch hit X eat/chew Y spank change of state/destroy/gobble/devour Patient Agent • Agent •• LOC •• Patient •• Patient •• StateChangeVolition Activity Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 20 The ESM of the X verb-at Y; hit, eat/chew, spank, and change of state/destroy/gobble/devour constructions Then, how can we explain why CUT but not CARVE verbs are acceptable in the conative construction, even though both CUT and CARVE verbs entail Y's Change? The constructional meaning alone cannot explain this phenomenon. So let us explore a more 101 general reason for the different distribution between [Change]-windowing constructions and [Activity]-windowing constructions with the ESM model. It appears that carve occurs less readily in an [Activity]-windowing conative construction than cut because carve is more [Change]-windowing than cut, in that Y can be created as a result of a carving activity but not a cutting activity. A created object is relatively more perceptually prominent than an affected object, whereby the Change of a created object is more likely to attract the windowing of attention. In (62) the statue is created as a result of carving, but in (63) it is not created but is merely affected by a cutting activity: (62) He carved the statue. (63) He cut the statue. In addition, the cut construction does not readily window State, while the carve construction does, as shown below: (64) (?)Where is the cut meat? (65) Where is the carved meat? 102 The difference in the windowing of attention in the two constructions is visually shown in the ESM below: X verb afY cut carve Agent 'TJ o n C r/J o 'TJ Agent-LOCI 2:3 Patient >-3 ~ ...... o z Patient Agent Agent Agent • •• •• LOC •• Patient •• Patient •• StateChangeVolition Activity Force Transfer WIJ\fDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 21 The ESM of the X verb-at Y, cut, and carve constructions It appears that the more there are non-overlapping windowing of attention between two constructions, the less they are likely to occur in the same clause.. 5.2.1 Carve vs. carve away: The shift of the windowing of attention lackendoff (1997) mentions that all the conative constructions seem acceptable 103 with the aspectual away, and that some verbs such as carve are acceptable in the conative construction only if away is present: (66) *Simmy was carving at the roast. (67) Simmy was carving away at the roast. (From Jackendoff 1997,540) Jackendoff argues that aspectual away seems to carry some sense of heedless activity. However, aspectual away need not always have this sense, as shown below. (68) Simmy was meticulously carving away at the roast. The sense of heedless is in contradiction with the adverb meticulously. I argue that the [Volition + Activity]-windowing conative verb-at construction is less likely to accept the carve construction since the carve construction windows Change and State. In other words, there are too many non-overlapping plots of windowing of attention between the two constructions. Unlike the conative construction, the [Activity]-windowing verb-away 104 construction is more likely to coerce the [Change]-windowing carve construction because the distance between the two constructions is closer than that between the conative and the carve construction. Thus, the carve away construction also comes to window Activity rather than Change, which enables it to occur in the [Activity]-windowing conative construction. This can be called the shift of the windowing of attention from Change to Activity by constructional coercion. This shift of windowing of attention offers an explanation for why some verbs such as carve are acceptable in the conative construction only if away is present, which is shown in the ESM below: d Agent n e \f1 o "Tj >: Agent-LOCI ~ Patient ~ :j ~ Patient v-away carve away v-at carve Agent Agent Agent . ~. ~. LOC ~. Patient ~. Patient ~. StateChangeVolition Activity Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 22 The ESM of the verb-away, carve away, verb-at, and carve constructions 105 However, BREAK or DESTROY verbs cannot participate in the conative construction even with away, as shown below. (69) *He broke away at the window. (70) *He destroyed away at the letter. Then, why is carve but not break coerced by the verb-away construction? It appears that the break construction is less likely to occur in the conative construction since the break construction windows typically Change and State, while the conative construction windows Volition and Activity. In other words, there is no overlapping windowing of attention between break and the conative constructions. Now, the last question is how do we know whether the carve construction windows Activity, while the break/destroy constructions do not. It is shown by the fact that the manners of activity are specified in the carve construction as in (71), while they are not specified in break/destroy constructions, as shown in (72): (71) *He carved the wooden bar by hitting/throwing a stone. ------------------,----_._'._... 106 (72a) I broke the window by hitting/throwing a stone. (72b) I destroyed the letter by cutting/tearing it. The semantic maps of these constructions are shown in the ESM below: "Tj Agent 0 n C [/) 0 "Tj ~ Agent-LOCI >-l Patient~ >-l -0 Z Patient v-away v-at carve I break!destroy Agent • Agent Agent ~. .. LOC ~. Patient •• Patient ~. StateChangeVolition Activity Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 23 The ESM of the verb-away, carve away, verb-at, carve, and break/destroy constructions The fact that the verb-away construction can coerce carve but not break or destroy as in figure 23 reflects that the constructional coercion is a matter of degree. The more there are overlapping plots of windowing of attention between the two constructions, the 107 more the constructional coercion is likely to happen. 5.3 Summary This chapter has shown how the ESM model can explain the coercion between constructions. It appears that coercion is more likely to occur when 1) there is some overlapping windowing of attention between the two constructions and 2) the distance between them is proxima1. 108 CHAPTER VI APPLICATION OF THE ESM MODEL TO THE KOREAN AND JAPANESE RESULTATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 6.0 Introduction In this chapter, the distributional differences between Korean -key and Japanese -ku/-ni resultative constructions will be explored in terms of cognitive and historical linguistics. The ESM model visually shows that there is a close semantic relation between a periphrastic causative and a resultative construction, which will be supported by the historical extension of the Korean -key construction from the periphrastic causative to resultative. My argument will take the following form. In section 6.1, I will briefly discuss th e resultative construction and its semanticosyntax. In section 6.2, I will posit research questions by pointing out the problems of previous studies. Section 6.3 will show distributional differences between Korean -key and Japanese -ku/-ni constructions in general, and propose an alternate analysis for the distributional differences between -key and -ku/-nF6 resultatives. The differences will also be discussed in terms of the relation between periphrastic causative and resultative constructions within a historical and cognitive linguistics approach. 26 The -ku/-ni distinction depends on the resultative phrase they are attached to; -ku with adjective and -ni with nominal adjective. 109 6.1 Resultative constructions The resultative construction (hereafter RC) shows a wide range of syntactic and semantic variation. In this paper I will focus on mono-clausal RCs which show overt morphosyntactic realization. These integrate a causing event and a resulting state, as in (73c) below: (73a) John pounded the metal flat. (73b) NP j V NP2 AP (73c) = [John pounded the metal]Event CAUSE [The metal became flat]state It is well documented that typical resultative sentences are telic: they describe events with a definite endpoint (Rappaport and Levin 2001; Tenny 1994, among others). This is shown by the standard test in (74). (74a) John pounded the metal for an hour/*in an hour. [atelic] (74b) John pounded the metal flat *for an hour/in an hour. [telic] 110 As will be shown below, the RC coerces the [Activity]-windowing atelic construction (2a) into a [Change]-windowing telic RC (74b). In other words, the RC is a construction to direct one's windowing of attention to the Change of a Patient. 6.2. Resultative constructions in Korean and Japanese RCs in Korean and Japanese have been analyzed mostly in comparison to those in English (Kim, J. 1999, Kim and Maling 1998, etc., for the former, and Kageyama 1996, Washio 1997b, etc., for the latter). Several contrastive studies between -key and -ku/-ni RCs have been attempted (Washio 1997a, 1999; Uehara, Li, and Thepkanjana 2001), analyzing subtle differences between the Korean and Japanese RCs. However, many questions remain unanswered. RCs can be represented by the so-called adverbializers -key in Korean and -ku/-ni in Japanese. Their syntactic structure is shown in (75a) and (75b) respectively. The English resultative sentence (73) is usually translated into Korean and Japanese as in (76K) and (76J), respectively, in the literature. (75a) NP 1 NP2 AP-key V (75b) NP 1 NP2 AP-ku/ni V (76K)2\?)John-i cheiphan-ul napcakha-key twutulkyessta 111 (76J) ?John-ga teppan-o pechanko-ni tataita John-NOM metal-ACC flat pounded ,John pounded the metal flat.' According to Washio (1997b), nine of 100 native Japanese speakers accepted (76J) (9%), forty-nine of them judged it unacceptable (49%), and forty-two of them said it is quite marginal, though perhaps not completely unacceptable (42%). On the other hand, I asked twenty native Korean speakers to judge (76K). Fourteen of them accepted it (70%), and six of them said it is marginal (30%). No one said it is unacceptable. Two questions arise: i) why are (76K) and (76J) less acceptable than their corresponding English utterance (1), and ii) why is (76K) more acceptable than (76J)? Lexical semantic approaches (Kageyama 1996; Nitta 2002, to mention two) argue that a resulting phrase can be used only with change-of-state verbs, and the main verb tataku 'pound' in (76J) is not a change-of-state verb since it is possible to say that the pounding event does not affect the metal, as shown in (77J). Therefore, (76J) is less acceptable than (73). (77K) John-i chelphan-ul twutulkyess-una napcakhay-ci-ci anh-ass-ta John-NOM metal-AcC pounded-but flat-become-NMzL NEG-PST-DCL 'John pounded the metal, but it did not become flat.' 27 Each K and J in the examples indicates Korean and Japanese. When possible, they will share the same English glosses. (77J) John-ga teppan-o tataita-ga pechanko-ni John-NOM metal-ACC pounded-but flat 'John pounded the metal, but it did not become flat.' 112 nar-ana-katta become-NEG-PST This approach can be supported by another example as in (78J) and (79J): (78J) John-ga teppan-o pechanko-ni naru-made tataita John-NOM metal-ACC flat become-until pounded ,John pounded the metal until it became flat.' (79J) John-ga teppan-o pechanko-ni tataki-[nobasi]-ta John-NOM metal-ACC flat pound-spread-PST 'John pounded the metal flat.' When either the change-of-state verb naru 'become' as in (78J) or a [Change]-windowing verb, such as nobasu 'spread' (which forms a verb compound as in (79J)) is added to (76J), it becomes more acceptable. This type of approach may be able to explain the Japanese data. However, it cannot explain why the RC in (1) is acceptable, (76K) is relatively acceptable, and (76J) is less acceptable, even though all the verbs are non-change-of-state verbs, as shown in (77). Korean and Japanese are known to exhibit remarkable structural commonalities in 113 morphosyntax. Washio (l997a) argues that RCs in the two languages are not allowed when the resulting phrase is completely independent of the meaning of the verb as in (80K) and (80J): (80K) *kutul-un kwutwu-patak-ul yalp-key they-TOP shoe-sole-ACC thin 'They ran the soles of their shoes thin.' tallyessta ran (Washio 1997a, 245) (80J) *karera-wa kutu-no soko-o boroboro-ni hasit-ta they-TOP shoe-GEN sole-ACC threadbare 'They ran the soles of their shoes threadbare.' ran (Washio 1997b, 20) The result phrases yalp-key/boroboro-ni 'threadbare' are completely independent of the meaning of tallyessta/hasitta 'ran,' which makes the two examples unacceptable. (81K) John-un pyek-ul ppalkah-key chilhayssta (81J) John-wa kabe-o John-TOP wall-ACC ,John painted the wall red.' aka-ku red nutta painted The semantics of the result phrases,ppalkah-key/aka-ku 'red,' are not completely 114 independent of the meaning of chilhayssta/nutta 'painted,' which makes the two examples acceptable. If that is the case, why is twutulkita 'pound' with an RC in Korean as in (76K) more acceptable than tataku 'pound' with an RC in Japanese as in (76J), even though both of the verbs are not completely independent of the resulting phrases, napcakha- key/pechanko-ni 'flat'? To have a better understanding of the distributional differences between Korean -key and Japanese -ku/-ni RCs, let us look at another example. (82K) John-un [tali-ka aphu-key] talli-ess-ta (82J) *John-wa [asi-ga ita-ku] hasit-ta John-TOP leg-NOM painful ran 'John ran [to the extent that/until] his leg became sore.' Apart from whether (82K) is a RC or not, it is interesting that when the -key and -ku/ -ni clause is embedded, the -key does not need a change-of-state verb, whereas the -ku/-ni without a change-of-state verb is unacceptable (Uehara et al. 2001). As we discussed in (78J) and (79J), the Japanese -ku/-ni construction becomes acceptable when the change-of-state verb naru 'become' with the conjunctive particle hodo 'degree' or made 'until' is added, as shown in (83J): 115 (83J) John-wa [asi-ga ita-ku naru-hodo/made] hasit-ta John-TOP leg-NOM painful become-degree/until ran 'John ran [to the extent that/until] his leg became sore.' Previous studies (Washio 1997a, 1998, 1999; Uehara et al. 2001) assume that the morpheme -key has some conjunctive-like property to link the embedded clause to the matrix clause, unlike the -ku/-ni morphemes. Such lexical semantic approaches cannot uncover the cognitive and typological motivations for why the causative construction and the RC are closely related as has been argued by Comrie and Polinsky (1993), Goldberg (1995,81); and Givon (1997,61), for example. This issue will be taken up in section 6.3. 6.3 Cognitive and historical relations between the causative construction and the resultative construction In this section, the relation between the causative and the resultative construction will be discussed in terms of historical linguistics by investigating the diachronic changes of the causative constructions in Korean in 6.3.1. It will also be discussed in terms of cognitive linguistics, particularly the ESM model in 6.3.2. 6.3.1 Historical linguistic evidence: Diachronic changes of {-i} 28 and {-kev} in Korean According to Choi (2000), Jeong (1998), Kim, J. (1989), Kim, H. (1996), and Park (1989), the adverbializer {-i} was the most productive lexical and clausal manner 28 The symbol' {}' indicates a morpheme. There is another adverbializer {-o/-u}. The allomorphs of {-i} are -i, -hi, -Ii, -ki; those of {-o/-u} are -o/-u, -ho/-(c)hu, -ko/-ku. 116 adverbializer in Korean until the late 16th C.29 Items (84) and (85) illustrate its use. (84) kh-i uysimhA-myen kh-i arom-i isi-li-ni great-ADV doubt-if great-ADV learning-NoM exist-will-since 'since you will learn a lot if you doubt a lot' (Mongsanhwasangpebeyaklok, late 15th C, recited from Kim, J. 1989, 113; translation is mine) (85) nwunsmu-lAl [syuken-ey kAtAk-i] hullinola tear-ACC towel-LOC soggy drop '(1 am) dropping tears to the extent that my towel becomes soggy.' (Tusienhay 1481, recited from Jeong 1998, 742; translation is mine) However, the adverbial suffix -key began to be used with hata 'do or cause' during the late 14th C and early 15th C, and it has replaced the adverbializer -i since the 16th C, as shown in (86), which is a modern translation of (84): (86) *kh-i/khu-key uysimha-myen*khi/khu-key alm-i iss-uli-ni great-ADV doubt-if great-ADV learning-NoM exist-will-since 'Since you will learn a lot if you doubt a lot' 29 'A' in (12 and 14) indicates a vowel, which has disappeared in modem Korean. 117 The adverbializer -i was also used to express both direct and indirect causative constructions, as in (87a) and (88a), respectively, until late 16th C. However, the periphrastic causative -key hata 'do or cause' began to be used during the late 14th C and early 15th C and brought about much reduction of its function as a morphological causative construction. Since the late 16th C, it has become the most productive causative construction (Choi 2000; Kim, H. 1996). The morphological causative constructions in (87a) and (88a) have been replaced by the periphrastic causative -key hata, as in (87b) and (88b), which are their respective modern translations. The meaning of sal-i-ta has been reduced to direct causation alone, as in (89) in modern Korean. (87a) palAI-ay pAy ep-kenul nyeth-o-si-ko sto kiph-i-si-ni sea-LaC ship not.exist-since shallow-CAU-HON-and then deep-CAU-HoN-since 'Since there is no ship, (Heaven) made the sea shallow and then deep.' [Yongpiechenka 1445, translation is mine] (87b) pata-ey pay eps-ese yath-key-ha-si-ko tto kiph-key-ha-si-ni sea-LaC ship not.exist-cause shallow-CAU-do-HON-and then deep-cAu-do-HoN-since (88a) cyung sal-i-si-ko monk live-CAU-HON-and '(The King) let a monk make a living (e.g. by giving him some land)' [Welinsekpo 1459, recited from Choi 2000, 311; translation is mine] 118 (88b) cung sal-key-ha-si-ko monk live-CAU-do-HON-and (89) cung sall-i-si-ko monk live-CAU-HON-and '(A doctor) brought a monk to life' [Modem Korean] The diachronic changes of {-i} and {-key} are summarized in figure 1 (adapted from Kim, H. (1996)).30 15C 16C 17C 18C 19C 20C v 0 -i, -hi, -i~ -hi,Morpho- w {-i logical E -ii, -ki -Ii, -ki L causative H A -ol-uLR -a} -u M -ho[- u] -chu 0 -ko -ku -ku N • • •y -j ba •Periphrastic causative -key ha -key ha Figure 24 The diachronic changes of the causative construction in Korean It seems that the resultative construction [NPj NPzA-key V] could not be formed 30 The font size of morphemes indicates their productivity. 119 until modem Korean when the -key construction had become the most productive causative construction. On the other hand, Japanese forms its causative construction not by -kul-ni but by the morphological causative suffix -(s)ase, which has been in use since Late Old Japanese3l (Narrog 2004) and which is still the most productive causative morpheme in modem Japanese, as illustrated in (90J): (90K) John-i Mary-luI hakkyo-ey John-NOM Mary-ACC school-to 'John caused Mary to go to school.' (90J) John-ga Mary-o gakkoo-ni John-NOM Mary-ACC school-to 'John caused Mary to go to school.' ka-key hay-ss-ta go-CAD do-PST-DCL ik-ase-ta go-CAD-PST It is suggested here that the typical -key construction [NP l NP2 AN-key V] in early modem Korean is the periphrastic causative construction, and its high frequency leads to its extension to the resultative -key construction due to similar semanticosyntactic properties between the two constructions. This study argues that the ESM model needs to be coupled with the frequency effects because the lower acceptability of (76K) and (76J) is related to frequency effects. 31 Late Old Japanese: 9th_11 th C 120 Bi-clausal resultative constructions with conjunctives, such as -tolok and -made 'until' as in (92K) and (911), or -se and -te 'cause-effect' as in (92K) and (92J), are more commonly used than mono-clausal resultative constructions with -key and -kul-ni as in (76). (91K) John-i [chelphan-i napcakhay-ci-tolok] twutulkyessta John-NOM metal-NOM flat-become-until pounded (911) John-ga [teppan-ga pechanko-ni naru-made] tataita John-NOM metal-NOM flat become-until pounded 'John pounded the metal so that it became flat.' (92K) John-i chelphan-ul twutulkye-se napcakha-key hayssta (92J) John-ga teppan-o tatai-te pechanko-ni sita John-NOM metal-ACC pounded flat did (=made) 'John pounded the metal so that it became flat.' This frequency effect is also related to the fact that the resultative construction [NP1 NP2 A-key V] could not be formed until modern Korean, when the -key construction became the most productive causative construction. On the other hand, the function of the -kul-ni construction [NP1 NP2 A-kulNA-ni V] is as an adverbial construction expressing manner or degree of verbal action. The typical causative construction is formed not by the -kul-ni construction but by the 121 morphological suffix -(s)ase. Based on this historical linguistic evidence and the frequency effect in (91J) and (92J), the low frequency of the -kul-ni RCs must be related to its limited ability to coerce the verbs which window Change. This can be shown by the ESM model, as below: Agent 'Tj o n C (/J o Agent-LOCI 'Tj Patient ~ ~ :j o Z Patient Korean causative -key hata Japanese causative -(s)ase Korean resultative -key Japanese resultative -ku/-ni Agent Agent Agent • •• •• LOC Patient •• •• Patient •• StateChangeVolition Activity Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 25 The ESM of the causative and resultative constructions in Korean and Japanese 6.3.2 The causative and resultative construction: [Activity]-windowing vs. [Change]- windowing construction In this section, the extension from the periphrastic causative to the resultative construction will be discussed in terms of the ESM model. The periphrastic causative construction is an [Activity]-windowing construction, while the resultative construction is 122 a [Change]-windowing construction in a broad sense. This can be supported by the fact that the periphrastic causative construction does not necessarily entail the result, as in (93K), whereas the resultative construction entails it, as in (94K): (93K) Mary-ka John-ul chelphan-ul napcakha-key Mary-NOM John-ACC metal-ACC flat twutulki-key hayss-una napcakhay-ci-ci anh-ass-ta pound-CAD did-but flat-PAS-NMLZ NEG-PST-DCL 'Mary caused John to pound the metal flat, but it did not become flat.' (94K) *John-i chelphan-ul napcakha-key John-NOM metal-ACC flat twutulkyess-una pounded-but napcakhay-ci-ci flat-PAS-NMLZ anh-ass-ta NEG-PST-DCL '*John pounded the metal flat, but it did not become flat.' The causative construction can occur with continuative aspect as in (23K), whereas the RC becomes less acceptable with it as in (96K). (95K) Mary-ka John-ul Mary-NOM John-ACC chelphan-ul metal-ACC napcakha-key flat 123 twutu1ki-[key ha]-koiss-ta pound-CAU-CONT-DCL 'Mary kept causing John to pound the metal flat.' (96K) ?John-i che1phan-u1 napcakha-key John-NOM meta1-ACC flat '*John kept pounding the metal flat.' twutu1ki-koiss-ta pound-CONT-DCL However, upon closer examination via the ESM model, the periphrastic causative construction appears to window the causer's Volition, Activity, and Force Transfer (typically metaphorical Force Transfer from the causer to cause), while the RC windows Activity, Force Transfer, Change and State. The mapping of the two constructions onto the ESM shows that they are functionally similar constructions by virtue of their overlapping windowed attention, [Activity + Force Transfer]. This can motivate the extension of the Korean periphrastic causative -key construction to its RC use. The [Activity]-windowing causative construction and the [Change]-windowing RC are mapped in the ESM below: 124 causative resu Itative Agent '"rj o(') c:::: "(/1 o Agent-LOCI '"rj Patient ~ >-l ~ ...... ~ Patient Agent Agent Agent . ~. ~. LOC Patient ~. ~. Patient ~. Change StateVolition Activity Force Transfer WINDOWING OF ATTENTION Figure 26 The ESM of the causative and resultative constructions 6.4 Summary This chapter argued that the typical meaning of the -key construction [Np\ NPz AN-key V] was a periphrastic causative with high frequency in early modern Korean, and the high frequency coupled with shared semanticosyntactic properties led to its extension to the resultative -key construction over time. On the other hand, the function of the -kul-ni construction [Np\ NPz A-kulNA-ni V] is as an adverbial construction expressing manner or degree of verbal action. The typical causative construction is formed not by the -kul-ni construction but by the morphological suffix -(s)ase. From this historical linguistic evidence, this author argues 125 that the low frequency of the -ku/-ni RCs explains its limited ability to coerce the verbs which window Change. 126 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION AND THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS By analyzing English corpus data of the verb-at, verb-away-at, and verb-away constructions, this dissertation demonstrates the relation between perception, cognitive construal, and linguistic encoding, within the framework of an Extended Semantic Map model. Language has conceptual roots in perception and cognitive construal. Construal depends upon distribution of attention, whose two main patterns are focus of attention and windowing of attention. Focus of attention is placed on participants and is linguistically represented in the selection and arrangement of nominals. Windowing of attention operates on causal/temporal relations by segmenting some relation(s) out of the sequences of relations of an event structure. It is typically represented in predicate or adverbial expressions. It is further argued here that any mismatch between perceptual and cognitive prominence requires overt marking. For example, the English passive construction requires the overt marking of 'belget + past participle, ' which directs an addressee' s primary focus of attention to a perceptually secondary but cognitively primary Patient. It also places windowing of attention on the perceptually secondary but cognitively primary Change. Thus, windowing and focus of attention defme the X- and Y-axes of the ESM. The X-axis consists of five causal relations - Volition, Activity, Force Transfer, Change, and State, upon which attention can be windowed. The Y-axis is composed of three 127 configurations of participants' semantic roles - Agent, Agent-LOC/Patient, and Patient. The ESM models the underlying semantic geometry, deducing relations among constructions rather than utilizing a data-driven inductive approach. The ESM visually maps the relation between verbs and constructions, as well as the relations among constructions; it enables this mapping within and across languages. The ESM also illustrates how event structures can be categorized typically as either [Activity]-windowing or [Change]-windowing. Finally, it also allows us to represent cross-linguistic differences in the available constructions for construing event structures. Compared to the approaches in previous studies, the ESM model offers a more complete explanation for the problem of what verb types can and cannot be coerced in the conative construction. It also graphically represents relations among the conative and the previously under-described verb-away and verb-away-at constructions. The ESM model combined with frequency effects can also explain the distributional differences (evident in diachrony) between Korean -key and Japanese -ku/ -ni resultative constructions. This ESM model lays a fundamental conceptual framework for the syntax- semantics interface of language-internal and cross-linguistic constructions, explicating problematic issues of constructional coercion, transitivity, and voice phenomena. 128 APPENDIX A ABBREVIATIONS A: Subject of transitive verb, ACC: Accusative, ADV: Adverbials, AP: Adjective Phrase, BNC: British National Corpus, C: Century, CAU: Causative, CaNT: Continuous, DCL: Declarative, GEN: Genitive, HaN: Honorific, IMPF: Imperfective, LaC: Locative, NEG: Negative, NMZL: Nominalizer, NOM: Nominative, J\lP: Noun Phrase, 0: Object of transitive verb, OBJ: Object, OBL: Oblique, PAS: Passive, PST: Past, PRED: Predicate, R: Relation, S: Subject of intransitive verb, Sem: Semantics, SUBJ: Subject, Syn: Syntax, TOP: Topic, V: Verb, Vt: Transitive Verb. APPENDIXB CORPUS DATA FROM THE BNC (British National Corpus) 129 Verb-at constructions from the BNC her breast in her hand and squeezed and banged at it until it hurt. In the pain there the windows, voices bellowed and hands banged and battered at the roof of the car. But how the knocker-up went around the streets banging at bedroom windows with a long stick to request to hear who it is and why it is bangim! at your door. Ask what qualities in you 9am , nor will you have the domestic staff banging at your door with a vacuum cleaner in tow priest .

The two boats rubbed and banged at the gunwales, and when Pascoe - a in ten minutes. 'They could hear Oliver banging and kicking at the cellar door .. Noah and sadness -- but he continued to move, banging at her, clutching just that part of her shirt-front. The heads of the two cocks banged at one another and their legs churned the that drunk again .

My father came and banged at my door when I did n't appear for breakfast open, footsteps running, and then Damian banging loudly at her door, rattling the handle It's iust a different sort of war from bashing at someone on horseback. '

Nicholas regards greenfly as a good meal, so do n't go bashing at everything that looks remotely like windows, voices bellowed and hands banged and battered at the roof of the car . But the men the Mediterranean not long before, were battering at the walls of St Augustine's home night boat from Liverpool, with a rough sea battering at the B & I ship, while the drunks motivation: staffnurses are rarely found battering at the tutors' doors for advice on how

Then the princess's soldiers began to batter at the doors of the wooden fortress with bathroom and shutting out the adults who came battering at the door. Children who do this are has swallowed barbed wire and my brain was battering at the inside ofmy skull. At least sliding mounting. Cold air like rushing water battered at his face , beating in his cheeks and closed on his convulsed face. They heard him battering furiously at the panels and shouting hoarsely of an animal body against the glass. It beat at the stonework and screamed about projections The Woman smashing him to the ground and beating at his face. In the kitchen, with her passing so close to Simon that their wings beat at his head. It was as if he no longer boat on a string and floated it there, beating at the water's edge with a fan of leaves perceived in the swirling dense smoke, beating at the flames coming from its own body Zervos was dancing on the tiled floor and beating at the air.

' Chicken's a weapon shift, move endlessly in circles/moths beatinp- at glass endlessly/all that energy expended lips of a Christian to a Hindu teacher's beating at her brothers ' hands for her affair way through to the yard. Hari heard him beating at the bushes with his truncheon and then humour in the man. There was the thin voice beating at him across the desk.

' You are ....... w o steps to the nearest house, starting to beat at the paint-scraped wooden door. She instantly stifled by a mouthful of insects. She beat at her face, her bosom, her stomach, tearing gallop in the twilight. The rain beat at their eyes and the lurch of the uneven . After a while she realised she'd been beating at him with her fists hard enough to hurt spouse burst into voluble speech, which beat at Theda's ears as she fled up the stairs

She brought up her clenched fists to beat at him, and as he saw the dirt on them seized the thin old hearthrug and began to beat at the flames. A thick, choking smoke carried Wynne-Jones on his back; the old man beat at the thorns with his stick, one arm yelled, Tallis recognized Morthen . She beat at her brother's head, causing him to Mahmoud gave a cry of disgust and began to beat at his legs. He was black from shoes to Marc, let me go ! Please -- '

She beat at him with her fists, striking him in stop herselffrom flying up the steps to beat at Fernando's chest. Her nails bit into bedroom window, he could see two figures beating at something with what seemed to be a bar rage-hungry troop, Trooper belabouring trooper, biting at arm or at face, Plunges towards nothing Nordern sucked his thumb for a moment, bitin~ at the cactus spike. ' And what did you dressing-gown. ' Not much. '

Herr Nordern bit impatiently at his thumb. ' Did you see but I knew I 'd make a mess of it . ' She bit -- savagely at her cuticles again, and hand smacked into his mouth and although he bit at it the thumb was forced like a gag between time round he became restless and began biting at the rope and making playful snaps at they are cornered or pestered will they bite at their attackers. Their neurotoxin produces pleasant sensation. Edward contorted again, biting first at her throat and then kissing her entangled for the rabbits are inclined to bite at the net ifthey are left within it for not unusual for many dogs to attempt to bite at their owner's hand. Their attention

Holly thought he would choke. He bit at his lip and swallowed again .

lips were dented white where the teeth had bitten at them.

' Sick? Of course he's you can walk with. '

He could have bitten at his tongue. Crudeness and arrogance she felt that breeze ruffling her hair, biting at her nose. Donna shivered and decided Jehan spoke, and the cat yowled and it bit playfully at her hand.

' Oh . It ragged, his mouth wide open, his teeth biting desperately at the intangible air .

flavoured with night, ran across her lips. She bit at it as his mouth strayed down across their nerves chewed chewed flavourless It bit at their numb bodies they did not resist , and shivers. Summer dripping stars, biting at the nape. Lobworms coupling in saliva anger before. It was quite a shock. Robyn bit worriedly at her lip. She had been thinking had emerged from the creature's mouth to bite at the thorn, then realized she had seen .-. IN .-. crimson. ' That was the cold water, ' she bit at him in horror, folding her arms across number of passengers to join us ? '

She bit at her lower lip, stifling a feeling of pushing at her hand, and she blinked hard, bitinll at her lip, starting suddenly as she became regretting her outburst. ' I did n't mean to bite at you so . I 'm iust fed up with this cara . You know it is what you want. ' He bit lightly at her lower lip .. Give yourself then bent and kissed her naked breasts , biting gently at the aroused pink nubs until Caroline worried away at the problem. Questions bitinll at her like rats, ending up with the sharpest night wind whipped his grey cropped hair, bit at his ears and cheeks and clawed at the crocodile. Yeah they bite ! Yeah. They bite at erm alligators? Alligator. Alligators Outstripping his desk-diary at a broad desk, Carving at a tiny ivory ornament: refrigerator, she became impatient and tried to chip at it , first with her fingers and then Again the lesson is plain: do n't always chip straight at the pin .

GOLF MONTHLY JUNIOR work. With the milled edge ofthe coin he chiooed at the red-brown crust that had formed green standing slime. Using the trowel she chiooed at the ground outside the door, prising school.

And every waking hour she chiooed at the ugly block, sanded, scored, chiseled There was the forest. And there were men choooinll at the trees. Alexei could see their faces pulling him backward by his hair, her hand choooinll down viciously at his chest.

Chen feet. He found his sword and started to chem.. methodically at the doomed arms . Rincewind reacted to his move with uncanny speed, chopping down at him as he hurtled past and over protected him well . 1 held the metal box and choooed at him with the side of my hand, but it move off through the dense undergrowth, chopping at it with jungle machetes. Now and again Charlie? ' She held on to her mother, clawing at the lapels of her coat. ' Oh my God hole. Then the sleeve of Dot's coat was clawed at bv a lonll briar .Dot knew it blows? Two sisters, two elderly women, clawing at one another? Is that it ? '

' his calves where, while writing, he had clawed at the cracking patches on his legs.

German from ice .

He was groaning and clawing at the pillow. She wondered if she should were inside the pillow, biting outwards, clawing at her tight-shut eyes, scratching her

Shrilling overhead, the hurricane clawed at the leaf canopy of the rain forest, girl towards her .

The girl started clawin!l at Maggie.

' Careful, you'll pull from the sharp ends of broken wicker which clawed at his feet and legs. Soon the whole side Eyes bulging, he collapsed, hands feebly clawing at his mouth. Gallagher hammered him again Sometimes they leap at it from behind and claw at its head feathers .

The excitement feet ! ' ' Ribs of beef! ' Greasy hands clawed at his arms but he pushed them off. The terrible dawning. He tried to swim, to claw at the wall but he could not; not against ........ W tv training took over .

He went down fast, clawing at the water with his hands, trailing head. It let go ofDelaney , screaming and clawing at its hooded eyes, as the spray added for him. I let him have that bike. ' She clawed at Mother Francis's hand as she spoke mountain rescue teams and other skiers, clawed at the snow. The Britons were given mouth to see yet, but that would come.

Clawing at the substance of the dark, it wriggled Valence obeyed, the paraplegic's fingers clawed at the air, as though inscribing some towards the alien prisoner. His fingers clawed at the air, his eyes bulged, spittle he . Explosions and convulsions of heat clawed at the energy shields -- an unending succession by the limber's scraping violence. He clawed at the broken wheel that first dragged cursing bitterly and there were icicles clawing at my stomach. It was soon over. The windscreen and brambles and gorse bushes clawed at the bright sides of her hired Fiat, leave footprints on the soil. Branches clawed at her hair and she felt like she had done what the stuff on her face might be , she clawed at it with trembling fingers, trying to water and hands, nails curled and black, clawing at him, at his clothes, at his chest hanging down over the side, his one hand clawing at his throat. His eyes were wide open hair and drags her down with him as she claws at his beard with back-stretched hand. only had a few metres to go , felt the Jeep claw at the hard ground and hurtle forward. , two people over thirty surreptitiously clawing at each other through layer upon layer into Atrimonides ' face. He screamed and clawed at his eyes. Christine made a grab for . That's when I went mad. I started to claw at his body and rip his pyjamas. Later face downwards, his left hand seeming to claw at the floor, his right arm hunched beneath boxer hurled himself on me in delight, clawing at my chest with the biggest, homiest out his dummy hand, and the metal fingers clawed at the man's arm .. How did she take josh-house. One soldier held up his head, and clawed at his face. He showed a handful of greasepaint masons' lame attempt at insulation . Quiss clawed at the wall, tearing the faded, yellowing pure gold .

She reached up for him, clawing at his shoulders, her fingers slipping struck Rincewind 's hand, heavily . He clawed at the air and looked at the thing he had sharp knives and Jenna raised her hands to claw at him, hurting inside and wanting to landscape. The mountain peaks and ridges clawed at the sky and Maggie stopped thinking release me and her from this timed Hell. I claw at the wallpaper. Filings of biscuit of fish hooks trailing from the heart , clawinQ" at your insides. Hunger feels like pincers working beside him .

Bitter jealousy clawed at her, its sharp, painful talons filling Minister awoke one night covered in sweat and clawing at a port hole, trying to get out. Yet one who killed her? '

Cold fingers clawed at Melissa's stomach .. Let's notiump ...... VJ VJ watched the light drain away and felt the cold clawing at the earth between the tables. The end

She was silent for a moment. Hunger clawed at her. Close by , faint against the growing

' That really smarts . ' Asmodeus clawed at the back ofhis head .

' Shoot when his mouth covered hers, but when she clawed at him, one of his hands caught her wrists her attention .

Forgetting the pain clawing at her maltreated ankle, Luce stared unbelievingly

The sensation of desperation grew and clawed at her throat.

' So, what do you you the same question. ' The kitten was clawing at Lowell's trouser leg and he put the , he shifted one hand from his enemy to claw at his own throat, and instantly the fist Devil ! Devil ! Damned carrion crow ! ' He clawed at the edge of the closing door, but the cropped hair, bit at his ears and cheeks and clawed at the grey robe wrapped round his body say . You are right. But the saying of it cuts at the chains. So … I laugh. ' continued to fight. The Keeper of Secrets cut at him with its great claw. Its terrible would permit him to disengage and then to cut at his opponent's unguarded left. The spin, when Hansie Cronje ( imprudently cutting at his fourth ball) offered a first Test out of a doorway to Alexei's left, and he cut at it with his sword and ran on . Someone energy of a woman artist. Such a practice cuts at the foundation ofAristoteleian notions hacked at the slithery tentacles. As he cut at them, the monster released a jet of the roots. And it was a belief that to cut at the roots with small scissors would certain size, ca n't be displaced without cutting at his life. The law used to look with Marilyn had got so superstitious about. Jack dabbed at his chin again and went to the window , but she was occupied with Mrs Hatton, dabbing at her face and smoothing her hair. Forsaken that. '

' You think, ' she began , dabbing at her eyes as she came back with the pad glancing sideways again, and found her dabbinl! at her face, trying hard not to sniff index finger, spat to make it wet, then dabbed at Dot's cheeks till they were sore .

lipstick from the comers of her mouth, then dabbed at her nose and cheeks with a small powder-puff of atmosphere. Carefully, Mrs Browning dabbed at the comers of her mouth with a handkerchief pocket for a scrap of hanky, and used it to dab at her eyes. When the Lennoxes returned paper, and knelt down beside Alison. She dabbed at the wound, removing bits of grit, '

' A good question. ' Buckmaster dabbed at his thin lips with his napkin. ' We Ray picked up teaspoons with one hand and dabbed at the goat's milk with the other holding gaze to the canvas before her and began to dab at it with the brush. He could sense her Oh yes, he's virile, ' she murmured, dabbinQ: at her eyes with a handkerchief. ' But tissue out of her trendy cardigan and started dabbing at her skirt. ' Bina, you've got it peacock-blue cashmere skirt. She leaped up , dabbing at it with a napkin.

' Oh no ! It ...... w .p.. had a wetted towel to cool his head. To dab at his eye. He thought to make some tea Pierre bending down to help him up . Raoul dabbed at his nose with the back of his hand, unexpected wisp of lace and linen, and dabbed at the nose.

The name' Princess dressed in black. They were all crying. Some dabbed at their eyes with handkerchiefs, others said gently .

Thus , as Rickie feebly dabbed at the deck and as his sister ate, our her friend, reached into the back seat to dab at Nick's eyes with her handkerchief, leant towards her, and the scent she had dabbed at her neck in the bedroom played at his twisting it round and round in her fingers and dabbing at her wet face .

The Captain's examining her face in a small mirror. She dabbed at a smudge of lipstick with a tissue. , milk and sugar, and laid a tray . He dabbed at his eyes, blew his nose, then emptied a handkerchief from her apron pocket and dabbing at her eyes .

' My James would 'ave n't talk out 'ere, Nell, ' she said, dabbing at her eyes .

Chapter Eight

On Monday while Maria Candida retched and wailed and dabbed at her nose in the cabin, Sara spent most to spin on the spot in circles; and to dab at the water surface for invertebrate food out on a bed was Chuck Riley, with a girl dabbing at a nasty bruise on his forehead .

taking a polishing cloth from his pocket and dabbing at his eyes. They listened as from the kitchen .

' Hoo, 'Yvonne says, dabbing at her cheeks with a tissue. She glances water on his handkerchief, then gently dabbed at Clare's chin. ' You'll have a huge listen to him .

Left alone, the Doctor dabbed at the wet patch on his cheek with a comer cotton wool, then bent towards him and dabbed at the place, a pose that brought their shift anxiously in their direction and he dabbed occasionally at his pale perspiring face turned into a snort. I rolled my eyes. She dabbed at hers with a clean comer of napkin, handkerchief from her handbag on her lap, dabbed at her nose. ' Still pretending it'll looked up then at the Constable, still dabbing at a fresh nosebleed with his now-crimson while Simpson slipped resentfully away, dabbing at his nose. Jimmy slouched back against happening? '

' I wish I knew. 'Ursula dabbed at her cheek with the back ofher hand Donna said, pushing her plate away and dabbing at the comers of her mouth with a napkin towards him and he sensed her warmth. He dabbed at his mouth with a handkerchief. ' It , sir? '

The chief superintendent dabbed at the stubble of his moustache with a reproachfully as she leaned against the doorpost dabbing at her eyes.

It all became clear gilt-backed brush she found there. She dabbed at her hair, smoothing it . She pulled perched on the edge of an armchair. Rain dabbed at the blood with a wad of paper handkerchiefs compact, she checked her appearance, and dabbed at her hair. Did Mark like the new style spaghetti. I lean back in my chair and dab at dribbles ofjuice with a linen napkin ...... w VI dipped the cotton wool in the water and dabbed at the livid puffy eyes. The cries changed chair, over his legs and over Alan. Alan dabbed hurriedly at him with the towel and picked taking a handkerchief from her lacy sleeve to dab at a tiny droplet of champagne on her dress communication. I glared at a fleck in the mirror, dabbed at it , then wiped furiously. After a n't usually go to pieces like this. ' She dabbed ineffectually at the fine material .

another matter altogether. '

Rebecca dabbed at her eyes with a handkerchief. ' It lipstick case, rolled her lips together, dabbed at the comers with a violet tissue, then

She improvised wildly and skilfully, dabbing at her eyes while she spoke with a rather in endeavouring to make matters better by dabbing at the debris on Mrs Darrell's lap with do n't want to miss it , ' sniffs Molly, dabbing at her cheeks with a scrap of peach-coloured n't that what he'd said ?

Melissa dabbed daintily at her mouth. ' How's casting ground, then took a clean handkerchief to dab gently at the broken skin, saying as he miss him. ' She reached for a tissue to dab at the moisture welling in her eyes.

and, although there were times when she dabbed at a tear, she reminded herself that she dipped the cotton wool in the water and dabbed at the livid puffy eyes. The cries changed chair, over his legs and over Alan. Alan dabbed hurriedly at him with the towel and picked

Sybil picked up the telephone and dabbed at the buttons with a well-scrubbed finger handkerchief, and , with her free hand, dabbed at the run of the tears. ' It is n't you department door leering at the nurse who was dabbing gently at the three parallel scratches on bad scarring on his upper arms . He was dabbing at his face with a large wad of cotton Do n't you love me , mum? '

My mum dabbed at her eyes. She did n't answer.

the stain spreading .

Never Rub. Dab at the stain. Rigorous rubbing could damage Supposing he never comes back? ' she said, dabbing at her eyes.

' Of course he'll subject up , when he was home. '

She dabbed at a watery eye .

' Why do you ask handbag for a handkerchief. Finding one, she dabbed at her eyes. ' It 's going to be awful on the pad in front of him , occasionally dabbing at his loose, wet lips with a handkerchief bandido wore a bloody nose which he was dabbing at with an oversized tartan handkerchief chance? '

' Brian. ' The barmaid dabbed at her eyes. ' Brian somet or other. as usual . It comes with old age. ' She dabbed at her skirt with a handkerchief. ' Go attempted some light-hearted Questioning, as he dabbed at his face and hair with the towel she flowered fabric, then gathered her wits to dab at it slowly with her heavy cream damask Steve asked, grinning widely as she finally dabbed at her eyes .

She nodded, dicing again. But only 3,000 wildcat miners are digging at the mine, compared with 20,000 a year snide remarks in the gossip columns ( mainly d~s at Morrissey's claims to a celibate lifestyle ...... VJ 0'1 you that there is a diversion and you must ~ at that point to determine the new direction Can't-stand-still-ski . When Private Eye digs at Janet Street-Porter, it also takes froth of those liaisons. Her fingers were di2:2:in2: hard at his back, pulling him on to her for a new excavation. Since Evans first illill- at the site in 1900 archaeological work scale drawing to let you know how deep to dig at any point

Cut out each step more the site of Callanish and disturbed it , digging at the soil and making mounds; changing to the ground and the two of them began di2:2:in2: at her chest with the rakes .

She

She raked his face with her nails, digging at his eyes, making him scream in renewed came round. His collarbone ached, and he illill- at it with his good arm , massaging the the fourth time. Any more ofher little QigL at me and her sickening smiles of lust I do n't know! Do n't ask, do n't keep digging at me ! It 'd be a good match, would n't voice over SWINDON

They 've continued to ~ at the back of a house in Swindons Old the numbers of offshore rigs needed for drilling at sea. It could also find applications first results could be a speeding-up of drilling at the huge oilfield it recently discovered roar of the water coming down the gully drummed at my ears as I inched the Toyota into great flock of gulls swooping to tear and gobble at their prey. Midnight. Helpless. Standing blocking the hand chop, attacking again, gouging at Delaney's eyes .

Delaney countered to a wall .

Systematically he had gouged at each one with a screwdriver. Even a scream was louder, Christopher's fist 2:ou2:in2: at his eye sockets .

' Oh God, the scream was louder, Christopher's fist gouging at his eye sockets .

' Oh God, the will produce 10 glosses. And, true, he hacked at Mr Lawson's trade deficit; but he , droning and whining like a buzz saw, hacking at his guitar as if he is chopping wood there's the old woman and the wild man hackin2: at a haunch of venison . Suddenly a dog long-handled axe held high above his head. He had hacked at the man's naked backside until it fell the Isuzu , but crashed as her attacker hacked at her through the window .

The pictures crayon, or a pen loaded with black ink, hacking at them fiercely, savagely, to kill off fuselage and then onto the wing. He began hackin2: at the ice on the 2:aU2:es and the air intakes musket-fire were exchanged, everybody was hacking at everybodv else with edged weapons. was no place for skill. Warriors simply hacked at each other. The wounded were trampled children. He let them pass. Then he began to hack at the door-frame. The whole structure the vehicle, using Daak 's chainsword to hack at the metal-olated skirt. The DK was kicking the wall, his chainsword still hacking at the edges of the hole it had tom in is . You ass what did you want to start hackin~ at it for? It looked lovely as it was thrown to the ground. The man continued to hack at the body, right down to the bone and ....... \.>.l -J pulled it this way and that, twisted it , hacked at it with a spade, levered at it with the crimson lights. The two slaves were hacking at his thighs now, and two more came forward around them, the boy grabbed an axe and hacked at the slithery tentacles. As he cut at in the centre of the office. Carradine hacked at the other man's stick and a length , she lured him under the t'gallant and hacked at a shroud which parted, dumping a heavy but defenders were falling also. Riven hacked at the neck of one man who had a leg over . She opens the door .

She 's been hacking at her hair again. It 's like a little legal ? '

' If I can . Why do you keep hacking at your hair? '

' You tell me your single-mindedly forcing his way through the jungle, hacking at anything in his path. He would scythe crouched by the pit, his sword a blur as it hacked at the tentacles racing out towards him on the fur of his hood, but soon, as he hacked at the tree, his skin began to glow and a mother. It was the youngest child who hacked at the wood. There were two older children pictures of local people clubbing dolphins and hacking at their carcasses shocked viewers in Japan enclaves. Women washed clothes in rivers. Men hacked at vegetation with ferocious-looking machetes worried.

Bedworth , now 19 , began hacking at 14 and quickly became obsessed, the , where we were seated the firemen were hacking at the windows thinking that it was a fire and I looked out the window and they were hacking at my fence, and I went out bu and was for himself but it , it's, it's like hacking at concrete with a knife. Mm . Terrible shouting, it 's on there. You, you've been hacking at this one bit, it's gone too soft , fine exhibition of model workmen sawing and hammering industriously at his great new masterwork the bottom ofthe hole were two figures hammering at the base ofthe object. I immediately edge of a cliff, and her bank manager was hammering at her fingers .

She then, most home, he was not the first Scotsman to hammer at the gate.

' So , ' said Andra candlepower .

SADIE watched the two workmen hammering at the brass plates. ' Are you glad we Kerzaz had passed, I was bending over, hammering at the tent-pegs. Mick was trying to light polite astonishment. Some of the group were hammering at the rocks through which the road cut cold metal and knocked twice. The buttocks hammered at the door as if they were fucking it complete if five degrees nose-down, still hammering along at 250 knots, but I push harder to they ran across the top of the water and hammered desperately at the air with their wings programme after we'd spent five years gently hammering at her representatives -- and of course not Thomton 's, terms .

Thomton hammered at them that there was a ' window of opportunity way his hand flew to his pocket when you hammered at the door. '

' Hm . Then let's phrases which seemed particularly apt: to hammer at them as if something was being shaped from his hand-tooled, bumished-steel gun hammered at the alien. Many of the explosive-tipped >-' w 00 this dreadful apartment block. Danielle hammered at the door until a face peeped out of Fakrid shouted again .

The gunners hammered at the controls. ' Disintegrator will fooled; not fooled. In the dark she had hammered at him as if she were driving a spike. after five days, with Sandy's parents hammering at Ted every minute ofthe time. Ted's was only a man in tattered blue dungarees hammering busily at a makeshift crush at the exit strikes the hour .

Someone starts hammering at the door. It's time to let us in . two sleepy-eyed, half-dressed servants we hammered again at the door until it buckled, creaking servants swung it backwards and forward, hammerin2: at the door until it groaned, cracked Cranston and Athelstan pushed by him and hammered at the great gate. A grille was opened buzzed, the dizzying pulse of her blood hammering at her temples, and then any thought in through the cell window. The shock started me hammering at my door again. The whole prison was sound from inside the house.

Seb hammered at the door and tugged at the bell-pull through the cheering crowd, up the steps, to hammer at the door. When it was not immediately dash from Trafalgar Square just as they had hammered at the door. Now the coach party hammered Forgotten her. '

He felt the blood hammerin2: at the pit of her neck, and among the waiting for Finlayson. Tribe stood up and hammered at his gun. He pointed at it and waved on the black ice, cursing and praying, hammerin2: at the doors I passed but I was so cold sugars. '

A small pulse began to hammer at the base of Lindsey's throat as she with herself and deflecting it to him, she hammered at his shoulders.

' Put me down branches girls and boys were clambering about, hitting at the spiked green conkers and knocking '

The way to police safety, which hits at those responsible without penalizing something that is at present free and would hit hardest at low-income car-owners. It also usual multiple of nine to 11 .

Amnesty hits at Colombian army killings By ISABEL HILTON across the divide with a brand of comedy that hit at both sides. But he died before the great Elizabethan attributes. When Curteys hit at Lewkenor 's and his associates' involvement And Willie admonished me . ' I told ye to hit at it , I didna' tell ye to hit it , ' The French were cheering. The Prince was hitting at the running men with the flat of his organisational structure. Pupil/peer recognition can hit at the very heart of the learning system sketch-like poems on society which also hit hard at a few home truths … McGough arrived companies' . The new provisions hit hardest at the exploration stages of minerals desperate, I saw the tunnel was no good. I hit violently at the door, I tried to force things, ' and Fenella felt the pity of it hit hard at the base ofher throat .

The tennis bat and empty cartridge case which he hits at the birds. He says he ca n't get them He began to climb down into the ditch, hittinQ' at the grass with his pick-handle. Then ......... v,) '-0 hand in a fury of frustration and fear. He hit at her face with the gun, but she jerked could add personal reasons for wanting to hit hard at the enemy ; three of his sons had

Neighbours' twins look to big panto hit at the Empire By Joe Riley

IT 'S a long this discrepancy, but all are flicked and jabbed at and irritated -- those circling insects . I do n't mean all this, here, ' she jabbed at Rachel's typescript with an irritable stupid. ' He began to clean his teeth, iabbinQ" at his mouth, then dropped the toothbrush

' Not yet. Still hear' em . ' He jabbed heavily at the air with his finger as if marathon in under four hours 25 minutes. He jabs at a picture in an album Shirley has produced She was down to its level now, her finger jabbing at the zip of his trousers .

Sex Molly later insisted was self defence, she iabbed desperately at the oncoming fish. Through 2 inches from its face, calling out and jabbing at its eyes. Some of the larger birds nearer. Allen pulled out his knife and jabbed at the animal's flank where the stirrup Souljah marches on , up and down the stage, jabbing at the audience with her finger. Her voice forefingers of her right hand in a V , and jabbed at Rodriguez's faceplate. The reinforced Sutton looked Pilger straight in the eye, iabbed at his chest and announced: ' There's second, a distinctly acidic odour rising to iab at his sinuses, the third, and most startling

It 's just a job, she told herself, jabbing at the display controls .

' Britta a death wish, ' he roared, and started jabbing at the controls. ' We'll get in there she had lived .

Princesse Mathilde jabbed at a log in the stone fireplace and watched with Desmond Fairchild. She stopped and iabbed at O'Hara's machine with her umbrella man to usher him along and occasionally jab at him with his stick. Beth could not Gregson. He turned towards the map and iabbed at the red-ringed area. ' This area is illuminated. The orange light flared and he jabbed at it . The door slid open and he stepped little girls respond fiercely, their hands jab at hers, they snap open and shut trying anger. ' Or did ye inject it ? ' He was iabbinQ" at the man with the clenched fist of his fingers are free to convert into finger jabs at the throat or eye gouges .

The take-down The shirt was placed separately and Curtis jabbed at it with a thick, square forefinger staff. Riven held his reins in one hand and jabbed at the snarling grypesh with the other That's Garry, I take it . ' Her finger jabbed at the picture of the man, not quite touching her eyes squeezing back the tears. She jabs at the back of her throat, opening her salad with the precision of an accountant jabbing at his calculator, before transferring the time I feel the point of the barrel iabbinp" at my neck. Other times it is at the back back into the opponent's head. If you kick at the limits of effective range, then though the massively solid Borg-Warner 'box kicks at the back end. Our hard-chasing Mercedes I-' -+:>. o into bits. I chuck them on the floor and kick at them. Bloody, bloody, bloody. I leaves that ai n't been brushed up yet, so I kick at them as I go along. It 's great, this told, ' Mrs Mills had said .

Philip kicked at the pile of sticks he'd gathered for You been taking things again? '

Lee kicked at a roll of carpet. He did n't say anything smiled, but Jinny still felt wretched. She kicked at the chair-leg and the black, angry between them was as grey as a school sweater. Kicking at pine cones on the path, Mungo was halfway wire fence, as a mare may strike out or kick at the gelding and injure herself in the and no matter how much he blasphemed and kicked at the door he could n't get in .

' That's a day old. ' Trooper Kean kicked at the ashes of the camp site and hunkered advantage of weight and strength .

Trent kicked at the man's right knee. Juanito was served as his model. When he finished, he kicked at the door, I opened it and gave him If he starts being really difficult and kicking at the partitions we sometimes have to piste is like this, ' said one of them kicking at the sand .

' Pas problem, 'I the club, so that players could practise kicking at the bars and trapping the ball as it darkness. ' Roll on , ' he thought, and kicked viciously at the kickstart .

THE MEETING '11 see. ' They wandered on , aimlessly kicking at the pine cones.

' What's that climbed onto a wing of the blazing plane, and kicked frantically at the toughened perspex of A rock lay in his way and in revenge he kicked at it , catching the lower eye of one of as , each slash, cut by the bag, or she kicked at him, just another woe; as a crashing sun .

She saw now, so clearly, she kicked at him; this ruination, contamination Anton stir behind him. But he turned to kick at him -- he still wore his heavy work For a moment she almost hated him. She kicked at the hay in a burst offrustration .

surprised his companions. On one occasion he kicked at a fence which was enclosing a footpath rhetoric from leaders who knew that they were kicking at an open door. The strike call was endorsed ordered, and watched as she floundered and kicked at the man on each side of her.

and his body was quivering and his boots kicked at the snow. Not dead .

Around Holly : take it steady, keep cool and do n't kick at the ice! It eases off eventually and pathetic pye-dog . Then I sat in the sand and kicked at the r of Oliver until they came and include head thrusts, ear-flattening, and kicking at walls or thin air. Colic and ulcers hate myself! ' Then he opened them and kicked savagely at a lump of dried mud, sending She chewed at the spiky end of a plait and kicked at a kitchen chair-leg. Through the open scene. Ah, he's evil! '

Melanie kicked at a knot in the floorboards with the toe next morning he was woken up by someone kicking at the shop door.

' Open the door minutes. ' They could hear Oliver banging and kicking at the cellar door. ' Noah -- run and ....... .j::>. ....... he arrived at the shop, Oliver was still kicking wildly at the cellar door.

' Let his hands clasped across her breasts. He kicked at her legs, tried to lift her, kicked kicked at her legs, tried to lift her, kicked at her legs again. She tried to duck out of Peter. He stood a little apart from them, kicking at the scree, and then he walked off across specifically asked for him to be included. He kicked irritably at the metal fence and then turned n't even know the answer to that !

I kick at a flint, hard , missing and catching Lewis stomped away along the tide-line, kicking at the odd piece of driftwood and the occasional at the nearby window … and Duvall kicked savagely at Barbara's head, spinning her bit into his thumb until she drew blood, kicking again at the big man. She drove three kicks not very good at deception. ' Urquhart kicked at the turf with the toe of his shoe. past rows of low cedar huts, his bare feet kicking at the surf which swept in from the north what I expected and dreaded; a small calf kicking at its stomach, getting up and down, anyone knocked or banged it ? football , kicked at it . S Footballs. They kicked at it football, kicked at it . S Footballs. They kicked at it . Right, this is his right thumb abduct you … '

In response she kicked at his shins, pummelled him furiously sudden jerk of anger Stephen turned and kicked at his shins, but the blows did n't hurt almost repulsive to think of it in there, kicking at the walls; but it roused him sexually answer her mother's plea .

Benjamin kicked at the rushes. ' Pray, ' he muttered a mistake. '

Mandeville viciously kicked at the snow with the toe of his boot. knocked the brandy back quickly, feeling it kick at the back of her mouth. She felt strangely of course an excellent memory .

I kicked at the ratbird , which fluttered off .

tentacle that held it . The little man began to kick at the tentacle in fury .

Another cool and refreshing. A sharp bitterness kicked at one's palate amid the blandness of again, confound it ! ' he said aloud, kicking moodily at one of the logs, and sending almost repulsive to think of it in there, kicking at the walls; but it roused him sexually snowflakes. Ivan backed away from me . I kicked at his leg but almost overbalanced. Ivan

' Oh . ' She moved restlessly and kicked at the crisp leaves at her feet. ' I …

His fragile good humour has faded. He kicks moodily at the carpet. ' Another thing-if imagine I was holding my trombone case, kicking at the loose pebbles in the roadway. Millie bracken and moss were mingled. Matthew kicked at it with his foot. " It 's a badger blazed with menace. ' Got it? '

Tony kicked at the sand, his face set. ' Yes, I went downstairs where the coroner stood kicking absentmindedly at the snow .

' You in sudden condensation. Dazzling lights knifed at her vision from the docking bay. Ember flowerbeds and margin of trees. Cold winds knifed at them but the baby was snug in its portable ...... -+::>. N the wind and rain in the darkness outside lashed at the windows ofDamiani 's old home. hard as he could. He'd stand there and lash at it and then expect to hole every putt porcupine's method of defending itself is to lash wildlv at the enemy with its spiny tail throat; ferns whip at mv legs and branches lash at my face .<0>1 gave McDunn the two it from his grip, then stepped back and lashed at the priest, holding the rod two-handed , half a dozen of his subordinates began lashing at the exposed soles of their bare feet rain-driven night &hellio;

The wind lashed at the frontage, rattling those panes , mutated talons. Finding nothing, it lashed at the walls and screamed in fury.

spilled. '

And before Mala could lash at him again, he explained, and terrified was beating a pie-dog with a heavy stick, lashing at it with mindless energy as the animal have said such a thing to Doreen, ' she lashed at him, feeling even more irritated. … ? You could've fooled me , ' she lashed at him on a half-sob, her arms crossing er Greyson I should say. Now Hill Ward lashes at it but he er made a good contact. Ormanroyd streak of lightning split the sky. Rain lashed noisily at the windows .

' So when buffoonery and the Government in general before lashing at the crass assumptions that men make night when, for no apparent reason, a man lashed at her face in the lift at Walton Hospital rats' rancid pink tongues stretch out to lick gently at pink heels. [ ROD STONEMAN ]

chatted away to me in the back and Simon kept licking at the suitcase like it was a bone or summat sat with the yapping dogs on either side licking at her hands. The basket of flowers was , she repeated, dully . Then the flames licked at her fingers and she dropped what was to Rhossili , I paused to watch the waves licking at the oak ribs of the Helvetia -- a Norwegian . The blood ran bright and red. Parker licked at it and stuck on a bit of brown paper a film of sweat above his lips which he licked at nervously .

As he felt Joe begin figuring. '

' Figuring what? '

He licked at his damaged hand with his enormous soft day you're starving, Cat, and begin to lick at the corpse. She twitches the curtain his stiffened cue around her mouth, and licked at the hardness like a child savouring the kitchen curtains .

Flames were licking hungrily at the material; it was blazing breakfast things, and dug a spoonful out to lick at . She was sitting curled up in the armchair .

' Do it for me , ' he said. He licked at her throat hungrily, closing his eyes liquid spiderwebbed out across the site, licking at the other tanks. People ran for cover and the beautiful Rachel. ' The old crone licked at the saliva frothing on her lips .

exploded, spilling out on to the hearth, licking at the few drops on the floor, and in engulfed them both. Theda felt the flame lick at her loins, and the lassitude that had several places it ran down the walls. Panic licked at the corners ofher mind. Blackness --+:- VJ Do you all follow that? '

The wind licked at the white cloth and peeled up one comer into the night; ten streaks of flame, licking at the clouds .

' The raiathuks … The Daurog sniffed its own finger, then licked at the glistening nail. Tallis thought she came once more, panting like a dog, licking at his face. They rolled slightly apart out as soon as possible. The flames were licking at the window .

Her son who also the boy , picking up the wirecutters and nicking at bits of grass with them . ' I made the out on the eastern marshes the North Sea nudl!ed at the coastal defences which had been Outside, the wind knew something was on and nudged at the clouds. They lay in each other manipulated her thighs until the blunt tip was nudging at the portals of her reluctant orifice the grey and leprous flesh .

Cardiff nudged at that swollen head with his shoe. With pool. The carp feeding around the inlet nudged at his fingers. ' Lady, I know it , , to her caress just moments previously was nudl!inl! at her body, demanding entry and release alarm bell rings. One of the Rottweilers nudges at shards of glass in the bottom of the apparition was still there, and now it began oatting gently at Mildred with its gigantic paws against the stake. Susan was on the ground, oattinl! at the patches of fire on her suit. Rhonda familiar girl fussed around the table, oattinl! at the rotting food as if plumping a baby '

' Coming right up . ' I began to gat at my pockets as if I really meant it but head snatched up his smouldering cigar and patted furiously at his smouldering fly .

Fernando took the edge of the sheet and oatted at the beads ofvapour at her brow. ' afraid of him and I want him on my side. He 12aws at me , licks me , nuzzles me and I talk to know what's happening. '

Marx pawed at his jacket, rubbing the ash in rather than a few times she spat it to the floor and pawed at it , growling and sniffing her distaste replayed several times a shot of Tammuz pawing at his face, messing with his hair; anxious stallion. Some mares will actually stand and paw at a paddock fence because they want to , , or strike at their stable doors, or paw at the fencing. In contrast, some may annoyance also by putting its ears back, or pawing at the ground, or by grinding its teeth not arrived at the usual time she began to 12aw at the fence in anxiety. Unsurprisingly still had not been fed and so she started to QaW at the fence again. Her owner rushed to that her leg did not go through, ceased to 12aw at the fence for oats .

Some bad one night. ' Alec, , he had blubbered, pawing at his sleeve, , yer the only true friend chocolate-coloured Russian Blue was sniffing and pawing experimentally at one of the corpses.

tent in the back lot of the Mirage Hotel, pawing at sparring partners with less conviction The two of them walk together and gently 12aw at each other rather sweetly. Halfway likely to resent wearing a collar, and will 12aw at its neck in an attempt to remove it ...... ..j:>.. ..j:>.. travel sickness. At first young dogs may paw at the floor and whine when confined in The Prince's horse whinnied. Rebecaue 's nawed at the trampled rye stalks. This was the shaped up to his friend, his clenched fists nawing at the air and his shoulders moving from What you think, Battler? '

Battler nawed at his chin. His fist was about the size room I was staggering, and instinctively I pawed at my mouth .

The first man I saw tarmac with a horrible limpness .

I pawed at the hairy form. " I ca n't see a bloody stared on , stonily now . One of the children nawed at my lap, as if returning my attention meowed but he ignored me . I got up and nawed at his trousers. He shouted at me so I branches of the elderberries in the autumn, pecked at the fruit and flapped into the sky when and the relaxed conditions ofNEP . Hens necked at unwanted rouble notes from piles of poorly, ' said Gloria .. Hey, what 's neckim! at vou , net, giving that long face? looked like even the birds would n't want to peck at him. He looked as though he'd crack afforded by herring gull chicks, which peck at their parent's bill to elicit food indeed the case, that the bird will come to Iteck at the lit key. It is well established it is suggested, they are also likely to neck at it . Partial reinforcement, by maintaining other than to make the creature commence necking at something on the ground. Rather exasperated male hops from side to side behind her, pecking at her cloaca ( the joint exit of digestive the Female, the more the courting male pecks at the cloaca. So the greater the risk advantage to the male, then, is that by necking at the female 's cloaca he probably enhances the trailing edge of its wings. If a bird necks at these it will probably only make a small yards apart. The green woodpecker will peck at the same ant-hills. The swifts will copper decorated around the rim with birds pecking at ornamental roundels , dogs' heads, environment of the birds ( with small objects to peck at and intermittent music) during the The feathered friend will move across and neck at the TNT guard. Shoot the TNT so it and thrushes raid the vineyards by day, necking at large numbers of grapes but eating few shrimp nauplii and microworm , and will also peck at the food offered to the adults. They . Old Lady Lassiter took no part in it , pecking at her food in a listless fashion, eyes in case she encountered a sparrow or two necking at some crumbs in her path. Apart from while Joyce herself sat watching some birds necking at the remains of a sandwich that someone the distance -- she could see some birds necking at crumbs on the pavement. She then had them and they stalked the room stiffly, pecking at the furniture and flapping their wings and hooked on a lamp-post for the crows to peck at

A fifth Summer of Love be confined they will fly around it , sometimes even Iteck at it , to disturb it and drive it away male places himself behind the female and pecks at her cloaca. Such behaviour may make +:>. VI door into the stableyard where chickens necked at oats and Sharpe's dog twitched in exhausted Hepzibah's chickens wandered in and out, pecking at crumbs and sleepily chortling .

you are . "

Andrew watched Virginia peck daintily at her food, remembering how Topaz throwing it about the yard for Things to ~eck at . Not William, though .

' Sometimes sharks as they break the surface. They peck valiantly at the monsters' pointed snouts flirting its white tail, dipping its head, necking at the surface with its bright red beak swimming in gentle circles, spinning, neckinQ: at surface morsels. Only seven inches tortoiseshell plumage flicked over stones and necked smartly at exposed food items. Three more A charm of eight goldfinches hovered and pecked at parachuting thistle seeds and a yellow boulders. A surprising chaff inch flew down to peck at our crumbs. Thirty grey seals basked suffice, which the pair clean beforehand by neckinQ: at it . As the eggs are laid, the male . A third hooded crow joined them. They necked at some dead creature on the moorland verge pigeon burbling to itself in the road, neckinQ" at horse-dung.

Perhaps there was again and walked to and fro in the room pecking at her cigarette .

' I've given grass just outside Pigeon Alley, apparently neckinQ" at sweet f.a .

Hungry , I thought noted how they explored their environment by neckinQ" at crumbs or other small objects, including its pen, and then back away, refusing to peck at a similar but dry bead offered any time the minutes to hours following the bird 's pecking at the bitter bead. As the next few paragraphs recap so far , as Figure 10.3 summarizes, pecking at the bitter bead sets off a cascade of bead, for when offered a bead later they peck at it enthusiastically once more. However Army to destroy the revolution, not iust Deck at it , Instead, president Carter has of chicks. Gull chicks, for instance, peck at their parents' bills, which causes to regurgitate food. Newborn chicks will peck at an adult gull's bill -- or even a model that a herring gull chick will initially peck equally at a model of a herring gull adult in the nest, however, the chicks will peck more at the herring gull model ( Figure As soon as a domestic hen chick hatches it starts neckinQ" at grains that look like food, and as maturation, for if a chick is prevented from necking at food during its second day, it will 3.4 At birth, herring gull chicks will peck equally at models of adult bills of either After Hailman) Figure 3.5 Chicks feed by pecking at small grains offood . Their pecking box has a choice of two coloured disks to peck at . If it pecks at one it receives a grain of two coloured disks to peck at . If it necks at one it receives a grain of food; if one it receives a grain of food; if it pecks at the other it does not. There are endless associative learning in rats. Instead of pecking at discs, rats can be taught to press generations; or it could be learnt. A bird pecking at food grains could have known without ..- .j:>.. 0\ Pavlov's dogs, and pigeons learning to peck at discs in order to be fed. The learning times the birds avoided the butterflies or pecked at them. The experimental jays should jays and recorded whether they avoided or pecked at them. The experimental birds now tended the viceroys, and the control birds to l2eck at them ( Table 5.1 ) . The result suggests in which they avoided the butterflies or pecked at them; the numbers in the Table give of that species; the chicks responded by pecking at the red spot at the top of the bill black-headed gull ( c ) chicks naturally peck at the tip of their parents' bills to so that he would stay by her, and he would l2eck at her shoulder if her head began to loll his audience when it attracted birds to l2eck at the plump fruit. His colleagues struggled Welsh accent and a personal computer. It necks at the keyboard, asks a lot of questions from the exertions of ordering and then pecking at her food, Miss Linnet Gage reading can where they sat on its rim , greedily pecking at the grains. Others sat on Fardine 's her throne. Beneath it , two geese were pecking at some grain .

Sahabzadi Qamar Sultan eyebrows fit over my own to disfigure me . He pecks at my face to tell me it is all right. benches. Around them scrawny-necked chickens pecked at the dust, jostling with thin-flanked black tail giving a slight twitch as it pecked at whatever caught its reddish eye.

cheeses that shone in the short winter grass; pecking at the dried skeins of fish; fluttering the dead limbs they cried at the moon, pecked at the wind-shattered stubs where winter together. Other birds stood on Tallis, pecked at her, pecked at the charred flesh of birds stood on Tallis, pecked at her, pecked at the charred flesh of the youngest son to his head and reached a yellow beak to peck at his eyes.

The bird pecked and jerking heads, like two long-legged birds necking at each other in the rain. He watched their eyelids shut. Listen with Mother We necked at the shallow tide-marked marble and Book. Mother Dressmaking The budgerigar pecks at the millet, his beak prised apart like motifs, the presence of a bird ( apparently pecking at a sprig) is significant, for it does blue-black holes where the hungry ravens had necked at the scrawny, whitening flesh.

the Kitchen for dinner and the hunger pain pinched at his stomach.

The man behind the caressed and he caressed her, massaging and ninching at the puckered rose-pink nipples, until boy, turning over on to his stomach and poking at the pile of sticks.

Philip did boy's hand into his rough dry palm and poked at the pattern of bruises on both sides perpendicular, but the blue spangle of its bloom poking up invitingly at the iagged rim of the cliff helpless. He knew if he became angry at being noked at , everyone would call him a savage even Dimity, ' and he adores gingerbread. ' She noked busily at the concoctions, withdrew the arms and her chest .

One of the boots poked at her. ' What the devil … '

......... .j::>. -....l

' They're in the pantry. Do n't go in poking at them, you '11 leave the mark of your rug opposite her with his .

Meredith poked mistrustfully at the colourful heap on her I ask you. '

She spotted someone ooking at her Inchbold .

' Do n't touch wi' yourself all day then? "

Marcus ooked silently at the tablecloth with his fork her foraging expeditions, Sycorax would poke up at her and hiss, ' Do n't let them see , as men grappled, stabbed, battered, noked at one another's eyes and even bit one another Molesworth was paddling and her husband was ooking at the stones because, he said, fossils cold look. " I am referring to this. " He ooked warily at the dark mound .

" Well with a lightly-milled edge .

Connon ooked at it with his forefinger. It rolled round 's high-backed chair and empty plate. He noked at his soup. The two girls were accustomed , he shouted up to them . ' What are you poking around at ? '

' We're not doing any crow perched on it while they watched, and ·ooked hopefully at the sockets .

They moved dandelion and dock and Scotch grass. He'd ooked at the soil with a hoe to give it a fresh knowing what you were looking for. You could poke at it with a screwdriver or a piece of pausing to toast the other side of it . He poked at the spaghetti with a knife, separating large and bent with arthritis. He resumed poking at his meat with his fork.

His sister

Twoflower padded over to the comer, noking gingerly at the stones in case there was an old lady was hopping on the spot and poking at a plastic bag on her foot. The wind low to steady it , began to move forward, noking at Mrs Quatt as she was driven, just as Something glowed white in the brown gravy . He naked at it . It had an internal look , something new growths ofwhippy little sapling twigs noked down at head-and-shoulder height to a horseman paces around the car at the kerbside , and ookes at it .

' A Fiesta, ' he exclaims wandered off to squat down on the terrace and poke at something at the foot of the vines. Louise rubbed cream into her thighs and oounded at them enthusiastically .

' What open .

For the next five minutes he oounded frustratingly at the seal lining , the task though the space was narrow, we began to pound at the door like besiegers breaking into -- and what a wallop the sea makes as it oounds at the shingle. " Near by is a quay, the path to the staff-cabins .

He oounded at their door, and Mandy came to it , gaze from the creature. She turned and pummelled furiously at the rock wall with her fists ! '

In her rage, she leapt up and pummelled at his unresisting chest, hot tears flowing She fought him, desperately, clawing and oummelling at him and shrieking out every obscenity body, she had plighted her troth. Ashley nummelled at her pillow again. She had experienced was a harsh metallic scrape and clash that punched at my belly and eardrums. If anything , a kind of border of the same flannel, punched at the edge in a pattern, is plaited, ........ .J::>. 00 first-time shot after keeper Bodo Illgner had punched at Tommy Boyd's shot. Then midfielder I've ever thrown -- from the shoulder, punching not at but through the target, with half-pivot cancel those flowers. ' Luke swung away, punching at a box of tulips with one furious hand been pacing around the invisible prison, punching at the walls and muttering to himself. lascivious lifestyle! ' she spat fiercely, punching at his chest but failing to free herself at 26 . INSIDE BUSINESS FAST FOOD Health push at Kentucky

Kentucky Fried Chicken, the to flinch. It was like watching someone nush at an invisible turnstile. ' I '11 make regular business students in Oxford are ready to push at the open door .

I4 years ago, Vivienne sight. Afraid, I touched his arm . He pushed at a door in the courtyard. The hallway was sifting through all the information that's pushed at parents and weighing up what's really felt it keenly. As soon as he had come she nushed at him to move, all efficiency .

' his minimum engagement as a curate. Raven pushed at the bishop that he ought to be in an academic of feet running up the stairs. The Woman nushed at the door, behind Doyle's chair, and cleared away the living grasses that valiantly nushed at the surface and then the dried stuff from look like a unicorn, , he said.

She nushed at the curl, then reached down for the shoulder-bag pattered across the cloakroom floor and someone nushed at the toilet door .

' Damn, 'said himself to find out who it could be .

He pushed at the door. It was rickety but it held. the one. '

Another silence. Wind nushed at the car .

Then Creed said, ' Dobson switched the lights and engine off. Wind nushed at the car with spread fingers, whispered , 'exclaimed Tom to himself .

He nushed at the gate and after a struggle it creaked footsteps pounding up the stairs .

He pushed at the skylight, it would not budge. Cursing climbed the three steps to the door, and pushed at it , but it was securely locked, so he message, , Enquire within. '

Finn pushed at the door, which stuck momentarily on a strolled over to the box. He sat down and pushed at the lid with one filthy paw.

I rose pockets but could find no key .

He nushed at the door again. He gathered a chestful staircase door .

SEVEN

Cardiff slowly pushed at the door, widening the thin jet-black 'explained the sergeant .

Taczek nushed at his spectacles. It was a gesture, Blanche began to climb up them .

The defenders nushed at the makeshift scaling ladders, and at least shown in the drawing would be stable if nushed at from the direction of one of the arrows of one of the arrows and very unstable if nushed at from the other direction. The pile has hunger that will be gone by nightfall. ' She nushed at his chest to put some distance between Something knocked his hat over his face, he nushed at the peak, saw the grey's hindquarters guarded from tangling by small boys who nushed at her and muttered and laughed; she would n't . You must not; Matey … , She nushed at his chest, fear and love fighting for ...... ~ '"Q and hot. ' ' I do not, ' she said and pushed at me as I put the tea down. A lick of tea there. He clasped his hands as the tears pushed at the back of his eyes .

Gleeson farted is n't my day, she thought when, as she pushed at whoever it was , she was again caught off self-flagellation -- '

With a muffled shriek, she pushed at his weight with her hands and knees, half the three lads, Bill, George and me we pushed at the back, and the two ladies mother and the part is the animal way he leans and pushes at Richard Hague's Benvolio in trying to back to its previous comfortable limits, pushes at Laverne's legs. He sways around helplessly away and lies helpless .

She rises, pushing at the carpet, the wall, the doorframe , can bear down on another, its cross-spars pushing at the other's sail in its vulnerable side mad rush towards the gangway, shoving and pushing at anything and anybody in the way .

bikes. '

Again the two brothers were pushing at each other and as they all mounted the application to all dependent peoples. They were pushing at a partially open door as far as Britain loyalists who attack the RUC or wreck shops. Pushing at a line of policemen or refusing to be moved one knee and with head bowed seemed to be pushing at the trolley before him, which for some and they slept for three hours, the wind pushing at the side ofthe car like a crowd. He woke Inside the caravan her elder daughter was pushing at the door to come out. Her mother opened inch, then righted itself again. She kept pushing at it with all those millions of invisible imagination, especially when it comes to pushing at the frontiers of advancing aerodynamics tackle this issue it might find that it was pushing at an open door.

PAPERS Incidence of and more noisily now. She banged the door, pushing at it with her foot because her hands were

I wake to see a scrap of sunlight pushinll at the curtains. The room fills with beige You know I 'm not! ' she cried hotly, pushinll at his shoulders with all her might. ' You her, and he was making awful noises and pushinll at her and pushing at her without the slightest making awful noises and pushing at her and pushing at her without the slightest gentleness almost rolling apart. Libby had been heaving and pushing at one of the logs, covered with rotten bark wo n't let you do this, ' she panted, pushing at fitzAlan 's shoulders. Her desperation swab . The child let out a howl of fright, pushinll at her hand, and she blinked hard, biting .

' Damn, ' she muttered.

Pushing at the bar , Ashley looked out. The door a hoarse moan of resistance and desire, pushing at his broad shoulders as his strong hands fighting her way out of the hot embrace, pushinll at his hard shoulders, her swollen lips muttering God … ! ' she choked out thickly, Dushinll at his shoulders, but he was so strong that north and south .

Male speaker

They are pushing at an open door, we in the industry are already Gary. But certainly he'll be pushing and pushing at the front there and making runs to get having a bummer. At three a.m , . I heard rapping at the window beside my bed and another ...... V1 o A little after 3 o'clock this morning he ranned at several doors in Marlborough Street sites are anonymous in the night. While Des rans at a flaky green door, a train rumbles gloomily, then looked up sharply as someone rapped at the back door .

Oh, now what able to stand at waist depth. As the water ripped at his thighs he turned and staggered backwards beak, as it were. first of all she just ripped at it and slung it around, although after across the room. His boots smashed china, rinned at the linen, and cascaded silver to the went down with two or three of the beasts ripping at them; others fell overboard and were forehead; the darker bird responded by ripping at its rival's throat. The two then fenced neck arched and talons open. The spurs rinned at the Muslim's bird and drew blood on mole-brown water as it tore down past them and ripped at the curve of the bank , lipping half drew my fingers over my face, tenderly rubbing at the swellings and could well imagine become' fragrance blind' . Try not to rub at your skin after applying scent - you hardly ever get what thev 're after. ' Keith rubbed at his sweaty forehead, leaving a black tongue against tongue, limb upon limb, skin rubbinp- at skin. Faces contort and organs spurt Hector Odhar, we know, so. Never let that rub at your heart, my dear. Dhia, have you to look up from his fingers, nervously rubbing at his fur coverlet, and meet his son haven't--

' Remember me? '

The boy rubbed at his face, looked up . ' You said we been ill.

Ho opened his eyes and rubbed at his throat. Jack helped him to his which stung Weaver's eyes, making him rub at his face with the back of his hand. rivulets running down his swarthy skin. He rubbed at his jaw and the back of his neck with hoot of laughter, while Maggie went on rubbing at the counter, but Rona's reply was side wall billowed across Holly's face, rubbed at the cold that had settled under his debts.

She pushed away the papers and rubbed at her eves, she would have to visit the Rosario made her way back to her desk, rubbing at her injured palm with the thumb of her sitting down on the edge of the bed and rubbing vigorously at her hair .

" I was very up the steps with his polishing cloth and rubbed vigorously at the lion's-head knocker of '

' He's black, you know. ' She rubbed at a chalk mark on her skirt, brushed the palms of her hands under his scrotum, rubbed briskly at his testicles .

' He's He worked his dick up and down her slit, rubbinp- at her pulsating clit a multitude of times Drop it ! '

Rodo pulled himself up , rubbing at his throat. He hooked an arm around the knife, then sat back on his knees, rubbing at his ribs again, a momentary flicker in the room noticed it , nor the way he rubbed at his wrist, as if relieving an itch his good leg, while Rory stretched and rubbed at his lower back. He stuck one thumb white handkerchief out of his pocket and rubbed at the faint hand-print Kenneth had left -VI - please.

Cardiff shook his head, rubbing at his ears. He looked up to see that a future not bound by the rough blankets rubbing at her chin, the cobwebbed ceiling above centre of his face .

Spatz cried out, rubbing at his face with the sleeve of his gown sticks from the offering bowl .

He rubbed at his eyes, then yawned, his tiredness Christopher wriggled around on his lap, rubbing fiercely at his eyes. Alan remembered that partly in alarm. But Leon did n't let go , rubbing at the coat's tarnished silver button 'II find out, ' she predicted tautly, rubbin2: at her wrist. ' You think that you can to keep up the argument. Absently, she rubbed at her arms to keep away the chill that other way of leaving the message. ' She rubbed at her arms , chafing the cotton sleeves no doubt .

At last she straightened up, rubbing at the soreness in her back, aware of towel draped casually around his neck, rubbing vigorously at his hair with strong, tanned instantaneous and dreamless .

When she awoke, rubbing at a rather stiff neck, feeling hungry bottom of it … '

Theda 's hands rubbed furiously at one of the posts of the bed , he said, and threw her a towel. She rubbed at herself inneffectually and he had an Christopher wriggled around on his lap, rubbing fiercely at his eyes. Alan remembered that grunted .

Eve spat through the bars and rubbed at the stubble of his beard aggressively , Barry, you cut that a tad fine. ' I rubbed at my wrists. There was a bit of chafing the pool. Swallowing convulsively, she rubbed vigorously at her face and hair with a large This is no use ! she admonished herself, rubbing energetically at a stainless steel trolley begs the question, why not? '

She rubbed at her abused flesh, desperately grasping feeling where the Robemaker had hacked and sawn at them, knowing she must be hurting the Dickie said. He took out a clasp knife and sawed at the nut. The top carne off and he gave carving. Killion felt her watching, and sawed clumsily at the bird. Hot grease spotted girl pops a spoon in my mouth, and then scrapes at my chin.

' There's a good boy erosion when slowly passing ice sheets had scraped at the valley floor. The main street, , you may discover that your ferret has scraoed at the hindquarters of the rabbit for so your ear. You become aware of the ferret scraoin2: at the rabbit, or of it killing the rabbit filth and the watery amber half-light, he scraoed at the bolt that had felt the boots and made for Carrefour , who was frantically scraping at the grave .

Ace glanced back and , Why? '

' I do n't know. ' She scraped at the earth covering a brick .

' There was one by the newsstand sometimes, scraping at a violin, but he had a tough time competing through the doorway, Mr Sands bowing and scraoin2: at them as befitted a poor relation to , Why? '

' I do n't know . ' She scraped at the earth covering a brick.

' Woolley said. He was holding a bent fork and scraping at a loose fibre of wood on the table-top ...... Vl N chickens, their feathers ruffled, pecking and scratchinQ: at nothing, everything. She grappled penetrated, and therefore that we have only scratched at the surface. But it is our considered . He's probably locked in the kitchen, scratching at the door trying to get out. I wish mysteriously disappeared, the Duty Officer scratched furiously at a vast form, a flush, as missionary was awakened by the sound of scratching at the door, and the noise of whining boundary .

Gaily let in the cat, scratching at the door. Still, he did not know what was now an hotel. Poor Kodiak whined and scratched at the verandah door as we drove off .

' Ach , be quiet! ' His father was scratching at his scar. ' There's more to it than my face, his front paws scrabbling and scratching at both of us . I screamed at the nearness . There was no visible way in . Forster scratched at a riveted panel without success.

efficiency of the KGB, Mikhail. They will scratch at scabs, pick them until they bleed. with. Subsequently, he was often seen scratching at his groin on the set, and , guessing Lila kept to ward off unwanted guests, scratched at the kitchen door in imitation of the table edge, his heavily ringed fingers idly scratching at a thick black beard as though it aided . At once he ran to the house and began scratching at the door. This went on for some time woman's fingers curved into talons and she scratched at Jazzbeaux 's face.

There was inlets were beginning to twitch. They were scratching at the airlock. ' Cheeeeee … '

re-emphasizing the word quiet. The dog may start to scratch at the door to be let out. Further action eventually emerge, blinking. The guitars scratch at your eyes, Medicine lynchpin Brad Laner high on her shoulders, when she whined and scratched at the back door, then the house was watched eyes. Then it moved closer and began to scratch frantically at the foot of the bin. A rat

He stood scowling out, fat fingers scratchinQ: idly at the blue stubble on his chin. He dripped into the sink. Sometimes the dog scratched at the door to be let in . Sometimes it the end .

' Oh , I heard your dog scratching at the door, so I came to see what the when I was lying on my bed in my cubicle. Scratching at my eyes, she began to rub her cunt it all . That there's always this if you scratch at the surface ofhappiness and goodness at me , his massive brows furrowing. He scratched at one rugby-shirt shrouded armpit, then hunger last night? The practical questions scratched at her consciousness, refusing to be ignored was just chance that we met .

She scratches at my skin, and asks again. She's like Come back, Theodosia! '

The dog scratched at the door, but Theda turned and looked the fringes of the Southern swamps. He scratches at the spots on his arm , pulling soiled money, so we had to persuade her. ' He scratched obscenely at the front of his tunic. ' , She yawned, curled up on the bed and scratched at her ankles. Her feet were small and and woke up . He lay there for a minute scratching at the pitiful amount of hair on his chest ...... VI W . Cold sweat ran from his face; he had scratched at the wound which Tig had inflicted previously nail was a rose thorn; she allowed it to scratch at her skin , making a faint red mark . bare hands, and used the jagged edges to scratch at his bark. He passed one fragment to

' More powerful than them ? ' Rex scratched at his chin. A look ofenlightenment, few minutes later, the mewing of his cat scratching at the wood for admittance. I went out ? '

' I do n't know. ' Cornelius scratched at his chin. It was going to need a shave continue. '

' Well. ' Cornelius scratched at his head. The daddy watched the big to fight in deadly earnest, slapping and scratching: at him, little cries of panic coming from the back of her throat as she slapped and scratched at him until he caught her wrists and dragged a negotiator's nightmare! '

Zen shred hard at the pad. He had been doodling obsessive He brushed aside new-bursting buds that slapped at his face, until he stood by the rust-eaten playful punch, and soon we were on our feet slapping at each other with a wild hilarity, a had upset her, looked vaguely surprised, slanned half-heartedly at the mud with his hand That 's where it shows, ' Flora said, slanning at the loose skin of her under-arm. ' Poshekhonov leaned across the table and slapped at Holly 's shoulder. ' You will get used , and the flea landed upon his hand . He slanned at it with his other hand, but it was could have wished she was conscious. I slapped gently at the sides of her face, without body sleeps, I listen to the waves loosely slanning: at the side of the stilled ship.

after a while heard Betty come in again, slanning: at her cheeks and arms . Lydia grinned screen behind me , the urge to look back slaps at my face, but there has been enough

He suddenly turned the horse 's head, slapped hard at the quivering flanks, and Maggie dragging him off the bed. Then she suddenly slanned at her apron pocket.

' If all that disappear to frightening depths. Waves SI"!IL maliciously at the armoured barnacle clusters and sorry! '

' Oh you ninny! ' She slanped at him in the dark. ' Do you still not drops, the wind in the trees and the waves slapping angrily at rock, there was silence. When panicked. ' No! I said no ! ' she screamed, slanning at his hand blindly as she finally managed families want tearing asunder, ' said lilly, slashing at the air with her baton.

' Ask disadvantage of Kingsley herself. Birkett slashes at everyone of her subject's achievements quite unexpectedly, a good fish rose and slashed at my cast, taking the tail fly , a size . ' Excuse me ! ' he would scream as he slashed at her throat, ' I am here ! I exist ! advance, the Highlanders dashed forward and slashed at the horses' noses, which sent the shrubbery and out of sight of the house, slashing at them with a billhook while Alex and laughter annoyed the wild cat, Ngariman , who slashed at the pair with its powerful claws and him on the head with a medieval mace and slashed at him with a sword, the judge heard. ......... VI .+;:. Janeene Vickers, fingers painted, outfits slashed at the midriff and bobs in their hair like rope in her hand. She raised an arm and slashed at the dog with it ; it howled, and slunk left. The driver yelled curses at her, slashing in fright at the helpless donkey. Blanche of their torsos, were about to jab and slash at one another, piercing and flaying till other gunners ignored him; instead they slashed at the traces with swords or knives, eventually at Kensington Palace while on another she slashed at her wrists with a razor blade. Another and midnight, and while it was busy she slashed at the palest of the azure walls with the had weight and pit-craft on his side. He slashed at his opponent's head, wearing him down somersaulted, circled his sword down, and slashed at Mubarak 's neck. The sensors in the the lower branch of one of the trees and slashed at the dogs which were clustered below shout, then charged. He leapt forward and slashed at Yuan's neck, a circular cut which .

' Try. 'Jotan darted forward, slashed at Nogai, and backed away. Nogai went . At the moment I look as if someone has slashed wildly at me with a knife. If this had dashed forward screaming incoherently to slash at the kneeling man's head and shoulders you. '

Siban growled angrily. He slashed at Alexei, talons out, but Alexei had front ranks of the crowd rushed the dais and slashed at the wood of the Virgin's triumphal inflamed him further, her soft whimpers slashing at the edges of his control .

So … stabbed him with a fork … and slashed at his face with a modelling knife. Police couldjust imagine the Woman hitting him, smashing at his face in the dark with the butt of overran the Frenchmen on the terrace and began smashing at the door .

' Fire! ' cried Thiercelin it as a truncheon if it is fairly short , smashing at a hand or any part of a body that comes did not seem to see him, her wings were smashing at the bars and branch in her cage, and 's speed, and saw his shots plucking and smashing at the lumbering fuselage. Bullets from with a large level of debt an the receiver snaooing at the door. The magazine, which since . Dennis makes her sit and then it in , snaooing at your fingers. You're very good at Ripper. No I 'm no Scissor-Lady -- I wo n't sn~ at your … locks. I 'm not a siren did Vicky. Perhaps because Mrs Donovan snipped at her :

' Miss Malcolm, I 'm surprised began to inspect it section by section, snipping at loose threads or stitching them down scissors from his slackened grasp, and she sniooed at the strand of hair he held. He was the leaves. Inspect plants regularly and illf'!Y at the first signs of attack. Spray with arriving on foot through the tunnel. Flamers sprayed at the fracas; and at last rebels could the spurred boot of the trooper next them stabbed at his horse's side, blood spurted and Her high-pitched voice, rapid speech and stabbing at the telephone betrayed her lack of balance blouse from Oxfam and a frilly skirt, she stabbed at the Turkey carpet with her stiletto ...... Vl Vl did, so Massaccio attacked the fresco, stabbing at the neck of the Child Jesus. The' today. He would go up in the lift. He stabbed angrily at the button. Mr Dent from the want this lad to croak. '

Her words stabbed at Agnes like an ice pick. Yes ; what desk top; he pushed it across to Tom, stabbing at the story with a manicured index finger Subba Row in the pavilion. After Simmons stabbed at a lifter from Bosch and was caught off the last figure had gone, the liftmaster stabbed at the button operating the ramp. The running up and tried to grab him but he was stabbimr furiously at them. They were very brave lodging? ' Dinah enquired. Some remote pain stabbed at Paul, where had that been said to him 's lover John O'Shaughnessy, was found stabbed 54 times at her flat in South London last a bit smaller than Masklin 's fist. He stabbed at the paper with his knife until he'd could n't support a rabbit. ' And they stabbed at him and caused his whole body to tremble long walk before him .

V

The figure stabbed at the empty air .

Naked and wet must be a mistake or a forgery .

Pain stabbed at her chest, twisting like a barbed snake vicious blow in the stomach, a toy soldier stabs at an ankle, and so on . Each of these Meh'Lindi peered past him. Her fingernail stabbed swiftly at the Harlequin.

' Who's at her again .

She waited until he stabbed at her then, using her left forearm to like some lean fencer with his long brush stabbing at the canvas' , all the while throwing into a frenzied war-dance, prancing and stabbing at each other with their kerises . At any along through the darkness and a stitch stabbed at her side but she blinded herself to on to the grass and took stance by it . He stabbed at it with his talons and beak. He took the buttons on the base of the phone. He stabs at the buttons three times, then wriggles tenderness. They must not be hurt. Then, stabbing at her .

A convulsive movement-- great long strips of canvas. And M was stabbing at the table top with her secateurs and Cardiff .

Thunder cracked again, stabbing at their ears. The spider-web lightning screen. The living, crackling lightning stabbed at the overhead strip lights and the office button that was the energy of her sex, he stabbed at it with his tongue, felt her respond . It 's not just the money, ' he said, stabbing at his beans and sending a scattering of until, sitting on a stretch of grass and stabbing at it with the end of her parasol, she that. I love you … . '

She stabbed at the recorder controls, though her eyes revolvers, Browning machine guns. We even stabbed at dummies with bayonets. In between they the hump-backed bridge. Idly she began to stab at the wet ground with it , but it struck mad to dig it . She walked a few feet and stabbed at the earth with the fork. It hit something hoe from inside the door of his house and stabbed furiously at the cabbage patch, trying the gesture, winced inwardly as the image stabbed at her feelings, and despised herself ...... Vl 0\ . The new awareness of her love for him stabbed again at her heart .

Was it her heart desired, and despised .

His tongue stabbed once at her nipple and then he was raising taunted insultingly, his mirthless smile stabbing at her. ' But I do n't believe that. and yet her flesh burned, familiar fire stabbed at her loins and her body stirred against agility! It is n't and you do n't have to stab at the keyboard so as to press both keys his pocket and spread it out before her, stabbing at it with his finger. ' At the moment only served to twist the knife that had stabbed at her previously .

Nor was the conversation wearing plastic gloves. Daggers of antiseptic stabbed at Marcus's arm , cutting away the last the hump-backed bridge. Idly she began to stab at the wet ground with it , but it struck mad to dig it . She walked a few feet and stabbed at the earth with the fork. It hit something his hand back. As my arm swings past, he stabs feebly at it . We are now so close that could n't stop, she just could n't stop stabbing at him. And it was obvious why - pure defendants go for Mr Johnson, holding knives and stabbing at him uttering threat of drawing blood.It Death is a tradgedy ( ! ) and whether it strikes at an eight-year-old youngster 3. ) or facing -- fear I • But the question which struck at the heart of the matter was put to Sir suffering from viral fatigue syndrome which strikes at the nervous system and brain. David show his classes, in a fifth or octave struck at a piano. The essence of music's higher understand them.

The consequences strike at the right of the people of this country he have to hover over the rod trying to strike at the slightest movement. Lack of takes will call, ' I want my dinner! ' , or strike at their stable doors, or paw at the fencing stand and try and drive the bot away by striking at it with their feet. Some will even mother chased him through the apartment, striking at him while he dodged and ducked, crying rocking violently from side to side. Tock was striking at the cogs at the top of the pole, banging Ministry roof. On 7 September the bombers struck at London itself -- the real beginning of course, meaningless .

The PLO struck at Israeli soldiers and civilians alike When necessary, it was also willing to strike at perceived threats, for example Iraq Israel used its newly acquired Phantoms to strike at civilian targets deep inside Egypt. Irish News reported that the police had struck at the testicles of male demonstrators Hector swung round. His uncle's axe was striking at his head. He deflected the blow, and . '

Mairi was still shrieking and striking at Luch while Master Beaton bent over the a tightly disciplined formation, could strike at their enemy with tremendous force, making their home in Fleet.

Thieves strike at caravan park

BURGLARS targeted the

There are times when it is essential to strike at half-inch twitch bites. This is when you wanted to kill someone, and you'd struck at one kidney, you'd certainly strike ..... VI -....l struck at one kidney, you'd certainly strike at the other. Even the simplest tactician unnecessary, with the sergeant able to strike randomly at anyone of sundry crossroads to fire their fingers, already poised to strike , at the buttons and keys on which their threatening SS-20 missiles, which could strike at virtually all of Europe from east of cobra, and confuses it enough to be able to strike at its only vulnerable zone -- its head attentions of a hungry predator. As the killer strikes at the retreating reptile it is the victim attack, swooping in from behind the owl and striking at its plumage .

This mobbing behavior their companions. The gulls swoop down, striking at the fox's head, and the predator quickly but they were nevertheless incapable of striking at what they saw to be the basis and guarantor fresh victory made the French more eager to strike at their enemy's heart and homeland .

Pneumonia is another infection which can strike at young foals. It can start as the result dominion status policy. Salisbury was much struck at this meeting by Irwin's confidence the turn of 830 Squadron's Swordfish to strike at the enemy. During the day a Maryland Benghazi so that the island's bombers might strike at them and disrupt the flow of supplies heel also seems unnecessary for runners striking at the front .

Judging by the relative storm- which went on and on , which was striking at her. At her worst, on the third night through the bedroom window .

The raider struck at The Green residential home in Redruth night he finally snapped .

Vandals struck six times at his car and his parents' car anti-terrorist squad's own' guerrilla I strikes at the terrorists. Scotland Yard's operation Wardle

COLIN PASCOE 'S injury jinx has struck again at Sunderland .

The Welsh international depressions which seemed causeless, and which struck at him' just when one is feeling cheerful whole of the loss. '

This seems to strike at the very heart of many of the cases days later the platoons were preparing to strike at the nearest Japanese column when this Mary Reveley-Peter Niven winner machine struck again at Sedgefield yesterday, notching transported tourists. COMPASS COMPILED BY VANDALS STRIKE AGAIN AT FROGGATT Great Slab is daubed with all its records stolen .

Burglars struck at the offices of the world-famous best-selling Holly searched for the next opportunity to strike again at the administration of the camp might one day possess the capability to strike at the Jewish heartland with nuclear weapons numberless; at the height of his career he struck at whole nations. Drachenfels is perhaps protrusions are hard as steel ( T 7 , D 8 ) , and striking at them means that any miss is 75% likely : the rocking-horse bites, a chair leg strikes at a shin, a table drawer flies out and modified. Von Kluck on the right wing was to strike at the French left, through Brussels, the French, on 17 August they had loyally struck not only at Austria but into East Prussia ........ VI 00 Gallieni recognized that the moment had come to strike at the Germans when Kluck, wheeling northeast Group on his right, to move northeast to strike at the encircling Russian forces then marching so Conrad commanded it to tum about and strike at the left flank of the Russian Third be close behind and in position also to strike at the outnumbered Beatty .

Again weapons with them to war. Charging in , striking at the foe and wheeling away , driving to test the strength of your enemy before striking at his weak points? If this is the case and very sudden in choler, and haply may strike at you -- provoke him that he may; for to do so .

With OEM deals already struck at Hewlett-Packard Co and Silicon Graphics decisive cost or quality advantage and which strikes not at the margins of the profits and the lopped the branches of the papistry I but struck ' at the root, to destroy the whole I • revolutionary principles: but he did not strike at it . This was an attitude which, long to flank , seizing one another 's jaws, strikinl! at their opponents with their splayed teeth Vulgrin 's troops Richard now intended to strike at the Taillefer castles, presumably accepting in response to this act of aggression that Mercadier struck at Excideuil in February 1184 . Unfortunately People strike because they see managers striking at them .

A strike is a defeat -- strike .

REMEMBER

The PROFITBOSS never strikes at his people .

THE PROFITBOSS LIFESTYLE leaping and hopping among the grass tussocks, strikinl! at the two rabbits with terrible darts opposite side. The crow turned again, struck at Bigwig and missed. Hazel heard its go . You hold your tongue. " And then he struck at Fiver and scratched his ear. "

nearly fifty years to the New Deal, and to strike at the most vulnerable group in the United second successive title. However, disaster struck at the German Circuit and Lauda was pulled the entire population, but instead has struck hardest at these who are already the most hissed at the man coming at him and tried to strike at his hands with his beak and talons. .

Instead he raised his talons and struck at the wire mesh in his own tum, which blankly out at the world, or nervously striking at the fence, as some of the eagles did they did what they had been made for and struck at prey .

Mr Wolski was suddenly fish jump lazily out on the calm loch, or strike at the insects speckling those flat waters level. They are generally thought to be striking at Hipparchos not shown, an interesting watching what is going on ; Polyeidos to be strikinQ" at the snake; but the living snake is reaches in supplication to Neoptolemos who strikes at him with the corpse ofhis grandson only really spread figure is Neoptolemos , strikinQ" at Priam on the altar with a sword. The carry their victims outwards and the heroes strike at them from next to the protecting god kept hold of her no matter how hard she struck at him, lightly clasping her shoulders the balance of convenience' the wish to strike at this time was more than counterbalanced ........ V1 \0 the problem? ' and in the same moment, struck at the man stiff-armed, a karate blow of her left hand .

The man outside struck at the window again, smashing more of tragedy, on 29 May 1985 , further disaster struck at the European Cup Final between Italy violence .

Soldiers from the base struck at our hands with metal rods while Thames the fictional character, Brooke-Rose is striking at the mainstay of the traditional novel Byzantine follis of Justin II ( 565-578 AD ) , struck at the Cyzicus Mint ( near Istanbul) . claim on the symbolic realm of language, strikes at the core ofthe psychoanalytic theory at all .

A terrible grinding crunch struck at us like a solid barrier. The ship leaped faster, because in that moment a new shock struck at me -- proving that bad things do come 1910 against adjourning for over a month struck only at consideration of new business, was that prices must be raised. But this struck at the very heart of what Laura was hoping countered, this form of criticism, which strikes at the heart of the construction of the was desperately excited. She wanted to strike at him.

' You're saying then that

She forgot the woman outside. The wind struck at her, the sky was choked with dark blue points to the subtleties of a process which strikes at a pupil's identity :

When you cold gleam as the man swung his arm back to strike at Ward's belly. Then, as the knife snake , internal power and the ability to strike at vital points of the body.

The attention swift in and out action the practitioner strikes at his attacker's eyes .

A classical presents a smaller target for the opponent to strike at , and helps to protect the vital organs dancer and the spin gives him the momentum to strike at the legs of the attacker. He hits the to the opponent and , by forcing him to strike at an alternative area, can trap him into around Macready 's head, while Macready struck at Carradine 's dancing legs, missing piercing quality; an intensity that seems to strike at your very core. Television viewers thing, armed with a rake, that seems to strike at me . ' Then his misapprehension was to wait. I suspected the murderer would strike at us , and what happened on that lake suspect the Templars have a code. No one strikes at their interests and walks away unharmed September sunshine .

The brightness struck at his eyes, he half-closed them, he in his arms , fighting him , screaming , striking at him, the tears running down her face , Marcellus .

Marcellus . Shall I strike at it with my partisan ?

Horatio was making her feel defenceless and then striking at her .

' It is not. He is obviously my bad success, as was the Tempter, I struck at you through William. He to me was a as in his tum he raised a hand as if to strike at her .

From the doorway a furious sharply. She wanted to scream out loud, to strike at him with her fists for destroying her any potential aggressor has the ability to strike at us ?

Mr. King

I entirely agree ...... 0\ o answer that question truthfully because it strikes at the very heart of democracy ?

Mr. much more than a tax on learning .

It strikes at the very fundamentals ofa free press joining their number .

Train robbers strike at Euston

ARMED robbers pistol-whipped to the worm rod but nothing concrete to strike at. I was getting rather frustrated abortively was getting rather frustrated abortively striking at these plucks and finding my worm chewed the surface and although l've seen pike strike at these surface poppers, it's a very in " hot pursuit" of terrorists and to strike at training camps in Pakistan. On April had been concern that ETA might seek to strike at the Expo 92 Universal Exhibition in caught it on the flat of his hand, then she struck at him with the palm of the other hand before you, and the trees will bend to strike at your face. I He had obviously not allowed is not clear when either side decided to strike at population centres as a strategic option that. '

Morthen hesitated, then struck at her brother's shoulder with her clenched creature stopped. She withdrew the weapon, struck at its head and it staggered. She impaled Teeth sank into her cheek. She screamed and struck at the wolf. A spear point cut through little trace. After c.973 all the pennies struck at numerous mints throughout the country United States, Britain needed to be able to strike at Soviet targets of prime importance to gradually acquiring aircraft which could strike at key Soviet cities. If critics, then saw that the blackness was moving, and struck at it frantically .

He was covered lightning … that's how hereford struck at Crewe … a second goal for new firebombers . The Animal Liberation Front struck at Dickens and Jones in the same centre isolated rural areas .

The gang has struck at several homes in Monaghan, Cavan and treated for shock after loyalist bombers struck at a Belfast house. Windows were shattered Republic beli~ve a gang of pickpockets which struck recently at shopping centres in Newry have stolen from a shop. The till snatchers struck at the North-Eastern Coop in Commercial Butterknowle .

Cashpoint hit :

Burglars who struck at Barclays Bank in Barnard Castle immobilized ransacked the house .

The raiders struck at the Bayles I home, Newsham House, Saturday .

Cash grabbed :

Burglers struck at a house in Portland Place, Darlington attempts, in Darlington .

Thieves struck at Northgate, where they took a video again on south-west farms

RUSTLERS have struck at a farm in south-west Scotland, stealing lantern to his clansmen, and lightning striking at his enemies. And she had thought herself daughter, Elizabeth, 4 .

The burglars struck at Mrs Parkinson's Oxford Road, Waterloo Markham. It 's six twenty one. Thieves have struck at the home of Oxfordshire 's High Sherrif appearances, he picked up another brush and began swattinll at the sleeves and lapels of his suit. up ? Hey, Tal? ' the musician shouted, swatting at the bird with his glove. It fell silent ,...... 0\ ,...... still hallucinating. Be careful when she swats at a fly or a spider, she may swat vou as wretched as any suicide .

Parker swined at his bleeding eye. But so strum! up his cheek. Without warning his right hand swiped in retaliation at her mouth, splitting unions .

PLEA : Paul Gallagher Janet swipes at bruisers

BATTERED wives' champion loathsome feringhee dog. Again and again he swiped at Chloe, but she remained convinced that fist, went up -- but she used it only to swipe at a cat scuttling from under a bush towards hear? ' He lurched forward with intent to swipe at her but lost his balance and was thankful damp, clinging rag .

With a gasp, I swiped at my face and neck and plunged forward , bellowing incoherently and tearing and swiping at the wall, baring the green-black slate cloud and the wind flattened the grass and swined at the trees as we passed. Usa's house traitor, ' she protested huskily, roughly swininQ: at her face with her sleeve. The tears One hand came out in a kind of claw and swined at Quigley. My mum jumped and screamed the house itself. On windy nights they tanned at the windows with woody fingers. When he had a silver-tipped cane with which to tl:!l2 at doors of council flats in Fulham , though eh ? They're behind desks in big cities tapping at computers. ' He chuckled. ' They run where there is sickness, stopping only to illJL loudly at a window if the patient is to spider' , just the French. '

He tapped at his keys for several seconds .

husband do ? '

' He's a doctor. ' She tanned at the ashtray. ' A doctor of philosophy

He was writing a letter when Stella tapned at the window. He was n't , after all He straightened, then bent forward and tapped at the white plastic strip on the kitchen began to talk about the portfolio. Pink tie tanned at a calculator. Striped shirt said that possibly incredulity on their lips. Pink tie tanned again at his calculator and wondered, with whim of shirt-sleeved young men who sat tanning idly at keyboards. A world in fact in which the inner door to the main airlock. He tanned Quickly at the opening mechanism.

challenge Sabine Jourdain 's killer .

She tapped at the door of Durance's flat. Barbara hurried from the room.

When they tanned at Dora's bedroom door, a calm voice

Mrs Notley was indeed at her post, tanninQ: at the keys of a word processor which appeared couple of minutes later, however, she was tannin!! at his door, then pushing it open as he knotted the gay red scarf at her throat and tapped at Luke's door, then went in .

prestigious brokerage. ' You see, ' he said, tapping furiously at the terminal before him, ' next door to the headmaster's study and tapped at it nervously. Inside he could hear to him appeared on the screen .

Rex tapped at the keyboard and requested access to . '

' Then who? '

Jonathan tapped once more at his dear little nose. ' All Ive let the Repo Men go off-line. ' He tapped furiously at his wrist. ' It 's all the ...... 0\ tv we should leave the car. Although, , he tapped at the dashboard, , it would appear that the ( imaginary) raven on the window sill tapping at the window outside .

3 . The Borrowed She had completed her notes when someone tapped at the door and entered. Lindsey frowned and her pulse-rate accelerated. Someone tapped at the door, and a spasm flickered across was hunting through her bag when someone tapped at the door. With an exclamation of frustration finishing touches to her notes when someone tapped at the door and a dark-haired girl popped pulse points when, right on cue, someone tanned at the door. That would be Jim .

was heading for the shower when someone tapped quietly at the cabin door. Hurrying to Lindsey was clearing her desk when someone tanned at the door . Certain that Zoe had said way up the stairs to One Deck, Lindsey tapped at the door of the Empress Suite. From any wounded snails simply nowhere, and tanned at his sitting-room door. When that elicited of doing her hair when she heard a light t!jQ at the door, followed by the sound of interesting ! Yeah. Yeah, I notice Joan tannin£>: at the saying, ooh ooh ooh ooh ! Yeah shoulder. ' That's her, ' she said, tearing at a hangnail.

' Who? '

' baby who's had too much pain. Her weeping tore at her slender shoulders, white linen her head to dodge low branches; brambles tore at her legs. They came to the edge of where she is set upon by hunting dogs who tear at her blood-red head gear (Fig. 10) And Anders, showing off his strength by tearing only at the thick material of Nina 's suit wrapped around her head. The Nina Thing tore at it , but Anne was released. She pushed his eyes. Sharp leaves and thorns cut and tore at his arms and ripped his cheeks. Vines earth .

NINE

The front of the hurricane tore at the lower flanks of the mountains, as he powered up a ridge, the rear wheel tearing at shale and mud. From the top he could had moved north, vicious squalls. still tore at the mountainside, flaying the incessant tree, firing from the hip. The recoil tore at the ripped muscles in his right arm , Mairi launched herself again at Luch , tearing at her hair and clothes, beating, kicking his gaze thoughtfully to Midnight's teeth tearing at his grass, and knew that his dear old aware of the wind roaring in his ears and tearing at his clothes. The tug when it came was kill is clumsy but efficient. They simply tear at the flesh of the victim until the animal inhabitants .

That night the wind and rain tore ferociously at the tent as the force 8 hit , but if it helps to restrain a cat from tearing at a valuable chair, it is well worth drivers and their passengers. Some were tearing at the glass, others struggling with the support and did the only thing possible -- tore at the bread with her teeth, one bite more apparent gusto, using strong jaws to tear at each other's snouts. The wounds suggest punched his face and kicked his legs and tore at his abdomen. She abused him and walked --0\ w a disembodied pair of hairy hands would tear at horses' manes, frightening them and wonderful feeling of rejuvenation .

We tore at each other's clothes -- your suspenders ends this season .

The Force Four was tearing: at their soaked oilskins … Tim leaned in an instant the beast jumped at him, tearing: at his jacket. He cursed it, surprised round the isolated house on the cliffs, tearing at window catches, rattling doors. Celia to the wind's deep-throated shouts as it tears at the comers of our cottage in Cornwall his wife in his arms . Every racking pain tore at him; he had n't wept since he was a thing. ' But, an hour later, the models tearing at his clothes as he lies in the kingsize have been vile. He carried on ripping and tearing at his legs relentlessly and with sickening sensed she was losing interest, fretfully tearing at her jesses and gazing round. I was smell of vomit and of urine. The floor edge tore at his buttocks, the cloth of his trousers from the end of each plait, before she tore at the hair until it hung in uneven strands devastated. I caught him jumping up and down , tearing at his hair and wailing' Why me ? Dh , balanced perspective. '

The wind tore at their trouser legs as they circled the sits on the floor and begins to bite and tear at its' meal ' . During this time it is brood-bond .

A series of explosions tore at the stem of the plate-district where stop crying and its pitiful little squeak tore at Aggie's heartstrings. She took the mongrel in close attendance. The mongrel tore savagely at the newspapers and the rat fled the lateral lines of their rivals. They tear at the patterns on one another's fins shadow-voices had opened up in her and Zulei was tearing at it and there was death behind .

its death among the wet beach rocks and tore at the other viciously before it squawked was too late .

Frantically he began tearing at the small buttons that ran from her '

She leapt at him hysterically , tearing at his face .. What have you done to me past her, the boat swaying violently, and tore at the teacher's pau , exposing his chest the sound of wood splitting as the wind tore at the planks and ripped the front door like a starving child, and his eager hands tore at her clothes .

' Martin, calm sky was overcast. A wind had blown up , tearing at the grass, rippling the surface of towards the East Palace. As she walked she tore at the seal, unfolding the single sheet struggled with each other's clothing, tearing at the lacing, freeing themselves, and thrashing and monstrous arms, beating and tearing: at the dented grey metal of the cabinet in them that did not erupt and scream and tear at you as these fires did. people used , but nevertheless the autumn gales had tom at the trees all night and blown his nerves pouring down her face, drinking brandy, tearing at her clothes, pulling his clothes out of attack their own bodies, scratching and tearing at their skin until the blood runs . They ....... 0\ +:- his eyes were bolting from his head. He tore at the roots that were pinioning his ankles next time I went down, I stayed down, tearing blindly at my bindings. ' Put ze ski back

The pain burrowed through Leonie, tore at her with sharp claws . She'd been cast through the hock-deep snow and the wind tore at their hair. They had soon left the forward , startling the beasts that were tearing at the prostrate girl on the ground, and when he had thrown himself at the door and torn at it , in the moment when he realized Folly flew back into the tiny bathroom and tore at the wide satin ribbon which bound the speechlessness by the conflicting emotions that tore at her, she found herself meekly following , and the hunger between them. His lips tore at hers, and hers at his, as if each ignore the ravenous alsatian growling and tearing at the neighbour's fence .

A grease-smeared

Mandeville sneered as his strong teeth tore at the coarse rye bread.

' Master . We made our way slowly. A biting wind tore at our cheeks, turning our fingers to warmly, his transparent love of children tearing raggedly at her insides.

' They 've his tie, nor that she was left unaided to tear at his shirt buttons with frantic fingers Frustration and lust tore at him, and so he tore at her. She tried to scream, but he put , could guess at the real distress which tore at him .

' Nothing, 'said his brother heedless of the branches that caught at her, tearing at her dark stuff gown, ripping away the of him at once .

Benedict 's hands tore at her nightgown, and his fingers found wings of vultures . A terrible rushing wind tore at my hair and clothes as merciless demons began to scream, high, sharp screams that tore at her chest and hurt her throat.

'

Emmie gave him her present. He tore at the string like a starving man with mood will change from swollen aggressor tearing at the banks to placid waters rustling above. A pack of stray dogs on the far bank tore at the sodden carcase of a dead sheep. He fought his way upwards, fingernails tearing at the ornate carvings , hands reaching pock-marked as a Pakistani's cheek. I tear at my mohair candy floss and watch a winner thought, as thorns the length of her hand tore at her dress. Masklin was right, this and drove him back to shelter. The wind tore at the land. The ice struck with glittering it was the effort not to do so that was tearing at him. It was all his fault, his fault pale blue eyes. She wore grubby jeans, torn at the knees, and an unironed acrylic did n't they? She reached for her bag and tore at the zip, dragging aT-shirt and jumper he set to work dismantling it . Vitor was tearinll at jagged pieces of bodywork when a flame gulls, but the wind blew suddenly colder, tearing at her hair. Reluctantly she made her now and then as the wind battered her and tore at her hair, which soon broke free of against the Serbs .

Now the allies are tearing at each other in a savage grab for territory ........ 0\ VI eased the hook from the mouth of the pike thrashing about at his feet and brushed it back into rather than will . I eat another half banana, thrash vainly at long pots, and resign when rather side to the other as she feels the tail thrash at the sea and Manjiku rear and toss. morning. I fall asleep more grudgingly, thrashing at the waves, either reluctant to let through the empty house. Who on earth was thumping at the door like that early in the morning service stations, the shuffle of luggage thumping at our backs, and intermittent searches His steps grew brisker and he punched and thumped at shop doors, crashed padlocks against she was in love with him now and -- Ashley thumped at her pillow -- she would doubtless still spotted a possible entry, finding a stick to whack at the jagged branches of an old dogrose weather. He laughed ruefully and his wife whipped round at him .

' You laughing at me the dead branch set in his cage. The wind whipped at him, making it hard to hover and harder desperate and livid in my throat; ferns whiJ2 at my legs and branches lash at my face rushed down the corridor towards them. Wind whipped at Duvall's hair and the lapels of his the rain and the wind freezing his face , whipping at his hair. The lightning had vanished unknown shore under a clear sky. The wind whipped at their cloaks and the horses kept their shouted Rincewind . ' Shut up and ride ! I He whipped at his horse with the reins and stared had legs he could run . Ferns and brambles whipped at him, but he did n't feel them at all I peered over the battlements. The wind whipped at my hair whilst my stomach lurched in flung, gripped and pushed .

The air whipped at me , little gusts of drizzle stinging Miss Bamsdale towered beside the box horse, ready to yank at the arms of any child who did n't manage to leap over ....... 0'\ 0'\ - he banged away at Me it was him, banged and banging away at Jenny There were two black entertainers banging away at a piano Carl is banging away at the drums He bashed away at It The gillie, blind as a bat, was bashing away at the fish's tail those who are most likely to be bashing away at the character terminals during which time your opponent can barter away at You he emptied every bullet in the drum, bartering away at the vitals: the engine, cockpit, fuel tank. she launched herself at him, bartering away at his chest with clenched fists. Verb-away-at constructions from the BNC Lee's bro Neil biffs away at the drums during 'Failure' the band members blasted away at their instruments as loud as they could. I'm not just sticking the bunsen underneath and blasting away at it. The largest and most colourful of them showed a woman with a shotgun, blasting away at Red Indians. he blazed away at the tumbling dots of metal with a grim obsession Gabriel's man wanted blood and he blazed away at Gabriel's perpetually vanishing tail Our sometimes rushed into the starry African night, blazing away at burglars we never saw a spitfire hanging grimly on to its smoking trail and blazing away at it with all four guns The guns were blazing away at Them he boned away at an elegant shoe the man would be willing to unlock the handcuff that chafed away at his right wrist the very grist of what he termed my ';delusionary he began to chew away at apparatus';. Pinkie chewed away at a raw fragment it spent a lot of its time chewing away at the metal. massively parallel machines are beginning to chip away at the monolithic vector machines Oystercatchers may wedge the shells into a crevice and chip away at the lip the birds must scrape and chip away at the nuts Henry Moore does not himself chip away at his piece of stone it actually required a greater surplus than this so that it could begin to chip away at the huge 'overhang' of dollar liabilities a bit comes in and a bit comes out and so he had to chip away at the Oh I see! door so that it was around to there The 12 also chipped away at one of the other stumbling blocks Using the fork like a pick she chipped away at the soil He was like a gold miner, chipping away at the rocks this animal would have stood outside the House of Commons, chipping away at the chocolate with a microphone the royal sisters-in-law have done us all a favour by chipping away at these hypocritical accolades. caterpillars still happily chomping away at your over-wintering cabbages and sprouts aphids, beetles, gall wasps, leaf miners and moth caterpillars, all chomping away at leaves, twigs, buds or each other. you will have to break a hole in the wall of the chamber and chop away at the benching Disgruntled sheep with strange dye markings cropped away at the grass a white dinner jacket cut away at the waist --0\ ......:J While we dig away at the front the big yellow dog began digging away at the hole in the bank He is seen digging away at the side of the ball with his thumbnail the edge of her tunic, the bottom strands of her curly The acid began to eat away at hair until it met with an obstruction and the water would eat away at the mass that blocked it Erm it will react with the aluminium, eat away at the aluminium The activated enzyme was then supposed to eat away at the synaptic membrane the urine which has also eaten away at the wooden structure of one of the portals Mining, new towns and motorways have gradually eaten away at woodland in the region atmospheric pollution, even within the museum, was eating away at the stone where water pouring over the track was eating away at the surface as if something was eating away at It Now empty, decay and neglect are slowly eating away at the building's fabric I left him bending over his leg and filing away at his iron chain he had been killed while firing away at the fighters who were strafing his truck. the structures of society which gnaw away at their lives, their self-worth. the club's reputation in the eyes of opponents and had gnawed away at membership numbers Her mind gnawed away at the questions It is somewhat unrealistic to imagine people gnawing away at sugar cane or sugar beet the microprocessor and open software standards are gnawing away at the foundations of the mainframe market he became physically agitated, gnawing away at it until he had satisfaction Emmie imagined the beetles busy in the roof, gnawing away at the rafters The noise had an insistent quality -- like a small animal gnawing away at Something while Fredericks was grafting away at the other end the rasping teeth used to grind away at vegetation and algae the kneeling figure who ground away at the rust around the bolt Ancient Egyptians used to hack away at their beards with bronze knives Before hacking away at Walls er much kneeling and laying down and hacking away at the coal with picks I could see the red-haired woman hacking away at the tangle of greenery George came in at five o'clock in the morning to hammer away at the pirate ship The iron-clad Monitor and Merrimack hammered away at each other in the American Civil War Tina, the Glory, the Worm -- they all hammered away at him ....... 0\ 00 the base of a bomb that is likely to go off at any What a way to spend the morning, hammering away at moment you heaving away at a recalcitrant waste pipe The power axe, clenched in his mailed fist, still hewed away at the same small area in front of him, Charlie started to jab away at Tommy's chest He was lashin.e; away at balls on the practice ground his toothless gums mumbling away at the mashed-up food she spooned into his mouth. Hippos are large vegetarians and must munch away at many different herbs I munched away at my apple the ugly old bird sits there nodding away at the testcard when it's on Claire paddles away at buttons on telephone They were patting away at this butter under a metre or more of snow, which the reindeer can cope with, pawing away at it to reach the lichen reminding him of a flock of rather dowdy sparrows pecking away at their food the starlings seem to be pecking away at the top It would be ironic to pick away at the mortar for a few decades only to break through by picking away at every factual link in the chain we poked away at the goulash soup with its lumps of pork and potato She pounded away at the audio letters American and allied aircraft are already pounding away at the fixed and mobile missile launchers concealed Louise said, still pounding away at what she considered to be her fat legs those second and third kitchenmaids pounding away at the ham James watched me prodding away at the knitting he puffed away at his pipe the old Frenchman still puffing away at his pipe old man stood 'facing the window puffing away at his pipe Regan gazed abstractedly up at the ceiling, puffing away at his cigar And she was puffing away at those wretched cigarettes like there was no tomorrow She puffin away at that clay pipe of 'ers Lydia, abstractedly, pulling away at the feathers of the pheasant she saw Vashinov pump away at the young man up to a small computer terminal and was punching away with its leathery fingers at buttons on ....... 0\ 'D Jason rattled away at the gun turret Many gastropods are grazers: they use their radula to rasp away at algae. to which they attach themselves with a sucker, and proceed to rasp away at the living flesh The wind and rain on the little hill above Jaffa had ripped away at the paint simply by smoothing in a special cream, or break down fat by rubbing away at your wobbly bits Maggie had to resist the desire to tum round, still rubbing away at the counter disused and deserted but containing some old equipment, rusting away at the bottom. There is Ethel and her cello, at which she saws away to the halting accompaniment of Lou, the tin mug of coffee in front of him, and sawing away energetically at the loaf.

With Land Raiders closest to the exposed Warlord redoubled their efforts, scalpelling away at its right knee-joint just above the fairing.

" Then what's the matter? "

She scraped away at a pan in silence for a while. " He has it can now kill the rabbit, instead of scraping away at its hindquarters Silk looked disappointed and scratched away at his pock-marked face chest of drawers to look out of the window, scratching away with her fmger nail at the film of grease scratching away They are always hitching up underpants, happily at unspeakable things in their he started scribbling away at A Year in Provence As! scrubbed away at my remaining teeth Mike scrubbed away at a fork He could hear him scrubbing away at it. used to mean a whole lot of work, reaching up to the grill, and scrubbing away at the oven and hotplate just me and you scrubbing away at the floor Bassist Simon and guitarist Nick stand back and sculpt away at the booming waterfall dazzle textures tables seemed to be occupied by ladies of Habsburg vintage their camparis or white wine or, in two cases, glasses of who sipped away at beer one or other of the ladies or gentlemen of the" confident" party slapping away at the trough where once the dhobi had slapped as the government slashed away at public spending to rectify past extravagance the great pale green sea that sloshes away at the coastline of Phoenicia, Madam certainly didn't think much of the photographers snapping away at Her But with that, I have to stress, do not snap away merrily at all your valuables and then He stepped forward and allowed him to snip away at the stitching She squirrelled away at the nicotine-laden gum ~ -....l o was stitching away The doctor at Sarah Aunt Tossie stitching away at another exotic parrot He taps away at It he was still tapping away at It She pictured him, tapping away at his nose TWO dozen people are grunting, straining and tearing away at heads and arms Travis was still letting go with everything that had been tearing away at Him he tore away at his legs like a thing possessed you can thrash away at it with complete abandon we have looked to trimming away at the centre They'll be like a dog with a rag, tugging away at It The leather also still looks good, although I've notices it wearing away at the top of the ankle seam. You're like a small drop of water wearing away at a stone wearing away at an interior shore Verb-away constructions from the BNC on its rounded hump. The wind was still banging away , but there was an inner calm that was comfortably shifted. His heart was still banging away unhealthily and his breath was wheezing television with his hands and feet tapping and banging away constantly. At dinner he rapped his fork them twisted because as the male member bangs away and does n't get in very far, it can push rush of neurosis envelops me . I have never banged away with fifteen strangers in a back street them were hiding up there on the Step and banging away like a couple of baboons , which he saw stem stuff Seizing his hammer he begin to bang away with undiminished enthusiasm and by the on. I lost count of time as The Butcher banged away and the girl hung on grimly to my jerking recognize the group, but he could hear the beat banging away . He thought she had someone with her. back and a drum wedged between his legs he bashed away with panache, as iffrantically sewing of it . And there would be London Burning bashing away and she'd be and I 'd go in and I 'd tum It may have gone too far, they may have bashed away too much. I think they have. We'll see ........ -....l ........ Oh she's very good actually she Yeah. batters away all day putting the stuff in enn she 's idea that I joined in . As we progressed we beat away then Beachie gave three quick beats on

1 am never fond of watching people blast away with both barrels at their feet, but when eyes upon him, and his one instinct was to blast away with his gun with murder in his heart . would have headphones on while Keith was blasting away ; he 'd move the mic around until we found Zealand, ruined the game as a spectacle by blasting away in the whistle almost non-stop, awarding why his victims all stayed in bed as he blasted away with a handgun in the luxury, ranch-style equipped with heavy Browning machine guns were blasting away .

' I moved the six kids into the turned him onto Gospel music and soon he was blasting away , moaning and chanting and stuffing in the clays into the air while Diane would blast away and try to improve her shooting. It took littered the floor and over everything a radio blasted away at fall strength.

The only clean , and the jeeps roared over the airfield blazing away with their twin Vickers K guns. Several felt that some of the gunners had simply blazed away instead of taking precise aim at a target rest of us the sight of so many fires all blazing away was one never forgotten.

On a very time he would also have the kitchen fire blazing away .

After breakfast, the first washing-up The Ju87s were picked offlike flies. ' Blazing away below, the gunners claimed a further four shoot .

For 20 minutes the death squad blazed away , but most of the bullets failed to penetrate

For five murderous minutes, soldiers blazed away with sub-machine guns and automatic rifles fire, Nick. Druid 's Bottom on fire. Blazing away , flames and smoke -- they'll all be dead ran a few yards after the departing car, blazing away with a frustrated volley which only succeeded doublechecked the sky, climbed, dived, and blazed away again. Nothing. It was like firing into machine-guns and hundreds of damn rifles, all blazing away . If you get through that you Ive got to generators and their giant mobile searchlights to blaze away with 3.7 inch AA guns at what they tentatively sawbones before the invention of anaesthetics, carving away placidly while an assistant holds down

' What else happened ? I she said, digging away .

' I could n't seem to get back --..l N cylinders thumping gently and the turbocharger drilling away in the well-known manner which earned the the, Jennifer sat, sat in the shower, eating away She's broke er ear er , ear plugs, ai .

After that he still chased me , firing away with wellington boots, sugar bowls and walking around, and although the garrison fired away merrily, in the me/\le'e no shots came near which alerted the enemy defences. They fired away with wild abandon, but luckily with little set it up on a rubbish bin rather than the tripod and fired away . Some others took machine guns out of parabola in the sky and dive on me again, firing away furiously in an attempt to eliminate me early edge, but Jimenez was always busy, firing away with both fists .

The Puerto Rican tides with it , so my tumour would go on grinding away until …

I must redouble my , Please, stop' , but Monty just kept hammering away and Clark said, ' For God's sake, Monty with love, he or she is like a blacksmith hammering away with appropriate tools but no fire. Looking mechanical drumbeat, like a pneumatic drill hammering away , it was him, banging and banging away .

All afternoon, Martin had been hammering away in the conservatory. The door was locked the stage one by one, leaving only Mark hammering away nd the guitar propped against a speaker I went along to Street and this chap was hammering away , and the people were swearing from windows youth, you put your oar in everywhere and heave away , mostly shipping water; you've left the barbarian's nose for him .

Hrun kicked away and scrambled to his feet, to find himself '11 reassure you the baby's still there kicking away .

Voice over

The machine's beenpioneered had the children, Blair and Lewis-Ann, lashing away like old hands. Each evening, after . Our friend from the smoke, vigorously lashing away like a cab driver whipping a lazy horse he generally ended up on his back, legs lashing away hopelessly, until disappearing under the storm, I glimpsed his figure, furiously lashing away as though his last fishing moment had come rather than just sitting watching Father lashing away .

Mother was dressed more for sun-bathing the packet of crisps himself and starts munching away . '

JB is also very tidy -- he always ....... -.....l w .

And yet here Florence was now, munching away with her usual bad temper. The calf was himself calmly off from the Hokule'a and paddled away with quick firm strokes and vanished into out of the water. I desperately tried to paddle away but the canoe move and I was wedged in The slaves continued to pound away. Glasgow there were already steam engines pounding away in the mines, but those early beam engines -- an extremely powerful machine too -- pounding away day and night to keep us going in top gear realized that far below the barrage was still pounding away ; that the observers reports were still do it with Simon .

Good old Simon, pounding away and probably thinking about his golf handicap

By August of 1824 the stamps were pounding away and 50 tons of concentrate were ready for packet of cigarettes and all four of them puffed away merrily. We wondered about the pen money it quite hard. He just goes on past me , puffing away and shoving this trolley thing in front of noticed in Asia. Chinese, Indians and Malays puff away to the delight of cigarette manufacturers like M. Hammerton inform us , huffing and puffing away like the good little, non-pontificating burning ( called a dog-end, or dout ) and was puffing away like a steam engine. As I passed the boy Breaker.

This is the video to huff and puff away to in the privacy of your living room -- watching all that is going on , and as they puff away together contentedly, something intangible thought, watching them lighting up and puffing away . It would n't have been tolerated in her going to ring that bell, I said Jasper, puffing away .

' What happened in the cloakroom be here. "

He nodded again, still puffing away . He asked no questionS of us . No one a number of the twelve men seated there puffed away quite happily while they talked. They would be considered odd for someone to be puffing away and spreading filth in the direction of will be all right .

The adrenalin was pumping away , but as the marksmen made no attempt to tattered working clothes, her wellingtons pumped away assiduously to give the instrument the produce the result he longed for. He would pump away until he was exhausted, as though by sheer has to be more than a race for E points, pumping away on raddled lumps of overhanging bolt-protected >--' -...J ~ walking briskly and you can feel your heart pumping away efficiently, but not to the point where one-nighters . Usually they hopped on and pumped away and suddenly it was over. I never climaxed and those frothy pink bellows ofyours , pumping away · The doctor calls it a panic attack, of a kidney bean, our heart is visible, pumping away ;

-- in a child, the heart is proportionately for the tunnel. Mm . pumping they 'd a pump away along used to pump it along Aye but they moment later, he was lying on the student, pumping away , head buried in her neck, her pale face like he felt death coming on . He just kept pumping away ·

The barman took the dive for cover Trentham, Adj I • Charlie could feel his heart pumping away as the colour-sergeant knocked quietly to pump on it . If you do that, you 're pumping away the erm highest energy atoms and leaving it was the table leg. And there I was , rubbing away ! ! But come, let me show you my office . '

She swivelled round, one arm rubbing away in the oven. ' But it's very good for and he was sat on settee watching telly rubbing away and rubbing away and I says hey you gon

Nigel Kennedy, the punk violinist, sawed away in the background as a midwife, a builder all Adam green and white. We had a man sawing away for hours -- great fun. '

There Einar goes ' Whoooo I a bit, the guitars saw away obligingly, but you're left asking why Find out what to do about taking that band saw away I du n no. Yeah, I saw, I passed him having a novel published, remember yourself scribbling away as an adolescent, or having a poem published shows until 10 p.m. I dictate and Cats scribbles away and bashes out the replies on the word myself, I lay on the floor on my stomach, scribbling away and laughing -- well, if I ca n't laugh correspondence with about five pen friends each, scribbling away under the desk in lessons. It was very

' It 's fascinating, I he said, scribbling away busily. ' Now, have I got it quite right you Ive been sitting with your head bent, scribbling away · Perhaps you 'd care to enlighten me as to I've got a handout for, on this one. Scribbling away like I think it should be part of the selection hide the bottle when anyone passed by but sipping away until we had finished the lot. We were was out of kilter somehow. However, they sipped away · Quite quickly the place began to fill J--oo" -....) V\ Grant, who calls himself The Terminator, slashed away with both hands, forcing the stoppage laughed, as her best friend Elizabeth Over snapped away with the camera .

Taking souvenir go ' on the road I ; best friend Linder snaps away . Big in America, we suspect .

The her sisters, if they could have seen her stitching away patiently and efficiently on a hand-driven size piece into the palm of his hand and tap away to produce chewable sized pieces. Gosh to play' God Save the King I , but after tapping away for an hour with one finger I had n't made . The mist also shrouded the fish and we thrashed away mightily, to no avail . One by one, the island of Sicily, has been whooshing and thumping away in one or other of its twin summit craters trouble anyway, ' she said. Her pulse was thumping away inside her ears and high up in her throat whistled overhead as a heavy machinegun thumped away in the background .

The battle for felt nothing. I knew he was twisting and tugging away up there but the local had mercifully done Pleistocene swarming over the coastal range, whacking away with their hammers.

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