RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITY OF THE
ADOLESCENT
DISSOCIATIVE
EXPERIENCES SCALE
Steven R. Smith, B.A.
Eve B. Carlson, Ph.D.
Steven R. Smith, B.A., is a graduate student in clinical psy-
chology at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, Arkansas.
Eve B. Carlson, Ph.D., is a Clinical and Consulting
Psychologist in Delevan, Wisconsin.
For reprints write Steven R. Smith, B.A., Department of
Psychology, University of Arkansas, 316 Memorial Hall,
Fayetteville, AR, 72701.
ABSTRACT
The Adolescent Dissociative Experiences Scale (A-DES) is designed
to measure dissociation in adolescents (ages 11-17). The A-DES mea-
sures dissociation in four areas: dissociative amnesia, absorption
and imaginative involvement, depersonalization and derealization,
and passive influence. The present study was designed to establish
A-DES norms for general population adolescents and to study aspects
of the reliability and validity of the A-DES. Test-retest reliability was
studied by testing one group of subjects twice, with a two-week inter-
val between test administrations. Internal consistency was assessed
by measuring the split-half reliability of the A-DES. Cronbach 's alphas
were calculated for the A-DES global score and four subscales. Results
of these three analyses provide evidence for the reliability of the A-
DES. The concurrent validity of the A-DES was studied by correlat-
ing scores on the A-DES with scores on the Dissociative Experiences
Scale (DES) in a college sample. Results showed a high correlation
between scores on these two measures. Overall, results indicate that
the A-DES appears to have promise as a measure of dissociation in
adolescents.
Dissociation can be defined as a lack of integration of
thoughts, feelings, and experiences into the normal stream
of consciousness (Bernstein Putnam, 1986). Four cate-
gories of dissociation have been identified and described by
Putnam (1994) including memory dysfunctions, distur-
bances in identity, passive influence, and absorption.
Dissociative memory dysfunctions can take the form of amne-
sia for events, intrusive memories, or "flashbacks" (vivid reliv-
ing of an experience) . Dissociative memory dysfunctions can
also include phenomena such as the inability to determine
if a perceived memory represents an actual event or infor-
mation obtained by reading, hearing, or thinking about the
event. Disturbances in identity include feelings of being more
than one person (dissociated identity), distortions in the per-
ceptions of one own body (depersonalization), and the
inability to remember important personal information (dis-
sociative amnesia). Passive influence involves a feeling that
one behaviors are caused by a force from within. Absorption
refers to a very intense focusing of attention (e.g., becom-
ing so engrossed in a television program or a movie that out-
side events are not attended to or not perceived).
Dissociative experiences happen to everyone, but vary
in nature, severity, and frequency across different popula-
tions (Bernstein Putnam, 1986). Most of these experiences
in the general population are relatively infrequent and do
not cause any disruption in normal functioning. Such nor-
mative dissociative experiences arc minor and might include
absorption experiences such as daydreaming.
For persons with dissociative disorders, dissociative
symptoms are much more frequent and severe than they are
for those in the general population (Carlson Putnam,
1993). In these individuals, dissociative experiences occur
so often as to disrupt their lives. Examples of symptoms found
in persons with dissociative disorders include such experi-
ences as having more than one distinct personality state or
experiencing extended periods of amnesia for traumatic life
events (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
Among normative adolescent populations, dissociative
experiences are more common than in normative adult pop-
ulations (Putnam, 1991). Adolescents engage in behaviors
such as intricate daydreaming and fantasizing that are dis-
sociative in nature and might he considered disordered in
adults (Putnam, 1994). However in adolescents, these behav-
iors are a part of normal conscious processes inherent in the
development of identity. During this pivotal time in life, chil-
dren and adolescents fantasize about, experiment with, and
create new aspects of themselves (Putnam, 1994). Manyado-
lescents undergo sudden changes in identity and behavior
and often feel divided into different versions of themselves.
These differing identities are often conflictual and situa-
tionally varying.
Persons with a history of psychological trauma such as
war, natural disasters, rape, or the witnessing of loss of life
also experience more severe and frequent dissociation.
(Classen, Koopman, Spiegel, 1993). Results of several stud-
ies have found a relationship between severity of dissocia-
125
DISSOCIATION, Vol. IX. No. ?June 1996
THE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE A-DES
tion and the severity and frequency of traumatic experiences
(American Psychiatric Association, 1987; Briere, 1988; Briere
Runtz, 1988; Carlson, Armstrong, Loewenstein, Roth,
in press; Chu Dill, 1990; Coons, Bowman, Pellow, 
Schneider, 1989; DiTomasso Routh, 1993; Goodwin,
Cheeves, Connell, 1990; Kirby, Chu, and Dill 1993; Nash,
Hulsey, Sexton, Harralson, Lambert 1993; Puntam, 1985;
Strick Wilcoxon, 1991; Swett Halpert, 1993; van der Kolk,
1987; van der Kolk Kadish, 1987).
A relationship between sexual and physical abuse his-
tories and increased dissociation has also been found in a
non-clinical sample of college-age adolescents (Sandberg 
Lynn, 1992). Results of this study showed that those report-
ing histories of abuse or victimization were more dissocia-
tive than those reporting no abuse.
Evidence of a relationship between traumatic experi-
ences and dissociation has also been found in adolescent sub-
jects. In a study focusing on the association between trauma
and dissociation in inpatient adolescents, physical and/or
sexual abuse and psychological abuse were found to be sig-
nificantly related to increased levels of dissociative symp-
tomatology (Sanders Giolas, 1991). Unfortunately, these
results are not conclusive as dissociation was measured
using the DES, which was not designed for use with adoles-
cents.
In order to empirically study dissociation in adolescents,
their dissociative experiences must be quantified with a mea-
sure that is appropriate for use with adolescents. The mea-
surement of dissociation in adolescents is important for two
reasons. First, because high levels of dissociative symptoma-
tology are related to experiences of trauma and stress, any
individuals who experience above average amounts of dis-
sociation may have had traumatic experiences. A measure
of dissociation appropriate for adolescents might aid in the
identification of traumatized individuals in clinical settings
and might facilitate diagnosis and treatment (Carlson 
Armstrong, 1994) . Second, because dissociation is an impor-
tant part of normative adolescent identity formation
(Putnam, 1994), measurement of the frequency and inten-
sity of the dissociation and of different subtypes of dissocia-
tion may be useful in the examination of the different facets
of adolescent emotional and cognitive development.
Measures have been developed for the quantification of
dissociation in adults and children. The Dissociative
Experiences Scale (DES) was developed for use as a measure
of dissociation in adult populations (Bernstein Putnam,
1986; Carlson Putnam, 1993). Several dissociation scales
also exist for child populations, of which the Child
Dissociative Checklist is the most widely used (Putnam,
Helmers, Trickett, 1993) . Both of these measures are valid
and reliable screening instruments for dissociation. However,
the DES is not appropriate for use with persons under the
age of 18 because the language and experiences described
in the DES would be inappropriate to younger subjects. The
126
CDC is not appropriate for adolescents as many of its items
do not apply to adolescents. Moreover, because the observ-
er-scored method of the CDC quantifies specific observ
behaviors, it does not measure cognitive or emotional dis-
sociation without behavioral indicators. For this reason, the
CDC is not sensitive to some of dissociative symptoms of inter-
est.
Until now, there has been no measure of dissociation
specifically for adolescents. Recently the Adolescent
Dissociative Experiences Scale was developed to mea-
sure dissociation in children between the ages of 11 and 17
(Armstrong, Putnam, Carlson, Libero, Smith, 1997). The
A-DES is a 30-item self-report measure designed to assess dis-
sociation in four areas: dissociative amnesia, passive influ-
ence, depersonalization and derealization, and absorption
and imaginative involvement.
Armstrong et al. (1997) examined the relationship
between A-DES scores and traumatic histories in adolescents
referred for psychological evaluation. They found that A-DES
scores for non-abused adolescents were significantly lower
than scores for adolescents who reported both physical and
sexual abuse histories. Furthermore, their study examined
the ability of A-DES scores to differentiate adolescents with
dissociative disorders from those with other diagnoses. They
found that adolescents with dissociative disorders scored sig-
nificantly higher than adolescents in other diagnostic groups,
with the exception of psychotic disorders. These findings sup-
port the validity of the scale as a measure of dissociative expe-
rience.
The purpose of the present study was to establish pre-
liminary A-DES norms using a non-clinical sample of subjects
and to investigate the reliability and concurrent validity of
the A-DES. First, we sought to establish norms for frequency
and degree of dissociation across three age groups in junior
and high school adolescents. We obtained A-DES subscale
scores for these subjects as well as global A-DES scores.
Furthermore, we sought to assess the reliability of the A-
DES. Reliability refers to the consistency of scale scores over
time as well as the extent to which a measure is internally
consistent (Anastasi, 1988). In the present study, test-retest
reliability and internal consistency were assessed.
In addition to reliability, evidence for the constructvalid-
ity of the A-DES was also assessed. Construct validity refers to
the extent to which a measure accurately quantifies the con-
struct that it was designed to assess (Anastasi, 1988).
Concurrent validity was assessed by correlating DES and A-
DES scores of college students.
METHODS
Participants
Junior and senior high school subjects were from racial-
ly and socioeconomically diverse schools in a small
Midwestern city. Data was collected from students in three
DISSOCIATION, Vol. IN, No. 2, June 1996
SMITH/CARLSO
TABLE 1
A-DES Total and Subscale Means by Age
AGE GROUP
12-13 14-15 16-17 College All Ssa
(N=18) (N=22) (N=20) (N=46) (N=60)
A-DES Total Score 2.33 (1.5) 2.14 (1.2) 2.26 (1.5) 0.78 (0.95) 2.24 (1.4)
Amnesia 2.70 0.9) 2.14 (1.4) 2.35 (1.8) 1.38(1.15) 2.37 (1.7)
Absorption 2.71 (1.6) 2.32 (1.6) 2.41 (1.5) 2.02 (1.20) 2.46 (1.6)
Deper/Dereal 1.93 (1.8) 1.81 (1.1) 1.87 (1.7) 1.01(0.9) 1.87 (1.5)
Passive Influence 2.57 (1.7) 2.74 (1.8) 2.92 (2.0) 1.71(1.24) 2.75 (1.8)
Note: a College subject data not included.
L
age groups: 12 to 13 year-olds (N = 18, mean age = 12.6), 14
to 15 year-olds (N = 22, mean age = 14.7), 16 to 17 year-olds
(N = 20, mean age = 16.4). These junior and senior high
school students were selected from regular-level English class-
es in public schools, in order to maximize the likelihood that
they represented a cross-section of the entire student body
in terms of race, sex, and socioeconomic status. Seventy-eight
percent of the sample was Caucasian, 5% were African
American, 3% were Native American, 5% were Asian, 3%
were Hispanic, and 5% described their race as" Other." Sixty-
two percent of the sample was male. A sample of college stu-
dents from a small, Midwestern college located in a suburb
of a mid-sized city was also tested. The students ranged in
age from 18 to 21 years old (N = 46, mean age = 19.5).
Materials
The A-DES is a thirty-item self-report measure. Each item
presents a statement in first person form (e.g., "My body feels
as if it doesn belong to me."). Under each of these state-
ments, subjects mark the frequency of these experiences on
a scale from 0 to 10 with 0 labeled " never" and 10 labeled
"always." Flesch-Kincaid and Coleman-Liau indices were cal-
culated using Microsoft Word Version 6.0c (1994) comput-
er software. The Flesch-Kincaid grade level readability index
is 5.2, while the Coleman-Liau grade level index is 5.4. In a
clinical sample, Armstrong et al. (1997) found the A-DES to
have good internal reliability as indicated by a Spearman-
Brown of r = .92 (p < .00001) and Cronbach alpha for the
total scale score of r = .93 (p < .05).
Total A-DES scores are equal to the mean of all item
scores. Subscale scores can also be calculated in four areas:
dissociative amnesia (items 2, absorp-
tion and imaginative involvement (items 1, 7, 10, 18, 24, 
28), depersonalization and derealization (items 3, 6, 9, 11,
13, 17, 20, 21, 25, 26, 29, 30), and passive influence (items
4, 14, 16, 19, 23).
The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) is a 28-item
self-report measure (Bernstein Putnam, 1986). Scale
items are presented as situations (e.g., "Some people have
the experience of driving a car and suddenly realizing that
they don remember what has happened during all or part
of the trip" ). For each situation, subjects are asked to indi-
cate how often these situations happen to them on a scale
from 0 to 100, with 0 labeled "never" and 100 labeled "always."
The DES measures experiences of gaps in memory and aware-
ness, and experiences of derealization, depersonalization,
absorption, and imaginative involvement. High test-retest reli-
ability, internal reliability, and validity have been reported
for the DES (Carlson Putnam, 1993).
Procedure
Instructions were read orally and students were assured
that participation would be anonymous and voluntary.
Subjects gave consent by their completion of the measures.
Instructions for the completion of the measures were read
by the students. The junior and senior high students com-
pleted the A-DES first, followed by the demographic ques-
tionnaire. The 14 to 15 year-old students completed the A-
DES twice with a two week interval between testing. The
college students completed the A-DES and the first, fol-
lowed by the demographic questionnaire. The A-DES and the
DES were presented in random order to test for order effects.
Because the subject matter of the A-DES and the DES are sim-
ilar, the first measure was completed and collected before
127
DISSOCIATION, Vol. lX, No. 2,,
 PI; "I I I  1
the second one was distributed to prevent subjects from com-
paring their answers on the two measures.
RESULTS
Normative Data
A one-way.ANOVA was performed onA-DES scores across
age groups in the student samples. No significant differences
were found. Means, standard deviations, and
are reported in Table 1.
A-DES subscale means across age groups are reported in
Table 1. One-way ANOVAs were performed on A-DES scores
across age groups in the student samples. significant dif-
ferences were found.
Reliability
The 14 to 15 year-old subjects completed the A-DES on
two occasions (two weeks apart) to assess for test-retest reli-
ability. A Pearson product-moment correlation between
scores on first and second administrations of the A-DES yield-
ed a correlation coefficient (r = .77, < .00001, N = 22) for
this analysis.
As a measure internal consistency, Cronbach alphas were
calculated for the global scale score as well as the four sub-
scales. Alpha was .92 for the whole scale, .75 for the amne-
sia subscale, .64 for the absorption subscale, .83 for deper-
sonalization/derealization, and .77 for passive influence
= 60 for all calculations).
For all adolescent subjects, A-DES items were divided into
two conceptually equivalent halves to assess internal consis-
tency. A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
between the two halves was calculated and corrected with
the Spearman-Brown split-half reliability formula to yield an
r for the whole scale of .94 (p < .00001, N = 60).
Validity
In the college sample, scores on the A-DES were corre-
lated with scores on the DES, yielding an r of .77 (p < .00001,
N = 46). There was no difference in A-DES scores for the dif-
ferent test administration order (t = -1.79, df = 42, n.s.)
DISCUSSION
The results of this study provide support for the relia-
bility and validity of the A-DES. The high split-half reliabili-
ty and Cronbach alpha provide evidence that the measure
has good internal consistency. Furthermore, high test-retest
reliability indicates that the A-DES is able to measure con-
sistently over time. Last, the strong relationship between A-
DES and DES scores in the college population is evidence of
the concurrent validity of the A-DES.
Our study has limitations, however. The most notable
limitationisthat we used a small, convenience sample of large-
ly homogeneous school students. This non-random sample
128
greatly reduces the generalizahility of the study. Furthermore,
conclusions about the construct validity of the scale would
have been strengthened by examining A-DES scores of ado-
lescents known to have high levels of dissociation. Without
these data, the validity conclusions reached inthis study are
preliminary.
Further research should be conducted in order to gath-
er more validity evidence for the A-DES. Comparing A-DES
scores to other constructs thought to he related to dissocia-
tion (e.g., fantasy proneness, openness to experience) would
be valuable in assessing the validity of the measure. Outcome
studies of adolescents in treatment for dissociative disorders
would also help establish the construct validityof the A-DES.
If the A-DES does prove to be reliable and valid upon
further study, it may be useful for several purposes. Because
the A-DES is designed to measure dissociation in several dif-
ferent areas of normative dissociative phenomena such as
dissociative amnesia, depersonalization, derealization, and
absorption, researchers who wish to study normative pro-
cesses in the adolescent population may be able to use the
scale as a means of understanding various aspects of ado-
lescent cognitive and emotional development and con-
sciousness. Furthermore, the A-DES might be useful as a
screening measure in some settings to identify those ado-
lescents who are experiencing high levels of dissociation. This
measure might aid clinicians by helping to quantify psy-
chological symptoms that may be related to abuse or trau-
ma histories. 
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