INTERNATIONAL MARINE
AIDS TO NAVIGATION
VOLUME I
PARTS C &D
SECOND EDITION
BRIAN CLEARMAN
MOUNT ANGEL ABBEY
1988
-=-,.. _.
l1li
DEDICATION:
To fvIy Parents
for my Dad (1909-1980);
My Mom (1910-1973);
My step-Mother, Jennie (1911-1977);
My step-Mother, Mary
Copyright © 1988 by Mount Angel Abbey
at Saint Benedict, Oregon 97373
All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Clearman, Brian.
International marine aids to navigation.
Updated ed. of: Transportation markings, v. 1,
parts C &D. 1981.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index
1. Signals and signaling. 2. Aids to navigation.
I. Clearman, Brian. Transportation markings. II.
VK38l.C53 1988 623.8'561 88-8960
ISBN 0-918941-01-6
Classification for 1st ed.: TA1245.C56 1981
629.04'2 80-6184
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
11 Introduction to International
Marine Aids to Navigation
PART C
12 Historical Survey of Buoys and
Buoyage Systems
A Development of the Buoy and the
Impact of Technology
1 The Impact of the Industrial
Revolution on Buoys
2 The Buoy and Its Development
in the Nineteenth Century
B The Development of International
Buoyage Systems
1 International Buoyage Systems
1846-1936 •.
2 Red/Green to Port-Red/Green to
Starboard: A Special Problem
in International Buoyage
C IALA Buoyage System
13 Classification of Buoyage in Inter-
nation Usage
A The Classification
B Notes on Classification of
Buoys in International Usage
C Illustrated Classification
14 Description of Buoy Types
A Lighted and Lighted-Sound Buoys
B 1 Unlighted Buoys: Conical and
Can/Cylindrical Buoys
B 2 Unlighted Buoys: Spar, Standard
and Miscellaneous Buoys .
C Sound Buoys.
iii
vi.
1
9
11
14
17
20
35
37
41
51
52
56
62
195
198
205
197
209
215
223
41
43
47
48
156
134
205
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS
v
Fog Signals
A Introduction and Classification with
Explanatory Notes
1 Introduction
2 Classification with Explanatory
Notes
B Types of Fog Signals and Message
Systems
Appendix I: Selected Topmark Patterns
Appendix II: A Unified Classification
Marine Transportation Markings
Bibliography
Index
Illustrated Classification of Buoys:
Lighted Buoys
Unlighted Buoys
Sound Buoys
Combination Buoys
Daybeacons and Oaymarks
Light Phase Characteristics
Selected Topmark Patterns
101
112
145
148
150
153
109
120
126
105
15 Message Systems for Floating Aids 20
to Navigation 69
A Uniform System of Buoyage 70
B IMC-Influenced Buoyage Systems 85
C IALA Buoyage System . 91
iv
PART D
19 Electronic Marine Aids to Navigation
A Overview and History 171
B Classification and Explanatory Notes
Notes 173
C Description of Types of Message
Systems: Hyperbolic Systems 176
D Description of Types of Message
Systems: Radio and Radar. 182
E Miscellaneous Navigation and Non-
navigation Systems 186
16 Introduction to Visual Markings
A The Problem of Methodology, With
Analogic Discursive .
B The Problem of Methodology:
Toward a Solution
17 Fixed Lighted Markings
A Determining the Division of Fixed
Lighted Marine Transportation
Markings Into Major and Minor
Categories
B Classification of Lighted Marine
Markings and Explanatory Notes
C Descriptive Treatment of Struc-
ture Types
D Lighted Message Systems ..
18 Unlighted Visual Markings (Daybeacons)
A Introduction, Terms, History
B A Classification of Daybeacons
C Description of Types of Beacons
D Message Systems
PREFACE
This monograph is the second edition of
Volume I, Parts C and D of what was formerly
termed Transportation Markings: A Study in
Communication. The first edition of Volume I
also included Parts A and B. The original
edition was published by University Press of
America.
The original volume was composed of Part A:
introductory and foundational materials (in-
cluding semi6tics and communications); Part B:
review of transportation markings in one
nation; the U.S.; and Parts C and D. But the
marine materials became all but buried in a
volume containing many other materials and
hence, requires republishing as a monograph
in itself.
The second edition is more than a reprint-
ing of the 1980-1981 monograph. It includes
updating of statistics, rearrangement of ma-
terials, expansion of some topics and replace-
ment of buoy and topmark illustrations. which
are now joined by illustrations of light
phase characteristics and of daybeacons. It
is hoped that the revised edition will have
an enhanced value.
The original title of the book now serves
as the title of the monograph series so that
"Transportation Markings: A Study in Communi-
cation" is the monograph series title. The
title for Parts C and D becomes the title for
the monograph: International Marine Aids to
Navigation.
Since the original book was brought out
a first segment of Volume II has been published
International Traffic Control Devices, which
is Part E. Part E is available from Mount
Angel Abbey as well. Part F, International
Railway Signalling, is in preparation.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For the Second Edition
Abbot Bonaventure Zerr
Claude Lane
Hugh Feisss
Maximilian Ferrell
Simon Hepner
Justin Hertz
Philip Waibel
Monks of Mount Angel
Sister Therese Eberle, OSB, Mount Angel Abbey Library
Sue Watkins and Vincent Zollner, Benedictine Press
The Library of Congress
The National Archives
U.S. Coast Guard, Long Beach
U.S. Naval Observatory
Scott Turnquist and Arinc Research Corporation
Jim Estes of Alpha Farm
National Swedish Administration of Shipping
and Navigation, Nordk3ping
Finnish Board of Navigation, Helsinki
Service Technique des Phares et Balises,
Bonneuil-Sur-Marne
And all who assisted through supplying of
materials and permissions in the first edition
vii
Al
AN
Bowditch
CANS
CIM/IMC
DMA
EB
EQ
F
FFl
Fl
Fl(3)
Fl (3+1)
Hz
I ALA
IALA BCR
IOAMN
IHB
IMC
IMCO
IQ
Iso
IUQ
ABBREVIATIONS
Alternating light
Aids to Navigation Manual, USCG
Original author of American Practi-
cal Navigator; publication often
referred to by Bowditch alone.
Canadian Aids to Navigation System
International Maritime Conference,
St. Petersburg, 1912; often referred
to as 1912 Conference of St. Peters-
burg Conference; Not to be confused
with International Marine Conference,
1889.
Defense Mapping Agency
Encyclopedia ~ritannica, 1911 edition
East Quadrant
Fixed light
Fixed and Flashing light
Flashing light
Group-Flashing li£ht (3 is given as
an example)
Composite Group-flashing light (3+1
is given as an example)
Herz
International Association of Light-
house Authorities/Association Inter-
nationale de Signalisation Maritime
IALA Buoy Conference Report
International Dictionary of Aids to
Marine Navigation
International Hydrographic Bureau
International Marine Conference,
Washington, D.C., 1889
International Maritime Consultative
Organization
Interrupted Quick Flashing light
I sophase light
Interrupted Ultra Quick light
viii
IVQ
Kc
Khz
LF
LFI
LL
LN
LNB/LANBY
LOP
MBS
Mo(U)
NCMH
NE
NQ
NW
Oc
Oc (2)
Oc(2+l)
OED
Q
Q(3)
Q(6)+LFl
RHDEL
SE
5MBB
SQ
SW
UK 1846
UK 1883
UQ
USB
USCG
USNOO
VLF
VQ
VQ(3)
. Interruped Very Quick light
Kilocycle
Kiloherz
Low Frequency
Long-flashing
Light list
League of Nations
Large Navigational Buoy
Line of Position
Marine Buoyage Systems
Morse Code light (U is an example)
New Cambridge Modern History
Northeast
North Quadrant
Northwest
Occulting
Group Occulting (2 is an example)
Composite Group Occulting (2+1 is
an example)
Oxford Englisn Dictionary
Quick light
Group Quick light (3 is an example)
Group Quick with Long-flashing
light (6 is an example)
Random House Dictionary of the
English Language
Southeast
Systems of Marine Buoyage and
Beaconage
South Quadrant
Southwest
Report of Buoyage Practices
UK Uniform System of Buoyage
Continuous Ultra Quick light
Uniform System of Buoyage
U.S. Coast Guard
U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office
(now named DMA)
Very Low Frequency
Continuous Very Quick light
Group Very Quick (3 is an example)
ix
VQ(6) +LFl
WLB 1820
WQ
WNID
WNID,2nd
WTNID
Group Very Quick with Long-flash-
ing light (6 is an example)
World's Lighthouses Before 1820
West Quadrant
Webster's New International Dictionary
ed.Webster's New International Dictionary,
Second Edition
Webster's Third New International
Dictionary
x
CHAPTER ELEVEN
INTRODUCTION:
MARINE INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORTATION MARKINGS
(MARINE AIDS TO NAVIGATION)
It is not the intent of the author to compart-
mentalize the floating and fixed portions of ma-
rine transportation markirrgs into separate and dis-
tinct units. Any such compartmentation might lead
to a sense of independent spheres in the mind of the
reader and that, in turn, could lead to an impres-
sion that fixed and floating markings are two areas
of study rather than two aspects of a single dis-
cipline. Nevertheless, for reasons of practical-
ity and convenience - and despite the inherent
risks - the coverage of this subject will be sub-
divided, though not the subject. This seems nec-
essary because of the strikingly different milieu
of fixed as opposed to floatins markings. It is
also necessary because of the need to explore in
some detail a diverse subject, and this is more
difficult to accomplish under one heading than it
would be under two; fixed and floating markings
have special requirements and necessitate special
attention.
The basic commonality of these markings shoUld
be seen in this introduction, and the focus of this
monograph - as expressed in the Preface and in the
classification schemas - should clearly illus-
trate that the research is not dealing with
several subjects but rather with several facets
of one subject.
It may first appear easy (and even precise)
to divide marine aids to navigation into either
1
....
fixed or floating location. And while this is
probahlY the only practical division, a problem
arises in that fixed aids to navigation can be
further divided into marine locations, though
fixed, as well as land-based; therefore the
difference between a fixed marine light, in
the water, and a buoy may not be as great as
their fastenings might indicate. 1 Nevertheless,
the fastenings pf an aid can serve as a distin-
guishing point between floating and fixed mark-
ings. Fixed and floating markings have nistin-
guishing characteristics within the respective
markings; this is in addition to the differen-
tiation based on the type of fastening of aids
to navigation.
These distinguishing characteristics include
the structures supporting the light and the in-
tensity, or power, of the light. Historically
there are more variations in fixed aids than in
buoys. The fact that systems of buoys are Jong-
established is an indicator of the standardiza-
tion to be found among buoys and messages. Fixed
aids not only are less likely to be standardized
but are frequently few in number for many nations
- other than major lights or lighthouses. Recent
years have seen increasing standardization of
fixed aids for some nations; this is true of
Canada and of the United States. With the ad-
vent of International Association of Lighthouse
Authorities (IALA), fixed beaconage is increas-
ingly part of the buoyage pattern.
It is common to divide fixed light aids into
major aids, which include those lights with dis-
tinctive towers on headlands and outlying rocks
(often referred to as lighthouses), and minor
aids, which are found in harbors, bays, and
rivers. Both major and minor aids are found
both on land and in the water.
2
Major lights have been the subject of books,
articles and photographs; there is little need
to provide details for those lights. In brief,
most traditional towers are enclosed. Smaller
and more modest towers are found on high headlands
and promontories; the more lofty towers are on low-
lying elevations. Massive towers 'and nearly as
massive lantern houses and lenses keynote the
older versions. Newer towers are often unenclosed
and unpretentious in the extreme. Light mechan-
isms are no longer massive save for the intensity
of the light.
Many minor lights on marine locations are
found atop a single or multiple-pile structure.
In some instances the facility is little more
than a simple light directly mounted on the struc-
ture. In other cases a superstructure or small
house or box has been added to the underlying
structure. Permanence of structure is not a major
consideration for many of these lights.
In many cases a pole with some type of daymark
is added to fixed land marine markings. More com-
plex structures for these landed lights include
towers - often skeleton or open - small houses, or
battery boxes. As is the case with marine fixed
markings, land markings are easily constructed,
and easily removed. As previously mentioned, a
v~riety of nations including West Germany, Norway,
FInland, the Netherlands, and Indonesia incorporate
many fixed marine aids into floating message sys-
tems. In these cases, distinctive features, such
as color, lettering and numbering, have a symbolic
value which correlates to message systems of buoys.
Not all fixed marine markings are lighted.
Simple markings, known as daybeacons in the U.S.,
or simply beacons, may be nearly identical with
fixed lighten aids except for the light. In other
situations they may be nothing more than a painted
pole atop a rock or single piling. These markings
are for lesser used channels. Acoustical and
3
electronic markings - the non-visual portion of
marine markings - are the final parts of fixed
marine markings; they complement, extend and en-
hance visual aids to navigation; electronic aids
not only supplement but also can supplant visual
aids for ocean and coastal navigation. In some
instances acoustical and electronic aids are found
with visual markings, while in other situations
they are independent of them.
Acoustical, or fog, signals are commonplace
in some northern nations but are nearly unknown
in less foggy locates. Fog signals can be found
on both buoys and fixed locations. Formerly,
there was a greater distinction between floating
and fixed fog signals than at present. Buoys em-
ployed one of several types of signals all of
which were sea-activated. Land signals utilized
one of several types of air-driven or air-assisted
mechanisms. But buoy signals not infrequently in-
clude electric horns and thereby emulate land-
based signals, though sea-activated signals con-
tinue in use and some electronic signals can imi-
tate traditional sound .signals.
The distinctiveness of a fog signal is im-
portant. An electric-powered signal can provide
a characteristic signal by the varying of pitch
and the length of the period of sound. Sea-
activated signals, even if the range of possible
sounds is greater, can not provide a signal in-
corporating length of a period of sound. Such
si~nals are also handicapped by their reduced
efficiency in calm seas - when fog is a greater
navigational hazard - and when the need for sound
signals is greater.
Electronic aids to navigation supply longer/
long-range navigation capabilities; hence the
growing significance of such aids. Visual mark-
ings cannot supply long-range aid, and are not
infrequently handica~ped for even short-range
operations. Visual lighted markings remain
4
important, but coastal landfall beacons have heen
overshadowed by their electronic counterparts.
Loran and related devices are examples of
lon~-distance markings; radio-beacons constitute
short- to medium- range devices. Passive elec-
tronic markings, such as radar reflectors, en-
able ship-based radar units to more easily and
precisely determine their locations.
Systems of buoyage shape and influence the
types of buoys and their message-producing
abilities. The recognized systems began with
the International Marine Conference in Washing-
ton, D.C., in 1889. English practices (1846 and
1882), while not strictly international, spread
beyond the borders of the U.K. The 1889 effort
included both cardinal and lateral buoyage sys-
tems. A European conference in 1912 at Saint
Petersburg reversed the position of red and
green/black. A League of Nations conference at
Lisbon (1930) and at Geneva (1936) established
and concretized the second approach to buoyage
(termed the "Uniform System of Buoyage"). The
1889 approach has been followed by many nations
in the Western Hemisphere and some in East Asia,
and is sometimes loosely termed the "U.S. Sys-
tem." Many Eastern Hemisphere nations, par-
ticularly in Europe, have traditionally fol-
lowed some version of the Uniform System. The
19705 and 1980s are the era of the IALA buoyage
and beaconage system. This system was originally
labeled "System A" and "System B" but both were
amalgamated into a single system with regional
variants. The new system incorporates many of
the features of older systems but creates a sim-
pler and more uniform approach to buoyage and
beaconage which is more nearly global than past
efforts.
An essential difference between the Washing-
ington Conference-derived systems and the Uniform
System is also a ba~ic difference between the
5
tlvO regional variants of the IALA system. Namely,
reverse meanings are given to the use of red and
green. The Uniform System and IALA European vari-
ant have red to port; Washington and the second
IALA variant have red to starboard. Black/green
represent reverse positions in the aforementioned
systems. Topmarks, a major feature of the Uniform
System, have been simplified in IALA. Topmarks
have found little use in the Western Hemisphere,
though they may become more significant under
IALA.
The U.S. and Canada have long employed separate
types of buoys for lighted purposes and unlighted
purposes; many other nations, and for that mat-
ter both the Uniform System and IALA, adopted
identical shapes of buoys for both lighted and
unlighted functions of a specific nature. For-
merly, the U.S. also employed special-shaped
buoys for sound signals, but an increasing number
of sound buoys utilize a light buoy without the
light support structure and mechanism; special
sound buoys are, however, to be found in sub-
stantial numbers even with this change.
In past times many nations made use of only
parts of one or other agreed-upon system of buoy-
age; in other instances variations were built
into a basic system of buoyage. This resulted in
a broad and chaotic spectrum of systems and mes-
sages. The IALA system eliminates much of the
chaos, and also individuality - which was a key-
note of buoyage systems in the past. Some mea-
sure of distinctiveness may well continue in
systems with special-shape buoys; for example,
West Germany and Norway make use of substantial
numbers of a design unique to those systems.
Despite special shapes of buoys it would appear
that standard color and light characteristics will
be in use in all systems.
Two other forms of floating aids are light-
ships and large navigational buoys. Lightships,
6
watched and unwatched, are very much on the de-
cline. Large navigational buoys are increasing
in numbers and to a large extent at the expense of
lightships. The large buoys, which are 30 or more
feet in diameter, are usable in deepwater stations
and the open sea. The United Kingdom, the U.S.
and several other nations utilize this form of
aid.
In sum, international marine aids to naviga-
tion cover a broad range of devices and mechanisms
ranging from the primitive to the sophisticated,
from the ancient to current technologies.
This study will survey the general rules and
guidelines and attempt to suggest the range of
significant differences. Part C will include
floating aids to navigation; Part D will examine
all types of fixed marine aids: visual, sound,
and electronic.
Endnote
IAn interesting blurring of the distinction
is found in Finland, where the "edgemark," a
fixed aid to navigation, operates as a buoy. The
functional dimension of the aid overtakes the
physical dimension even though the latter would
seem to be paramount (letter of Rolf Backstrom of
the Board of Navigation, Helsinki, November 7,
1983).
7
I!!
III,
, .1
,.
II!
-
... .1.
PART C
CHAPTER TWELVE
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BUOYS &BUOYAGE SYSTEMS
l2A Development of the Buoy
and the Impact of Technology
1 The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on
Buoys
An added dimension to the study of present-
day buoys and buoyage systems ·can be gained in
a brief review of the historical background of
the buoys. Some attention has been given in
Chapter 14 to the lexicography of buoyage terms,
but little attention has been given to the his-
tory of buoys and the development of message
systems. 1 .
Though buoys and lightships extend back in
time for several centuries, the principal era
of this history is the Industrial Revolution in
the Victorian and Edwardian periods. The Indus-
trial Revolution can be viewed as the "period
roughly from 1750 to 1825, during which the
accelerated application of mechanical principles
'" to manufacturing in Great Britain produced
an identifiable change in economic structure
and growth. "2 The term can be applied not only
in a narrow sense but also in a more general
sense, thereby encompassing large portions of
the eighteenth, all of the nineteenth and some
of the twentieth centuries. 3
There is considerable agreement that the
Industrial Revolution began in the mid- to late
eighteenth century; its ending is less agreed
upon. 4 For some it ends in about 1830, for
others about about 1870. For some it is a
unified period; for others it contains sub-
divisions or phases. S If the Industrial
9
Revolution per se ends in about 1870 what can the
post-1870 era be termed? Possibly a second in-
dustrial revolution, or a scientific revolution,
or an age of technology.6 What is the place of
the development of the buoy in these various seg-
ments of time and events? The buoy is in its
"pre-history" in the early years of the nineteenth
century which fall within the strict Industrial
Revolution. The 1820/1825 to 1870 era is signi-
ficant for industry but not for floating aids to
navigation; change has begun but it has not reach-
ed its zenith. The buoy undergoes major change
and advance from 1870 to about 1900; hence the
second industrial revolution, or age of technology,
is of greater significance.
The years from 1870 to 1900 are distinguished
from earlier developments by several character-
istics: The era of amateur craftspersons in bring-
ing about major advances in technology has de-
clined;7 the heavy emphasis on coal and iron is
also past its prime;8 much the same can be said
of a few basic industries dominating the indus-
trial scene. The time after 1870 is one of more
heavily employed scientific and theoretical pro-
cesses;9 more organization is utilized;lO older
industries give birth to new and mgre diverse
offerings. lI While new industries of this era may
turn out more products, change has spread beyond
the sites of heavy and even primitive industry.12
Advances in late Victorian technology include
electro-technics, transportation, chemisty, and
biology.13 Electro-technics include diverse of-
ferings such as electric locomotives, studies in
high and low voltage, the incandescent light
globe and electric power plants. 14 Transporta-
tion changes include not only expansion of rail-
way trackage, but new inventions including the in-
ternal combustion engine, the diesel engine, auto-
mobiles and improved steam-propelled ships.15
Chemisty provided new processes and technology
including applications encompassing even lighthouses
10
lighthouses and buoys. Biology is far removed
from transportation markings and need not be
considered.
Much of the growth and advances in buoyage
stems from changes in electrical and chemical
industries, and advances in metal technology pro-
cesses and practices. 16 Transportation changes
in seaways and harbors and in modes of trans-
port created the need for more buoys. Bruun,
who views the later nineteenth century as a "tech-
nological age," notes that the years from 1867 to
1881 produced "many new instruments of power and
precision.,,17 This frame of reference can en-
compass the specialized world of the buoy.
l2A 2 The Buoys and its Development
in the Nineteenth Century
The progression and expansion of the buoy dur-
ing, and before, the Industrial Revolution(s) may
be divided into three parts; the significance of
the parts is in inverse proportion to the length
of time for each. The first period - which may
be termed the "pre-history" period - began in
perhaps the fifteenth or sixteenth century.18
The Oxford English Dictionary is of the view that
buoys began in the sixteenth century, while the
West German buoyage agency suggests the previous
century.19 The period ended in about 1820. The
notion that that year is a juncture points for
marine aids is promoted by Alan Stevenson in his
book The World's Lighthouses Before 1820. 20
Though his comments are directed more to light-
houses than to buoys they may be applied to buoys.
Stevenson notes that 1820 marks the end of simple
lighthouses employing primitive lenses and utiliz-
ing crude and unprocessed fuels. 2l Those earlier
lights were built with the aid of sailing ships
and primitive construction methods. 22 After 1820
coal-fired construction and transportation systems
began to be available and, more significantly, the
11
means of production of messages improves dramati-
cally;23 for example,Augustin Fresnel, a French
physicist, developed in 1823 a lens that was cap-
able of throwing more light more efficiently and
farther than any previous lens system; this lens,
bearing his name. is still in use. 24
The period from about 1820 to 1870 sees in-
creasing changes in buoys though the most notable
changes are still in the future. The Industrial
Revolution, during the mid-years of the century,
offered new technologies and materials that ef-
fected a major change in buoy construction and de-
sign through the use of iron. 25 Buoys would be
of predominantly wood construction for decades
more, but the increasing number of iron buoys al-
lowed flexibility and versatility that led to the
addition of audio and/or acoustical capabilities. 26
It is not until about 1870 that the modern era
of buoys can be said to have begun. Bruun notes
that the l870s are a "decade of unpara1led expan-
sion" and this can be applied to buoys lis weil. 27
Many of the advances in buoys are in the field of
lighting. Gas-powered buoys with fixed or occult-
ing lights began operation in 1878. 28 The English
introduced the incandescent oil-vapor light in
1893;29 the U.S. began experiments with a gas-
lighted buoy in 1881 and finally added the new
buoy to the "fleet" in 1884. 30 Experiments with
electrically lighted buoys were conducted between
1888 and 1903. These experiments ended in failure
because the power cables to the buoys were af-
fected by water and weather conditions. 3l The
U.S. engaged in experiments centering on various
forms of acetylene gas in the first decade of
the twentieth century.32 Dalen'. the Swedish
Nohel Prize winner in physics. also worked to ad-
vance the use of acetylene gas during this time. 33
Dalen' also invented the first automated light
control mechanism. This devise. known as a "sun
valve," activated the light when the sun set and
12
deactivated it when the sun rose. 34 It was this
invention that won him the Nobel Prize in 1906.
Despite various forms of photoelectric cells,
the "sun valve" is still a useful device for
operating lights and also for saving fuel. 35
The iron that permitted lighted buoys also
permitted the introduction of sound buoys and
mechanisms. The U.S. introduced the whistle buoy
in 1876;36 gong buoys were introduced in the
second half of the nineteenth century.37 Sea-
activated bell buoys followed in 1885. 38
Other inventio~s and advances. though not
originally designed for buoys. found applications
or at least influenced buoy systems. For example.
the French extended the range of possible 1ight-
phase characteristics in 1892 by the introduc-
tion of quick-flashing lights. 39 England con-
tributed an "automatic occulter" in 1883. 40 Sup-
porting systems. including Kitson's incandescent
oil-burner. also improved the quality and range
of buoy and other 1ights. 41 Not only were inven-
tions occurring during this time but manufacturing
processes meant that more and more lighthouses
and buoyage equipment were being manufactured more
efficiently and more cheaply.42
By about the turn of the century. the basic
types of buoys were established; this was also
true of the major forms of sound signals. A
variety of light-phase characteristics were al-
ready in use. though fixed lights would continue
to dominate for quite some time. In short. what
was available in buoys during the late nineteenth
century materially shaped the form of British and
IMC buoyage systems of the 1880s. and influenced
the 1912 Saint Petersburg and the 1930 League of
N~tions buoyage systems; this in turn made a dis-
cernible impact on the IALA system of the 1970s
~nd 1980s. Components of buoyage systems. and
In many respects the buoys themselves. are to a
considerable degree the same today. Lights are
13
more often electric, sound signals are increasing-
ly electric, some "monster buoys" have been added,43
buoys are welded not riveted; but the shapes, colors,
numbers and seemingly mysterious - to the unini-
tiated - patterns and arrangements of those colors
and numbers can be substantially traced to the late
Victorian period. That same era can be said to be
the sum total of changes in transportation, manu-
facturing, and illumination throughout the nine-
teenth century.
12B The Development of International Buoyage Systems
1 International Buoyage Systems 1846-1936
Finally, it is necessary in this chapter to con-
sider the buoyage systems that have transcended
national boundaries as well as developments in
the types of buoys and equipment for buoys. There
were four buoyage systems before IALA: The British
"Union System of Buoyage" (1883),44 the Internation-
al Marine Conference buoyage system (1889),45 the
League of Nations Uniform System of Buoyage" (1930/
1936),46 and the International Maritime Confer-
ence at Saint Petersburg (1912).47 One might in-
clude a government report of the United Kingdom
of 1846 that described buoyage practices in that
nation. Those practices, especially that of red
to starboard for buoyage influenced U.S. practice
and greatly helped to establish red in the star-
board position.~8 The first named system (UK 1883)
may appear to be that of a single nation. How-
ever, this system encompassed the British Isles
and included three independent aids to navigation
agencies as well as several smaller lighthouses
and buoyage authorities. 49 In addition British
dependencies followed this system to a considerable
degree for quite some time.
The British system of 1883 focused on several
principles. The basis of the system, if reduced
to a single point, is the shape of the buoy.50
14
Contrary to IMC, neither color, letters, nor num-
bers, were the ultimate basis of the system. 51
These basic forms of buoys included can for port-
hand; conical for starboard, spherical for "end
of the middle grounds," as well as 'other types
of buoys including pillar, spar, and sound
buoys ,52 Color had importance, though specific
colors for certain functions were not included
in the nomenclature.
The British system is significant not only
because it served many of the principal ports and
shipping lates of the late Victorian period, but
because it has influenced the IMC system; for ex-
ample, the types and shape of can and starboard
buoys correspond to IMC usage. 53 Of course, it
is not very likely that the buoyaee system of
the principal maritime nation of the l880s could
have Failed to influence international navigation
of that period.
The International Marine Conference has a
unique place in buoyage and beaconage systems. It
represents the first truly international attempt
at uniformity in these matters, and the system
continued to exercise an important role in the
buoyage systems of many nations until the present
time; this was especially true in the Western
Hemisphere. 54 IMC was organized under the aus-
pices of the United States. While the U.S. play-
ed a pivotal role in the forming of the Confer-
ence, other nations were involved in bringing
about the meeting. 55 Some 28 nations were repre-
sented at the Conference;56 this number - though
rninuscle by late twentieth century perspective -
constituted the large majority of independent
nations in the late nineteenth century.57
It may overstate the case to say that IMC
deliberations constituted a system, since the
provisions of the conference on buoys were
limited. This brevity was probably necessary
since, as the premier international effort toward
15
Ii
i
buoyage uniformity. the "jump" from many nation-
al systems to something that all nations could
agree upon was monumental in itself. 58 If a
system can be defined as a unit with two or more
interrelated and functioning parts. then IMC may
qualify as a system. 59 Greater uniformity was
theoretically possible except for the fact that
any change meant great expense and a more elabo-
rate - even if superior - system would not have
met with approval by many.
Color and number were given precedence over
buoy shape in IMC.60 Paint and stencils caused
fewer problems and less expense than redesigning
entire fleets of buoys. The issue of shape sur-
faced and surfaced heatedly during the confer-
ence. The U.S. system then in use definitely
included and followed shape. 61 The British and
German delegates. especially that of Germany.
maintained that shape was not a basic and in-
tegral dimension of the U.S. system. 62 The U.S.
statutes pertaining to buoys would appear to
support the European contention. 63 The IMC pro-
posal was adopted so as to include shape but
stated that the signatories would not be Obli-
gated to include shape in their respective sys-
tems. 64
The discussion of development in buoyage
heretofore presented focus on lateral buoyage.
Considerably fewer problems are found in the
area of cardinal systems. The cardinal system
found in IMC was established before that con-
ference in several northern European nations.
IMC largely took over what already existed.
Much the same system is to be found in the USB.
What already existed influenced first IMC then
USB. IMC did not essentially influence USB
in this matter. 65
The 1912 conference in Saint Petersburg
overturned the colorsof tMe. The problem en-
gendered by that move is considered in the
16
following and final segment of this chapter. 66
12 B2 Red/Green to Port--Red/Green to Starboard
A Special Problem in International Buoyage
An underlying problem in buoyage and beacon-
age systems has been that of which side are the
red buoys on and which side are the green buoys
on? That may oversimplify the problem. but it
comes close to the core issue. The IMC system did
not provide a long-lasting solution to the future
crisis. The foundations that IMC laid down would
become in time an element in the divergent ap-
proaches to buoyage messages. Divergent practice
continues to this day and is in all liklihood
permanent. A strictly logical pattern of buoyage
has not existed either in the inception of sys-
tems in the nineteenth century or in the develop-
ment of systems in the twentieth. After nearly
a century of illogical and contradictory practices
it ~ould not be easy to overcome the problems;
IALA has come as far toward bridging the gaps as
is possible.
It is not altogether clear how the problem of
red and green and their use came about. Nonethe-
less enough of the salient features are known to
permit some review of the problem. An early de-
velopment in the green/red imbroglio is a govern-
ment report of the U.K. noting the placement of
red buoys on the starboard side of channels in
1846. and the commencement of red to port. and
green to starboard for ship lighting in 1847. 67
It is curious that the government report noting
the red to starboard buoy practice. and the be-
ginning of ship lighting. occured almost simUl-
taneously. A related development was the prac-
tice of harbor lights in the later nineteenth
century in Europe. This utilized red to port and
is possibly based on shipboard lighting practice.68
It is true that IMC in 1889 did not face a
17
....
a great number of lighted aids to navigation.
There were few lights, other than the major coast-
el landfall lights, of a complex and sophisti.
cated nature. During the ninth decade of that
century there were some lighted buoys in opera-
tion, but these were either in an experimental
state or little removed from it. And a heavy
usage of different colors of lights is not all
that likely. Therefore, IMC, following UK 1846
and other usages, adopted red for starboard, not
green for starboard. Black continued as a pri-
mary marking color until the implementation of
lALA, and can still be found in use though to a
declining degree.
No international standards for lights had
been established by the time of the prelimi-
nary work of the Technical Committee for Buoy-
age and the Lighting of Coasts of the League
of Nations during the 1920s. But the practice
of the U.S. and other nations was to place red
lights with red to starboard. 69 But not in
Europe. Europe followed the strange practice
of red buoys to starboard (as in IMC) but red
lights to port. This practice stemmed from
the situation with harbor lights in Europe
which in turn was presumably based on ship
lighting practices (green to starboard, red to
larboard).70
The 1912 conference seems ·odd in the re-
telling. The conference did not send out in-
vitations to all maritime nations (including
the U.K. and Canada) and the invitation re-
ceived by the U.S. was presented not long be-
fore the convening of the conference. 71 Saint
Petersburg 1912 was short in duration and was
supposedly only a preliminary meeting. In
fact only three nations adopted the conclusions
of the conference. The conference was none-
theless valid: to right the problem of red
buoys on one side and red lights on the other.
18
But that problem was only in Europe (and possi-
bly colonies of European nations).
France became very much concerned during
the 1920s over the problem and the resulting con-
fusion. 72 The Technical Committee began work
on a new system in 1925, a system that was to
attempt to overturn IMC and to adopt the con-
clusions of Saint Petersburg. Putnam notes
what might be termed the myopic vision of Europe:
They represented a minority yet they promoted
their regional needs over the majority; seeming-
ly they saw themselves as the majority.73 Posi-
tive support for the Technical Committee came
from European nations. The same nations were
represented on that committee, and the same na-
tions were represented at the 1912 conference.
Perhaps Bury's "political intrigue" (discussed
later in this segment) has reference to this
situation. 74 .
Work on the Technical Committee led to the
League of Nations conference at Lisbon. 1930,
and Geneva, 1936. Those ~fforts expanded and
extended the 1912 effort. 75 The League of Na-
tions report and system, while followed to vary-
ing degrees, never gained official status.
Bury's comment that the 1889 conference "fell
afoul of political intrigue and two world wars"
may have considerable reference to the League
of Nations system which was the final outcome
of what had begun in Saint Petersburg. 76 The
upheaval of war ended any official system, and
IALA's work did not come about until more than
four decades later. War was also to block com-
pletion of a system of markings in a different
sphere: that of traffic control devices (see
Volume lIE for discussion of problems of reach-
ing accord in that area). A conservative dy-
namic seems to be at work in transportation
markings (and possibly other systems of symbols
as well) so that people, nations, and cultural
19
groupings can become wedded to a specific approach
to, for example, buoyage message meanings, and it
becomes of little consequence if those symbols
are illogical, arbitrary or accidental in execu-
tion.
The buoyage situation, prior to IALA, pre-
sented this pattern of messages: All European na-
tions (including the USSR) followed the red to
port rule. Seemingly all Western Hemisphere na-
tions obeyed red to starboard. A variety of
African and Asian nations conformed to the Euro-
pean practice. Yet other nations, including some
in the Northwest Pacific, employ the red to star-
board pattern of the Western Hemisphere. As a re-
sult of these long-standing policies, IALA was
not able to establish a single color-code for the
world. 77 Originally IALA contemplated two systems
or buoyage, but a further movement toward consensus
altered this to one system with two regional vari-
ants. 78
12C IALA Buoyage Systems
The various buoyage efforts before IALA each
in its turn further splintered efforts toward uni-
formity and simultaneously compouRded the confus-
ion. In the view of J.E. Bury - possibly the most
knowledgeable person on the history of buoyage sys-
tems - the Washington Conference "fell afoul of
political intrigue and two world wars."1 The Uni-
form System of Buoyage, despite its official ap-
pearing character, was· lInever ratified and of-
ficially introduced."2 It was the victim not only
of politics and war but of its inherent problems
and non-global application.
This mingling of multiple conferences, poli-
tics and strife suggest the massive difficulties
in working toward a universal system. Perhaps
the most significant component of the problem was
the abandoning of the "red to starboard" of IMC
20
and its replacement, at least in Europe and
selected other nations, by the diametrically
opposed green to starboard of the Saint Peters-
burg and later League of Nations approaches. 3
Any solution to the problem of disunity
would presumably have to come through the one
organization that has universal status because
of the many maritime nations in its ranks. the
International Association of Lighthouse Authori-
taies/Association Internationale de Signalization
Maritime (IALA/AISM), founded in Paris in 1957. 4
IALA, beginning with a limited objective, broad-
ened its goal and finally established a new sys-
tem which combines what was usable from the past
with new thinking and research. S
The first stage of IALA's effort consisted
of examining and improving' upon existing har-
bor lighting. 6 But this proved to be too nar-
row a study, and a new study group was formed
and mandated to su~plement and update the Lisbon
and Geneva system. The broader study was re-
quired because of new aids to navigation, new
systems, and new problems. 8
The second stage was successful in intro-
ducing new rules for "ocean data acquisition
systems" and for (in Europe) setting up a sys-
tem for dividing recreational waters into boat-
ing and bathing zones by the use of buoys.9 But
then a series of major shipping disasters involv-
ing supertankers occurred; and, as a result, IALA
was asked by the Inter-Maritime Consultative
Organization (IMCO) to take up a much-needed
p:oject o~ unifying. the various buoyage systems
wlth speclal attentlon to marking wrecks. 10 The
membership of the committee that took up this
more basic challenge overlapped with that of the
earlier group.ll Stumbling blocks to unification
of existing systems soon arose. The U.S. refused
to change from the red to starboard pattern of
1889, and both the U.S. and Canada noted that
21
23
system based on zones. 22 By 1973 the IALA group
had not reached a solution. 23 It was at that
juncture that a new director of the buoyage group
was selected, and "new terms of reference for the
project were established.,,24 J.E. Bury, the new
director, came to the conclusion, after agree-
ment was reached on the new terms, that a more
fundamental change was needed; that establishing
a new system "upon the wreckage of Washington and
Geneva was not feasible. 2S The beginnings of
real progress date from that fundamental decision.
In the next three to four years what was known,
until 1980, as "System A" was established. 26 The
then System A was approved by members of IALA
at the IX Conference in Ottawa in 1975. 27
A key difference between Geneva and System A
was the combining of lateral and cardinal sys-
tems, and thereby extending the use of the cardi-
nal approach. 28 Green became an exclusively lat-
teral color and was thereby dropped from the
long-established function of wreck marking. 29
No mention of ogival or spindle buoys was made
in System A; those buoys have apparently been
eliminated from usage. 30 Various standards for
buoyage sizes, light characteristics and a num-
ber of other problems were worked through by the
IALA group.3l Finally, in March of 1977, North-
west Europe lighthouse authorities signed the
agreement implementing the use of System A. Sys-
tem B was to follow later. 32
In 1975 there was agreement by IALA members
to harmonize what was to become Systems A and B
while simultaneously admitting that the contra-
dictory n0tions of the meaning of red and green
could not be bridged. 33 One system would include
both cardinal and lateral approaches with red to
port (A). B would be exclusively lateral with
red to starboard. A would be found largely in
the Eastern Hemisphere and B largely in the
Western Hemisphere.
22
~~~--=-~"""""'-- __r--------
North America was already unified to the point
of a lateral system without a cardinal system,
and both employed systems lacking the complexi-
ties of the League of Nations approach. 12
But, in turn, abandonment of the cardinal
system, which is largely European in usage, met
opposition by many European nations. 13 The
committee did establish a cardinal system for
wreck marking, b~t since this limited system
"would be overtaken by further work on over-
all problems" it was never used. 14 A basic
working plan was assembled in 1971 that called
for placing green to starboard and red to port
in various combinations. 1S But this proposal
proved unworkable since it would be unrealistic
to expect the U.S. and Canada to reverse their
already simple system. 16 And it was thought
equally unrealistic for the Europeans to adopt
the North American pattern. 17 It should be
noted that various nations neither European
nor North American follow either the green to
port or green to starboard as wel1. l8 .
The realization of the incompatibility of
the two regions led to the significant, and at
that time necessary, decision to split the world
into two regions. 19 This decision excluded the
special danger buoy, which was to be universal
in scope. 20 It is not known to this writer how
the IALA group saw the problem of areas such
as Asia, where both red to port and red to
starboard systems were in use. It may have been
presumed that individual nations would choose
the system most akin to the current practice of
the nation. 2l .
The course of events at IALA following the
two-zone resolution is not fully understood by
this writer. But at some point after the adopt-
ion of that resolution the committee came to a
conclusion of not using the North American ap-
proach, a simpler Geneva system, or a lateral
I I
l
The nations that were following red to star-
board then began to construct rules which would
meet their specific needs but "which would be
compatible, to the extent possible, with System
A rules.,,34 It would appear that System A nations,
through USB, had more points of commonality than
potential System B members. And, in fact, red
to starboard was often times the only point the
B nations had in common. Captain L.W. Garrett,
USCG, notes that on remaining issues there was
a broad range of positions. 35 The meetings of B
committee went on for four years, and the re-
sult was a series of rules very close to those
of System A except for the position of red and
green. It is interesting that even though - in
the light of the literature on A - one system
seemed impossible, in the developments leading
to System B, one system became quite possible
except for the red and green issue.
By the end of the committee on rules for
System B it became apparent that both sets of
rules could be merged into one set with allow-
ances for regional differences. In Toyko, in
November of 1980, the single system was approved;
instead of System A and System there were Region
A and Region B.36 A key point in bringing to-
gether the two systems together was the matter
of cardinal markings. Captain Garrett notes
that without the common cardinal system the
possibility of divergence rather than conver-
gence would have been quite strong. 37 However,
the use of cardinal markings remains optional
for IALA members.
Other points in the merged systems that af-
fect Western Hemisphere nations center on top-
marks and color patterns. 38 Topmarks are strong-
ly recommended though optional; the U.S. - until
IALA - never employed topmarks though any use
of cardinal markings would require such supple-
mental marks. 39 The U.S. has employed black and
24
white for mid-channel marks (termed safe water
marks by IALA), but since it has been found that
the black and white pattern appears gray in cer-
tain lights a new scheme of red and white has re-
placed the black and white. The U.S., as well
as many other nations, utilized black buoys for
port but these are being phased out in favor of
green. Green has been found to be at least
equal to black in visual appearance. 40 This
change is the most vivid of any change brought
about by IALA. The U.S. has' already employed
green for daymarks and these have performed satis-
factorily. Black and red horizontally banded
buoys for junctions and other purposes have
been replaced by buoys with a red and green
pattern. 41
Regional variations do not pertain to cardi-
nal marks, isolated danger markings, safe water
marks, special marks or new danger markings. 42
The differences come in the lateral system: the
use of green and red. Differences in buoy types,
light phase characteristics and other matters are
very limited. 43 Re£ion A and Region B - where
differences are found - are virtually mirror
images of each other.
The two regions, in general terms, encompass
the Eastern Hemisphere (Region A) and the Western
Hemisphere (Region B).44 Geography only infre-
quently follows precise limits, and therefore
some artificial adjustments are necessary to
fUlly define the limits of the regions. The in-
ternational dateline is the primary boundary in the
Northern Hemisphere. But at 10 degrees north
latitude the regional boundary travels east
until reaching 120 degrees west longitude. The
boundary then moves south along that line. This
division of the Pacific places most of the is-
lands within Region A, and Hawaii and islands
in the far Eastern Pacific in Region B. A sig-
nificant exception is the placement of Japan,
25
I
i
:1
'I
~ J
t
l
South Korea, and the Philippines with Region B.
Those three nations have historically followed
red to starboard; hence their choice of regions.
The remaining boundary, that between Africa
and South America, moves north along 20 degrees
west longitude. It then jogs west to 35 degrees
west longitude and follows that line until reach-
ing 55 degrees north latitude. The remaining
boundary then proceeds in a northwesterly direc-
tion between Canada and Greenland.
Endnotes for llA and lIB
1More attention is given to buoyage than to
the background of fixed aids for that reason.
2International Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences, Volume VII, "Humo to Intro," p. 253,
"Industrialization." New York: Macmillian and
Free Press, 1968
3Various sour~es including An Encyclopedia
of World History, W.L. Lange, compiler and edi-
tor. Boston: Houghton and Mifflin, 1968, p. 603.·
Note debate on one, or several, or a "continuing
revolution. It
41750 or 1770 are almost universal dates;
sources questioning this include C.J. Hayes in
Contemporary Europe Since 1870, who begins the
Industrial Revolution in 1830.
5Including Bruun, a general historian; Derry,
a historian of technology, and Heaton, an economic
historian. Hayes, for example, speaks of indus-
trial evolution from 1800; industrial revolution
in England from 1830 to 1870; industrial revolu-
tion after 1870 in the U.S., and continental
Europe. (Hayes, Contemporary Europe, pp 3-4).
6Gollwitzer, H., Europe in the Age of Imperial-
ism, 1880-1914. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
World, 1966, for the first two entries; Bruun,
26
Nineteenth Century European Civilization, 1815-
1914, New York: Oxford University Press, 1972,
for the third entry.
7Gollwitzer, p. 24.
8New Cambridge Modern History, Volume XI,
"Material Progress and World-wide Problems, 1870-
1898." Chapter 1, "Introduction," F.H. Hinsley,
pp. 2-3; Chapter 3, "Science and Technology,"
T.I. Williams, pp. 94-95.
9-10NCMH, Chapter 3, pp. 76ff.
11-12 NCMH, Chapter 1, p. 3.
13-15 .Go1lwltzer, pp. 24-26.
16Derry, T.K. and Williams, T.I., A Short
History of Technology. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1961, pp. 355ff and p. 475.
17 Bruun, p. 139; see also Hayes, who regards
the 1870s as a separate unit of history without
prec~ding and succeeding times.
180xford English Dictionary, Volume I, "A-B,"
p. 1180. London: Oxford University Press, 1935;
Alan Stevenson, The World's Lighthouses Before
1820. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
190xford English Dictionary, Vol. I, p. 1180.
20Alan Stevenson is of the family of light-
house engineers bearing that name; also including
Robert Louis Stevenson.
21-23Stevenson, p. v.ff.
24White, Dudley, The Lighthouse. Boston: New
York Graphic Society, 1975, p. 21.
25The U.S. introduced these in 1850 (Weiss,
The Lighthouse Service: Its History, Activities,
and Organization. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins
Press, 1926, Institute for Government Research
Service Monograph of the U.S. Government, #40).
27
'JI
'[
I
I
I,
26For example, in 1915 only 28% of the total
number of buoys were of iron construction; that is
1772 or 6272. (Conway, John S., The U. S. Lighthouse
Service, 1915. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1916).
27 Bruun, p. 39.
28Encyclopedia Britannica. Volume 4, 1910 ed.,
p. 808.
29Putnam, George R., National Geographic Maga-
zine. Volume 24, #1, January, 1913, "Beacons of
the Sea," p. 31.
30-31Conway, p. 51.
32Gibbs, James R., Sentinels of the North
Pacific. Portland (OR): Binford and Mort, 1955.
33Arnerican Gas Accumulator Company (General
Catalog), undated, probable date: 1927-39). This
publication describes the use of acetylene gas in
aids to navigation. Dr Dalen' was intima~ely in-
volved in the company, as AGA was an offshoot of
of the parent Swedish firm.
34Scott, F.D. Sweden: The Nation's History.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977,
p. 453; Evlanoff, Michael and Fluor, Marjorie,
Alfred Nobel: The Loneliest Millionaire. Los
Angeles, the Ward Ritchie Press, 1969, p. 287.
35ESNA Corp., "ESNA Aids to' Navigation," lec-
ture at USCG Training Station, CN, 1965, p. 34.
36", . 40neISS, p. .
37Second half of the nineteenth century.
38Weiss, p. 40.
39Putnam, NGM. January, 1913.
40 EB , Vol. 16, "L-LOR," 1910, ed., p. 646,
"Lighthouse."
28
41 .EB, Vol. 16, 1910, p. 654; this work resulted
in an improved light source by 1885 but it was
not practical until the Welsbach mantle of 1893;
later EB coverage indicates 1901 as the time of
the successful oil burner mechanism by Kitson.
42Hayes notes that "machine industry predomi
nant in Britain (and Belgium) by 1871." (Genera-
tion of Materialism, 1871-1900. New York: Harper
and Row. 1941. p. 92). A similar situation existed
in Germany and the U.S. by 1900; France was in-
volved in similar processes to a considerable de-
gree. Hayes further notes that mass-produced
consumer goods and not merely industrial and trans-
portation goods were commonplace by the first or
second decade of the twentieth century.
43 By "monster buoy" I am referring to those
buoys that are known as Large Navigation Buoys
in the U.S. (or LNBs) and LANBYs in the U.K.
(Trinity House). They can measure as much as
40 feet (12.3 meters) in diameter. They are found,
under one or other name. in a number of nations.
44Report of the Conference Appointed to Con-
sider the Proposal For a Uniform System of Buoy-
age for the UK, Together With Minutes of Evi-
dence and Appendices. London. 1883. See also:
Uniform System of Buoyage, Report to Right Honour-
able Joseph Chamberlain. M.P. London, 1883.
45protocols of Proceedings. 3 Volumes. Wash-
ington, D.C., October 16-December 31, 1889.
46Agreement For a Uniform System of Buoyage
and Rules Annexed Thereto. Lisbon. 1930, Geneva,
1936.
47Conference Internationale Maritime. Actes,
March. 1912, Saint Petersburg. 1913.
4801Dea, Social History of Lighting, p. 68;
also documentation for the conferences.
29
#6;
15, "Soci
p. 86.
the
"Statement."
, "Statement,"
------
31
Endnotes for l2C
1Bury, p. 136.
2Bury, p. 136 (footnote); IALA Supplement
Pilot Chart, 1977 (reverse side).
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol.
to Thin," p. 453, "Social Analysis."
60Protocols, Vol III, pp. 331-332.
61-62Protocols, Vol. II, pp. 1326-28.
63U.S. Statutes of 1850 (Weiss, p. 40).
64Protocols, Vol. II, p. 1389.
65 p 1rotoco s, Vol. II, p. 1321.
66CIM , Actes. See also Bury.
67
O'Dea, Social History of Lighting,
68To some degree this is the view of
compiler.
69Putnam, G.R., "Statement,"
70
71
pp. 4, 8.
p. 9.
p. 10. Appendix C.
72Garrett, "International Harmonization of
Buoyage Systems." p. 3.
73Putnam, pp. 6-7.
74 Bury, J.E., "Background to IALA Buoyage
System A," International Hydrographic Review.
LV (1). January, 1978, p. 136.
7SPutnam, p. 1.
76Bury, p. 136.
77 Bury, pp. 137-143; see also IALA Buoyage
Conference Report (hereafter BCR), 1980.
78 IALA BCR, 1980.
DMA
30
49Th T .. H C"ese are: rInIty ouse, ommlSSloners of
Irish Lights, Commissioners of Northern Light-
houses. The smaller agencies include Mersey
Docks and Harbour Board, Clyde River Trustees,
and the Admiralty. Yet other smaller organiza-
tions administer the River Tyne, the River Tay,
the Thames and the Hull.
50USB Reports, points 3 to 7.
51 USB Reports, points 9 to 11.
52USB Reports, points 3 to 7.
53USB Reports, and Protocols.
54 IALA with regional variation A is in sub-
stantial operation; B is well along though
perhaps to a lesser degree than A.
5SProtocols, Vol. I, pp. v. and vi.
S6Protocols, Vol. I. pp. v. and vi.
S7Palmer. R.R .• and Colton, Joel. A History
of the Modern World. New York: A.A. Knopf. 3rd.
ed., 1965. pp. 557-559. Palmer and Colton speak
of three economic zones. The first zone includes
Western Europe and the northeastern U.S. The
second zone comprises Latin America~ much of the
remaining U.S. and the less industrialized parts
of Europe. The final zone includes Africa and
Asia - save Japan. IMC centers on the first zone.
the area of the major participants. and the
second zone.
58Protocols,. Vol. III. p. 340.
59System can be defined as "(1) something con-
sisting of a set of entries, (2) among which a
set of relations is specified so that. (3) deduc-
tions are possible from some relations to others
or from the relations among the entries to the
behavior of the history of the system." These
could include a language or a solar system;
buoyage systems also qualify. (International
j
1
L
3Bury, p. 136; IMC Conference papers; also
those of Lisbon and Geneva; DMA Pilot Chart.
4IALA/AISM, #43 Avenue du President-Wilson,
Paris.
5-7Bury, pp. 135-36.
8-10Bury, p. 136.
11 Bury, p. 1.36; IALA Supplement # 6, pp. 1-2.
12-17Bury, p. 137.
18 IALA Supplement # 6, p. 1.
19 IALA Supplement # 6, p. 1; Bury, p. 137.
20Bury, p. 137.
21 IALA Supplement # 6, p. 1.
22 Bury, pp. 137-38.
23-26Bury, p. 138.
27Garrett, International Harmonization .... ",
p. 5.
28 IALA Supplement # 6, pp. 1-2; Bury, p. 139.
29 Bury, p. 139.
30 h . 'f' b . USBT ese were slgnl lcant uoys ln
especially in cardinal situations. See Con-
ference papers, Lisbon and Geneva; also IHB
SP #38, 1956, 1971.
3l Bury , p. l38ff.
32 Bury, p. 143.
33-35This and following notes are from a
paper of Captain L.W. Garrett, USCG, entitled
"International Harmonization of Buoyage Systems,"
pp. 1, 5, and 6.
36Letter of Garrett to writer, 17 December,
1980.
32
37Garrett, p, 8.
38Garrett, pp. 6-8.
39Garrett, p. 8.
40Garrett, pp. 6-7.
41 Garrett, p. 7.
42-43
"The Proposed IALA Buoyage System,"
an addendum to Garrett essay.
44 IALA BCR, 1980, Annex 3, Section 2.
33
If
I
34
--
•
•
•... -
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
CLASSIFICATION OF BUOYS IN INTERNATIONAL USAGE
13A The Classification
12 Lighted Buoys
121 Standard Single Types
1210 Can
1211 Spherical
1212 Conical
1213 Pillar
122 National/Regional Types
1220 Canadian
1221 U.S.
1222 Greece A/Thailand A
1223 USSR-
1224 Thailand B
1225 Greece 13
1226 Norway
1227 Beacon Buoy-Lateral, West Germany
1228 Beacon Buoy-Cardinal, West Germany
14 Unlighted Buoys
141 Conical
1410 USB
1411 IALA
1412 Nun, U.S.
1413 Denmark A
1414 Denmark B
1415 Italy
1416 Poland, France
1417 Canada
142 Can/Cylindrical
1420 IALA/USB
1421 U.S.
1422 Denmark
1423 West Germany
1424 Taiwan
1425 Sweden, USSR
1426 Canada
35
L143 Spar Buoys
1430 Standard, USB/IALA
1431 Modified Standard, USA/IDAMN
1432 Modified Standard, Norway
1433 Modified Standard, Canada
1434 Special, Spar on Can Base, Iceland, et.a1.
1435 Special, Spar on Modified Can Base,
Iceland
1436 Special, Spar on Modified Can Base,
Netherlands, Poland
1437 Special, Spar on Conical Base-A, Iceland
1438 Special, Spar on Conical Base-B, West
Germany
144 Standard Single
1440 Ogival
1441 Spindle
1442 Spherical
1443 Pillar
145 Miscellaneous Buoys
1450 Beacon Buoy-Lateral, West Germany
1451 Beacon Buoy-Cardinal, West Germany
1452 Barrel, Sweden, USSR
1453 Oil-Drum, U.S.
15 Sound Buoys
150 National/Regional Types
1500 Bell, IALA1
1501 Whistle, IALA
1502 Be11, U. S.
1503 Whistle, U.S.
.1504 Gong, U.S.
1505 Carillon, France
1506 Bell, France
17 Combination Buoys
170 Lighted Sound Buoys
1700 Lighted Bell, Canada
1701 Lighted Whistle, Canada
1702 Lighted Bell, U.S.
1703 Lighted Whistle, U.S.
1704 Lighted Gong, U.S.
1705 Lighted Horn, U.S.
36
1706 Lighted Bell-Conical, USB
1707 Lighted Bell-Conical, USB
1708 Lighted Bell-Can, USB
1709 Large Navigational Buoy, U.S.,U.K. ,et.al. 2
1710 Non-Buoyage Aid: Lightship
13B Notes on Classification
of Buoys in International Usage
This classification will not achieve as
much precision as found in the U.S. counterpart
of this classification. 3 Differences in nation-
al approaches to marine safety, differences in
design and manufacture, and the sheer number
of individual systems preclude a classification
that would include every slightly variant form
of buoy. For example, the U.S. has various
sizes of the basic buoy types, and these sizes
or classes have been incorporated into the U.S.
classification in Volume lB.
.Because of the welter of nations, manufac-
turers, and design nuances it is necessary to
focus on the general types of buoys and not en-
ter the arena of buoy sizes and sub-sizes. 4
These factors lead to several practical con-
clusions: All buoys listed in IHB - and supple-
mented by the actual USB documents -, and listed
in IALA will be regarded as standard if they
visually and descriptively conform to the Uni-
form System of Buoyage of 1936, the U.S. System,
or the IALA System of 1980. 5 All discernible
differences will be classified as either modi-
fications or variants.
Buoys which are slightly larger or smaller
or vary slightly in shape from the standard
models will be classified under the appropriate
standard or variant heading. This should result
in a workable classification which neither glosses
over significant differences nor overemphasizes
minute and minor distinctions. It would appear
to this compiler that the IHB uses a stylized
37
!,
I
I
II.
I
l
form of illustrations for its publications. That
is, if a national marine agency does not provide
illustrations contrary to the stylized form then
those stylized forms are seemingly used. For ex-
ample, the 1956 edition of IHB's Systems of Marine
Buoyage and Beaconage6 shows the can buoy for the
U.S. as identical to can buoys of European coun-
tries even though there are visual differences.
It would then appear that the IHB has determined ,
and probably correctly, that if the basic form is
present, and that the failure to give nuanced
differences will not present problems, then the
basic form is sufficient for safe navigation.
Seemingly, special illustrations will be in-
cluded if provided; for example, the 1971 edi-
tion includes a Norwegian light buoy that is
quite distinct from those of other nations that
have a separate light buoy.7 Of course the shape
of a buoy is only one dimension of marine aids
to navigation; the size of a buoy is a possible
dimension though ~ less important one. The col-
ors and other message systems are as least as
important and probably more so. It is the hope
of this compiler that a very precise c1a~sifica­
tion may eventually be possible, but this sim-
pler version seems to be a necessary prologue to
that eventuality.
Detailed notes on the individual buoy types
will be found in Chapter 14. T.he following ex-
planatory notes provide general information on
the buoy type divisions which should assist the
reader in using the classification chart.
Lighted buoys are divided into two sections:
121, Standard Single types, and 122, National/
Regional types. The first section includes
buoys that are found in official international
agreements and have both lighted and unlighted
counterparts. The second group includes buoys
that are found in a variety of nations, have a
shape peculiar to that buoy, and do not have
38
unlighted counterparts. At least one nations,
the U.S., makes use of lighted buoys, but with-
out the light apparatus, for sound buoys.8 Some
of the second group may be used for combination
light and sound buoys.9
Unlighted buoys, 14, come in a great many
sizes and shapes. They may be divided into
four main groupings: Conical (141), Can/Cylin-
drical (142), Spars (143), S~andard Single (144),
and Miscellaneous (145).
Conical buoys cover a range of shapes. The
concial buoy of USB is a cone above the water
line (1410). There are several other versions
which include cones of steeper or shallower
slope, and conical-shaped buoys which range from
slightly to severely truncated variations. The
severely truncated cone of West Germany (1423) is
included with can buoys since it more closely re-
sembles a can buoy than a conical buoy. 10 It is
not clear if there is an actual difference be-
tween USB and IALA conical buoys; visual appear-
ances,suggest a difference, and therefore they
are llsted separately (1410 is USB, 1411 is IALA).
USB labelled buoys in lateral service as
Ca~ and the sa~e buoy in cardinal service as Cylin-
drlcal, and thlS dual appellation is retained. 1l
Earlie: comments about uncertainty of signifi-
cant dlfferences, or lack thereof, between various
buoys can apply to these buoys as well. There
are less variations in shapes of can buoys than
of conical though some differences are present.
Two.a:e somewhat sloping in appearance, and others
exhlblt a variety of sizes.
Spar buoys in this classification encompass
a range of buoys for which a more suitable gene-
r~l term is not available. Therefore, any buoy
wlth a narrow, elongated appearance is here re-
garded as a spar. These include the basic spar
buoy as well as spars with an extension above the
39
1213 Pillar
1211 Spherical
41
1210 Can
121 Standard Single Types
13C Illustrations
12 Lighted Buoys
1212 Conical
ubiquitous feature so that it does not warrant
referring to nearly all of the buoys in some sys-
tems as being combination in nature. The large
navigational buoys are light-sound-electronic
combination buoys.
40
water line of a variant form. Further complexi-
ties in classifying these buoys occur in those
national systems in which the term spar is not
used for spar or near-spar buoys.12
Miscellaneous includes several buoys that
do not fit other classification categories.
These include the German beacon-buoy or bake,
which is a general purpose buoy for that nation. 13
Barrels, oil-drums and casks are not infrequently
employed by marine safety agencies as buoys, but
they are not always regarded as "official." The
barrel buoy pictured in THB publications appears
to be a stylized illustration. 14 The U.S., in
the past, has augmented its buoyage with oil drums
which are the equivalent of barrel and cask buoys. 15
Standard unlighted single types (ogival,
spindle, spherical and pillar, 1440-1443) along
with the spar buoy - are the only buoys to have
official status. TALA has added the pillar (1443)
to official status but has dropped the spar and
the ogival. 16 But because of the position of
those buoys in USB, and the phasing out of them
over a period of time they are here retained. 17
Sound buoys (15) are not listed or illus-
trated in THB works. But they are· included in
IALA and USB publications. TALA has represen-
tation~ of sound-only buoys but USB refers only
to sound-light combination buoys.18 The U.S.
formerly utilized special sound buoy types but
light buoys minus the light apparatus are em-
ployed at present. Therefore there is an over-
lap with some buoys though they are distinct
types. 19 The LANBY and Large Navigational Buoy
are the same or similar buoys and are classified
together; other buoys of similar proportions and
equipment can also fit this classification. 20
Combination buoys for this classification are
largely light and souncl buoys. Many buoys con-
tain radar reflectors, but this is a nearly
\
i
!
J
i
\
I
r
i
\
I
I
I
BUOYS.
1411 IALA
1413 Denmark A
14 Unlighted Buoys
141 Conical
1410 USB
1412 Nun
1221
USA
1223
USSR
1
National/Regional Types]22
1222
Greece A/Thailand A
1220
Canadian
1 I
1224 1225
Thailand B Greece B 1414 Denmark B
1415 Italy
1 A~ I 1227 ~ ~Ii w. Germany1226 A, Norway 1416 Poland, France 1417 Canada
1228
W. Germany
42 4.~
-------'------
1435
Modified
Can Base-A
Iceland
1436
Modified
Can Base-B
Netherlands ,
POland
1434
On Can Base
---.... Iceland,et.al.
143 Srar Buoys
1430
USB/IALA
1432
Norway
11431USA/IDAMN .
jiIi-
~
~
~
~
~
~
--
•
1421
USA
J L
1423
W. Germany
Can/Cylindrical Huoys142
1420
lALA/USB
1422
Denmark
•
•
"'.'
1424
Taiwan
•1426
Canada
44
1425
Sweden, USSR •
•
• 1~:~~da
1437
Conical Base-A
Iceland
1 1438Conical Base-BW.Germany
45
1501 Whistle
IALA
1505 Cari lIon
France
47
15 Sound Buoys
Sound Buoys, Single Types
A
150
A
1500 Bell
IALA
1504 Gong
USA
1506 Bell
France
1
A
1451 Beacon-buoy
Cardinal
W. Germany
1441 Spindle
46
Standard Buoys, Single Types144
1440 odva1
1450 Beacon-buoy
Lateral,
w. Germany
---
~ i 11411 Spherical 1443 Pillar
1502 Bell 1502 Whistle
USA USA
I ~
...-L i '.i
l \I
1452 Barrel 1453 Oil-drum,
USASweden, USSR
J
49
Endnotes for 13A and 13B
1This comes from IDAMN; there is no specific
mention of a sound buoy in the IALA buoyage sys-
tem though this does not rule out the possibility
of them. This pertains to 1501 as well.
2Identical or nearly-identical buoys of this
type may be known by others, for example, U.K.
refers to this buoy as a LANBY.
3See Volume I, Part B, Chapter 9.
4The classification, so far, has not achieved
a single format for all worldwide transportation
markings, so some dichotomy between U.S. and
international classifications currently exists.
5The Uniform System of Buoyage is described
in IHB publications, Systems of Marine Buoyage
Adopted by Various Countries, SP#38, 1st ed.,
1956, and Maritime Buoyage Systems Adopted by
Various Countries, SP#38, 2nd ed., 1971; Con-
ference documents of the League of Nations
establishing the Uniform System of Buoyage,
Lisbon, 1930, and Geneva, 1936; "U.S. System"
as described in American Practical Navigator
(Bowditch); Conference documents of International
Marine Conference, 1889.
65MB, p. 136.
75MB, pp. 58-59.
8USCG , Aids to Navigation Manual, Amendment
#2, 1964 edition.
9For example, Canada, West Germany.
10MBS, p. 37.
11 MBS, pp. 7, 10.
12MBS , For example, the Netherlands, Poland.
13MBS , pp. 33-37; IDAMN, 2-6-220, figure # 60.
1705 Horn
USA
1703 Whistle
USA
1701 Whistle
Canada
1709 Large Naviga-
tional Buoy, USA,U48
Lighted Sound Buoys
17 Combination Buoys
170
1704 Gong
USA
1700 Bell
Canada
1702 Bell
USA
1706-07-08
Bell/Conical/
Spherical/Can
USB
T!f'
rI
l
14MBS, For example, Sweden, p. 70.
lSUSCr., Aids to Navigation Manual, Ch. 2,
1964 edition.
l6 IALA Supplement #6, to the lALA Bulletin,
1976.
l7 lALA in 1980 worked out a schedule for the
changeover to the IALA buoyage system, but not
all of the neces~ary changes have taken place.
IBM . 1 f . h .,. baterla rom elt er organ1zat1on 1S pro -
ably not complete, so forms of buoys other than
those listed could be in operation in one or
more nations.
19That is, many sound buoys are in effect
lighted buoys in shape and dimensions; only one
element is missing from many of those buoys.
Many U.S. buoys are not 100% different from
other buoy types.
20The "Superbuoy" mentioned in DMA and the
Superboj of Sweden are two other possibilities.
Endnotes for 13C
121, League of Nations, Uniform System of Buoyage
(1213 to be found in other publications as
we 11) .
1220, CANS; 1221, USCG; 1222-1228 IHB save 1226,
Norway,
141 Computer graphics based on IHB save 1417,
baseJ on CANS.
142 Previous note applicable.
143 Previous note applicable save 1433, CANS,
and 1431 USCG, IDAMN; 1430 also IALA.
144 IHB save 1433, US model.
1500-1501, IDAMN; 1502-1504, USCG; 1505-1506,
Service Technique des Phares et Ba1ises.
1700-1701, CANS; 1702-1705 and 1709. USCG;
1706-07-08 USB.
50
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
DESCRIPTION OF BlmY TYPES
The description of buoy types will be based
on the classification outlined in Chapter 13.
Each of the segments of this chapter will include
two components: a discussion of the derivation
~f the name of the buoy at least in its English
form, and an examination of the function of the
specific type of buoy. The written and illus-
trated parts of the previous chapter are inte-
gral to an understanding of this chapter.
14A Lighted and Lighted-Sound Buoys
There is no buoy of an exclusively lighted
nature in IALA or in USB. The U.S., Canada, Nor-
way and several other nations do have such a
buoy. Lights buoys for USB, and presumably for
IALA as well, share the ~ame shapes as the un-
lighted.b~oys. The buoys for lighted purposes
are mod1f1ed to carry out that function but have
the same general physical appearance. For those
na~ions with a separate light buoy, the buoy con-
ta1ns a tank base with a tower-like superstruc-
ture; such buoys may be further equipped with a
radar reflector. l The U.S. light buoy has under-
gone several design changes: the "wasp-waist"
look of another era has given way to a straight-
line shape in the current era. 2
The Canadian light buoy is not shown in the
1971 edition of THB. Nonetheless there is a
distinct light buoy in that syste~.3 The Canadian
model is of a squared-off design but with a slight-
ly sloping appearance. 4 Norway makes extensive
usage of light buoys in both lateral and cardinal
systems. The light buoy is retained in post-IALA
publications. 5 This buoy is mounted on a tank
that is apparently somewhat smaller than its U.S.
and Canadian counterparts. 6 The superstructure
angles in steeply from its base and a second struc-
ture is mounted athwart the top of the underlying
51
i.
structure and, in effect, surrounding the light
;111P;1 r;1 t us. 7
IllI} provides what appears to be a stylised
light buoy for Greece and Thailand. This buoy
has the typical shape of a tank surmounted by a
sloping structure. B Thailand has a second light
buoy but with a smaller tank; the light buoy of
the USSR bears enough resemblance to require
separate classification. 9 Greece has has a second
light buoy, termed a Pillar buoy, which is a
simple vertical cylinder topped by a light. lO
West Germany's Bake buoy also comes in lighted
forms and appears in two variant forms; one for
cardinal, one for lateral usage. 11
Non-standard buoys still exist in IALA-
sanctioned systems. Even if the shape is non-
standard, no doubt the color and other message
systems have been altered to fit the changes.
Combination buoys include those with light
and sound mechanism on the same buoy. Radar re-
flectors are too common and also a peripheral
electronic aid, and are not included within the
combination equation. These buoys include the
same range of sound devices that sound-only buoys
contain. Detailed coverage in international publ-
cations is not available so that only an approxi-
mation of the types of lighted sound buoys is
possible. Bell, and whistle are common forms
wi th or without a light. In all likelihood
electronic horns are more common. Seemingly only
the lJ.S. makes use of gong huoys. And apparently
only France employs a carillon buoy.
14Bl Unlighted Buoys:
Conical and Can/Cylindrical Buoys
Conical-shaped buoys (141) include a diver-
si ty of standard and variant forms. In the classi-
fication there are two "standard" conical buoys.
52
One is the conical buoy of USB, and the other,
that of IALA. The nun buoy of the U.S., seeming-
ly influenced by IMC, may arguably be a third
"standard." The basic term of cone may refer to
either a perfect geometric cone or "anything
shaped more or less like a mathematical cone."l
A conical structure would then include both "per-
fect cones" and partial ones. In buoyage systems
both typel> are found. Cone of course refers to the
above-water part of the buoy. Many buoys out of
water will present a double cone or possibly other
shape. Conical buoys, and all other buoys for
that matter, are analogous to icebergs in th,
much of the mass is under water.
The stylized IHB conical buoy exhibits a per-
fect cone shape; the lALA presents a cone with a
more pronounced curvature. 2 The IDAMN defines a
conical buoy (and this includes the nun buoy as
well) as "a buoy of which the upper part of the
body (above the water line), or the larger part
of the superstructure, has approximately the shape
of a cone with vertex upwards. ,,3 This definition
quite obviously allows for some measure of lati-
tude in buoy shape.
Conical buoys, and can buoys as well, are
more frequently employed in USB lateral and car-
dinal systems than any other forms of buoys; they
are also the most common in lALA lateral but not
in lALA cardinal. 4 Conical buoys are used as
~reck buoys in USB but not for isolated dangers
In lALA or for that matter in lALA at all except
for lateral purposes. S USB also employed conical
and can for lateral positions of sides of chan-
nels. 6 Some nations, which otherwise follow lMC
have opted for the conical buoy rather than the '
nun buoy; Canada is perhaps the outstanding ex-
ample of this practice though the buoy in ques-
tion seemingly rides closer to the waterline
than other conical buoys.?
53
The origin of the term "nun" (as in nun buoy)
sterns from the term "nun -gi gge" which (';111 be de-
fined as having small ends with a larger middle. S
A contemporary definition describes a nun buoy as
a "red metal buoy made up of two cones joined at
the base."9 The buoy in modern usage is conical
in shape rather than a perfect cone shape. The
definition from IDAMN of conical buoys encompasses
the nun buoy as well. 10 Modern ~un buoys are
actually can-shaped with a nun-shaped radar re-
flector added on. 11
Denmark, in IHB, had two forms of conical
buoys both of which were at variance with the
basic IHB model. One of these appears to be an
ogival buoy except for a slightly less pronounced
curvature; Denmark classes this buoy as a coni-
cal nonetheless. 12 The other Danish conical
buoy is of a straight-line design but steeply
elongated in shape. 13
The Italian buoyage system includes a variant
conical buoy as well as the standard conical type.
The variant form is a cone atop a cylindrical
base. The appearance is of a complete cone at-
tached to a shallow cylinder above the water
line. 14 Unlike many other systems the Italian
uses both of the conical buoys on both sides of
the channel. lS Of course other message factors
vary so the purpose of a given buoy is evident.
A final variant form is found in France. This
buoy is a standard conical buoy that is moderate-
ly truncated but to such a degree that the buoy
will be regarded as a sloping cylinder or can
buoy.16 The buoy was used only in limited situ-
ations; Poland at one time made use of an identi-
cal buoy but it was dropped. 17
There would appear to be no need to explain
can and cylindrical buoy terms since they seem to
be self-explanatory. Upon examination the terms
become less clear. The Oxford English Dictionary,
54
normally an accurate source for word origins,
greatly confuses the matter by describing a can
buoy as a "large cone-shaped buoy."IB This would
appear to be more of a definition of a conical
or nun buoy. The "cone-shaped buoy" may be
greatly truncated, but the definition as it stands
is meaningless. OED defines a "cylindrical" as
having the "form of a cylinder," and that is cer-
tainly the case. 19 A cylinder can be a geometric
shape or an object with that shape. More pre-
cisely, a can buoy can be described as "trun-
cated with a flat top" or as "truncated or flat.,,20
IDAMN defines can and cylinder as those buoys
"of which the the upper part of the (above the
waterline), or the larger part of the superstruc-
ture, has the shape of a cyliD'; or nearly so. ,,21
This last definition is preferable to the earlier
one. In USB can buoy has reference to lateral
and cylindrical to cardinal. IALA and various
national systems make reference exclusively to
can buoy.22
Can buoys, along with nun/conical buoys,
are the most common buoys in USB and IMC systems;
the "mix" of major buoy types is somewhat differ-
ent in IALA. A number of nations with simple mes-
sage systems opted exclusively for can and coni-
cal buoys in the older systems. 23 The U.S. can
is a taller version than that of IALA and USB -
at least judging by stylized illustrations; it
is possible that the ratio of width to height
is greater in non-U.S. forms. The U.S. can is
equipped with the ubiquitous radar reflector. 24
In the first edition of IHB Denmark maintain-
ed a can buoy similar to the stylized type ex-
cept for an appearance both narrower and taller.
The new edition of IHB does not list any type of
can buoy for Denmark. Presumably, IALA norms may
cause the addition of a can buoy to that system. 2S
The West German system has, in addition to
55
iI
standard can buoys, a conical buoy so severely
tnmcated that it bears a greater resemblance
10 ;1 C;Jn huoy than to <J conica 1 buoy. 26 IALA
notes in a footnote to its definition of can/cy-
lindrical buoys that the "German term 'Stumpf-
tone' also includes buoys of truncated cone
shape," which supports the view that the trun-
cited conical buoy is by appearance <J can rather·
than a conical buoy.27
Taiwan has a single type of buoy for its en-
tire system. This buoy is a moderately truncated
huoy which suggests a conical buoy though of a
very muted cone shape. Its shape is sufficiently
can-like to be considered more as belonging to
that category.28 The can buoy of Canada appears,
by visual representation, to be somewhat smaller,
somewhat closer to the waterline than other can
buoys; it - like the conical counterpart buoy of
Canada - is therefore seen as a variant form. 29
A final can buoy is that of Sweden and of the
USSR. It has a definite can shape but of a more
bulky and squat form and is also to be regarded
as a variant form of buoy.3D The previously
described U.S. can buoy may be regarded as a
variant form, but the great masses of that buoy
Illay justify it being regarded as a second "stan-
dard" buoy along with the U.S. nun buoy.31
14B2 I Unlighted Buoys:
Spar, Standard, and Miscellaneous
The word "Spar" can be defined as "a general
term for any mast, yard, boom or gaff .... ,,32
It has reference primarily to maritime usage
during the era of sailing ships; more narrowly it
refers to ship masts. Spar buoys will then be an
upright mast or spar. !DAMN defines spar buoys
in similar terms: "a buoy in the shape of a spar
floating nearly veritcally."33 At an earlier
stage of development spars used for buoyage
56
purposes were of wood rather than of iron or steel
construction. It is possible that some older
spars may have come from the same yards as those
that produced ship masts. 34 More modern versions
are more likely of metal than of wood construction.
Spar buoys can be divided into two segments:
the standard - which includes several modified
standard models, and the special spar forms of
which there are at least 5 models. The special
spars all share a common feature of combining a
base with a spar.
The standard spar quite possibly has more func-
tions than any other buoy in either USB or in IALA.
In USB the spar has several exclusive roles and
also serves as an alternative to one or other of
the remaining·standard buoys.35 In IALA the spar
is an option in lateral systems and, though the
cardinal system does not call for a precise shape
of buoy, the spar is one of two normally used in
those situations; it is also an option for mis-
cellaneous purpose situations in IALA.36 The
Finnish system, at least before IALA, employed
only spar buoys.37 The spar buoy was heavily
used at one time in the U.S. but it is no longer
listed in the current U.S. Coast Guard Manual.
Since it was listed in the previous manual -
that of 1964 - and was, until relatively re-
cently an important buoy, it is listed in the
classification. 38 The U.S. and IDAMN both pre-
sent a spar with a slightly tapered appearance;
therefore they are included together in the
classification. 39
The spar of Norway is both severely tapered
and pointed as well. It constitutes a separate
listing in the classification. 40
Canada, contrary to the practice of the U.S.,
continues to include spar buoys in its opera-
tions. Canada employs a slight varying form of
the spar along with the standard version. A
57
flat-topped model, which follows IHB design, pro-
vides an alternative to the can buoy. The variant
form is pointed and can provide an alternate to
the conical buoy.41 In other nations the spar
buoy is the same shape for both can and conical
functions. Belgium formerly used the flat and
pointed top spars, but this feature ha? been
oroppeo in the secono edition of IlIB.42 The buoy
may suggest a spindle buoy, but nonetheless the
spar resemblance seems stronger.
The next to final variant form is the spar
buoy on can. Denmark, Norway, and Iceland all
have this buoy.43 The local name of the buoy
varies, but the appearance remains the same. In
Denmark the buoy is termed a perch. A perch can
be either a buoy or a fixed aid. Supposedly the
perch is not the same as a spar from the view of
lexicography.44 But a perch on a buoy, and a spar
buoy on a can base, are visually the same. It is
not known if a separate term describes this buoy
type in Iceland. The Netherlands also uses this
buoy, and it is referred to as a "floating beacon" -
a term applied to a previously described buoy.45
In Norway this selfsame buoy is termed a spar;
Norway also includes the standard spar. 46
The final variant form are those mounted .on
a base wi th a conical shape. Iceland is a user
of such a buoy while West Germany has a buoy con-
sisting of a conical base and a slightly sloping
spar buoy.47 The buoy may suggest a spindle buoy,
but nonetheless the spar resemblance seems stronger.
The Netherlands and Poland exhibit a buoy at-
tached to a base that is both can and conical in
shape. The Netherlands terms this buoy a "float-
ing beacon," not spar buoy, but this beacon is
much like other variant spars. 48 Iceland's
"fleet" of spar buoys also includes a can-shaped
spar with a rounded top base. The spar itself is
standard in appearance.4~
58
It is possible that further study may deter-
mine that all buoys with a base and spar combi-
nation ough. to be a separate classification apart
spar buoys. But at this stage of study it would
appear that these buoys belong to the class of
spar notwithstanding the distinctive shapes.
Standard single types of buoys include the
ogival, the spindle, the spherical and pillar
buoys. Since there are no recognized variant
forms they are included within a "singles" cate-
gory. These buoys are found within USB, and
since the movement to IALA is not yet complete
it may be acceptable to label all of them stan-
dard. 50 They are not found in IMC. The pillar
buoy, which is listed as an optional shape in
IHB, becomes a major buoy in IALA. These buoys
are also included within lighted buoys, but the
larger coverage will come in this unlighted
segment.
The pillar buoy is illustrated in IHB publi-
cations but not named. It does not have regular
stated duties in IHB.51 The 1911 EB includes the
buoy, and it seems to have been regarded as hav-
ing some importance and even a regular status. 52
For IALA it has both name and importance; in fact
it is one of five official buoys.53 This buoy
is made up of a large tank base and is topped
with a superstructure of lattice work construction;
it is an acceptable option for all buoys in
lateral and special positions. 54 It is one of
two buoys for IALA cardinal usage. 55
The term "ogival" is not found in common
English marine parlance. According to OED the
term refers to objects with the "form or outline
of an ogive or pointed ('Gothic') arch."56 An
ogival buoy is one that has the appearance of
such an arch. The term is of French ancestry.57
This compiler would speculate that the arch is the
source of the name of the buoy.
Ogival buoys are included in USB and
59
r
publications of the IHB. 58 IDAMN does not in-
clude the buoy.59 It found use in the eastern
quadrant of the USB cardinal system, and also
for wreck marking. 60 France was apparently the
only nation that specifically included the buoy
under USB and in IHB publications. 6l Other na-
tions included it for optional use. The buoy
was the least familiar among standard USB buoys.
The Danish system contained a buoy somewhat like
an ogival though It bore sreater resemblance to
a conical buoy.62 The stylized illustration of
an IALA conical buoy has a modest curvature remi-
niscent of an ogival buoy; the inclusion of the
ogival into IALA could have created a measure of
confusion, or so it seems to this compiler. 63
Various dictionaries, including OED, WTID,
and RIIDEL, make mention of a marine marking
termed a spindle. 64 But in all of these cases
the spindle is a fixed aid to navigation, not a
floating one. The use of fixed spindles, at
least by that name, appears to be confined tQ
the U.S. judging by available literature. 65
Spindles, outside of aids to navigation, are of
course found in spinning, and also as the upper
section of wooden ship masts. The source of the
term presumably comes from ship usage though
speculation might suggest spinning spindles as
well. IDAMN speaks of the spindle as having a
"spindle-like shape" which offers little aid in
determining the derivation of the term. 66
The spindle buoy is found in the USB cardi-
nal system; it is not found in the lateral sys-
tems of USB or IMC.67 It is not found at all
in IALA. The spindle buoy has had a variety of
functions in individual buoyage systems; France,
Spain and the Netherlands all employ it. 68
Various nations, including Egypt, Turkey, and
Portugal were listed in IHB as having adopted
the cardinal system, and this includes a possible
use of the spindle. Spain uses the spindle, though
the USB cardinal system is not in use in that
country.69
60
The spherical buoy, obviously, derives its
name from the notion of sphere; possibly from a
mathematical ~ontext. There does not appear to
be a non-markIng usage of that term that directly
leads to a maritime adoption of it as is the case,
or possible case, of spindle and ogival. Accord-
ing to the 1882 Conference at London, a distinc-
tion was made between buoys with flat tops (can
buoys) and those with domed tops (spherical
I a ) 70 D" .)~ y~ . lctlon~rles, whether general or spe-
CIalIzed, do not gIve a background for the term
that has a marine connection. Of course spheres
are a basi~ geometric form and could easily have
been perceIved as a suitable candidate for buoy-
age systems. IDAMN defines a spherical buoy as
a "buoy of which the upper part of the body (above
the waterline), or the larger part of the super-
structure, is spherical."7l
. In USB the spherical buoy is primarily found
In lateral usage; it is applied to bifurcation
~nd ju~ction marks, and for wreck markings.72
lhere IS no use of it in the USB cardinal system
though the buoy is employed for uses "common to '
both syst~m~" inclu~ing iSOlated danger markings
and for lImIted optIonal situations. 73 IALA
uses it for safe water marks and in special
marks needs. 74
The miscellaneous buoys include the barrel
and oil-drum buoys, and the two forms of the
~erman Bake buoy. The Bake buoy was the most
Important buoy for West German under USB- it is
n?t known if that buoy has retained its ~igni­
ficance under IALA (other special buoys of
several nations continue to exercise their roles
u~der IALA after necessary message modifica-
tIons). In many instances the Bake buoy re-
places both can and conical buoys. 75 The
buoy has two forms. l~e first has a conical
shape but one that is built up of slats rather
than of a solid form. 76 The second version
61
;I I
I
is used for the cardinal system, and the slats
in this case are bowed or concave rather than
fla t. 77 The first version is for lateral usage
and is used for both port and starboard sides of
channels. 78 The second edition of IHB indicates
that there is increased usage of standard forms
of buoys; nonetheless, the Bake continued to
find substantial employment in the system. 79
A rather informal buoy type is that of the
barrel buoy. It is not mentioned in USB, IMC,
or IALA, but is frequently found in many nation-
al buoyage systems. The positions that it
occupies are largely peripheral. For example,
it marks quarantine moorings and general moor-
ings. But in some instances the barrel is an
integral and significant buoy. Sweden is prob-
:lbly the best example of heavy usage of the
harrel. 80 IHB offers a stylized form of the
harrel but there are varying sizes and shapes
of barrels. The name for it can also vary great-
ly. In some systems it is a tun buoy or a ton
. . .. k b 81buoy; In at least one nat10n 1t 1S a cas uoy.
Hut despite the different names, various forms
of it share a substantial similarity in shape.
At one time the U.S. included an oil-drum
buoy in its system. It was used for marking
channel s in rivers of shallow depth. 82 It bears
some resemblance to a barrel though it is prob-
ably of a more cylindrical shape. The previous-
ly described ton buoy can be defined as a
"large wine-vessel, a cask; hence a measure of
capacity used for; now spelt Tun.,,83 Tun can
be seen as a cask or barrel which is now "less
common than cask ." 84
14B3 Sound Buoys
Sound buoys constitute the smallest por-
t ions of international buoyage systems; HIB
does not mention sound buoys, and this may
62
suggest that they are not a major aid to naviga-
tion. And it is true that globally they do not
rank very high. But a number of nations operate
sound buoys in substantial numbers, and hence
. I' t 86these buoys have at least reg10na 1mpor ance.
IDAMN lists three types of sound buoys, and one
variant form. The Secretary-General of IALA notes
an additional type: the electric horn. 87
The shape of these buoys is not very signifi-
cant though they follow the color message systems
of buoys. They therefore maintain a visual value
in addition to the acoustical one. USB and IALA
sound buoys maintain the same shapes common to
light and unlighted buoys. Other nations make
use of special sound buoys which are are a cut-
down version of a lighted buoy.88 West Germany
uses the Bake buoy for sound purposes.
The four traditional traditional types of
buoy signals are the gong, the whistle, the bell,
and the horn. France has a variant of the bell
buoy known as a carillon buoy.89 This last named
buoy refers to a buoy "bearing a group of bells.,,90
A gong buoy, which is found only in the U.S., is
"fitted with a group of saucer-shaped bells of
different tones.,,91 The resulting sound approxi-
mates that of chimes. The French carillon and
the U.S. gong buoys are quite similar. The U.S.
has 3 of the special shaped bells with a clapper
for each; the French has 4 saucer-shaped bells
with 2 clappers. Each clapper is so designed as
to strike two of the bells. 92 Bell buoys usually
have a single bell and presumably several
clappers which is the reverse of the carrillonj
gong situation. 93 Whistle buoys contain a whistle
mounted upright on the buoy tank and activated by
the motion of the sea; horn buoys are electrically
activated. 94 Bell buoys have tappers or hammers,
and these are mounted on the outside of the bell
rather than on the inside. 95 Presumably the num-
ber of activators and their location increases the
noise-producing ability of the buoy.
63
11
..
f'
I,
I
L
The traditional means of activating these
buoys has been by the motion of the sea. This
has been a problem in that the sea is frequently
calm, or nearly so, during foggy weather when the
sound signal is most necessary. Hence, the sea-
activated forms of buoys are somewhat declining
in numbers and there is a corresponding increase
in electric-activated versions. The use of con-
sistent power also means that a fixed and unvary-
ing message character is also possible.
Endnotes for 14A
1USCG , Aids to Navigation, 1977, p. 4.
2See older editions of USCG Light Lists for
illustrations.
3-4CANS , 1975, centerfold sheet.
5-7MBS , pp. 57-59.
BMBS , pp. 39, 72, 74.
9 MBS , p. 72.
10MBS, p. 39.
lIMBS, pp. 36-37.
Endnotes for 14B1, 82, and B3
1Webster's New International Dictionary, 2nd.
ed.,p.563.
2IALA Buoyage Conference Report, Tokyo, 1980,
3 IDAMN , 2-6-230.
4SMB , pp. 7-11; IALA BCR, Annex 3.
5See above.
6SMB , pp. 7-11; MBS, p. 2.
7MBS, p. 16.
BOxford English Dictionart, Vol. III, p. 262.
64
-
•
9Webster's Third New International Dictionary,
Vol. II, p. 1551.
10IDAMN, 2-6-230.
11MBS, p. 136; USCG, AN, p. 4; see also EN # 9
12-13MBS , pp. 23-4.
14-15MBS , pp. 46-7.
l6MBS , p. 31.
175MB, p. 117.
18OED, Vol. II, pp. 57-58.
19See above.
20WTNID, p. 325.
21 IDAMN , 2-6-225.
22 5MB, pp. 7-10.
23For example, Mexico and Argentina.
24MBS, cp U.S. on p. 79 with European nations
such as Spain on p. 68.
25SMB , p. 41. Special needs may perhaps be
recognized and met, but the basic provisions of
this agreement will be presumably fOllowed. The
rationale of the new system is to simplify and
standardize buoyage systems as far as possible.
See Bury article for background of the new system.
265MB, p. 63; see also MBS, p. 33.
27IDAMN, 2-6-225.
28MBS, p. 19.
29CANS , 1975, centerfold.
30MBS, pp. 71, 76.
31 See Chapter 13A.
32 WNID, 2nd ed. p. 2410; see also WTNID; see
also OED, Vol. X, p. 511.
65
p. 1().
1956, 1971.
pp. 10-11.
p. 31.
, I
33 IDAMN , 2-6-235.
34 OED, Vol. X, p. 511.
35MBS , pp. 7, 10.
36 IALA , BCR, Annex 3, "The IALA MBS."
37MBS, pp. 28-29.
38 USCG Manual, 1964, Amendment # 2, p. 8-3.
39USCG Manual, 1964, Chapter 3, p. 8-3; IDAMN
2-6-040, and Figure 49.
40Kystdirktoratet/fyravdelingen (Oslo), "Norse
Sj¢merker - Norwegian Seamarks."
41 cANS , centerfold sheet.
42 SMB , p. 24.
43MBS, pp. 23, 41, 58.
44 WTNIO, Vol. II, p. 1675.
45MBS, p. 52.
46 sMB , p. 108.
47MBS , pp. 41, 43.
48MBS , pp. 52, 63.
4 9MBS, p. 41.
50 IALA Buoyage Conference Report, 1980, Annex
5, "IALA Buoyage System (Region A and Regio~ B)
Implementation" indicates that some ar~as WIll not
he installed before the end of 1987, and possibly
it may take longer than that in some areas.
51 SM B, p. 14.
52 EB , Vol. IV, pp. 806-808.
53-55 IALA , BCR, pp. 4-5, 7.
560ED , Vol. VII. P. 90.
57(")[00 V 1 VII 90, o. ,p. .
66
58 SMB ,
59 IHB ,
60SMB ,
6l SMB ,
625MB, p. 31.
63See lALA BCR for illustrations.
640ED , Vol. X, p. 605; WTNID, Vol. II.
65 USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. I, 1985,
especially the North Atlantic coast.
66 IDAMN , 2-6-240.
675MB, pp. 10, 15.
68 MBS , pp. 31, 53, 69.
69MBS, p. 69.
70Report of the Conference ... . , 18R3.
71 IDAMN,
72SMB , pp. 7-9.
735MB, p. 11.
74 IALA, BCR, p. 6.
75-79SMB , pp. 58-67.
80MBS, p. 70.
81 5MB, pp. 32, 104, 145.
82Enc10sure to J.M. O'Connell letter to
author, 19 November, 1974.
83-840ED , Vol. IX, pp. 124, 464.
85 IALA Survey, 1984/3, pp. 16-19.
86IDAMN, 2-6-180, 2-6-185, 2-6-190;
Secretary-General's letter, 30 December, 1977.
87 SMB , pp. 64-65.
67
88-R9IDAMN_ 2-6~180.
90IDAMN, 2-6-185.
91 IDAMN 3~2-310.,
9211Bouee A Carillon FB-12 A;" USCG,
Aids to Navigation-Technical Manual, 1979,
p. 2-21. The 1964 edition speaks of 3-gong and
4-gong models.
93prunieras, 30 December, 1967.
94-95 USCG , 1979, pp. 2-23 and 2-19 respectively.
68
..
..
-
CHAPTJ:R FIFTEEN
MESSAGE SYSTEMS FOR FLOATING AIDS TO NAVIGATION
It is not enough in this study to simply de-
scribe the types of buoys. It is equally necessary
to examine the ways in which buoys exhibit their
messages of information, of warning, or ofgui-
dance. The shape of a buoy while a vital part of
the message system is not the total message. The
color of the buoy, how the color is arranged, the
lettering and the numbers are also significant.
The buoy and its messages are also arranged into
patterns in relation to geographical features,
points of the compass, or other buoys, and these
matters are also part of the message system.
The systems of buoys can be as varied and di-
verse as the sponsoring nations. International con-
ferences have narrowed, at least to some extent, the
rang~ of diversity. This conformity is reduced by
the many nations that only partially follow the
tone set by such conferences; other nations ignore
more substantially the international attempts at
uniformity. Nonetheless, some degree of order
exists. This chapter will follow the provisions
of the international systems with necessary nota-
tions on qualifications of implementations created
by divergencies. The chapter will begin with what
was, until relatively recently, the most frequently
utilized system; the Uniform System of Buoyage.
Coverage of USB includes a review of the abstract
provisions, how the system was treated by nations
subscribing to it either fully or partly. Chapter
15 includes a similar review of IMC and supporting
nations, the new system of IALA, and a summation
of provisions of selected buoyage systems .
69
ISA Uniform System of Marine Buoyage l
USB contains both a lateral system and a
cardinal; the lateral being the more frequently
adopted system. The starboard side - of side
channels - is marked by either conical or spar
buoys. Black or black/white checked buoys (for
spar buoys the' upper half is white and the lower
half is black) are the colors and color combi-
nations permitted. Lights, if any, are white
and can exhibit either a flashing or an occult-
ing pattern; one or three flashes or occult~ per
period are prescribed. Green lights, if they do
not interfere with light characteristics for
wrecks, are permitted, as are green/white combi-
nations. Topmarks, if added, are to be black
cones or diamonds for conical buoys, and cone-
shaped brooms for spars. 2 Only odd numbers, when
numbers are present, are permitted.
The port side of channels require spar and
can buoys. Can buoys are painted in red/wh~te
checks; spars present red or red/white combi-
nation patterns. Numbers, if used, are even. Top-
marks for can buoys are red cans or red Ts. Spar
topmarks are inverted cone-shaped brooms. Lights
are red in color and can have either a flashing
or occulting pattern with one of several character-
istics. White lights exhibit variant characteris-
tics; white/red combinations follow these same
patterns. Yellow checks can be substituted for
the white checks in secondary channels for both
starboard and port positions.
In middle-ground situations if the main chan-
nel is to right (outer end), spherical buoys with
red and white horizontal bands are required. Top-
marks are to be red can; lights are to be distinc-
tive. Spars are also to display red and white
bands, and topmarks are to be a "red can over a
red sphere.,,3 The inner end of the channel calls
for the same pattern except for a red T topmark
70
for spherical buoys, and a "red T over a red
sphere" for spar buoys.4 Main channel to port
requires buoys and light characteristics similar
to those listed under the instructions for main
channel to starboard. Spherical buoys are to ex-
hibit a black cone with the point up for the out-
er end topmark, and a black diamond at the inner
end. Spar buoys contain a verted black cone over
black sphere at the outer end and a black diamond
over black sphere at the inner end.
"Channels of equal importance" follow the in-
junction for middle grounds main channel to the
right, except for the topmarks. 5 Spherical buoys
have red sphere topmarks for the outer end and
red Saint George's Crosses for the inner end.
USB specifications for mid-channel markings are
very general. The shape of buoys must be easily
distinguished and at variance with conical, can
or sphere-shaped buoys. 'Lights are also to be
easily distinguished from side of channel markings.
Wreck markings require special colors and other
characteristics. If the wreck is "to be passed
on the starboard-hand the buoy should be a green
conical or spar buoy.,,6 Lettering, if any, should
consist of a white W. Topmarks are to be green
cones; lights are to have a group flashing combi-
nation. If the wreck is "to be passed on the port-
hand" the buoys should be a can or spar buoy with
letters as previously described.? In this case
the light should have a green group flashing in-
dication. The topmark is to be a green can. If
either ~ide of the wreck is acceptable for passage,
~ spher1cal or spar buoy is standard. Topmarks
1n that case would be sphere-shaped and a light
would be an occulting green indication with a
single flash. There are also USB rulings [or
situations in which the wreck itself can be used
as a marking.
The cardinal system of buoyage for USB can be
71
73
to be a spar buoy. This option is followed by
Finland. In this last variation it is recommend-
ed that the dark colors be reversed. This would
result in a white buoy with a broad black middle
band in the NQ and in the EQ a buoy with a white
upper and red lower patterns.
Wreck marking rules complete the cardinal sys-
tem. These markings are found on in the EQ and
WQ. In the EQ ("NE to SE from wreck") buoys are
to be conical, ogival or spar and, as with lateral
wreck buoys, these are to be green with a white
W.ll Topmarks are two green diamonds. Any light
on a wreck buoy is to exhibit an interrupted
flashing green pattern. WQ buoys are cylindrical
spindle, or spar. Color and letters are to match'
wreck buoys of the EQ. Topmarks are "two green
cones point to point. ,,12 Green lights are ex-
hibited with a flash rate similar to that of WQ
buoys; the light is a regular flash, not an in-
terrupted flash. There are also some buoy mes-
sage patterns common to both USB systems.
USB also contains a limited range of miscel-
laneous markings. A principal buoy of this cate-
gory is the isolated danger buoy. This is a
spherical or spar buoy banded with broad black
and red bands divided by a slender white band.
Topmarks are red or black spheres with black/
red horizontal stripes. White or red lights
flash a "rhythmic" pattern .13 Landfall buoys
require no specific shape or topmarks providing
they do not give misleading messages that can
cause confu~ion with other buoys. Landfall buoy
colors cons1st of black/white vertical stripes or
red/white vertical stripes; any light is to be
"rhythmic" in character. Transition buoys follow
the optional shape and topmark rules. Colors are
to form red/white or black/white spiral band
patterns.
Quarantine buoys are yellow in color; outfall
b~
--
•
•
•
•
•
•
..
..
•
iiIj
•
•
•
72
The cardinal system requires spindle or spar
huoys for the WQ (SW to NW). The upper portions
of W0 buoys are painted black, the lower parts
white. Topmarks are "two black cones point to
poi nt "; 10 USB offers a simplified aiternative
for the previously described cardinal system.
Thls alternative has conical buoys in both the
north and east quadrants, while cylindrical buoys
are in the south and west quadrants. It is also
permissible, according to the standard cardinal
system, to have a single buoy type; that buoy is
vlcweJ under three headings: danger markings,
simplified cardinal system markings, and wreck
markings. Spar buoys can be employed in any or
all of the quadrants for danger markings. Each
of the quadrants has, in addition, a specific
buoy type assigned to it. In the NQ (NW to NE
from a point of danger) conical or spar buoys
are adopted. These buoys are black with a broad
white middle band. Topmarks, if used, are to be
a black cone with the point up. White
lights with an odd number" of
flashes can be added to the
In the SQ (SE to
SW) the buoys are
either cylindrical
or sJlar. These buoys
exhibit a broad white
middle band but are
otherwise red. Top-
marks are to be inverted red. Light periods
contain an even number of flashes, and red lights
are to be given preference though white lights
are permissible. Ogival or spar buoys are
found in the EQ (NE to SE). The upper part of
these buoys are to be red and the lower half are
to be ,,,hi te. Topmarks are red diamonds ("two
cones base to base"). 9 Red lights are preferable,
though again white is acceptable; the light
characteristics call for odd or uneven variations.
and spoil-ground buoys are yellow (for the upper
part) and black (lower part). Any other character-
istics employed are not to create confusion with
similar banded buoys. Military practice area
buoys are optional in shape. The color code is
quite the contrary. The buoys are to be "white
with two blue stripes intersecting at right angles
at the upper extremity of the mark and extending
to the water line, thus representing a cross
when observed from ahove, in comhination ... with
letter indicating in the national language a
dangerous area."I4
In retrospect, the USB rules for buoyage are
only that; only a minority of nations adopting
USB adopted all of the lateral and/or cardinal
systems. The attitudes toward the system take
several forms. Some nations have adopted the sys-
tem in its entirety, others made slight changes,
while others were influenced by USB only to a
limited extent.
According to the International Hydrographic
Bureau, Belgium, India, Iran, New Zealand,
Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Indonesia and Yugoslavia
indicated that they had adopted the lateral sys-
tem - or simply the USB - in all of its points.
France, Poland, the Netherlands, South Africa,
the United Kingdom, Australia, and Pakistan made
limited changes.
France offers a truncated conical buoy as an
option for wrecks. Poland includes a modified
conical-based spar buoy for the port-hand position
in fairways and channels. Poland has included a
standard spar buoy for the port-hand position
whole markings, white uppers and red lowers, are
contrary to USB norms. Poland has also adopted
several special and miscellaneous buoys not found
in the standard regulations. Australia has ac-
cepted the USB cardinal system but not the entire
lateral system; Australia does not list specific
Guoy types for fairways and channels. Wreck
74
•
situations also allow for optional shape buoys.
Pakistan substitutes a solid red landfall
buoy for the standard striped model; wreck buoys
include a checkered buoy option. South Africa
follows the USB in large part except that cer-
tain starboard-hand buoys are painted white. The
United Kingdom has adopted the USB norms but cer-
tain exceptions are to be noted. For example,
in Scotland there are exceptions for wreck buoys.
These are to be spherical buoys which "may be
passed on either side and carries an interrupted
quick flashing green light instead of an occult-
ing green light. ,,15 Interrupted quick flashing
lights are also used when a distinctive light is
deemed necessary. Normally, topmarks are not
found on either lighted or unlighted buoys in
Scotland. English and Welsh wreck buoys have
WRECK spelled out on the buoys instead of the
abbreviation W. Interrupted quick flashing
green lights are substituted for occulting
lights. Eire and Ulster, which share the Com-
missioners of Irish Lights aids to navigation
agency, follow USB rulings except for wreck buoys,
which emulate UK practice.
The Netherlands is in conformity with USB
with one exception in color markings. The
Netherlands lack a green/red spar buoy for wrecks
in which mariners are to pass on the left of the
wreck. There are considerably more variations
in Dutch buoy shapes. For example, the Nether-
lands' aids to navigation agency has special
variants of spar buoys and expands the usage of
the standard spindle buoy into uses where USB
calls for notable uniformity. Nevertheless, the
color patterns and banding designs of the Nether-
lands are identical to USB except for the pre-
viously mentioned differences.
Two unique buoyage systems are those of
Sweden and Finland. Perhaps paradoxically, the
75
two systems are standard since they comply with
llSI\ norms. Tile I:innish system is exclusively
cardinal. There are no lateral marks, unless
the "dangers of small extent" buoy can be regard-
ed as lateral. 16 The standard spar buoy is vir-
tually the only buoy in the Finnish system; the
use of the spar follows USB guidelines. There
are differences in the topmarks of the system
from those of USB. The NQ requires a single
black cone, with point up, or a single black
cone with point up over a black sphere. The WQ
allows for two cones, back in color, one verted
and one inverted, or the same topmark over a
black sphere. A single inverted red cone or a
single red cone inverted over a red sphere is
the hallmark of the SQ. Finally, the EQ top-
mark is either two red cones point to point or
two red cones point to point over a red sphere.
The Finnish wreck markings are at variance
with the USB cardinal system. The Finnish sys-
tem has a north to south and east to west arrange-
instead of a northwest to southeast and north-
east to southwest orientation. The topmarks are
flags instead of the USB arrangement Qf cones.
All Scandinavian nations substitute flags for
regular topmarks in wreck markings.
The Swedish system combines the lateral and
the cardinal systems of USB. This system has
three primary characteristics: a) the merging of
cardinal and lateral into one unit; b) the ex-
tensive use of barrel buoys, which are normally
peripheral; c) the wide spectrum of topmark
options for most buoy positions.
For fairways and channels, red spar or barrel
buoys are employed for north and west positions.
Nand W spar buoys have an inverted cone, an in-
verted cone/sphere, or two inverted cones for
the topmark. Sand E locations have black buoys
and the exact reverse of topmarks. Nand W
76
barrel buoys have a single inverted cone topmark.
Sand E have a black/white spar topmark for tons
or barrel buoys. The spar buoy for Sand E is
identical to the topmark color pattern for barrel
buoys.
Swedish middle-ground buoys are similar to
the USB middle-ground buoy except for a two-sphere
topmark option that is available. A ton buoy
with a single sphere topmark offers an additional
option. The barrel buoy in this situation is
banded with a vertical black and red pattern.
The arrangement of danger buoys is complex.
The color markings, except for the SQ, follow
the USB pattern; the SQ has a solid red motif in-
stead of the red/white pattern. In each case
either a spar or a ton buoy can be adopted. The
Swedish NQ topmarks are a single verted cone, an
inverted cone, and a single sphere over a single
verted cone and two spheres. The SQ is the exact
opposite. The WQ has either two cones joined
together at the base, or two cones joined at the
base with the addition of a single sphere, or
two cones joined at the base and two spheres.
The color is black in all of these cases. The
EQ is identical in regard to the spheres; however,
the cones are joined at the points and all are
red.
Wreck markings resemble those of Finland.
In addition, Sweden provides for the marking of
the wreck itself. The vessel markings are two
lights or balls to the left of the masthead in
the SW square and one to the right; the NE square
has the reverse position. Bells can be added
when wrecks are directly marked. For the NE the
bell is struck in "groups of two over ten" every
two minutes;17 the SW position calls for a single
ringing in the same pattern. Quarantine buoys
are yellow and in a variant can buoy form.
Iceland incorporates the meanings that black
and white have for USB, but that is the end of
77
:1
I
; I
the resemblance to USB norms. Icelandic buoys
for fairways, channels, and miudle-grounus arc
ogival buoys and three variant forms of spar buoys.
Wreck and spoil-ground buoys are also ogival;
danger and submarine cable buoys are either ogival
or a special spar. Red/black bandings and the
green of wreck buoys are two additional areas in
which USB norms are followed.
Topmark, in Iceland, for port-hand fairways
and channel buoys are one, two, or three inverted
black cones. Middle ground buoys have one, two,
or three red spheres with a black horizontal
stripe. Danger area buoys have a single yellow
sphere with a black horizontal stripe.
Malaysia has adopted the USB practice in most
instances but there are several exceptions. Wreck
buoys are green but the light characteristics are
of Malaysian design, and outside the lateral sys-
tem. Light buoys are red; fairway buoys, in some
instances, are all white with can or conical day-
marks. There are a selected number of other buoys
outside the lateral system described in detail in
II1B.
Thailand's system partially resembles the USB
pattern. Fairway and channel buoy~ are red and
black in accordance with USB. Major buoy types
include a light buoy, the standard spar buoy, and
an optional choice buoy. The topmark is a square
for the starboard side and a black cone for port.
Lanufall buoys conform to USB. Wreck buoys are
green, and they may be a special light bUOY, a
';pherical buoy, or a spar buoy. The topmarks -
~xcept for the light buoy - are cone over square.
Spoil ground and quarantine buoys conform to USB.
Isolated danger buoys are either a light buoy or
an undescribed optional choice. This last one is
white with a horizontal black band; topmarks are
sphere-shaped or a cone over square. Thailand
conforms to USB markings for military practice
buoys, but the buoy is yellow, not blue. Submarine
78 -
-I
buoys are black with a white T.
Italy conforms to color, pattern, and top-
marks of USB with few exceptions. However, the
buoy types or shapes and their positioning are
at variance with the established norms. Italy
uses a variant conical buoy, a standard conical
buoy, and a spar buoy for all positions in fair-
ways, channels, and middle grounds. In all other
pos~tions, lateral and cardinal, only the special
conIcal and the standard conical buoys are em-
ployed save for optional choice in quarantine
and sewer outfall situations. The same buoys
are fo~nd in both port and starboard positions;
shape IS generally not a major factor for these
buoys and their messages.
Norway has a modified lateral system and a
standard cardinal system. There are only three
buoys in use: the Norwegian light buoy and two
special spar buoys. Topmarks are limited. Black
buoys, lateral or cardinal, have verted black
cones'; red buoys have inverted red cones. Host
buoys are in a solid color, but there are in-
stances in which a buoy with a white horizontal
band is offered as an option. Middle-ground
buoys are black and red in a horizontally-
banded pattern with a matching sphere.
G::eece included a modified conical buoy and
two lIght buoys for port-hand positions. These
are solid in color. The conical buoy has a cone-
shaped topmark. Starboard-hand buoys are the
s~me two light buoy types and a slightly modi-
fIed can buoy with a square topmark. Middle-
ground conical buoys are banded white and red
with a d~amond topmark for bifurcation purposes,
and a whIte and red banded buoy with two cones
~oint to point for junction topmarks. Dangers
In channels are marked by white and red banded
spherical buoys for navigation to port and black
and white banded spherical buoys for starboard
79
".
navigation. Wreck buoys are green conical buoys,
and isolated danger buoys are banded in horizon-
t81 black and red stripes with red sphere topmarks.
West Germany has what may be the most complex
system of buoyage and beaconage of any nation.
There is, nonetheless, some influence from the
USB in the use of colors for the lateral and the
cardinal systems. Approaches to channels include
only the German .Bake-buoy.18 For the port-hand
the buoy is red, for mid-channel it is black and
red vertically striped, and for the starboard it
is black. The topmark for port is two cones point
to point, for mid-channel it is a modified Cross
of Lorraine, and the starboard is an ellipsoid.
Lights are white or red for port, red for mid-
channe 1, and white for starboard. A complex of
light characteristics accompanies these colors.
The port-hand sides of channels allow for a
special spar, a Bake buoy, or a special can.
The topmarks include a red can, a T, two spheres
point to point or an inverted broom. The star-
board permits either a standard cone or a Bake
buoy. Letters and numbers are in white for both
sides. The port-hand allows for white or red
lights, but white only is permitted for the star-
board side. Again, various light characteristics
are given. Mid-channel buoys are described under
"approaches to channels.,,19
Additional rules apply to "junctions and bi-
furcations not caused by middle grounds."ZO If
the main channel is to the left, the port-hand
buoy will be a Bake buoy in black with a red band.
The starboard is a solid black buoy. Both have
white lights, black cone topmarks and white
lettering. If the main channel is to starboard
the buoy will be a red buoy with can topmark and
white or red light and white lettering. The
starboard position is a red buoy with black band
and similar lettering, lighting and topmark.
80
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Channels of equal importance have black and red
~ertically striped buoys with undetermined light-
Ing; lettering is optional. Topmarks are match-
ing spheres.
If the main channel is to right - and if a
middle ground - the buoy is red with black band
and a red can topmark Over a sphere; if the main
channel is to left the buoy is black with a red
band, and a cone over sphere topmark for bifurca-
t~on, and diamond over sphere topmark for junc-
tIon. A topmark for the junction position is a
red T over sphere if channel is to right. Main
~hann~l to right has white or red lights, and a
JunctIon buoy has only white lights. Lettering
is in white for both; numbers, for passage to
~ort only, are in white. For channels of equal
Importance the buoy is striped vertically in red
and black. In this last instance the topmarks
are ~wo r~d spheres with"a black vertical stripe;
for.Junctlons, a black cross of Saint George over
a slng~e b~ack and red vertically striped sphere.
L~tterlng IS not required and lighting is under-
mIned.
. '!'he buoy for "shoals and isolated dangers
wIthIn the channel which may be passed on either
hand" is a bake buoy with the upper half red and
the lower half black."2l A black sphere consti-
tutes the topmark. Lettering is to be white and
the.li?hting is to be red in an isophere cha;ac-
terlstlC.
The German cardinal system offers a choice
of a concave bake buoy, a special spar buoy, or
a standard spar buoy for each quadrant. The name
of the shoal is lettered on the buoys followed
by the ~irst. letter of the quadrant. 'NQ and WQ
have whIte lIghts and a variety of character-
istics; EQ a~d ~Q have white lights and a variety
of characterIstIcs; EQ and SQ have red or white
lights and accompanying characteristics. In the
NQ the buoys are black with a white middle band',
81
of military practice areas, resemble the markings
of USB; others are unique to West Germany.
Denmark's buoyage system follows the USA to
a considerable extent in color markings but less
so in. the shape of buoys. Fairways, channels,
and mIddle ground employ two special conical buoys
and a special spar. Port-hand buoys are red ex-
cept for the special spar, which is red on a
black base. Topmarks are one, two, Or three in-
verted brooms. Starboard buoys are solid black
with one, two, or three brooms. Middle-ground
buoys are horizontally banded in black and red
and the topmark is a red ellipsoid. '
Danish "mineswept or recommended routes,,22
use o~e of thr~e s~ecial conical buoys. The top-
mark IS an ellIpsoId that is vertically red with
black stripes. These buoys have a white light
Mi~dle-ground buoys have red or white lights, ~nd
faIrways have red for port and white for star-
board. Wreck buoys are of the same types as those
found on fairways. These are green except for
the base of the spar buoy, which is black. The
topmarks are flags, as is the case in all Scan-
dinavian nations. Lights for wreck buoys are
green and flashing. Military practices areas
are marked ~ith buoys painted in black and yel-
low bands wIth yellow ellipsoid topmarks with
black bands. Spoil grounds and submarine cables
areas employ special conical buoys in solid colors
of yellow; submarine cable buoys have green quick
flashing lights.
. The USSR relies heavily on a few buoys for
Its system. These are a standard spar buoy and
a light buoy similar to that of Thailand' a~ un-
des~r~bed opti?n buoy is listed for neari y all
posItIons. FaIrways and channels buoys are red
for port and black for starboard. On bend sections
of fairways and channels there is a white band
across the buoy. Port positions have inverted
black cones, while the starboard has verted black•
West Germany has about IS special buoy pat-
terns. In many instances these utilize barrel
buoys. Some special buoy patterns, such as those
Wreck marking in cardinal buoyage permits one I11III
of three buoys: the cardinal bake buoy, the special I~
spar, and the standard spar. Green is the color
for all of these buoys. Topmarks are identical ,
with those for shoals and isolated dangers. The i.
lighting v;lries according to quadrant: group occult- I,
ing (3) in NQ, interrupted quick flashing in EQ,
group occulting (4) in SQ, and quick flashing
in WQ. Shoal buoys exhibit fixed green lights.
H~oys for roadstead limits are to be black barrel
for starboard and red barrel buoys for port. The
starboard will have a black cone topmark and the
porthand has a red can. The lights are white or
red for port, and white for starboard. Each light
can have a variety of characteristics.
in the WQ the upper halves are black and the 1ower ~
halves. EQ has upper half in red and lower half .......
in white. The SQ have solid red buoys with white
hands across the middle. Topmarks are two verted ~
black cones for the NQ, and two black cones point .......
to point for the WQ. The EQ has two red cones
base to base, and the SQ has two inverted red
cones. Buoys actually on the shoal would be band- ___
cd in red, white, and black. The topmark would
be a black ball. Lighting is in red or white
isophases, and the lettering follows the previous ~
injunctions.
For lateral wreck markings, bake buoys or
spar buoys can be used for wrecks whether for port ~
passage, either side passage, or starboard passage.
For port passage the special spar and special can
buoys are al so permissable; for either side navi - _
gation the spherical buoy is a third option, and ,
for starboard use the standard conical buoy is
permi tted. The lights are green, and light char- .1
1
_
acteristics permitted include short, long flash- .
ing and isophase.
82
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83
cones. A variety of light characteristics are
available.
Middle-ground buoys of the spar type are hori-
zontally banded black and red with sphere topmark
that is black for upper part and white for the
lower part. Light buoys are vertically banded in
red and black as are other shape buoys. Lights
are white and flashing. Mid-channel buoys are
banded black and white horizontally for straight
sections, and red and white for bend sections.
The spar topmark is black for the former and red
for the latter. Lights are white for straight
sections and red for bends. Wreck buoys have the
same shape and topmark but are solid green in color.
The light is also green.
Cardinal buoys are all white in the NQ with
white flashing lights and black cone topmarks.
In the EQ they are vertically striped red and
white except for the spar, which is white (upper
portion) and red (lower part) with a two-cone
point to point topmark. The light is red and
flashing. WQ buoys are striped black and white
with spars painted in an upper black and lower
white pattern. The topmarks are black and ex-
hibit base to base cones. The WQ light is white.
The SQ buoys are completely red with red flash-
ing lights and inverted red cones. Fishing zones
are the same except for using only spar buoys and
for different lights patterns. The NQ has a fixed
white light, the EQ has two fixed red lights, SQ
has one red light, and WQ has two fixed white
lights.
Submarine cable areas have banded spar or
striped buoys in black and orange. The spar has
a flag-shaped topmark and the light is orange in
an isophase pattern. Anchorage areas include the
standard bUOYS, a barrel buoy, and a special can
buoy; the optional-choice buoy is also available.
These are, except for the spar, which is banded,
a 11 striped in red and orange. Lights are orange
84
and flashing. The spar topmark is flag-shaped
with diagonal swatches of orange and red. Quaran-
tine areas include the above buoys except for
the barrel buoy. Quarantine buoys are solid
orange with an orange flashing light.
ISB International Marine Conference Influenced
Buoyage Systems
There are no current publications outlining
a complete IMC buoyage system. But there are a
number of nations that follow, at least to some
degree, the practices of IMC, or at least are in-
fluenced by it. 23 The most striking differences
between USB and IMC are the meanings given to
black (and later green) and red. USB regarded
black as the starboard day color of channels,
while IMC perceives red as the starboard-hand
color. And, of course, port-hand colors had re-
verse meanings. Green accompanies black in both
USB and IMC but with opposite meanings. Red
lights and markings mirror this phenomenon of
opposite meanings. Most nations in the Western
Hemisphere :follow in some manner or other the IMC
provisions of 1889. Most other maritime nations
follow the lead of USB, though there are excep-
tions, especially in East Asia.
Argentina states, in the 1956 edition of IHB
that its system is l~ conformity with IMC. Ar-
gentine fairways and channels have black port-
hand buoys that are can buoys with flashing
lights in white; starboard buoys are red conicals
wit~ red flashing lights. Can buoys can be aug-
mented or replaced by a "buoy surmounted by a
cylindrical shape.,,24 Conical buoys can be re-
placed by "a truncated cone buoy with a sharp
point or a buoy surmounted by a conical shape.,,2S
There are no topmarks for these buoys.
Middle-ground buoys are of optional-choice
85
shape and banded black and white. Bifurcation
buoys have a black sphere topmark; junction buoys
have a half-sphere in black. Mid-channel buoys
have a vertically striped motif with "a black cage
in the form of an inverted/truncated cone or pyra-
mid" topmark - if there is a topmark. 26 Middle-
ground buoys are optional-choice buoys with white
and red horizontal bands. The topmark is a black
sphere. Wreck buoys are green with lights in the
same color. Wrecks, in some instances, have an in-
scription. A ship marking would be painted green
with two balls on the left mast and one on the
right; three green lights can serve as an sub-
stitute. WRECK is painted on the ship in white.
Buoyage does exist in Costa Rica and Peru,
but there are no standard rules or systems govern-
ing the buoyage in those jurisdictions - at least
as listed in the 1971 edition of IHB.
Guatemala has black can buoys with odd numbers
on the port-hand side of channels with fixed green
lights. The starboard side has red can buoys with
even numbers and fixed red lights. There is no
further buoyage in Guatemala according to IHB 1971.
Ecuador has black can buoys with odd numbers
and green or white lights of varying characteris-
tics on the port side. Starboard buoys are coni-
calor can, and red in color. Red lights and
even numbers complete the starboard messages.
Middle-ground buoys are can - if the principal
channel is to right - with horizontal black and
white bands. Lights are green or white and ex-
exhihit a group flashing characteristic. If the
main channel is to left the conical or can buoys
are banded with horizontal red and white colors.
Lights are group flashing and red. Landfall and
mid-channel buoys are can or conical. These buoys
exhibit vertical black and white bands with green
group occulting lights.
Miscellaneous buoys are optional shape in all
86
cases. Mooring and related purpose buoys are
yellow with a blue isophase light. Fishing zone
buoys are white; leading mark buoys are painted
in black and white checks and have a white iso-
phase light. Special purpose buoys are banded
in yellow and white. They have isophase lights.
The Chilean buoyage system consists of black
and white banded can buoys for the port-hand of
fairways and conical buoys of white and red band-
ing for the starboard-hand. Lettering and num-
bering in both cases are in white. Mid-channel
buoys are spherical and banded in vertical white
and black stripes. Wreck buoys are conical or
spherical in green with a white horizontal band.
WRECK is painted on the white band. Yellow
barrel buoys mark quarantine areas and red barrels
indicate mooring buoys for explosives.
Cuban fairway buoys are cans and spars for
port, and conical and spars for starboard. A
black topmark in spherical shape is attached to
port buoys. Lights are white or green, numbers
are odd. A white or red cone topmark (point up)
is found with starboard buoys. Lights are white
or red and numbers are even. Middle-ground buoys
are of the same patterns; all are horizontally
banded in red and black. Lights are white and
group flashing for both port and starboard. Mid-
channel buoys are of optional shape and are ver-
tically banded in black and white. Lights follow
the middle-ground pattern.
Japan and South Korea have identical buoyage
systems (IHB 1971). All buoys are conical. Black
is used for port and red for starboard. Numbers
follow the IMC patterns in fairways. Middle-
ground bifurcation buoys are banded in horizontal
black and white stripes. Junction buoys are solid
red or in bands of white and red. Topmarks for
port fairways are in the shape of black cans and
red cones for starboard. Bifurcation topmarks are
87
88
conical with white and
characteristics are of
All special buoys are
r
diamond-shaped and junction topmarks are two cones
point to point in black. Mid-channel buoys are
conical with black and white stripes and a white
can topmark. Isolated danger buoys are conical
with black and red bands and a red sphere topmark.
Wreck buoys are green conicals with WRECK written
in English and Japanese or Korean.
The Brazilian buoyage system has only one type
of buoy, the conical. Port-hand buoys ~n fair-
ways are black with even numbers and whIte flash-
ing lights. Starboard buoys are conical and red
with odd numbers. Lights are red and either flash-
ing or occulting. Middle-ground buoys for bifur-
cation are banded with white and black markings.
Lights are white and group flashing or group oc-
culting. Junction buoys are red and white banded
with red group flashing or group occulting lights.
Mid-channel buoys are vertically striped in white
and black with the same light characteristics as
bifurcation buoys. Isolated danger buoys are hori-
zontally banded in black and red with junction
buoy light characteristics. Submarine cables and
pipelines are marked by white buoys with flash-
ing or occulting lights. Wreck buoys have green
coloring with green flashing or occulting lights.
Mexico has the familiar pattern of black port
can buoys and red conical starboard buoys. Black
buoys have odd numbers and green or white flash-
ing or occulting lights. Red buoys have.even.num-
bers and red or white flashing or occultIng lIghts.
Middle grounds have can buoys with red and hori-
zontal bands - if the channel is to starboard -
and green or white interrupted quick flashing
lights; if to port, a conical buoy with ~he same
markings and red or white interrupted qUIck flash-
ing lights.
Mid-channel buoys are
black stripes. The light
the Morse Code A design.
...-
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•
are of optional shape. These include special pur-
pose buoys, which are horizontally banded in white
and yellow with light patterns that do not create
confusion with other buoys. Landfall buoys are
black and yellow vertically striped and white
with the same injunctions on lighting. Both of
these buoys may be lettered. Quarantine buoys
are solid yellow in color; anchorage buoys are
solid white. Fish-net buoys are white and black
in horizontal bands. Dredging buoys are painted
in green - for the upper portion - and white for
the lower part. The restrictions on lighting that
pertain to special purpose buoys pertain to all
of these buoys.
Port buoys in the Congo are black "with a
fluorescent white cylindrical topmark numbered
in gree,,,27 and the light is either white or
green, with an occulting pattern. Starboard buoys
are red with a fluorescent red topmark in the form
of a triangle with red numbers. Starboard lights
are red and occulting.
The Canadian buoyage system is only partially
covered by IHB. A pamphlet, The Canadian Aids to
Navigation System, supplies further details.28
Fairways, channels, and middle grounds adopt one
of three buoys: can, light, or spar. Port spars
are flat topped, while the starboard counterpart
is pointed. Port fairway buoys have green re-
flectors or green lights. The lights exhibit
flashing or quick flashing characteristics. Star-
board buoys have red reflectors and red lights with
the same basic characteristics. Middle-ground
buoys are banded horizontally with the top band
of port buoys in black and of starboard buoys in
red. Reflectors and lights follow standard pat-
terns. Light characteristics are interrupted
quick flashing for both sides.
Mid-channel light buoys are marked in vertical
white and black stripes. Can and conical buoys
89
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I
i.
are striped in white and black as well. Reflec-
tors are white and the lights are green with in-
terrupted quick flashing for downstream direc-
tion and red in the same pattern for upstream
movement. Special purpose buoys are outside the
lateral system and have no specific shape. Let-
ters may be present on these buoys but not num-
bers. Special purpose buoys include white for
anchorage, orange for cautionary, and vertically
striped yellow and orange buoys for scientific
work.
In the U.S. black buoys indicate the port
or left side of channels or wrecks; red marks
the starboard-hand side. 29 Junction and bifur-
cation are marked by the buoys with red and
black horizontal bands; the channel of pre-
ference is indicated by the color of the top
band. Vertically striped buoys of black and
white mark mid-channel or fairway buoys, and
the mariner is advised strongly to navigate
close to either side of the buoy. Conical-.
shaped buoys, known as nun buoys, are starboard
and red; cylindrical buoys are termed can buoys.
Fairway and mid-channel buoys are either can or
nun. Shape does not pertain to light and sound
buoys. The color and other characteristics will
indicate the channel to be followed for those
buoys. Buoys of one color are always numbered:
Red buoys have even numberS, black buoys have
odd numbers. The buoy at the seaward end of a
channel has the smallest number. Buoys which
are not red, or are multi-colored with black,
do not have members. Red buoys have red lights,
while black (in pre-IALA terms) buoys have
green lights. White lights can be used on buoys
of any color.
Red and black buoys exhibit flashing or
occulting lights, though fixed patterns are
allowed. These buoys usually display a slow
flashing pattern, though special situations
90
allow for a quick flashing characteristic. Buoys
that are banded black and red have interrupted
quick flashing messages. Vertical striped buoys
- in black and white - give forth a Morse Code A
message in white. Some buoys - as well as some
fixed aids - exhibit reflectors. Reflector mes-
sages duplicate lighted messages. Reflectors may
be reflective material rather than a reflector in
the strict sense.
ISC IALA Buoyage System
Provisions of IALA require, whenever possible,
can buoys for port-hand and conical buoys for
starboard-hand positions for lateral markings. l
If pillar or spar buoys are used as substitutes,
an appropriately shaped topmark is added to the
substitute buoy; the topmarks are can-shaped for
port, and cone-shaped for starboard. 2 If a light
is added to buoys in lateral service it will be
red for port, and green for starboard; the light
phase characteristics, or rhythm, can be of any
type. 3 Black buoys can be substituted for green
buoys where it is deemed necessary, but this
substitution is not to be widely employed. 4
Since green/red lights have a limited range, a
buoy agency may employ a cardinal buoy - which
exhibits white lights of greater range - in such
locations as a turning point in a lateral channel.S
Buoys in the cardinal part of the system mark
the four quadrants (north, west, south, and east).6
The quadrants are divided by north-east to south-
west and north-west to south-east lines of bear-
ing. If, for example, a cardinal buoy is in the
north position then the mariner should pass to tile
north of it. Cardinal buoys indicate the deepest
water for the area of the buoy by their position
and markings, if the buoy marks a danger, it in-
dicates the safe side on which to pass. Cardinal
buoys also indicate junctions, bifurcations, shoal
91
r
perimeters, and channel turnings; many of these
functions were formerly allocated to the lateral
system. A specific shape is not mandatory for
cardinal buoys, but usually they are pillars or
spars.
The buoys in a cardinal pos1t10n follow a
distinctive yet complementing pattern that is easy
to follow and remember: 7
North and South buoys --N upper structure is
painted black while the lower part is in yellow;
S pattern is the reverse. Topmarks have black
cones (point up) for N and inverted black cones
for S. When lighted the N buoy has a white light
in very quick flashing pattern (VQkFl) or quick
flashing arrangement (QkFl). S has a VQkFl supple-
mented by a long flash every ten seconds and a
QkFl with a long flash every 15 seconds.
West and East buoys -- E buoy is in black with
a single yellow band (horizontal); the W buoy is
the opposite. Topmarks for the E buoy contains
two black cones base to base while the W has the
same topmark but point to point. The E buoy has
a VQkFl characteristic every five seconds or QkFI
every ten seconds; for the W buoy it is every 10
seConds in a VQkFl pattern or QkFl every 15
seconds.
No other buoys in the system employ OkFI or
VQkFl characteristic and white lights. S The:e-
fore the simple existence of such a patte:n 1n-.
dicates a cardinal buoy without further 1nvest1-
gation by the mariner through time ascertainment.
VQkFl flashing is at a rate of either 120 or 100
flashes per minute; QkFl is either 60 or SO
flashes per minute. Long flashes are at least two
seconds. The characteristics have been so ar-
ranged that they are easily memorized: the E buoy
three per period, the S six times, and the W buoy
nine times; the N buoy flashes but a single time.
92
This creates, if a clock face is kept in mind, a
three-six-nine pattern of flashes whether QkFl or
simply QkFl. The added long flash is added to
prevent confusion over counting six or nine rapid
flashes from a buoy.
Isolated danger is defined as "a mark erected
on, or moored on or above, an isolated danger
which has navigable water all around it."9 This
buoy is either a pillar or a spar. The marks are
black with broad bands in red in a horizontal ar-
rangement. Topmarks are two black spheres arranged
vertically. If lighted, the color will be white
and emitting a group flashing motif of two groups
of flashes per period. According to IALA, the mes-
sage systems of marks "serve to associate isolated
dangers marks close to cardinal marks.,,10 Safe
water marks exhibit the reverse indications of
isolated danger marks; they indicate safe water
all around the marking. The desired shape for
these buoys is spherical though a pillar or spar
buoy can be substituted. The day markings are
red and white vertical stripes. Pillar and spars
in this instance include a single red sphere top-
mark. The light is white with a choice of iso-
phase, occulting or long flash (one per 10 seconds)
patterns. They can serve for center lines and:'·
mid-channels. They can also substitute for cardi-
nal or lateral markings to "indicate a landfall."ll
Special marks are "not primarily intended to
assist navigation but ... indicate a special area
or feature."12 In a variety of instances they
serve to maintain a keep out or keep awayfunc-
tion. Primary areas of use include ODAS marks,
Traffic Separation Zones, spoil 'grounds, military
activities areas, cables and pipelines, and rec-
reation zones. They are always yellow. Their
shape is of optional design and may include can,
spherical, conical, pillar, or spar buoys. Any
topmark would be a yellow X. Lights of yellow
hue are permitted and can follow any rhythm that
93
is not used by cardinal, isolated danger, and
safe water marks.
New danger marks includes those not listed
in nautical publications to date. 13 They would
include a recent ship wreck or newly found under-
water obstacles. If lighted they exhibit "an
appropriate cardinal or lateral VQkFI or QkFI
light character. ,,14 If a duplicate mark is in-
stalled it will be identical to the first. A
racon with the code letter D may be added to
the mark. A new danger mark may be a cardinal
mark in no way different from established cardi-
nal marks except for not being listed in nautical
publications due to the freshness of the in-
stallation.
Even though some comments comparing IALA
with past buoyage efforts have been made, there
is value in directly comparing IALA with USB and
with IMC. The comparison with IMC contains a
prologue to the comparison as well as the com-
parison. The prologue comprises a review of two
major systems that constitute a working out of
IMC principles: the buoyage and beacon age of
Canada and of the U.S. A brief summary of the
view of J.E. Bury earlier in this chapter also
affords a comparative view of this topic.
In USB there were eight standard topmarks
and combinations in the official system; this
does not include variant forms by the nations
subscribing to USB.IS The new system has just
four types and combinations of topmarks. 16 Seem-
ingly! widespread variations are not found in
IALA. 7 Ogivaland spindle buoys have been
eliminated from IALA.18 They may possibly have
some optional value but specific inclusion of
them is absent. 19 Pillar buoys, which were
unnamed and secondary in USB, are now primary.2D
Cardinal and lateral systems now form a single
buoy age network (though a system may center on
94
lateral and make little use of cardinal mark-
ings).21 Black, which was one ~f th~ two pr~­
mary colors for non-light functIons In USB, IS
relegated to a substitute role; green now be-
comes a basic color - along with red - for both
day and night use. 22 Wreck markings ~o longer
form a special category; they are subJect to
regular danger markings: iSOlated dangers ~n~
new dangers. 23 Fixed beacons become a defInIte
and integral part of IALA; they are not a periph-
eral marking. 24 Middle-ground and mid-channel
subdivisions of USB are not found in IALA; how-
ever, lateral and ~ardinal messages are available
to fulfill the functions formerly carried out by
those types of buoys.2S The wide spectrum of
lighted messages with accompanying imprecise
characteristics has been replaced by a much more
coherent and precise system. The isolated dan-
ger buoy which existed in USB as a minor cate-
gory developes a major role in IALA. 26 The use
of white buoys is now restricted to recreational
boating and bathing zones. 27
The principles of IMC can be reduced to a
few general norms. Those principles are suffi-
ciently broad that a host of national systems
could be adduced from them. Essentially, IMC
called for red to starboard and black to port;
this practice was established before the wide-
spread usage of port and harbor lights, and be-
fore lighted buoys werecommon. 28 Buoy shapes -
when required - used cylindrical buoys for star-
board and can for port; topmarks, if any, were
cone-shaped for starboard, and cylinder-shaped
for port. 29 Numbers and letters were optional. 3D
Wrecks were marked with green buoys with white
inscriptions. 31 Both Canada and the U.S. con-
form to the guidelines of IMC rather closely.
Port-handbuoys for the U.S. include can for
unlighted, and a specially designed buoy for
light positions; Canada follows a similar
9S
'I
r: i
pattern except that it has retained the spar
buoy.32 For starboard positions, Canada in-
cludes the lighted buoy, conical buoys and spar
with pointed top; the U.S. uses a nun buoy and
the light buoy but no spars as a regular and
standard buoy.33
for light colors, Canada applies green ex-
clusively for port and red for starboard; the U.S.
exhibits green or white on port and red or white
on starboard. 34 Canada is more specific in the
spectrum of light phase characterisitics and al-
lows for color options on each side. 35 White
may have been retained for lateral usage in the
U.S. because of its greater range. Mid-channel
buoys are near-identical for both countries; the
only appreciable difference is in the exact mes-
sage of the Morse Code character. 36 Junction buoy
message symbols are also close in appearance for
the two nations; one exception in this component
is the red-onlY meaning and green-only regulations
in Canada, and the color option in the U.S.37 The
U.S. system can, in crowded waters. establish
specific message characteristics so as to elimi-
nate confusion in light messages. Neither nation
employed green buoys on a regular basis before
IALA. Both have established standards for day-
beacons and daymarks, and these correspond to
buoyage requirements for messages. 38
The long-standing and deeply-rooted difference
on whether red is to starboard or to port will
in all likelihood continue and never be resolved.
IALA recognizes and clarifies that distinction
on placement of color in a manner more rational
and - more or less - agreeable or tolerable by
all parties. But IALA has not eliminated the
pt'oblcm. IALA elevates the cardinal buoyage con-
cept to a higher and more equal footing with the
1at era 1. IMC included a cardinal system as well,
but it was based on existing European practices and
was unknown in the Western Hemisphere. 39 This
96
historic difference may continue but at a reduced
level since cardinal buoys come into play in many
nations at least for specific usage.
Topmarks, though provided in IMC, have been
rare in the Western Hemisphere. They may be more
common in the future in the Eastern Hemisphere
than in the Westenl, but an increase of topmarks
is coming about in many nations under IALA.40
Topmarks have become rational and easier to un-
derstand than in the past when individual sys-
tems and a complex official systems were both
in operation. 4l IALA does not address the large
system of daymarks found in some IMC nations,
but that practice grew up independently of IMC
as well. 42
A strikin~ resonance between IMC-derived
systems and that of IALA is simplicity. The
official and not so official options and alter-
natives of USB are being phased out, and a sys-
tem more easily comprehended has resulted. The
North American systems have long exhibited a
basic simplicity, and they are now joined - and
strengthened - by the work of IALA.
Endnotes for l5A and l5B
lAll of the materials in this section are
from publications of the International Hydro-
graphic Bureau: Systems of Maritime Buoyage and
Beaconage (SP # 38), 1st ed., 1956, and the 2nd
ed. of the same publication, though under an
altered ti tIe, Maritime Buoyage, 1971. (Except
where otherwise noted.
2
"One or more relatively small objects of
characteristic shape or colour (or both), placed
on top of a navigation mark (or buoy) to identify
it" (IDAMN, 2-6-255).
3Systems of Maritime Buoyage, p. 8.
97
i ,!
rII
45MB, p. 8.
5-75MB, p. 9.
8Adapted from 5MB, p. 15.
9SMB , p. 10.
10SMB , p.
11 SMB , p.
125MB, p. 10.
13"A light showing intermittently with a
regular periodicity" (!DAMN, 2-5-105).
145MB, p. 11.
15M " B 78arltlme uoyage, p. .
16MB , p. 28.
17MB, p. 71.
l8Translated as Beacon Buoy in IHB.
19MB , p. 33.
20MB , p. 34.
21 MB , p. 35.
22 MB, p. 23.
23As described in IHB publications (SMB, MB),
CANS, USCG Light Lists; see also Proceedings,
Volume III, pp. 331-376 of IMC.
24 MB, p. 11.
25-27MB , p. 11.
2RM. . f l' t A. d d W tlnlstry 0 ranspor, 1 s an a erways
Directorate, Ottawa, 1975.
29-30 USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1979.
pp. xi-xii.
98
Endnotes for l5C
l IALA Supplement #6, p. 4.
2-5 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 4, 6-7.
6 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 4-5, 7.
7 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 5 and 7 for entire
paragraphs.
8 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 5 and 7. According
to Bury, p. 142, propane-fueled lights can not
flash more than 90 flashes per minute though the
flash rates are given as 120 or 100 flashes per
minute (VQkFl).
9-l0 IALA Supplement #6, p. 6 and remainder of
paragraph.
ll-12 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 5 and 6 and re-
mainder of paragraph.
l3-14 IALA Supplement #6, p. 7.
15 IHB , 5MB, 1st. ed., 1956.
l6 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 4-6.
l7See above, p. 7; at least a strong implication
is found here and in the underlying philosophy of
IALA buoyage system which is to greatly simplify
the buoyage systems in use.
l8 No reference to them in the existing literature.
19Some options are available in the IALA buoyage
system but they are limited.
20A buoy unnamed but listed as a possible option
in IHB publications is identified in the IALA sys-
tem as a pillar buoy. It and the spar are listed
more frequently than any other buoys.' The pillar
buoy would seem to have an edge over the spar due
to its greater visibility. DMA, extracting from
British hydrographic literature, describes the buoy
as being one of several shapes.
99
I
;,i
r
!
21 Garrett, p. 8.
22 See Supplement # 6, especially p. 7; North
American systems continued to include black as
a primary color along with red until the imple-
mention of IALA.
23 Bury, p. 139.
24 IALA Supplement #6, p. 1 and "fold-out."
25 Rury , p. 14), and IALA Supplement #6, p. 7.
26 IALA Supplement #6, pp. 6-7.
27 IHB, 5MB, 1st ed., pp. 11, 16.
28See Appendix II.
29-31 See above.
32-38CANS , centerfold; USCG AN, p. 13.
39 IMC, Vol. III, pp. 333-335.
40 ror example, U.S. isolated danger buoys
41 See provisions in IALA Supplement #6.
42
ror example, in Norway.
100
•
..
PART D
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL MARKINGS
l6A The Problem of Methodology,
With Analogic Discursive
This study of transportation markings is in-
tended to be world wide in scope and integrative
in method. Mlile this monograph could have been
global without an integrative basis, its value
would have been considerably reduced if it had
been nothing more than a nation-by-nation survey
of markings. The method employed in this study
has proved workable in many instances since
marine markings share many points of commonality,
in spite of visible national and regional dif-
ferences. The integrative method of the work has
not meant that divergent systems and markings
have been forced into a procrustean vise that
suppresses and grinds down local uniqueness for
the sake of the over arching system. This sys-
tem has proved to be sufficiently flexible and
open that variations can be included without
losing or obscuring the international and inte-
grative foundations.
The hopes of the writer have therefore been
realized for many of the topics in the study; the
treatment of buoys, electronic and acoustical
signals has, it is hoped, portrayed the inter-
nationally shared character of marine markings.
But upon turning to fixed visual markings, and
especially unlighted markings, it soon became ap-
parent that these markings were a province apart
from previously studied areas and defied an over
arching approach to markings. Fixed visual mark-
ings mocked, as it were, the writer's effort to
precisely create a system of markings and method-
ology that could encompass all types of marine
101
il..
'I'
markings through a single, simple approach; if
the methodological approach were followed inflexi-
bly, then those markings would be slighted that
were of limited numerical significance. The in-
tention of the study has not been to .simultaneous-
ly ignore or gloss over the richness of variety
found in isolated and localized markings.
The principal problem with fixed visual mark-
ings - in the context of this study - stemmed from
the fact that a small number of nations dominated
various areas of such markings. This fact in it-
self does not affect the character of the study
and the methods selected to carry out the research;
for example, a nation could dominate a component
of markings without that marking losing its uni-
versality. Conical buoys are found in nearly every
maritime nation; even if one nation owned half of
the world's fleet of conical buoys that would not,
in itself, eliminate the global nature of such buoys.
The difficulty arises with those aids to navi-
gation which are distinctly local, or at most
regional. l It seems to this writer that a serious
comprehensive study can. not ignore a significant
number of markings even if these are found in only
one nation; otherwise the monograph cannot honest-
ly be called complete. A method needs to be found
wherein this area of special markings can be in-
cluded in a study that primarily centers on mark-
ings that can be formed into an integrative whole
and which originally did not consider the problem
;lJ)d challenge of local and regional forms of mark-
Ings. Perhaps the problem of method and a possi-
ble solution can be better seen and understood if
one examines an area that is more familiar to many
readers than transportation markings but illus-
trates a similar problem of methodology. On~ such
area would be coastal recreational housing. Not
only may such an examination provide a more familiar
and commOn example, but the methodological impli-
cations can then be applied to the less familiar
102
study of transportation markings: The lesson from
the familiar reflects upon and illuminates the
less common.
If researchers were to undertake a study of
the architecture of vacation housing along world
coasts, they might assume that such housing is
dominated by vast and sleek developments of re-
sort hotels and condominiums. The reseach be-
ginning with this premise might then build up an
appropriate methodology; the methodological prin-
ciple would perhaps center on the international
and interrelated nature of such housing. And to
some degree this contention would be workable.
Condominiums and resort hotels are growing in
numbers and spreading to more and more areas.
This type of housing may include a limited number
of architecturally significant edifices, but
many other such structures are not significant.
These lesser structures are in all likelihood
frequently boxlike in visual outline, contain-
ing nearly identical rooms and suites, and of
such blandness as is likely to create a response
of yawn-permeated indifference: rooms and lounges
and pools and bars set out in neat, geometric
patterns of mediocrity numbing soul and spirit;
a few spasms of creative design barely marring
the symmetrical and numbing sameness.
It would not be terribly difficult for a
research of beach housing to easily describe this
form of habitation as it spreads its enveloping
tentacles over sand and surf. But the research
if it was of a serious and comprehensive char- J
acter, would soon encounter a problem both with
the matter under study and with the research
method. Not all coastal housing is of the form
herein described. Whether the resort settlements
are of bland or of significant design, they do
not represent all of the housing along ocean and
bay fr?nt. There is a second kind of housing;
and thIS second level, though declining in numbers,
103
I
lis still significant even if it is only local or
regional. This form of lodging consists of the
traditional cottages, bungalows and cabins. Any
study purporting to be a comprehensive and inter-
national examination of housing must include the
form that can be easily described in broad brush
strokes and it must also study that type'which
must be given individual care and precise examina-
tion.
Vast blocks of resort housing can be dismissed
in a few general comments, and this same treatment
can be applied to similar housing in country after
country. But when one considers the traditional
and individual cottages and cabins it becomes ap-
parent that the description required for a small
measure of housing is far more than what is needed
to describe the masses of resort lodgings. Even
a brief glance at the traditional forms reveals
a wide spectrum of differences.
Traditional coast dwellings do not have an
assembly-line appearance; they are notably in-
dividualist. Older beach dwellings include shacks,
cabins, houses, shanties, and bungalows of uncer-
tain vintage and of yet more doubtful architec-
tural inspiration. These habitations have little
in common save for a certain stained, bleached,
and battered character; providing they have stood
and swayed and held back enough storms long enough.
Some, as if occupied by old mariners, appear neat
and tidy, with every shingle in place, every bit
of trim freshly painted, every flower bed mathe-
matically laid out; as if bearing a landlocked
resonance to a long-departed sailing schooner
newly holystoned. But other seaside housing bears
a distinctly contradictory look. Some of this
vintage simply and amply testifies to years and
decades of neglect; shingles askew, weed-enveloped
foundation stones, the very structure leaning away
from the battering winds and salt-permeated air.
Yet others, of more recent construction, stare
104
bravely with unsullied eye, or uncomprehendingly,
at the deceptively bland sea waiting the first
onslaughts. But this montage of habitations,
whether holystoned or battered, produces a most
untidy and singular appearance. No unvarying
lines of boxlike buildings, or of uniform furnish-
ing, or of monotony are found. Instead, a rich
and riotous assemblage approximating that of
humankind itself is heaped up upon oceanfront
and bayside.
So far, there would be two major differences
at work in such a study: There are more condo-
miniums than cabins, but the smaller number of
cabins needs more attention in description than
the more numerous resorts. These two points af-
fect whatever method of study is finally developed;
however, there is a third point which is as impor-
tant for this study of architecture. Even though
the bland near-standardization is increasingly
an ubiquitous band of odds and ends represents
more than an anachronistic vignette of local
color,.2 They require attention in a study that
claims to be worldwide in scope. Therefore a
dual method, or better, a method within a method,
must be designed and constructed. Special cases
need a place as much as trend-setting forms. Of
course, every single cabin existing in isolation
and solitary splendor could not be included,
but all significant local and regional forms
can and should be included.
168 The Problem of Methodology: Towards A Solution
This analogic discursive returns to the scope
of the monograph. This study, despite any origi-
nal and avowed aim of concentrating on the ex-
clusively international and integrative forms
of markings, can not ignore isolated and regional
types of markings any more than the hypothetical
study of recreational housing can ignore the out-
of-the-way cabin and bungalow. This presupposes
lOS
i.:
that these specialized markings are of signifi-
cance in at least one maritime nation. The book's
method must then be altered sufficiently so that
the international, integrative, and overarching
features can be maintained while attending to
special considerations dictated hy the limited-
location markings. Glohal and local markings
both belong to this study. The parallel with
architecture is not intended to suggest that this
writer views many of the common markings as being
akin to the blight found along developed coast-
lines. Markings, even when produced in great.
numbers of similar design, can retain an in-
terest for the viewer and, in some cases, a cer-
tain charm undimmed by their profusion. Markings
rarely project the bland, blighted and becalmed
image of poorly designed dwellings. Perhaps any
mass-produced object can be pleasing to the eye
if marked by simplicity and functional form, well
designed and carefully crafted.
What are some of the major practical results
of an alteration in methods that can be drawn at
this point?
1. I t wi 11 be necessary to speak in more general
terms and to reduce to some extent the level of
precision possible in a more unitary study.
2. The monograph can not represent a tight,
un i form "package" of international markings. In-
stead a messy and untidy aura may be observed
about the work. The end result· of such a study
may well combine segments of distinctly symmetri-
cal precision with other segments that resemble
the flotsam and jetsame left by a receding tide.
The final result may be akin to glossy and glit-
tering resorts up against tumble-down cottages
and cabins.
3. The work, with its uneven and uncertain
form and structure, may yet be seen as a resonance
to the human society from which it springs and
and which can be jumbled, confused and nearly
indecipherable in itself. It is hoped the work
106
will not be altogether indecipherable but will
emit some measure of clarity, simplicity, and
rational order.
4. The monograph with its multi-lineal method-
ological framework is universal and comprehen-
sive. It includes both what is common glohally
and what is common only locally.
S. The seemingly undue emphasis on North
America, Western Europe, and Scandinavia is not
caused so much by cultural factors - at least by
intent - but rather by the predominance of so
many specialized markings in those areas. Those
same areas contain many of the major sea lanes
and merchant flee·ts, and both lanes and ships
are often congested.
What are the nations and the types of mark-
ings that notably stand outside the major thrust
of marine markings? They include the U.S. for
minor lights; the German Federal Republic and
Canada for non-structural daybeacons (perches,
poles and small trees); Finland for edgemarks;
Norway and the U.S. for structural beacons
(France, Canada, Finland and the Netherlands
also have substantial quantities of beacons).
Endnotes for 16
lIt is possible that the IALA buoyage sys-
tem will eliminate some, or much, of the diver-
sity. But the literature of the sea and of
markings indicates the continuation of much of
the present variety in fixed beacons. The new
systems give color and light characteristics
for fixed beacons but few details in the di-
mensions of shape because of great disparity
found in fixed sea markings. For example,
Norway, a member of and participant in IALA,
continues its very extensive system of un-
l~ghted beacons with few if any changes; this
WIll probably prove true of other nations as
107
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\.
I
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well. In summary, sea marks may never exhi bi t a
single and narrow range of designs.
2This is not meant to suggest that no new
traditional housing is to be found along coast-
lines. See for example, "Small Pleasures" in
Architectural Record (Mid-April, 1986, pp. 90-
97) which describes the Rosewalk Cottages in
Seaside, Florida.
108
i[.,.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
FIXED LIGHTED MARKINGS
17A Determining the Division of Fixed Lighted
Marine Transportation Markings
Into Major and Minor Categories
It is a common practice to divide fixed lights
into major and minor divisions. This is true of
IALA and various national maritime agencies. While
the meaning of "major" and of "minor" may be un-
derstood in practice (people know a major light
when they see one, or a minor light when they see
one), there is considerable difficulty in
stating with precision the distinction between
them.
For the IALA survey, minor lights are those
with a candlepower intensity of under 100, and
major lights are all above 100cp.l This criter-
ion does not include structures or locations.
But the the IALA buoyage system has much more ex-
tensive criteria. That system includes all marine
markings except lighthouses, lightships, large
navigational buoys, and the special categories of
sector lights and leading lights/daymarkings. 2
While it does not employ the terms major and minor,
those aforementioned types would be considered as
major aids (except for leading lights and day-
marks).3 These criteria include locational and
structural factors, and combining them with the
division proposed by the survey it provides a
substantial criterion for determiningt~e classi-
fication of various aids to navigation.
Is it possible to be more complete about what
constitutes a major aid and a minor aid? If a
marking in question is a lighthouse then some
degree of precision is possible. IDAMN describes
109
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a lighthouse simply as major, but that proves to
be circular and has little value. 4 Traditionally
lighthouses have been imposing structures, usually
a tower on an island, rock or headland. More im-
portant, a lighthouse has a powerful light which
can be seen perhaps 20 or more miles away.S
Usually the location is on - or off - a coast-
line and not inland. One can further say that a
light of the major category perhaps represents a
major geographical feature and not a narrow, re-
stricted object or channel. Some nations, includ-
ing Canada and the U.S., designate major lights
by type style in light list publications. 6 These
lights are nearly always coastal, though some of
a reduced variety may be in major harbors and
bays.7
Lightships have traditionally been floating
lighthouse, where fixed markings would not be
practical. 8 Hence, they are clearly major in
function and are not found in sheltered waters ,
nor do they perform a limited function. Large
navig~tion ~uoys (LNB) are, in turn, replacements
for lIghtshIpS and are also major aids. 9
Conversely, minor aids are of much lower
light intensity and are less physically imposing,
and of a less permanent and more standardized
design and construction. Few are classified
as coastal, though many are at the approaches of
harbors and bays. In those nations which divide
light lists into seacoasts, and harbor, river
an~bay sec~ions, it is quite easy to distinguish
maJor and mInor categories. 10
The terms major and minor are not affixed
to many navigation aids. Instead, a variety of
terms are used which may create confusion as to
the l~v~l of.an aid. In some nations major lights
are dIVIded Into two types: primary and secon-
dary.ll The primary lights include lightships
as well, and these are the landfall lights and
most significant markings on a coastline. 12
110
A secondary designation indicates lights still
classified as major though of somewhat reduced
significance. 13 In the U.S. the secondary major
lights are a limited group.14 lOMAN refers to
landfall lights, and that is what the term im-
plies: those lights first seen when coming in
from the open sea. lS They are equipped with
powerful lights and can hence be seen at a
great distances..l6 Other terms include "Feu de
Jalonnement," which is a coastal light marking
much akin to landfall lights .17 It is "par-
ticularly used with reference to marks placed
on a long straight coastline devoid of many
natural landmarks."18 France also employs
"Phare" for major lights. 19
Minor lights go by a variety of terms.
Channel, river, and, harbor lights are the most
common terms. 20 France refers to an unlighted
beacon as a balise, and channel lights - the
most common among minor lig1 s - as a "Feu de
Rive.,,2l The French also apply the phrase "Amer
Remarquable" to certain aids, though this is
more often related to a major aid; it is par-
ticularly easily seen, by virtue of its form
s i ze 0 r col our . II 22 '
In summary, large imposing structures with
a powerful light along the approaches to a
coast or major off-coast body of water are
generally major. They represent a significant
geographical point, and they are largely Inde-
pendent of other markings. Minor markings are
smaller, lower-powered, often standardized and
affiliated with similar markings. They repre-
sent a small and restricted danger or channel
or other object to the mariner. Buoys are
associated with the minor category; lightships
and large navigational buoys are "stand-ins"
for large fixed markings.
III
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178 Classification of Lighted Marine Markings and Explanatory Notes
221 Major Structures (Lighthouses): Sea-girt
2210 Towers on Rocks (submerged and above water)
2211 Towers on Skeleton Structures: Screw-pile Towers
2212 Towers on Skeleton Structures: Off-shore Platforms
2213 Conventional Towers on Special Marine Foundations
2214 Conventional Houses on Special Marine Foundations
222 Major Structures: Land-based Towers
2220 Tall Coastal Towers
2221 Towers on Promontories and Headlands
2222 Skeleton Towers
2223 Framework Towers
223 Major Structures: Non-towers/Composite Structures
2230 Houses
2231 Skeleton Towers
2232 Buildings
2233 Composite: House on Structures
2234 Composite: Tower Attached to House/Building
-----=l
.....
.....
VI
224 Minor/Lesser Structures: Multi-member
2240 Tripod
2241 Pyramid
2242 Pile Structure: Marine Site
2243 Pile Structure: Land-based Site
2244 Skeleton Structure
2245 Dolphin
2246 Tripodal Tower
2247 Tubular Tower
2248 Skeleton Tower
225 Minor/Lesser Light Structures: Single-Member I (Slender)
2250 Spindle
2251 Spar
2252 Pipe
2253 Post
2254 Pole
2255 Single Pile
2256 Stake
2257 Mast
Sections of this chapter on message systems
and structural types afford a substantial review
of fixed and lighted markings. Nonetheless. the
terseness andskeletalnature of the classifica-
tion require some brief notes to further clarify
and expand an understanding of markings.
Rocks. submerged and above water (2220).are
not to be equated with islands. By rock is meant
a solid object large enough for a structure to
be built upon it but with little if any rock or
other surface remaining. In some instances the
rock may be altogether submerged. and even the
lower portion of the light tower itself may be
underwater at all times; in other situations the
rock may be showing at low tides.
Towers and superstructures of this type
(2221) can vary greatly in appearance. The point
of c9mmonality will be the foundation of pilings
driven into the sand or other terrain. In all
of these instances the upper structure presents
a distinctly skeletal appearance topped by some
form of tower.
A contemporary version of the skeletal struc-
ture is the offshore platform (2212) They ex-
hibit a variety of designs but they share a visual
resemblance to one another: this resemblance
stems from the foundation of massive pillars
sunk into the sea bottom.
Caissons and cribs forms the foundations for
2213 and 2214 markings. Caissons are of several
types; nonetheless they are essentially a single
type of foundation upon which a conventional
tower or house can be erected. A crib founda-
tion. a more sturdy foundation design. provides
an essentially basic type of foundation.
Tall Coastal Towers (2220) is a catch-all
term which includes towers of varying heights.
construction materials and designs. The term
as used here includes only enclosed towers.
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Towers on Promontories and Headlands is a
"blanket" term for the shorter towers on headlands
and other elevations. These markings are desig-
nated 2221. 2222 and 2223 denote Skeleton Towers
and Framework Towers respectively. The terms are
to some degree self-explanatory; the differences
between skeleton and framework may be a semantic
difference reflecting national usage. It may
also suggest a nuanced change between towers that
are slender and open and towers that are more
bulky though lacking enclosed design.
Houses(2230) is a vague term. Perhaps, at
most, it can be said that this refers to buildings
with a house or near-house appearance which have
a tower or raised portion exhibiting a light. A
structure with a distinctly tower-like form or
a composite form would be excluded.
2231, Skeleton Structures, is a yet more vague
and uncertain expression. It can be said to in-
dicate those structures which are not distinct
design types whether tower, house, or other form.
It includes an object which is not enclosed and
which fails to create an image of an enclosed
building. It may be only a semantic usage and may
indicate an undifferentiated structure. It may
suggest a small or bulky construction lacking a
sufficient height to be designated a tower.
Buildings (2232) approaches the ultimate in
vagueness. In marine parlance bUilding suggests
a non-tower, a non-house, a non-skeleton structure.
It can include various forms of buildings whether
square or rectangular or other shape. Only a
small number of light supports are listed as build-
ings without further clarification or qualification.
Identification of such a structure by color and
daymark makes immediate and precise identification
more of a certain prospect.
Composite: House on Structures, 2233, is a
"ca tch-all" term which includes various types of
116
of houses constructed upon unspecified kinds of
structures. The structures in question may be
an integral part of the light or they may have
existed before the establishment of a given light.
Structures may include piers, pilings, pile
structures, and other underpinnings.
Because of a number of towers that are found
near various types of dwellings and buildings -
there was a perceived need to adopt an umbrella
approach to the category of Composite: Tower At-
tached to House/Building (2134), "Attached"
can mean several things: towers growing out of
the roof of a house; towers attached vertically
to a house or other building; towers adjoining
a building though not integrally attached; towers
connected to other buildings through tunnels or
breezeways. In short,2234 includes towers
clearly attached to other buildings but in a
fashion that can take various forms.
The category of Minor/Lesser Structures:
Multi-member, 224, is a loose amalgam of diverse
elements. The connecting links are the several
members that each of these is comp0sed of, and
t~e lack of enclosures as found in many major
light structures. The problem of determining
whether overlapping terms are semantic or struc-
tural differences is not easily resolved.
Canadian Aids to Navigation provides assistance
in explaining this part of the classification.
Among the specific problems in this segment are
th~ possible differences between Tripod and
Tr~podal Towers(2240 and 2246 respe" i vely) .
TrIpod may be a three-legged structur~ with a
"true" tripod shape; Tripodal may be of much
larger dimensions and no more than a sugges-
tion of a tripod appearance. Pyramids (2241)
can be of rock, rubble, or timber framework;
they may be either an openwork structure or an
enclosed form. Skeleton Structures(2244) which
are also considered under Major Structures, and
117
Ii
Tubular Structures (2247) suggest sir.1ilar con-
structions though one may be of piping or tub-
ing, the other of flat steel or wood construction.
Skeleton Towers (2248)are perhaps much like those
of major lights though of reduced stature. A
dolphin (2245), in many definitions, is a series
of several pilings in a tapered arrangement fas-
tened together at the top by cables or other bind-
ings. Marine Pile Structures(2242, 2243) are of
piling or timbers in a roughly rectangular or
square form; pile structures on land may be simi-
lar to marine forms though adapted to materials
and construction techniques of land foundations.
If semantic ambiguities are latently present
with other portions of this classification they
are rampant in 225 and 226. A lengthy study
could be made of the single-member forms alone.
This compiler has located more than a dozen single-
member markings, and this listing is not defini-
tive. It is possible that the division into more
slender and less slender may help to distinguish
between various forms of Single-Member Markings.
This has been done in this classification, though
the dividing line is at best uncertain and may be
arbitrary. Obelisks, Pylons, Pillars, Pedestals,
and Columns represent bulkier parts of the sec-
tions while Stake, Spindle, Spar, Post, Pile, and
Pipe are the more lean types of Single-Member
Markings. Cylinders can be either of this cate-
gory, or among the enclosed markings types, since
Cylinders can be hollow and equipped with a door;
this makes them mOre akin to a small Hut than to
a Post; however, cylinders are included only with
the enclosed markings in the present classifica-
tion; further research may clarify the status of
the cylinder and expand its presence in the study.
Enclosed minor structures should perhaps be
subdivided as well. A possible point of demarca-
tion might be between dwelling-like or hollow
forms versus solid and bulky or filled yarieties.
118
But at this preliminary stage a single category
is provided. Huts (2270) are presumably small
house-like structures; the term is commonly
associated with Australia. Small house, 2271.
a term found in the U.S., is not necessarily a
house at all. Many of these traditional "houses"
are three to four feet (about one meter) square
and perhaps 10 to 15 feet (3-5 m.) high. The
expression hut might be more acceptable than
house. Cairns (2272) are heaps of rubble or of
masonry; in some instances Pyramids (see 2241)
may be similar to cairns in materials though
it is more shaped than cairns.
Beacon, 2273, is a most troublesome term and
yet it is necessary to include it. Beacon can
include many of the components of this classi-
fication and it may also be a general term merely
indicating the supporting structure, of whatever
form, of a minor or lesser light. It can also
represent a specific type of marking; for example,
in IHB and IALA publications, it is a spindle,
spar or perch. It is included in this classifica-
tion to satisfy any need for it as a marking that
may exist in some nations. It is possible that
Beacon is a blanket term or it may simply refer
to undifferentiated aids to navigation lacking a
distinct form.
Many minor lights are found on composite
structures (228). These combinations include
various supports already found in this classifi-
cation. Major forms include Small Houses, Huts
or Towers(2233). Structures can include Pile
Structures, Dolphins, or Tripods. The variety of
possible combinations proves difficult to chart.
There are finally isolated markings (229) that
fall outside the above described categories despite
the broadness of these categories. Two such mark-
ings are the Stand (2290) and the Arm l229l). The
Stand is difficult to define; it may be akin to
119
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l
Single-Member markings or to composite forms.
For the present classification it seems best to
classify it as a special and separate form. The
Arm is probably attached to some other structure
though this may be, for example, a port building,
not an aid to navigation structure. It can also
be viewed as a composite structure. The last
marking in this category is that of the French
L~ghted Bank. (2292). This aid consists of mUltiple
lIghts set In a metal railing (in some instances
it resembles a U.S. guard rail) and are found in
harbor areas. 23
17C Descriptive Treatment of Structures Types
A study of types of towers for structures of
marine lights is not easily accomplished. There
are no international agreements on sizes and shapes;
and as a result of varying needs, designs, cul-
tures, the resulting spectrum of structures is
nearly bewildering. There are some general prin-
ciples and guidelines that can lead to some under-
standing of the types of structures. One such
guideline was proposed by a pair of lighthouse
engineers writing in the first years of this cen-
tury; the engineers in question, W.T. Douglass
and N.G. Gedye, wrote their essay for the Ency-
clopedia Britannica edition of 1910~11.1 The publi-
cation in question, and the age of the essay, may
appear to be questionable for this study, but this
is not necessarily the case. The early twentieth
century represents the late stage of major light-
house development. Britain represented the most
significant center for lighthouse design and con-
struction, and the encyclopedia's article is
lengthy, authoritative, and written at a time
when li~hthouse phenomena were of considerable in-
terest. Both Douglass and Gedye were practicing
engineers; this was especially true of Douglass. 3
Douglass and Gedye divided all lighthouses
120
into two sections: wave-swept towers, and land
structures. 4 The sea-girt towers, though a dis-
tinct minority, provide the far more spectacular
and even romantic portion, while the land coun-
terparts, though somewhat resembling the ex-
posed versions, provided less challenge in de-
sign, construction, and building techniques. The
"front-line" towers are either enclosed - of
masonry or of cast-iron panels - or openwork
structures of a Victorian-era style of the
modern oil-well-influenced offshore platforms.
The remainder are·caisson-based structures
which permit of more conventional superstruc-
tures. S
It is more difficulties to further divide
land towers into subcategories; one such possible
approach is provided by the U.S. Coast Guard.
The Aids to Navigation Manual of that organiza-
tion (1964 edition) separate land towers into
those on islands and headlands, and those on
low-lying elevations. 6 This is not a precise
differentiation and can easily degenerate into
arbitrariness. But it can at least suggest the
massive soaring towers on the one hand - those
towers which hold the gaze of postcard photogra-
phers and seascape artists - and on the other
hand the possibly less photogenic short and even
squat towers on high elevations. In turning from
major towers to structures of minor lights one
finds yet more uncertainty. Some of these struc-
tures display lights that are definitely minor,
are of greatly reduced candlepower; though the
same structure may be found supporting a light
defined as major by IALA but which is of lesser
significance and not a landfall light. Despite
the difficulties, some progress toward defining
and classifying structures of minor and lesser
lights is possible. 7
There is a limited range of design
121
I'
i'
L
possibilities for towers exposed to direct action
of waves. Among enclosed wave-exposed or sea-girt
towers, many, if not most, are of a cylindrical
or conical shape with a tapered base. Conical
towers, which are probably the most common, are cy-
linders with a slight to moderate upward slope. 8
Cylindrical towers are of a more straight design
though they frequently, as in the case of the great
landfall lights of Britain, have a very pronounced
taper in the lower section. 9 Most of these in-
stallations were built in the nineteenth century,
a few in the eighteenth century, and an even smaller
number in this century.IO These towers are almost
uniformly of stone construction without coverings
of stucco, paint, or other substances; the action
of the sea would prevent anything beyond the solid
unadorned surface to survive. Towers fastened to
larger outcroppings or small islands are more akin
to land installations than to sea-battered towers. ll
There are other forms of exposed towers in
addition to solid towers. Two of these are skele-
ton structures or towers. The older versions of
this type consists of a tower on iron pilings;
the ill-fated Maplin Light in the Thames is one
such example. 12 The "popular" lantern house on
a "square pyramidal skeleton tower on pile foun-
dation" is a familar feature of the U.S. Florida
Keys, and it bears a substantial resemblance to
the Maplin type. 13 In both instances, iron piles
were driven into the subsurface terrain upon
which the tower, dwelling, and lantern house
were built. 14 Several smaller versions of this
type were built in the early years of this cen-
tury in the Florida Keys.IS More recently a new
form of skeleton structure has been placed at sea.
The modern version is designed from offshore oil
platforms. 16 It is usually located in shallow
waters and serves as a replacement for lightships.
It consists of a tower or house on a superstruc-
ture which is in turn mounted on £our massive
122
pilings. The elevation of the light can be as
much as 100 feet (30.S m.) above the surface of
the water .17 A final type of exposed structure
is the caisson-based light. The caisson, and
there are several varieties, is assembled on
land, towed to its site and then sunk. 18 This
presents a firm foundation which allows for a
more conventional tower or tower/house struc-
ture. While some caisson-based structures are
in exposed waters, they are more generally found
near the coastline and do not necessarily belong
to the first line of landfall lights. 19
Douglass and Gedye note that land towers are
of normal design character,20 and while this
may be true - in comparison with exposed towers -
Tall Coastal Towers represent a special category
and bear at least limited relationship to marine
locations. It is not possible to say, for ex-
ample, that this type of tower is 100 or 150
feet in height. But judging by the height of
low~lying towers in various locations it would
appear that such towers are from about 150 to
nearly 200 feet in height. 2l Towers on even
modest promontories rarely exceed 100 feet, and
some may not exceed 50 feet or even 25 feet. 22
One may very guardedly suggest 100 feet as an
approximate minimum for tall coastal towers.
The range of possible shapes for land towers
is obviously greater than for sea-girt towers,
though design and construction limitations are
still operative. Many or most of the towers are
conical or cylindrical in shape; conical are
probably the most common form. Other designs
include octagonal, pyramidal and hexagonal
towers. 23 Composite shapes are in use though
relatively rare. Composite forms include
truncated-pyramidal-octagonal, whLch'may be
the ultimate in combining independent designs. 24
Nearly all tall towers are enclosed though a
somewhat rare skeleton tower can be found in
123
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I
I
in use. 25 Despite differences in shape and con-
struction materials, these towers present a quick-
ly identified mark from the sea; hence their
value as primary landfall markings.
The types of towers common to low elevations
are also found at other locations. Tall coastal
towers include a restricted range of forms, but
lower elevations include a broad of shapes -
which includes shapes associated with tall towers
(of course there is a significant difference in
height). Towers for other land-based lighthouses
include hexagonal, circular, cylindrical, tri-
angular, square, octagonal, rectangular, quadran-
gular, and conical. 26 Some others are truncated:
conical, pyramidal, and octagonal. Some are com-
posite; these include truncated-octagona1-pyra-
midal. Again, many towers are enclosed though
some are skeletal. Skeleton towers come in square,
pyramidal, and triangUlar forms. Many are in
some way or other attached to other buildings.
These other buildings often take the form of
houses and other dwellings. Tower-house combina-
tions include a simple attachment of house to
tower; in other cases towers are found growing
out of the house or other structures. Yet other
composite forms include towers on foundation
bases, on piers, and on other forms of building
construction. 27
Some light supports are listed in light lists
simply as structures. 28 This does not provide
very much information as to shape and other di-
mensions of the supporting structure. Nonethe-
less, more data can be gained from these barely
described, undifferentiated structures than the
word "structures" first indicates. For one thing,
structures are outside clearly defined types of
architecture: they are neither houses nor towers
nor buildings. Many are presumably rectangular
or square and of various conventional construc-
tion materials. In sum, the supporting structures
124
are an assemblage of materials put into a recog-
nizable form which has some type of simple shape
but is outside the standard categories. The build-
ing materials would conceivably include wooden
beams, pilings, planks. Great height is presumably
not a keynote of undifferentiated light supports.
It is possible that any dividing line between
structures and skeleton towers may well be arbi-
trary; nevertheless structures in this sense, and
skeleton assemblages, suggest a lighter, more open
appeara~ce, while structures suggest a bulkier,
less "airy" appearance. The shapes of structures
include octagonals, pyramidals and quadrangulars;
rectangular and hexagonal shapes are also in use. 29
Confusion in differentiating between types is
heightened by such terms as "skeleton structures.,,30
Land structures beyond these somewhat distinct
types quickly descend into a disorderly mixture of
near-countless kinds of light supports. Some of
these may well be major structures while others
are part of the IALA-defined major structures but
are similar to river and harbor types; yet others
are definitely in the minor category without regard
to what definition is followed. The casual and
even the knowledgeable observer will not be able
to say that a given light is in this or that cate-
gory without also considering the intensity of the
light, daymarkrngs and inclusion/exclusion in a
buoyage-beaconage system. These structures, upon
examination, wend their way in and out of cate-
gories that are imposed upon them. A hasty glance
at what this compiler terms "single-member" sup-
ports will churn up pipes, posts, piles, columns,
piling, single piles, masts! stakes, pedestals,
pylons, pillars, obelisks. 3 Supports of multiple
members'become mind numbing as one reads off frames,
pipe towers, tripods, dolphins, tripodal towers,
stands, trellis-towers, skeleton masts, lattice
masts. 32 Yet other supports are more solid in
girth: pyramids, pile-structures, cylinders, huts;
125
"II
I'
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I
I I
f.
L
small houses on tripods, on piles, On dolphins,
on piers; huts on piles and other foundations;
and columns on towers. 33
This lengthy spectrum of supports still does
not exhaust the possibilities. Some nations sim-
ply list minor supports as "beacons." It is not
easy to determine what these are. It may suggest
thRt the support is not significant to the light;
it may suggest that only the daybeaconor mark-
ing dimensions are to be considered by the mari-
ner, or that the beacons follow the shapes out-
lined in international agreements. In some in-
stances details are given, and this at least
suggests a form. Some are listed as square bea-
cons or quadrangular or rectangular beacons. This
may represent a cairn or a slatted wooden struc-
ture as in the case of Norway. 34 The beacon
forms known as perches and spars are only infre-
quently found in light lists, though they are
the most common terms for beacons in interna-
tional publications on buoyage and beaconage
systems. 3S The expressions stake, pile, pole
may encompass what are termed perches and spars.
The classification preceding this segment at-
tempts to at least outline and suggest the vast
range of types of supporting structures. Despite
the diversity and scope of these supports, the
listing in this study can not pretend to be
exhaustive or definitive.
170 Message Systems for Lighted Aids
Marine lighted markings, of all types, do
not have the controlled message indications
familiar to road and rail systems. There are
not a narrow number of message possibilities
and patterns for marine markings and nothing
beyond that. Marine messages generally fall in-
to broad general categories, and the specific
message for each marking is determined on a
126
case-by-case basis (though some classes of char-
acteristics may be reserved for specific func-
tions). Marine markings present an unchanging
message to the user even though that message may
be complex; this is contrary to the changing mes-
sages of road and rail situations. Some measure
of guidelines and norms for the types of light
characteristics are available for buoyage and
beaconage areas, but there is little available
in the sense of guidelines for major lights and
minor lights of the isolate version. Paradoxi-
cally, a numerically small portion of marine aids
to navigation - that of the major lights - has
the greatest measure of complexity and diversity
in this study.
The coverage of messages will consist of a
review of categories of light phase character-
istics. Statistics of how much one pattern is
employed as compared to the others are not
available, though flashing patterns are obviouSly
the most common. Little can be added on light
characteristics for major, and for minor lights.
Message characteristics must also include some
mention of the role of color.
The basic sources for light phase character-
istics are IALA-prepared publications including
its study of lighting, the IDAMN books and publi-
cations on the buoyage system;l the international
light lists of DMA (older editions are published
by USNOO);2 and U.S. Coast Guard, and Canadian
publications. 3
The fixed light characteristic can be des-
cribed as a light of a single color of an unvary-
ing, stead and continuing nature. 4
Occulting lights are those in which the light
is of longer duration than the darkness; this is
the reverse of flashing. This is also known as
a single occulting light. S
127
! ,I
'I
I
Group-occulting lights group the occultations
together. The amount of light within the group
is more than the duration of darkness but the
light is shorter than the spaces between the groups.S
groups. 5
Composite Group-occulting characteristics
follow the previously de: ribed patterns ex-
cept that the groups are U1 different numbers
of occult-units. For example, an occulting
light may have a group of three occults and a
group of four occults. 7
Isophase, or equal-interval, consists of
dark and light sections of equal duration. 8 At
one time some nations included this type of char-
acteristic under the occulting heading; in those
cases occulting included all flashes in which
the light was at least equal to the time of the
darkness element. This appears to be no longer
the case. 8
Flashing lights, or single-flashing in IALA
parlance, can be described variously as a brief
showing of light in relation to the accompanying
period of darkness, and a light in which the
light occupies less time in the period than the
time of darkness. The flashes would have to be
less than 50 or 60 per minute or they would be
classified as Quick Flashing. 9
Long-flashing light is comprised of a single-
flashing light who flashes are at least two
seconds long. Long-flashes are occasionally
found in tandem with other light phase character-
istics. lO
Group Flashing includes light phase char-
acteristics in which two or more flashes are
combined per period. IALA defines this as two
or more groups, but DMA and USCG require a mini-
mum of one group. 11
128
Composite Group Flashing is a variation of
the above. Composite calls for groups of vary-
ing numbers of flashes in a period; for example,
a group of two flashes followed by a group of
three flashes which in turn is followed by a
group of two flashes. 12
Quick-Flashing lights consist, in IALA's de-
finition, of flashes of "rapid alteration."13
But IALA does not give a precise figure. Both
DMA and USCG state that such a light will ex-
hibit 50-79 flashes per minute. 14 IALA buoyage
system states that Quick-flashing lights are
either 50 flashes.per minute or 60 flashes per
minute, the difference depending on the type of
equipment in use. lS
Group Quick lights in DMA nomenclature
consist of groups of flashes at regular inter-
v,Us. 16
Group Quick can be combined with Long Flash-
ing characteristic described earlier. 17
IALA describes the Interrupted Quick Flash-
ing characteristic in terms similar to that of
Quick Flashing except that the interrupted form
flashes are separated at set intervals by lengthly
eclipses of darkness. lS DMA gives the inter-
rupted interval as four seco~ds while the USCG
indicates they are five seconds in duration. 19
It would not be possible for a light so de-
fined to flash SO or 60 times per minute but the
rate of flashing is in that ratio. 20
The IALA buoyage system has developed a new
characteristic termed the Very Quick Flashing. 2l
It consists of a steady flashing light of either
100 or 120 flashes per minute (80-159 in DMA).22
The difference in IALA publications of the flash
rate is due to the differening capabilities of
flash-producing mechanisms. 23 The character-
istic was developed for cardinal messages. DMA
129
terms this characteristic as the continuous Very
Quick characteristic. 23
DMA lists three variant forms of the Very
Quick. These include the Group Very Quick
which includes a series of flashes per period,
the Group Very Quick with Long-Flash; and the
Interrupted Very Quick whic is composed of groups
of flashes separated by regular and lengthly
eclipses. 24
DMA also includes two forms of Ultra Quick
characteristics. The continuous form consists of
a series of flashes with a rate of at least 160
per minute. The interrupted version contains
flashes separated by lengthly eclipses of dark-
ness. 25
The final characteristics are long-established
light patterns. The Morse code characteristic
is made up of flashes of various durations which
form a chain of letter emulating Morse code com-
muncations. 26
USCG and OMA include a Fixed and Flashing
characteristic bU,t this is not found with IALA.
This signal consists of a fixed and steady light
punctuated at regular intervals by a flash of
greater intensity.27 The Fixed and Group Flash-
ing characteristic formerly employed by the USCG
appears to be defunct. 28
So far, this discussion of characteristics
has referred only to single-color lights. Lights
of more than one color are referred to as Alter-
nating, which IDAMN defines as "a rhythmic light
showing 1ight of alternating colours. "29 But
no further details are given. DMA notes that
alternating lights can be used in tandem with
many of the other characteristics. This then
can be regarded as a final characteristic in
itself. 30
West Germany has developed several
130
characteristics which approximate more commonly
know types of lights. T~e fir~t of these}s
known as the Blitz. It is defined as an ap-
pearance of light of duration of ~ot more ~han
one second;" this suggests the Qulck Flashlng
type since both are operated at a rate ?f 60
flashes per minute. 3l Second, the Scheln calls
for "an appearance of light between two dark-
nesses, the duration of darkness being not
longer than the duration of light. ,,32 At least
some forms of the Schein are similar to the
isophase characteristic. Finally, the Blink.
is of a minimum of two seconds duration and lt
would appear to approximate a number of con-
ventional flash patterns. 33 IDAMN regards the
Blitz and Blink as flashing characteristics. 34
The IALA buoyage system provides norms on
the use of various types of characteristics
for many situations. The new Very Quick Flash-
ing pattern was designed for cardinal buoys
and presumably is not used elsewhere. 35 The
Morse code characteristic in North America is
reserved for buoys at entrances to harbors and
bays and is not usually found with fixed mark-
ings. 36 Fixed lights, where were once the only
characteristic, are a relatively rare pattern.
and probably few major lights exhibit such a
characteristic. 37 Flashing lights of one
color are the most common pattern found in
marine light5. 38
131
I I
Fixed , 1 ,
.~~
111111111111111111
Quick-flashing
.....
.M
-.)
I I I:J
Single-occulting
CD D:J
Group-occulting
Composite Group-occulting
Isophase
Single-flashing
Long-flashing
"~A 'A'
Group-flashing
'jj , 'jj
Composite Group-flashing
111 111 111 111 111
Group Quick-flashing
iili&l. ;.'
Group Quick with Long-Flash
&&11& 1111
Interrupted Quick-Flashing
r-
....
OQ
:r'
rt
"'0
:r'
~
l/l
CD
n
:r'
~
"1
~
(l
rt
CD
'"i
....
l/l
rt
....
(l
l/l
r--- -
.......
Vol
Vol
&&i&111111jj'6Ijjlli
Very Quick-flashing
jl& jll jla 11& al1j
Group Very Quick-flashing
Group Very Quick
wi th Long-flash
aljl&jl l1jj&lj
Interrupted Very Quick
Ultra Quick-flashing
IIIII111111 mUllliU un
Interrupted Ultra Quick
Morse Code
Fixed and Flashing
Al ternating
--_.''::l
I'
All of the characteristics exist to identify a
given light, to clearly define given functions,
and to prevent confusion in areas where a great
many lights are located together.
White, red and green are nearly universal
colors for marine markings. For major lights
white is by far the most commonly employed color.
This practice exists in large part because of
the greatly reduced range of red and green. 40
Some high intensity lights exhibit a slightly
different white "color" but one that is within
an accepted definition of white.4l Infrequently
other colors are in use for coastal and other
significant lights. Canada, for example, oc-
casionally uses yellow for designated lights.42
And for minor aids yellow has become a standard
color for cardinal buoys in the IALA system.
One s~ecial type of light within the major
category is the sector light. 43 This light "pre-
sents different characters (usually different
colors) over various parts of the horizon of in-
terest to marine navigation ."44 A major reason
for the sector light is "to point out special
features such as dangers to navigation; red, of
course, re~resents dangers. An example of a sec-
tor light - and a three-part one at that - is the
Walter Rock Light in British Columbia. The
main light of Walter Rock is a group flashing
white light. In addition there are sector lights
in a fixed color pattern: the white, red, and
green sectors each cover from four to seven de-
grees of the compass .!l5 In some nations the
sector light is known as a light with sector(s)~G
The directional light - \vhich can be seen to be at
least distantly related to the sector light -
points out mUltiple channels rather than specific
danger points.
Light phase characteristics are complex in
the abstract and seemingly shrouded in mystery
134
for the unitiated. The actual encounter with
marine lights is much simpler. The mariner is
coping with one or at most a half-dozen lights
at a given time; equipped with charts, light
lists and theoretical knowledge honed by experi-
ence, the navigator can quickly and accurately
identify the correct light.
There are three ingredients in a lighted ma-
rine marking: the light and its characteristics,
the structure supporting the light, and the day
message systems applied or attached to the struc-
ture. Only the last category needs be considered
here. There are no hard and fast rules for day-
marks in aids to navigation which are not part
of a buoyage/beaconage system. The daymarks on
fixed lights and certainly on major lights vary
from nation to nation and even from light to iight;
nonetheless, some general remarks can be made.
The great sea-girt towers need not have mes-
sage characteristics other than the light and
tower. The massive visibility of such towers
needs few, if any, extra aids. Some of these
towers may have the lantern house, gallery, trim
and ancillary buildings painted in different hues
from the tower; for example, Peggy's Point Light
in Nova Scotia, and North Point Light in the
Netherlands Antilles, illustrate some uses of
alternate color schemes. 47 Of those towers that
are painted, stuccoed or otherwise altered, the
greatest number are painted; this seems to be
true of lights around the world. 48 In a great
many instances the towers are solid white with-
out additional stripes, bands or· other designs.
Painting the upper portion of a light tower may
well be a common practice, but it is not known
how common, since a number of nations do not al-
ways indicate in light lists some of the more
limited markings on towers. For example, in the
U.S. some lights exhibiting a black, red, or
other color lantern are not so indicated in the
135
I,
,'II i
II !
,
,
,.
i!
, ,
light list, yet other similarily marked towers
are so listed. 49
For light towers that are not white, what
other colors are in use? It would appear, based
on various sourcps, that red is the second most
common color. 50 Red can provide a contrast to
nearly towers and it can provide a contrast to a
white background; for example, Longstone Light in
Scotland is painted red because of the surround-
ing terrain. 51 Other light tower colors include
black, and yellow; chrome yellow is the most
common color in Iceland, pres~mably to create
contrasting background hues. 52 However, the most
common color scheme for lighthouses, after white,
is not a second color but a composite pattern.
A diverse and numerous grouping of worldwide
lights exhibit stripesl.bands, checks, diamond
or two-color patterns. 53 Stripes, which are verti-
cal, are often single, though multiple stripes
are not unknown. Black or red stripes on white
towers seem to be more common than any other ar-
rangement. Stripes can distinguish one tower
from another, and they can provide needed con-
trast with natural terrain; for example, at least
one Canadian tower is painted red with a single
white stripe. The red provides contrast with
the snow and the white stripe distinguishes the 5
tower from surrounding autumnal patterns of color.
Some nations also paint bands on towers; the
colors of these are likely to be those colors
used in the painting of towers, and colors used
in painting stripes on towers. 55 Bands also
include brown, orange, and blue. Some bands are
horizontal, some spiral, others diagonal; the
last type presenting a diamond-shaped appearance.
Checker patterns are occasionally used; black and
white patterns seem the most common design. Yet
other towers are in two colors: one color for
the upper tower, a second shade for the lower
136
d
section; an example would be Saint Davids
Lighthouse in Bermuda. 56 A second two-color ar-
rangement would have the middle section in one
color and a second for the top and bottom sec-
tions. The range of colors for these designs
includes black and white, red and white, red and
yellow, aluminum and green, and gray and orange.
To sum up, 'it is necessary to quickly identi-
fy a tower, and to distinguish it from neighbor-
ing lights. Buoyage and beaconage follow agreed-
upon message systems, but more significant lights
fail to have a system of day messages readily
at hand. Hence, an easy means of locally iden-
tifying each unit is needed. Stripes, bands,
checks, multi-colors as well as a welter of
solid hues provide a major means of daytime
identification.
A review of messages for minor lights re-
quires a different approach: Little of the ma-
terial for minor lights will appear in this seg-
ment. Most of the materials are found in other
pa:ts of t~e monograph and can be located by
uSing the Index of such materials found at the
end of this section. This format stems from the
fact !hat v~rious parts of light message systems
f?r minor aids are found with major aids, and
with buoyage/beaconage materials. There is no
need to reprint that information here.
While much of the message systems for minor
lights can be found in buoyage agreements, it
may be asked if minor markings messages are
thereby complete. This is not an easily answered
question. According to the IALA system all
minor lights are included except for ce;tain
stated exceptions: the category of major aids
to nav~gation, and ~lso range and sector lights. 57
According to USB, minor markings are included,
thou\h one cannot say with certainty that all
are. E IMC was couched in more general language,
137
138
Endnotes for 17A
I
,
\
i
J
139
6See USCG, Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1985;
it also includes Western Canada (British Columbia).
7For example, Fort Cornwallis Light at Penang,
Malaysia ("Developments in Stone-Chance Naviga-
tional Lighting and Fog Signalling," u.d. Stone-
Chance, Ltd, Crowley, Sussex, England).
8For example, Sevenstones Lightship on an off-
shore location in the U.K. would not be feasible
for a fixed lighthouse (Bowen, British Lighthouses,
1947, p. 37).
9These are referred to as "Lighthouse Buoys"
in the descriptio:n of "IALA System A" printed in
the "Pilot Chart of the North Pacific Ocean,"
U.S. Defense Mapping Agency, January, 1977 and
extracted from Nautical Publication # 37 of the
British Hydrographic Office. This term accentu-
ates the major status of such buoys.
10perhaps the best example of difference in
definition is that found with divergent practices
of the Canadian and U.S. approaches. The U.S.
includes virtually all minor aids in the lateral
system (as can be seen by the addition of stan-
dard daymarks) and this practice plus the "low
to moderate" cp gives the U.S. 10,000 minor
lights. But Canada apparently does not include
river and harbor lights unless they are in a
channel or similar situation; instead they are
termed major, and Canada has as a result less
than 100 "minor" lights according to IALA and
the understanding of this compiler. Note: Corres-
pondence with Canadian authorities and the 1984
IALA survey indicate a change in the numbers of
minor lights and may also indicate a lack of
understanding of Canadian practice in the first
place.
11-14USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III,
1985, p. x-x,i.
15-16 IDAMN , 2-5-050.
180
18C
15A-B-C
170
Chapter
Index of materials for messages of minor
lights:
Unlighted Messages
Structures (Daybeacons)
Message Systems (Buoyage)
Light Phase Characteristics
lAISM/IALA Bulletin. 1984/3. pp. 17,10.
2 IALA Supplement #6, p. 3.
3S . tee prev10us two no es.
4IDM1N, 2-5-005.
5Twenty miles is quite common; some lights of
especially great power can be seen that far in
daylight; for example, Tiri Tiri Light in Auckland,
New Zealand.
and therefore it is more difficult to say what was
included. 59 But it does seem that all aids to navi-
gation in proximity to buoys were not included. 60
In the U.S. minor lights were not formerly marked
to the degree that buoys were; however, of late all
minor markings are in the lateral systems except
for directional and range lights. 61 In Canada,
which also stemmed from IMC, it would appear that
minor lights are included, especially with the ad-
vent of IALA.62 Lights of various nations outside
of IALA are in the process of being integrated in-
to IALA in many instances.
In general terms, one might say that harbor
and river and non-coastal aids to navigation follow
the local pattern of messages or at least do not
contradict it explicitly. Some attention will
need be given to isolates which are more minor
than major though they are outside the appropriate
message system.
,"
l7-l8 IDAMN , 2-0-005.
19 IDAMN , 2-5-060.
20USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol.
II I, 1985, p. v.
21 IDAMN , 2-5-060.
22 IOAMN , 2-5-000.
23Service Technique des Phares et Balises,
"Bordure Lurdneuse."
Endnotes for 17C*
100uglass, William Tregarthen, and Gedye,
N.G., "Lighthouses," Encyclopedia Britannica,
11th ed., 1910-1911. New York: EB Company,
Vol. XVI, pp. 627-51.
2See endnote #10; the general interest in
things maritime and especially in lighthouses,
can be seen in the exhibits at the Centennial
Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 and the
Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco in
1915. Even the awarding of the Nobel Prize
for physics for Dalen's sun valve in 1906 sug-
gests the more centra} position in public aware-
ness of this area of endeavor.
300uglass held the position of consulting
engineer to at least four commonwealth/colonial
governments in Australia and Africa. He was the
builder of two of the most notable world light-
houses, Eddystone and Bishop Rock Lights in the
British Isles. He was also the author of The
New Eddystone Light. Gedye held the po~ition
of chief engineer for the Tyne Improvement Corp.
4Douglass and Gedye, EB, 1910-1911.
SUSCG Manual, 1964 edition, Ch. 4, "Struc-
tures," pp. 4-9 and 4-10.
6USCG, Manual, Ch. 4, p. 4-1.
7See Chapter 2 of Volume IA of this study.
* No endnotes for 17B.
140
-
-
--
8USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. I, 1985,
p. viii.
9The current Eddystone Light erected by
Douglass (Bowen, British Lighthouses, Longmans,
Green, and Co., for British Council, London,
1947, p. 13).
10For example, costs are too great for older
forms such as monolithic stone towers due to very
high labor costs; see endnote #5 but pp. 4-1,
4-2; brick towers were common in what the USCG
calls "bhe brick tower era" (1856-81) but again
labor costs are prohibitive, (pp. 4-5 of Manual,
1964 ed.).
11 In that the requirements for direct sea
contact are different from situations where the
influence of the sea is indirect or at least
muted; for example, in the areas of contact with
salt water, rocks thrown by the action of the
sea, wave action, etc.
12 Bowen, p. 7.
13USCG , Light List, Atlantic (south), Vol. II,
p. 9; USCG Manual, p. 4-3.
14USCG, Manual, pp. 4-10 and 4-11.
15USCG , Aids to Navigation, pp. 4-9; IALA
Bulletin, 1979-2, p. 37.
16USCG, Manual, p. 4-10.
17-19USCG , Manual, p. 4-9.
20Douglass and Gedye, p. 628.
21 USCG, Manual, p. 4-9.
22-23Based on publications of USCG.
24USNOO (OMA) Light List, International, 1967-
1972, Washington, D.C.: GPO (HO Pub1. #lllA)
Greenland, East Coast of North and South America
(excluding continental USA except East Coast of
Florida) and West Indies.
141
25 . (HO #lllB). The West Coas
of N.and S.America (excluding Continenta1.USA,
Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands), Austra11a, Tas-
mania and the Islands of N. And S. Pacific Oceans.
26 . (HO #113). West Coast
of Europe and Africa, The Mediterranean, Black,
and the Sea of Azov.
27-35These are based on a statistical summation
of a broad range of USNOO (DMA) publications.
Endnotes for 170
143
ZOSince.the periods of darkness occupy the
amount of time that they do, it does not seem
likely; perhaps it is theoretically possible.
21 IALA , VQkPl; Bury, pp. 142-143.
2Z-23See above.
24-250MA , 1983, p. ix.
26 IDAMN , 2-5-200.
27USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. I, 1985,
p. ix; see OMA introductory sections.
28USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1962.
29 IDAMN , 2-5-Z05.
30DMA , 1983, pp. viii-ix.
31-34 IOAMN , 2-5-125.
35 IALA , "System A," pp. 3,7.
36cANS , fold out; USCG Light Lists.
37-38Based on examination of light lists.
39Illustrations include those of DMA and
USCG; others are influenced by IALA; yet others
are alterations and assemblages of existing data.
40Based on examination of light lists.
41 Por example, Xenon-flashing lights.
42USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1985,
"British Columbia."
43 IALA Supplement #6, p. 5.
44 IDAMN , 2-5-215.
45USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1979,
p. 178.
46See French-language side of CANS, p. 6.
47Sea Frontiers, back cover, Vol. 17, # 6,
November-December 1971, Peggy's Point Light, Nova
Scotia; also Vol. 19, # 2, back cover, March-
April, 1973.
f1aSh~
" I
i
II:
1-1
,,'
'I
i1
1!DAMN, Chapter 2, "Visual Aids," 1st. ed.,
Paris, 1970; IALA Supplement #6, 1976.
2DMA , Light List,British Is1es,1983,pp.viii-ix.
3CANS , 1975; USCG Light Lists, USCG AN, 1975.
4 IDAMN . 2-5-105.
5IDAMN , 2-5-170, 2-5-180 (Group Occulting).
6See DMA,IALA,USCG on light phases.
7IDAMN , 2-5-185.
8Bowen, British Lighthouses, pl. 7,9,10;fig. 3.
9IDAMN , 2-5-145.
10DMA, 1983, p. viii.
ll IDAMN , 2-5-155; USCG, Light List, Atlantic,
Vol. I, 1979, p. viii.
12 IDAMN , 2-5-160.
13 IDAMN , 2-5-190.
14USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol: I, 1979,
p._ viii; see also DMA lists; USCG llsts: 50-80
15 IALA Supplement #6, "System A," p. 7. .....
16-17DMA , 1983, p. viii. ~
18 IOAMN , 2-5-195. ......
, 19U5CG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. I, 1979, ~I,; p. viii; also OMA.~~ 1_42 __
48Based on examination of USNOO publications.
49 For example, Yaquina Head Light (USCG Light
List, Pacific, Vol. III, p. 9, 1979).
50Based on USNOO publications.
51Bowen, British Lighthouses, p. 23.
52USNOO publications; Vitar, Sjomerkel, Radio-
vitar Og Radiostodvar A Island, 1968.
53-54Survey of USNOO publications.
55 For example, Beachy Head, U.K. It is a stone
tower with black band, and lantern house (Bowen).
56Sea Frontiers, back cover, Vol. 20, #1,
January-February, 1974.
57 IALA , Supplement #6, p. 3.
58 See Conference papers, League of Nations
meetings at Lisbon, Geneva.
59See IMC Protocols of Proceedings, 1889.
60The Canadian practice of excluding isolated
beacons would indicate a buoy and a harbor light
which are both in that condition; this would in-
clude the buoy though not the light in the mes-
sage system.
6l Cp 1962 Pacific Light List with a current
listing.
62 If ~he writer understands the changes in that
system.
144
•I
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
UNLIGHTED VISUAL MARKINGS (DAYBEACONS)
l8A Introduction, Terms, and History
A study of fixed, unlighted marine transpor-
tation markings can prove to be a difficult mat-
ter. Obviously, such markings suffer a marked
degree of anonymity and this, in itself, can be
a problem in a study of markings. While many per-
sons have some awareness of lighthouses, fog sig-
nals, and harbor lights, they may know nothing
of unlighted, fixed beacons. This anonymity is
not due to their small numbers, since they con-
stitute a very large category of marine markings l ,
but rather to their usually small, simple form
and unpretentious message systems. For example,
a cairn or perch will probably be noticed only
by the actual user, while a coastal lighthouse
by contrast will receive a great amount of at-
tention from tourists, painters and photographers.
Yet this anonymity may not be the primary problem
in itself (though this anonymity has meant less
written documentation for the researcher).
A more basic problem with unlighted fixed
markings is one of terminology: what to call
these markings. There is no terminology problem,
for example, with buoys - since the term "buoy"
is both all-encompassing and yet precise. Nor
is there a problem with fog signal terminology,
and even the naming of fixed lighted markings
can be resolved within limits. The long awk-
ward term "fixed, unlighted marine transporta-
tion markings" exemplifies the problem. Other
terms (beacon, daybeacon, unlighted and/or fixed
beacon) compound the problem. Terminology seems
especially difficult in English-language publi-
cations though perhaps it is no less a problem
in other languages. 2 It is necessary to examine
145
various terms and to decide what may provide the
more adequate term to describe lighted and fixed
marine markings.
The most likely term, based on initial exami-
nation, is that of beacon. And it is true that
frequently the term beacon refers to small marine
aids to navigation lacking lights. IALA, for
example, reserves that term for unli§hted fixed
marks in surveys of marine markings. However,
beacon legitimately includes lighted markings,
and even buoys. And to compound the confusion,
the word can be used to include all types of trans-
portation markings. 4 What alternatives to beacon
are available? In Canada and the U.S. the word
for fixed, unlighted markings is daybeacon. This
usage reduces confusion over the previous term,
and leaves beacon as a general designation for
all marine aids to navigation. S In the U.K. the
term beacon is employed for unlighted markin2s
though !DAMN adds "unlighted" in parentheses to
eliminate confusion in the definition. 6
In France the expression "balise" is generally
applied to unlighted beacons though IALA adds the
qualifying term of fixed. 7 In the German lan-
guage the word "bake" includes unlighted fixed
beacons. 8 IHB definition of beacon appears to
be all-encompassing in some instances but con-
fined to day-usage in many other situations. 9
Oaybeacon, even though its choice might en-
gender some controversy, appears to be the best
possibility for a term for fixed and uAlighted
markings. It is descriptive of the aid to navi-
gation in Guestion, and it eliminates at least
some of the confusion and uncertainty of other
possibilities. Use of the French balise and
of the German bake may be utilized in appropriate
situations in the monograph.
A final term that may increase an understand-
ing of markings (though it may also supply further
146
confusion to terminology) is that of daymark. lO
This term finds it predominant usage in Canada
and in the U.S., though nations outside North
America have employed the term. ll In a broad
sense it refers to "a distinctive structure serv-
ing as a aid to navigation during the day whether
or not the structure has a light."12 The USCG ap-
pears to restrict the term to a specific daymark.
In both the U.S. and Canada it has a more speci-
fic meaning: an object which is an addition to
the structure of an aid to navigation and which
adds an additional message capability. Both
lighted and unlighted aids frequently include a
daymark; major coastal lights are usually suffi-
ciently distinctive so as not to require further
identification. Many daymarks are of wood con-
struction and come in various shapes including
rectangles, triangles, diamonds, and squares.
Oaymarks are often required to fit into a mes-
sage pattern dictated by a given buoyage and
beaconage system (see 180).
!DAMN notes that "in the U.S. the word day-
mark is often used for a topmark."13 This is
only partially true. Topmarks are frequently
small in dimension while daymarks are consider-
ably larger. Though there are instances in which
topmarks are about the size of daymarks. This is
especially true of to~marks for some tyPes of
Norwegian daybeacons. 4 Topmarks are more often
associated with buoys, and daymarks with fixed
aids to navigation.
O.A. Stevenson considers the history of the
daybeacon only briefly in his The World's Light-
houses Before 1820. 15 He notes that most nations
maintained daybeacons and in quantities, but no
statistics are apparently available. Stevenson
remarks that most of these marks were wooden
towers or spars while others were stone pillars. 16
This last category may be similar to what are
termed cairns in maritime publications. 17
147
I'
~ !
,
I,
Whether the spar of Stevenson is similar to a
perch is not known. 18 Precision in aids to navi-
gation terms is probably only a recent develop-
ment. Rather surprisingly, WLB 1820 does not
mention the "Petit Arbre" at all, though it
would appear to be a common marking as well as a
natural one for less technological times. 19 Pre-
1820 daybeacons exhibited topmarks or painted
marks in order to give information and to iden-
tify the marking. 20 One might assume that mes-
sages developed for buoys would be applied to
beacons. Admittedly message systems were limited
and primitive before the era of international
con ferences .
Since the early nineteenth century, it may be
presumed, evolution in daybeacon design occurred
rather slowly. This can be seen by the types of
aids described by Stevenson with a long historical
background, and the similarity in appearance of
many of the older daybeacons with more modern
types. For example, a comparison of cu~rent Ger-
man markings with their older counterparts shows
a distinct resemblance though some change is dis-
cernible. 2l
l8B A Classification of Daybeacons
And Explanatory Notes
241 Simpler Structures
2410 Dolphin/Multiple Pile
2411 Tripod
242 More Complex Structures
2420 Bake:
2421 Bake:
2422 Latticework Structure
2423 Skeleton Tower
2424 Wooden Framework
148
243 Uni-Dimensional Artificial Marks
2430 Spindle
2431 Perch/Pole
2432 Pile
2433 Post
2434 Stake
2435 Edgemark
244 Natural Marks
2440 Cairn
2441 Small Tree/Petit Arbre
2442 Tree Branch: Natural State
2443 Tree Branch: Tied-Down Branch
2444 Stone Construction
240 Daymarks
2400 Daymarks
2401 Daymarks and Structure
Detailed 'descriptions of types of daybeacons
will be found in Chapter l8C. These brief explan-
atory notes are included 'as a guide to using the
classification and to clarify terms and arrange-
ments of the daybeacons. While it may be arbi-
trary to divide structures into Simpler and More
Complex Structures (241, 242 respectively), this
may help to differentiate between types of mark-
ings. Are Dolphins and Multiple-Pile Structures
(2410) sufficiently different to warrant separate
categories? Perhaps they require separation
since one is land-based and the other is marine-
based. However, for this study they are placed
together since they are both composed of several
pilings or timbers, and there is not enough data
to precisely define the two as independent entities.
Tripods (2411) in Norway and in the U.S. may differ
though the visual appearance is such that they
can be classed together.
The German Bake (2420, 2421) comes in designs
sufficiently different to justify division of
them. No specific name, other than beacon, is
available for the lattice work structure (2422)
of Norway. The U.S. Skeleton Tower (2423) is an
149
ubiquitous construction found in many types of
marine aids to navigation. The skeleton tower
comes in many sizes and various shapes while re-
maining recognizable in its variant forms. Wooden
Framework (2424) is a nebulous term encompass-
ing in all likelihood a range of structures that
do not resemble towers or other specific design
types. It is found so described in the literature
without more detail. 22
The phrase Uni-Directional Marking (243),
while admittedly vague, affords - at this point
classification development - adequate clarity
and precision for these markings. Uni-dimen-
sional markings probably overlap and may con-
ceivably be, in some instances, identical to one
or other of the class. All of the terms are in-
cluded so as to reduce the possibility of leav-
ing out what may later prove to be a separate
marking.
Cairns (2440) are frequently heaps of stones,
though the Norwegian version is a more shaped
and in some sense a less natural object (see
2444); it is possible that the Norwegian ver-
sion is closer to artificial than to natural
categories of aids to navigation, though it none-
theless retains some resemblance to simple heaps
of stones.
Daymarks are considered primarily as message
systems. But some daymarks are of substantial
size; and since the support structure may be
contained within the daymark some daymarks form
a distinct type of marking, and not merely a small
object that provide messages as is the case with
topmarks.
18C Description of Types of Daybeacons
There is such a welter of terms describing
uni-dimensional markings - markings with a single
vertical dimension - that it becomes difficult to
150
sum up those markings both briefly and precisely.
The various terms may be no more than semantic
quibblings; the actual differences may be minus-
cule. The most frequently employed term for uni-
dimensional marks is that of Perch. This may
suggest that Perch refers to a narrowly defined
obj ect. But IHB uses the term for a variety of
national markings, and national markings are
not always identical - or nearly so - to one
another. 22 Therefore, Poles, Perches, Posts
may be much the same in outward appearance and
the terms may even be interchangeable. IDAMN
notes that the Pole Beacon is also referred to
as a Spindle and Single-Pile Beacon. Rather
strangely, IDAMN does not include the term
perch. 23 The spindle and single-pile beacon can
probably be regarded as perches despite the
si lance of IDI\MN. The U. S. has installed a few
markings known as Stakes and perhaps they too
can be included with Perches and similar mark-
ings. 24 The classification, however, lists the
various terms as separate items so as to avoid
forcing possibly separate markings types into
an incorrect category.25
Topmarks, as already mentioned, are pri-
marily part of the message systems; daybeacons,
because of their size and impact, must be con-
sidered as part of both the daybeacon structure
and message system. Daymarks, in the Canadian
and U.S. sense, often require a structure not so
much to accompany them or provide extra support
but in order to support the daybeacon. 26 Day-
marks are frequently of wood construction and of
varying shapes. Da~arks can measure as much as
seven feet per side. 27 Some of the traditional
forms of unlighted markings in the U.S., such
as small houses, are so obscured by the daymark
that the original marking is no longer included
in the light list describing the aid. 28
151
~I
"I
A composite daybeacon type includes the day-
beacons in which the daymark is attached to the
supporting structure in such a manner that both
daymark and structure are integral parts of the
markin~; a variety of U.S. marking are of this
form. 2
The Small Tree, or "Petit Arbre" is a very
simple form of marking, and no doubt a tradition-
alone. This marking continues to be frequently
used despite the development of more complex and
sophisticated aids to navigation. In many in-
stances this marking consists of a tree branch in
its natural state. In other instances tree branches
are tied down, or a single tree branch serves as
a mark. 30
Cairns are not mentioned in IHB publications
though they are included in IDAMN.31 Cairns are
piles of stones heaped into a distinctive form
at needed navigation points. It is difficult to
know how common such markings are since ,ther~ are
limited statistics on the subject. Many may'not
be found in any list, since local authorities or
individuals could pile up such stones at harbor
entrance on their own volition; many may not have
any official standing. 32
Not all daybeacons are as simple as those pre-
viously described. There are two major subdivisions
among the more complex types. These are the less
complex which may be composed of several posts or
pilings bound together into a simple framework
or construction, and the more complex of multi-
dimension shape and of more substantial construc-
tion. The major types in the less complex cate-
gory can be encompassed under the umbrella term
of multiple-piling. This phrase is a frequently
used term in the U.S .. IOAMN, however, notes that
this type of aid - of which there are two forms -
has no name in English. 33 Norway includes a variety
of iron tripods for daybeacons; many of these include
152
a separate topmark; a limited number of U.S. mark-
. d l' h 34ings are also trlpo a ln s ape.
More complex structures include the U.S.
Skeleton Tower, the West German Bake, the Lat-
ticework structure of Norway, and the Wooden
Framework mark of the USSR. The U.S. Skeleton
Tower is a single type of aid though it is capable
of varying heights and widths. The Germ~n Bake
is of two types: One is a skeleton pyramIdal
structure, and the other is a rectangular con-
struction made up of vertical corner posts and
interspersed with a series of three diamond-
shaped panels. 35 The Norwe~ian structure is.of
a bulky shape and of a lattlcework pattern; lt
has a slightly pyramidal appearance. 36
180 Message Systems
Oaybeacons, even though they lack sophisti-
cated capabilities, are more than pieces of wood
or metal posts, pilings, perches, or structures.
In many instances they have a message system of
some distinctiveness: stripes, bands, patterns;
these may be as important as the basic daybeacon
construction; daymarks or topmarks may also be
included.
A discussion of message systems includes
three topics: What systems (or partial systems)
provide messages for daymarks? What non-day
beacon message systems can be applied to day-
beacons? And what national message systems have
been developed for daybeacons? Available inter-
national maritime publications suggest that ef-
efforts at standardization of marine markings
have not seriously focused on beacons whether
lighted or unlighted. However, occasional
references have been made to messages for fixed
marks. For example, IMC in 1889 contained the
term beacon in its official documents, though
they centered on buoyage to a very great extent. 37
153
While references to fixed markings are found in
those IMC sections that consider the cardinal sys-
tem, a system for fixed markings on a par with
that of buoys is not to be found. Messages for
beacons consist of the statement that beacon mes-
sages should conform to those for buoys.38 This
means that painted messages are to adopt the stan-
dards for buoys; colors are to conform to, or at
least not contradict, buoy message patterns. A
committee report spoke of the need for uniformity
in shape and color for marks and buoys. Topmarks
are described by shape and marks, and buoys by
color only. The committee remarks did not be-
come part of the final act but they do suggest
some correlation between buoy and beacon messages. 39
messages. 39
The Uniform System of Buoyage, established by
the League of Nations conferences in 1930 and
1936, did not include the term beacon or beacon-
age in the titles of the conference papers; none-
theless, some mention of beacons is made. The
USB calls for conformity of beacon light messages
to those of buoys by implication, and presumably
day messages are to follow suit. 40
The most recent international buoyage system
gives more direct and complete consideration of
messages for fixed marks. That system, IALA,
specifically applies to "all fixed and floating
marks" except "major aids" and certain special
markings. 41 And unlike previous international
systems "most lighted and unlighted beacons,
other than leading marks, are included in the
system.,,42 Topmarks for fixed markings nor-
mally follow the shape and color of buoyage top-
marks. The diagrams in publications describing
the system include only buoyage types; this is
because of lithe variety of beacon structures.,,43
The structures are therefore not left out be-
cause the system does not focus attention on them.
Some revision of fixed aids will probably take
154
place in order to meet the norms of IALA; the
Netherlands has already done so.44 It may be
noted that the injunction that fixed marks
should follow the messages of floating markings
is found in nearly all international marine mes-
sage systems, though frequently nothing beyond
the injunction is given.
In summary, despite the brief documentation
that refers to fixed beacons, some general norms
can be inferred; a national maritime agency by
extrapolating from those norms could construct
a message system for fixed beacons; lighted as
unlighted. These norms include guidance on se-
lecting lights, and provide some ideas on the
shapes and colors for topmarks and daymarks. But
there is little illustrated information which
describes the types and shapes of lighted and/or
unlighted beacons. The existence of vague ~nd
uncertain coverage in this monograph may be par-
tially explained by the failure of international
conferences and organizations to construct a co-
herent system for fixed markings. This monograph
may possibly offer a first step toward such a goal.
There are eight major systems of daybeacons
and their messages, based on existing data.
These include Canada, Norway, West Germany, and
the U.S. Other notable users of daybeacons in-
clude Finland, Sweden, France and Yugoslavia. 45
Coverage of many of the major users will be com-
plemented by a brief review of other nations that
make limited usage of daybeacons.
Daybeacons in Canada are listed by shape and
message content, not by structure. In many in-
stances there is no visible structure other than
the daymark. 46 Port-hand marks are square with
a red border, white inset, and black square cen-
ter. Starboard daybeacons are triangles with a
red border, white inset, and fluorescent red tri-
angle centerpiece. Junction daybeacons are dia-
mond-shaped; if the principal channel is to the
155
I
r
right the daybeacon has a fluorescent red border
with a small red triangle in three of the points;
the fourth and top point is a green triangle.
The center exhibits a fluorescent red triangle
point downward with a green rectangle atop it.
The channel to left beacon is identical except
that the center designation is the reverse of
the channel to right marking. Contrary to the
practice of many European nations, daybeacon mes-
sages parallel buoyage message only to a limited
degree.
Norway has approximately 40% of the structural
daybeacons listed in the IALA survey; Norway also
maintains a variety of perch beacons. 47 For many
daybeacons in Norway the message system diverges
from the commonly accepted definition of both
daymark and topmark. The special message con-
sist of arms attached to the daybeacon that point
to the fairway indicated by the marking. In some
instances there are two arms since the channel
in question has two directions of travel; these
pointers are usually omitted for marking~ in
heavy and open seas. Norway also makes use of
red, green, and white reflectors. These reflec-
tors follow the color scheme of the buoyage sys-
tem. A white reflector is added when a longer
distance from mark to mariner is a problem and
when confusion with other messages will result.
In some instances a white/red or a white/green
reflector system is added to the marking. At
least some portion of the Norwegian beaconage
message are direct extensions of the lateral sys-
tem of buoyage.
West Germany ranks along the largest users
of unlighted beacons. 48 There are six types
in the system, of which two are structural and
the remaining four are either simple construc-
tions or have a natural character. The later
four include two variations of multiple pilings,
156
the small tree or petit arbre, and the perch or
ole beacon. Each of these daybeacons can b~
Pf d on either the starboard or port-hand sIdesoun h' h .
with the exception of the. small tree, w lC IS
found only on port-hand sIdes for channel edges.
The message characteristics of c?lor and topmar~
are identical to those of buoys In parallel POSI-
tions.
Structural beacons are found in junction and
bifurcation, middle ground, and shoal and danger
situations. Buoys lack topmarks though some of
the corresponding daybeacons have them - at least
before IALA. Structural marking topmarks - in
junction and bifurcation locations - include a
black triangle with the apex up when the "main
channel is to the left" and a red rectangle, with
the long dimension vertical, when to the right. 49
The mark has a red and black vertical striped oval
"when channels are of equal importance then it
is a black cross over a black and red vertically
striped oval." Shoals and isolated dangers with-
in the channel may be passed on either hand" and
these have a single type of topmark consisting
of a black oval atop the structural mark. 50
This pattern diverges for "shoals and iso-
lated dangers outside the channel" in the cardinal
system. S1 In these instances, the structural
beacons are joined by perch or pole beacons. The
color messages follow the buoy pattern, but the
topmark symbols are different. For the northern
quadrant the structural mark topmark - and in all
cases only this type has topmarks - is a double
triangle with the point up; the western quadrant
has two triangles, both black with one verted
and one inverted inwardly. In the eastern quadrant
the two triangles are arranged with bases in
parallel, while in the southern quadrant there
are two red triangles facing downward. The same
marking, when on the shoal, exhibits the black oval.
157
~!
The first edition of Volume I included U.S.
daybeacons and daymarks in Part B rather than in
Part D. Since Parts C and 0 are now separate from
Parts A and B it is necessary to review character-
istics of daybeacons and for that matter daymarks
(referred to as dayboards in USCG manual publi-
cations but as daymarks in light list publica-
tions).52 Lateral markings (general usage) in-
clude square boards with "fluorescent green film"
for the major color and green reflector borders
for the border and reflective numbers for port;
starboard utilizes the same materials but in red,
and the board is a triangle. 53 Junction markers
employ the same shapes with the agree-upon mean-
ings. If the preferred channel is to port the
triangle includes a letter in reflective red and
the upper part of the triangle "filling" is red
while the lower portion is green. If the pre-
ferred channel is to starboard the letter is green
and the upper part of the marking is green, the
lower portion red. Borders are green or red de-
pending on the shape of the marking. 54 Mid-channel
markers are eight-sided with white reflector bor-
der and letter. The filling is half white film
and half black film. 55 Ranger markers are rec-
tangular in shape with the long dimension verti-
cal. They include three panels, and the panels
are of one color and the center panel of the
other. 56 Intracoastal waterway and western rivers
markings follow the basic patterns but with some
identifying variant message configurations. 57
While the coverage of daybeacons of other
nations will not be extensive it can present some
tentative remarks on the range and universality
of daybeacons and of the spectrum of visual ap-
pearances of them. lHB publications include the
message pattern of such markings for Argentina
but does not include illustrations. 58 Argentine
daybeacons can be found in fairways and channels,
and in middle ,grounds. Color codes emulate the
158
buoyage pattern which was - before IALA - based
on that of IMC. 59
Australia also maintains daybeacons but IHB in
1971did not include illustrations. 60 Day-
beacons are found in fairwaYJ and channels,
middle grounds and danger situations; topmarks
resemble those of buoys. Brazilian daymarks in-
clude perches or pole beacons~6l These include
topmarks though the specific term topmark is
not used. Buoys and daybeacons share the same
messages. Topmarks for fairways and channels
include triangles for port-hand, and waffle-
patterned spheres for starboard-hand. An in-
verted double-cone topmark will be found on
middle-ground markings. Miscellaneous topmarks
include a square for isolated dangers, oval for
submarine locations, and diamond-shaped for
wrecks. Chilean beaconage is of three types:
rectangles for port-hand~ fairway and channel
locations; elongated conical beacons for star-
board positions, and rectangles with rounded
tops for mid-channels. 62 Color messages follow
the buoyage regulations.
USNOO describes daybeacons for China but
shapes are not given. 63 Colors for beacons can
be white, red',1 or black. Seemingly white can be
added to red or black marks. White can be
either added to the topmark color or used ex-
clusively. Shapes for topmarks are also absent
from IHB for China.
Ecuador's single type of beacon is an elon-
gated rectangle; the message of buoys applies to
daybeacons. 64 France, according to lALA, has
one of the more significant systems of beaconage,
but neither the 1956 or the 1971 edition of the
lHB buoyage publication includes any beacons
for France. 65 According to the 1983 lALA sur-
vey, France has 2900 markings. 66 Finland has
developed a daymark known as an "edgemark" au.d
159
Sweden J et. al.Sweden
JA i Ai .Af
West Germany Italy
r f T I ; '"
Norway
1 1 I ~
Various Nations
·Il IlEcuador
Brazil
Brazil
Chile
Daybeacons and Daymarks
Australia*
Indonesia
I~ Sweden Japan and South Korea
160 161
163
this is an important aid to navigation for Finland;
the name clearly indicates its function. 67
Indonesian beaconage includes a feature
possibly unique to that nation. 68 The perches or
spars employed include reflectors but not those
found in other nations. The reflectors consist
of mirrors arranged in vertical groups of three.
By holding a light on the reflector the light, of
course, will be "bounced" back to the ship. Ac-
cording to DMA Sailing Directions, "to prevent be-
ing dazzled, it is recommended that only ordinary
flashlight batteries, with a high concentrated
light be used."69 It is estimated that the mirrors
can be picked up as much as a half-mile away. In-
donesian daybeacons follow the buoyage color pat-
tern as determined for fairways and channels.
According to DMA, the fixed beacons are spars not
perches; the difference with the IHB character-
ization may be one of semantics. Port-hand beacons
are painted black with one or two verted ~lack
cones. 70 Port-hand beacons with mirror reflectors
emit a "white or green glow." For starboard bea-
cons the glow is red or white; these also have a
cylinder shape for the daybeacon. 7l
Japan and South Korea have identical buoyage
and beaconage systems according to IHB.72 Their
single type of daybeacon is illustrated but not
named in IHB. This marking is found in channels,
fairways, mid-channels, and isolated dangers. It
follows the buoyage message de~criptions. IHB
lists no daybeacons for Malaysia though DMA does
so.73 The daybeacons are not described, though
possibly they occupy pile structures as do lighted
aids for Malaysia. Day messages possibly emulate
lighted messages of red to port and white to star-
board.
Daybeacons of the Netherlands are exclusively
perch in form. 74 The perch takes the shape of
a small tree. Starboard perches follow the paral-
lel buoy messages and the perch in that position
~
I
•
'"
•
••••••
.. ..,
,
.
Range
Canada
162
DaybeaconsFinnish
Canadian Daymark
U.S. Coast Guard: Daymark Forms
U.S. Coast Guard: Daybeacon Supports
U.S. Daymark
'__I
..
has the branches tied down. Port-hand perches
exhibit tree branches in the natural mode. They
are found only in fairways and channels. IHB
does not list daybeacons fQr the USSR though DMA
does so.75 These are of a wooden framework
structure and presumably follow buoyage message
patterns. An older DMA publication lists luminous
and non-luminous signs instead of the framework. 76
Endnotes for l8A, B, C, and D
lIALA Bulletin, 1979-2, "Development of Aids
to Navigation During the Year 1977," p. 23.
2IHB publications use the terms beacon and
beaconage for both lighted and unlighted aids.
3For lighted beacons the phrase is "Lights
on fixed structures" (IALA Survey 1979, pp. 21-2).
4WTNID , 1961, Vol. 1, p. 189.
5USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1985,
p. x.
6IDAMN , 2-6-030.
7IALA Survey, 1984/3, pp. 16, 18.
8Dietal and Lehmans, Seefahrts-Worterbuch.
Verlagg Munchen, 1964, p. 57.
9IHB uses the term beacon at times for both
lighted and unlighted types; at other times this
applies only to unlighted, or only to lighted.
10USCG, Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1985,
p. x.
llIALA Bulletin, 1979/2, p. 31.
l2Bowditch, 1966, p. 920; see also USCG light
lists.
l3 IDAMN , 2-6-030.
14 IHB, 1971, p. 57.
164
l5-20Stevenson, D. Alan, The World's Light-
houses Before 1820. New York: OUP, 1959.
2l Lang , A.W. Entwicklung, Aufbau und Verwal-
tung des Seezeichenwessens an der Deutschen Nord-
seekuste bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Der
Bundesminister Fur Verher, Bonn, 1965, pp. 105-
06; IHB, 1971, p. 36.
22 It would appear that the various terms are
broad in meaning rather than narrowly focused on
a given meaning; if this is not the case then
there is a possible, or probable, misuse of many
terms.
23possibly this is due to the fact that IALA
perceives the expression as a French word, and
thereby translates the term perch as pole for
English language usage; IALA Survey 1979/2, p.
20. The Navigation Dictionary (USNOO, 2nd. ed.
1969, Washington, D.C.: GPO, p. 186) includes
perch as an English language term. The Inter-
national Maritime Dictionary of Rene' De Kerchone,
2nd. ed., 1961, D. Van Nostrand, p. 577) lists
perch as English and perche as French.
24J . M. O'Connell, USCG, letter to writer, Nov.
19, 1974, and mimeographed handout, "Fixed Aids
to Navigation," p. 3.
25 It is difficult to determine the correct
measure of details in a classification. John
Fowles comments ("Seeing Nature Whole," Har-
per's, November 1979, Vol. #259, pp. 49-70)
that it was a regrettable habit of Victorian
science to minutely dissect living organisms
into categories and subcategories. In the
twentieth century the tendency of science is
to classify less minutely and to present the
larger situation in a given study. The pur·-
pose of this classification - which, obviously,
does not deal with living organisms - is not to
create minute classifications for the sake of
165
II
I
Ii
,;
I
,I
1
near-microscopic precision but to allow for even-
tual and more accurate study of the subject. It
seems preferable to tentatively subdivide exces-
sively than to create a few categories which may
be inadequate, or worse, overshadow and obscure
necessary distinctions which may be later lost
from sight altogether.
26Canadian daybeacons are listed, in most in-
stances, by the daymark portion only; the light
lists usually do not include support structures
which are presumably obscured from the mariner's
view.
27According to the 1964 edition of the USCG
Manual, Chapter 4, "Structures," pp. 4-18 and
4-19, they measure either 3'7" or 4'6" on a side.
28 For example, Waterford Light (Columbia
River in the State of Washington) is listed as
a small house in the 1962 Pacific Light List,
but after the addition of a daymark it was re-
listed as a daymark only, since the house was
thereby largely obscured; see new editions of the
light list.
29An example of a composite daymark/struc-
ture would be that of the Honga River daybeacon
on Tangier Sound in Maryland (Atlantic Light List,
Vol. I, 1979, p. 411). The aid is a "square
green on black slatted pile structure." Ob-
viously since the painted surface is an integral
part of the marking there is no way of separating
daymark and underlying structure.
3°F 1 h" h ., hor examp e, t IS IS t e practIce In t e
Netherlands according to IHB, 1971, p. 52.
31 IDAMN , "Cairns," 2-6-055.
32USNOO (DMA), Sailing Directions, Soenda
Strait and Western and N.B. Coasts of Borneo and
Off-lying Islands. Rev. ed., 1975, pp. 9-10.
166
33 IDAMN , 2-6-055.
34 For example, Craig Point Daybeacon, Alaska,
p. 204 of Pacific Light List, 1979.
35 IHB , 1971, p. 36.
36 IHB , 1971, p. 57.
37 IMC , Vol. 11, pp. 1388-89. The "Final Act"("General lJivision 12") is entitled, "A Uniform
System of Buoys and Beacons" but a) and b) men-
tion buoys only. There is a reference to "marks
on a rock in fairway" but that is the only ex-
plicit reference.
38See above, and Vol. I, p. xii, "Program of
subjects, Uniform system of buoyage and beaconage."
39 IMC , Vol. II, p. 1322.
40Records and Texts of the Conference for the
Unification of Buoyage and Lighting of Coasts:
Section IV, "Records of the Work of the Committee."
Lisbon, 1930, and Agreement for a Uniform System
of Buoyage and Rules Annexed Thereto, Geneva, 1936.
41 DMA , Pilot Chart of the North Pacific Ocean
Area, 1977.
--42-43See above.
44 IALA , 1979, p. 31.
45 IALA , 1979, p. 37.
. 46CANS , p. 5. Note: All references to Canadian
daybeacons in this section are to the same publica-
tion. See also USCG Light Lists, Pacific Coast,
"British Columbia."
47 IALA Survey, 1984/3, p. 17; IHB, 1971, p. 57.
Note: All references are to IHB in this section
except the first, which is from IALA.
48 IHB, 1971, pp. 33-38. All references are to
that source; direct quotes are listed separately.
167
.~
!
Page 158
Notes for Daybeacon Illustrations
Row III, Left, USCG Manual, 1979
Left-center, CANS,
Right-center, CANS
Right, USCG Light List
Row IV, Board of Navigation, Helsinki
169
Page 156, Computer graphics based on IHB
Page 157, Row I, Left two, computer graphics
based on IHB
Row Middle two, IHB
Right two, computer graphics
based on pre-IALA Italian
buoyage system.
Row II Computer graphics based on
IHB, and Norwegian seamarks
Row III, IHB
R~w IV, Left three, Svenska Sjokort,
Right, IDi\J'lN
Row V, Left two, Svenska Sjokort.
Right "two, IHB
Row I, USCG Manual, 1979
Row II, USCG Manual, 1979
168
49-51See above.
52-57 USCG , Aids to Navigation-Technical Manual,
1979, Chapter 5, "Daybeacons."
58-60 IHB , 1971, p. 11.
61 IHB , 1971, p. 15.
62 IHB , 1971, p. 19.
63USNOO, Sailing Directions for Western Shores
of South China Sea: Singapore to Hong Kong, Rev.
ed., 1976, p. 11;
64 IHB , 1971, p. 26.
65 IHB , 1956, p. 26; IHB, 1971, pp. 49-77.
66 IALA , Survey, 1984/3, p. 16.
67 IALA , Survey, 1979/2, p. 21.
68 IHB, 1971, p. 44.
69USNOO, Sailing Directions, Soenda Strait ....
pp. 9-10.
70-71 See above.
72 IHB, 1971, pp. 48-49.
73USNOO, Sailing Directions, Soenda Strait ....
pp. 9-10.
74 IHB, 1971, p. 52.
75USNOO, Sailing Directions for the Northern
USSR, Rev. ed., 1975, Vol. II, pp. 13-14,17-22.
--76
Vol. III of above, Rev. ed., 1976, p. 14.
, '
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170
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.-
.-
•,
•
CHAPTER NINETEEN
ELECTRONIC ~~RINE AIDS TO NAVIGATION
19A Overview and History
Active electronic markings constitute a nu-
merically small but important part of marine aids
to navigation. They also constitute a complex
and not easily understood component of marine
aids. Worldwide, there are little more than 1300
active electronic markings, though some 23000 ad-
ditional passive markings known as radar reflec-
tors are in use. l The significance of electronic
devices in marine safety is far greater than the
limited number of active aids that are in ser-
vice. Few electronic markings have a range of
less than 10 miles (ca. 16 km.) and most have a
range of more than 20 miles. Some types of hyper-
bolic markings have a range that extends into
the thousands of miles. This contrasts with
visual markings many of which cannot transmit as
much as 10 miles and only a tiny fraction can
emit light waves much more than 20 miles.
The various forms of electronic markings
share two significant features: All of these aids
transmit electromagnetic waves (those that are
active), and all - in some sense - are loca-
tional markings. This study requires subdivi-
sions of such markings beyond that basic level.
The first subdivision is that of the radiobea-
con. The radiobeacon is the oldest and numerically
the largest segment of electronic markings. They
were first established in 1921 and have con-
tinued to maintain navigational importance to the
present time. 2 The radiobeacon is a form of bea-
con - as the name clearly suggests - though
through the use of electronic waves instead of
light waves. Radiobeacons provide a clear
171
I i
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I
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I:
indication to the mariner of the ship's location
in relation to a specific radiobeacon and the
harbor or other geographical features represented
by that radiobeacon. 3 The low-powered radiobea-
cons known as marker beacons perform less of a
locational function and more of a homing function.
A second category of electronic markings is
that of radar. Radar is of immense importance
to the mariner but has limited direct significance
to navigation. The most important use of radar
in aids to navigation is in the form of radar
reflectors. Radar reflectors represent a" passive
and indirect use of radar; it is more of a "sound-
ing board" for shipboard radar units than an
actual radar mechanism. 4 The reflectors "cap-
ture" the radar unit's sweep and therein provide
more efficiently information about obstructions
and channels especially in reduced visibility;
natural objects and artificial objects without
reflectors can be picked up by radar but less
adequately. Active radar in the form of radar
beacons and racons finds limited duty for special
purposes including the marking of wrecks.
The electronic markings so far described are
of short-range capabilities. Longer-range aids
require different approaches. The principal
approach to date is hyperbolic radio-navigation
systems. S The name hyperbolic comes from lines
~f ~osition (LOP) known in geometry as hyper-
bola or hyperbolic lines. 6 These lines are
produced by various types of transmission equip-
ment and when received can be translated into
a moderate to highly precise determination of
the location of the ship. The hyperbolic sys-
tems differ in a variety of ways, but the pro-
duction of hyperbolic lines from multiple sta-
tion, thereby creating intersecting lines, is a
constant of the various systems. The older radio-
navigation systems, such as Loran-A and Decca,
provide navigation assistance from 300 to
172
to approximately 900 miles.? Neither is capable
of what might be termed hemispheric or global
range; Loran-C is capable of those ranges. And
the newer OMEGA offers worldwide assistance. 8
Miscellaneous systems, such as Consul and Toran,
offer medium-distance assistance to shipping. 9
The history of electronic markings systems
is relatively brief. Radiobeacons, as already
mentioned, date back to the second quarter of
the century.lO World War II provided the major
impetus for many other developments. For example,
radar, though originating in the 1920s, did not
become a practical communication and navigation
system until World War 11. 11 And it did not be-
come a commercial possibility until 1946. 12 The
beginnings of Loran were also in World War 11. 13
Developments that led to Loran-C occured in the
postwar era. 14 Decca also became a reality in the
early postwar period. IS Further historical de-
tails will be found with the coverage of various
electronic markings.
19B Classification and Explanatory Notes
The brevity of this classification may seem
to belie the significance of electronic markings.
This brevity is easily explaned. Most of the
complexity is to be found with the messages them-
selves, not with the structural and physical di-
mensions of the aids (which is contrary to visual
forms of markings). And since the classification
is centered on the forms of markings there is only
a limited amount of information to classify; this
is especially true of some of the most vital elec-
tronic markings: the hyperbolic radio-navigation
systems. The complexity of the classification is
to be found mostly with the more peripheral and
passive markings.
261. Radiobeacons. This classification shows
a plethora of types but the major forms are the
1?3
'f
f' .
~~~~............--;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;==----------_._-- -
...... ~' ::r '0 ~ 0 rt rt ::l
~' ::l (1) ::r ::l I-t> '1 =- 0
:3C1Q ::l,<c.. 0 <?::l
~' () til 0. ::l I
rt 0" tv (1)~. () tv ...... ~. tv () 0..
(1) C '" () 0 '" I-t> () '" 0 .....•
o.rt.+>. rt~:3~ I-t> tv::l'1
• ::r ...... '"O (1):3. rt(1)
Crt (1) ...... '1(1) .... ()
Ul::r....., tIl(1):;::l (1)()"""::lrt
lU(1)::r o.rtXlU ::s::r::r ::: ......
C1Q (1) (1)'1 0. rt~(1) 00(1)0 rtC'"O~ ::Stll-::S
• rt 0. lU () 0 '1 I-t>~. (1) :r. ~
::r 0 ~' rt '1 0 Ul ......
(1):3 ...... Crt'1 '1:3lU "'i'l
'1 ~' (1) '1 ~' 0 :3 ...... 0 rt
tIl::S 0. (1) 0 "'i'l Ul~' 0. '1 '<
lU tIl::s ...... ::Stll:3'D
'1::S rt (1) rt :r. (1)(1)rt'1lUO() (1) ...... til
:3 (1) '1 I-t> rt C1Q~......,
..... ~I-t> lU(1) 0 '1 til tvrt
~ ~' 0 rt rt '1 ~ rt ~::r
.+>. ::S'1 :3:3::rtll ...... (1) .... ~
:3 (1)C(1) 0. ~rt
o ::s ..... '1 rt -
"C .... rtrt()(1) O~ ~
(1) Ul ~' ...... '"0 til tv '1
'1 O"ClU'1 rt 0\(1)
lU rt I-t>..... til (1) ::r lU ....
rt::r (1) til til (1)()'+>'0
~' (1) rt ~' (1) rt '-' I-t>
o ::r ~' I-t> ::l :3~'.
::s r- (1)::S~' rt lU < rt
lUO S () '1(1)::r
..... '1. I-t>lUrt '" (1)
lU 0 rt ::r ~' ::r
rt ::s '1 ~' (1) ::s lU til
::r. SO ~< (1)
on ::l'"O (1).0
C lU· (1) rt C
C1QS ::l '1 ::rlU (1)
::r lU 0. ~' o::s ::s
'1 """'"0 C ()
o '" ::r ::r C1Q (1) (1)I-t>I (1)(1)::r ......
'1 (1) 0
~ () '1
....... I
Classification qf Electronic Transportation Markings
.....
~
'J1
261 Radiobeacons
2611 Rotating
2612 Non-Directional: Circular, Omni-Directional
2613 Non-Directional: Sequence, Group
2614 Non-Directional: Continuous
2615 Directional: Sequence, Group
2616 Directional: Continuous
262 Radar: Active
2621 Primary Radar: Racon
2622 Secondary Radar: Ramark
263 Radar: Passive: Radar Reflectors
2631 Corner Reflector: Trihedral (Corner - simple)
2632 Corner Reflector: Pentagonal (Corner- five cluster)
2633 Corner Reflector: Octahedral (Corner - eight cluster)
2634 Dieletric Reflector
2635 Dihedral Reflector
2636 Luneberg Reflector
264 Hyperbolic Radio~Navigation Systems
2641 Loran-A
2642 Loran-C
2643 Decca, Regular16
2644 Decca, Dectra17
2645 Omega
2646 Consu1 18
2647 Toran
265 Satellite Navigation
2650 Global POsitioning System
2651 Transit
L19C Descriptions of Types and Message Systems:
Ilypcrbol ic Systems
This coverage will begin with Loran (2641 and
2642) and end with Toran (2647). Loran is an
acronym constructed form the words Long Range Navi-
gation. 19 It is the oldest of the hyperbolic sys-
tems of navigation presently in use. It is one
of two such systems with trans-regional capabili-
ties. ~10re precisely, Loran coverage extends over
most of the hemispheres including the North
Pacific from North America to Asia, the North
Atlantic from North America to Asia and nothern
Africa; the Arctic Ocean basin and the Mediter-
ranean Sea area. 20 While only a few nations main-
tain Loran stations, the character and range of
Loran do not preclude wide coverage. The U.S.
maintains 87% of the Loran-C stations, and Japan
operates 73% of the considerably reduced Loran-A
system; Canada and Denmark operate the remainder
of the Loran-A stations, and Canada, Denmark and
Tunisia the remaining Loran-C stations. 2l
The significant change in Loran has not been
in the total number of itations but in the type
of operating units. The U.S. has phased out Loran-
A stations and replaced with Loran-C. However,
Loran-A (according to moderately current figures)
is not altogether obsolete. 22
While Loran-A and Loran-C are hyperbolic in
nature they vary to some degree from other hyper-
bolic approaches. Omega and Decca both contain
continuous wave transmission systems, but Loran
utilizes pulsed wave transmissions. 23 In addi-
tion, Loran is based on a time measuring ap-
proach while Omega and Decca determine positions
though measurements of phases. 24 Loran-A and -C,
as well as other hyperbolic systems, operates on
a master/slave station arrangement or some form
of multiple-stations or multiple transmissions. 25
176
A type of Loran known as the "B" type has
been developed but never placed in practical navi-
gation situations. 26 It uses the same frequency
as "A" but achieves greater accuracy through
matching cycles as well as matching "envelopes."n
Loran-B has potential for application in coastal
and restricted waters since it is capable of high
accuracy. 28 Recent documents suggest that Loran-C
has the capabilities for that specialized usage,
and this may eliminate the possibility of "B"
gaining practical use in actual navigation opera-
tions. 29
In simple terms, Loran uses short-pulse 30
radio broadcast from two stations that are paired.
Ships require special receivers to benefit from
Loran. 31 The radiobeacon by contrast needs only
standard equipment; An indicator in the ship-
board receiving set indicates the "difference in
time of arrival of the signals" from the trans-
mitting unit, which permits the receiving operator
to calculate a "Line of Position" (LOP).32 The
calculation of two such LOPs is "crossed to ob-
tain a loran fix."33 This Loran fix is the lo-
cation of the ship.
Even though Loran-A is dwindling in use it
remains of practical significance. It is there-
fore appropriate to review "A" in some detail.
Loran-A operates on a frequency of 2000 Kc. 34
Each station consists of a master and slave unit;
in some instances one station serves two pairs.
The multiple-use stations directly transmit dif-
ferent signals for each pair. 35 .At the medium
frequencies employed by "A" both ground waves and
sky waves are utilized. 36 The use of ground
waves is a factor in the lower accuracy of "A".
At night "A" is capable of being reliably re-
ceived up to 1400 nautical miles, and during
the from 600 to 900 nautical miles. 37 The equip-
ment for an "A" station includes a transmitter,
an amplifier, and atimer. 38 The last named
177
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,
component supplies tImIng or trigger impulses
whjch in turn activitie the transmitter's pulsc
cmissions. The pulse is set by the mastcr sta-
tion according to stated and determined practices;
the slave unit adjusts its transmissions to the
master unit as necessary.39
The reception of the signals aboard ship is
through a radio somewhat similar to standard re-
ceivers though modified to Loran requirements. 40
The receiving unit does not transmit the infor-
mation to a loudspeaker but to an indicator. 4l
This indicator is "essentially an electronic
watch, whose time record is made visible by the
use of a specially designed cathode ray oscillo-
scope."42 Readings of the time differences be-
tween the two station transmissions can then be
determined and the position of the ship ascer-
tained. To gain a position fix one must have two
lines of position (LOP). This requires signals
from two pairs of stations, or a Loran chain in
which one master or slave station has a doub~e
transmission function. 43 Since "A" has both
ground and sky waves it is necessary to match
ground wave impulses with those of other ground
waves. Problems result if ground and sky waves
are mixed. 44
The Loran-C system extends and improves the
older "A" system. It differs in transmission fre-
quencies and in the measurement of time differ-
ences. 45 The results mean a much greater range
and a greatly increased accuracy. "C" operates
on the low frequency of 90 to 100 Kc. 46 This
contrasts with the medium frequency of "A." Each
installation comprises a master station and two
or three slave stations. 47
Measurement of Loran-C signals is by two
methods. Time measurement of the differences in
the arrival of signals is augmented by time mea-
surement of the carrier frequency.48 The master
and slave stations, the components, of which are
178
synchronjzed, emit a total of eight pulses per
transmission; Loran-A emits a single pulse per
transmission. 49 In addition, the master station
has a ninth pulse for identification of the sta-
tion itself. 50 Since master and slave engage in
sequential transmission with an identical "repeti-
tion rate," it is feasible for the vessel to com-
pute two time measurements without altering chan-
nel settings; the changing of channesl was neces-
sary in order to compute two measurements with
"A".5l Each chain emits an agreed-upon four-digit
number and also a group repetition interval desig-
nation. 52
The use of low frequency brings about trans-
mission synchronization which expands coverage
but with the same amount of radiated power. 53
Expanding the area covered also means that more
of the position line crossing angles are nearer
to 90 degrees, and this increases geometric ac-
curacy.54
Loran-C had its origins in the late part of
World War II. The early experimentation developed
problems in achieving high accuracy.55 Neverthe-
less, the experiments indicated that much greater
range was possible than with Loran-A.56 During
1946, the "Cyclan" project in the eastern U.S.
developed the nucleus of the desired new Loran
system, which was termed "Cytac."57 This experi-
mental Cytac became the present Loran-C with only
limited changes. 58
Decca, a separate hyperbolic system, is based
on continuous wave transmission, and on phase com-
parison measurement. 59 It operates at approxi-
mately 100 KHz and has a daytime range of about
250 miles; the nighttime range is somewhat less. 60
Each station consists of a master station and two
or three slave stations. 6l The slave stations are
70 to 100 miles from the master unit. 62 "Each
station transmit a continuous wave at a different
frequency, the four frequencies for a chain being
179
in the ratio of five, six, eight, ten and the en-
tire group in the seventy to one-hundred and
thirty Kc band.,,63
Measurement consists in determine the dif-
ference in wave-length received. The receiver
is at variance with standard receivers and even
hyperbolic receivers of other types. 64 Put
briefly, the receivers, and these are of several
types, receive the chain's signals on different
frequencies and these are then "brought to a
common comparison frequency within the re-
ceiver.,,65 The receiver does not merely indi-
cate incoming data to be processed, but carries
out a significant role in assembling the data
which are then interpreted. 66 The incoming data
create "three intersecting hyperbolic patterns,"
but mariners do not use all three patterns for
determining a position. 67 They select the two
patterns providing the best data for determining
position, and the remaining patterns are ignored. 68
The Decca system was developed during the im-
mediate post-World War II period and is primarily
a British development. 69 The system is exten-
sively used in some areas though it is not glo-
bal in scope. Some expansion of it has taken
place; oldest operating stations ate in south-
east England (1947) and in Denmark (1948).70
Major areas of usage include Western Europe, South
Africa, India and Japan. 71
Omega is a hyperbolic system of worldwide,
capabilities that transmits on a very low fre-
quency channel of 10 to 14 Khz. 72 Contrary to
Loran, it emits a "phase-difference measure
technique" instead of the time-difference techni-
que of Loran-A and _C. 73 Omega shares the phase-
measurement approach with Decca. Omega's foun-
dations date back to the work of J.A. Pierce
of Harvard University in 1947. 74 Subsequently,
an experiemental system was developed by the
U.S. Navy at San Diego. 75 This predecessor of
180
Omega, termed Radux, had a broadcast frequency
of 50 Khz. 76 Radux had a range of approximately
2000 miles and an "accuracy of three to five
miles. ,,77 While Radux demonstrated the feasi-
bility of very low frequency transmissions and
the validity of phase-difference measurements,
it lacked sufficient range and was excessively
inaccurate. 78
As a result, a second system was developed
that emitted a combined VLF signal of about 10
Khz with the original LF signal of 10 Khz; this
second experiment ~as termed Radux-Omega. 79
In order to expand the range of transmissions
the LF signal, the Radux portion, was eliminated
and the eventual result was the present Omega
with its multi-frequency characteristics. 80
Hyperbolic systems, as previously noted,
normally employ a master-slave station format
and early Omega followed this pattern. But '
through the use of a "bank of cesium frequency
standards" which brings about the vast range
of Omega there is no need for specific pairing
of any of the eight worldwide stations. 8l A
mariner can pair any two stations in the world
to gain a locational fix for the ship.82 The
system, however, remains a hyperbolic-based
positioning navigation aid. The fact of a sys-
tem composed of little more than a dozen sta-
tions encompassing the entire globe suggests
the immense range and possibilities of Omega.
Omega, through the utilization of VLF fre-
quencies, gains reliable transmissions for many
thousands of miles, and these transmissions are
predictable with at most very slight error. 83
The stations time-share frequencies, and because
~f th~s ~haring the system allow for a high qual-
lty flX ln any location; errors in determining
locations are also minimal. 84 The means for
selecting of LOPs are akin to choosing lines of
181
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position in celestial navigation. This further
indicates the worldwide character of what is, to
date, the most advance navigation system.
19D Descriptions of Types and Me~sage Systems:
Radio and Radar
Radiobeacon, the oldest part of electronic
markings, became operative in 1921 - at least in
the U.S. - which was shortly after the beginning
of commercial radio. 8S The first three stations
began operation in May of 1921, and by 1925 more
than a dozen beacons were functioning. 86 In the
earlier history of radiobeacons they were fre-
quently referred to as "radio fog signals,"
which denotes an important function of such mark-
ings, though not the only one. 87
Bowditch defines the radiobeacon as a "radio
transmitter emitting a characteristic signal to
permit a craft with suitable equipment to deter-
mine its direction, distance, or position rela-
tive to the beacon. ,,88 !DAMN concurs except for
omitting a position determining capability for
radiobeacons. 89 The radiobeacon lacks the inter-
section lines of a hyperbolic system. 90 The
radiobeacon is a single-unit station in its
operation; that is, it does not have the master/
slave dimension common to hyperbolic stations and.
the resulting grid patterns. 91 . However, one
English source suggests that cross-bearings can
be gained through placing a fix on two radio-
beacon stations; hyperbolic systems are normally
utilized for ~hat purpose. 92
The radiobeacon clearly indicates its func-
tion by its title; this is contrary to many
electronic aids which have almost Orwellian names.
The radiobeacon is a radio transmitter with a
specialized function, yet it is similar to other
transmitters. The radiobeacon is also a beacon:
182
the sending out of impulses by a single station
to mariners, though through different forms of
waves. Radiobeacons can provide three kinds of
navigation services. Some serve as regular bea-
cons and provide an ongoing message. 93 A second
type transmits in all weather but increases its
transmissions in fog conditions. 94 The final
version emits messages only during times of fog. 95
Canada and the U.S., which are the largest
operators of radiobeacons, normally operate radio-
beacons according to the beacon service pattern. 96
Clear weather beacons include those stations that
function less frequently than beacon service but
whose transmissions are expanded "during periods
of fog or low visibility."97 The third type is
limited to fog signal usage exclusively.98 Cali-
bration radiobeacons provide a service for mari-
ners wishing to improve the accuracy of direction-
finding equipment aboard ship.99
While some radiobeacons operate alone, many
or most operate in groups. Dutton suggests a
group sequence pattern of three radio beacons
per group, but in the U.S. and in Canada the
stations "operate in groups of six, each station
in a group using the same frequency and trans-
mitting for one minute in its proper sequence."IOO
Low-power marker radiobeacons function singly for
local use at entrance to bays, harbors, and
rivers. lOl An European agreement reached in 1933
established a pattern of regional control and
organization for radiobeacons which had the goal
to end confusion of overlapping stations. 102
Some North American radiobeacons are synchronized
across national boundaries as well. 103
Station identification is accomplished
through dot and dash patterns which are frequently
outside the Morse code system though some do
fOllow that system. 104 In some countries
special combined radiobeacons and fog signals
183
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are maintained. These radio direction finding
st~tions synchronize the radio beacon message
with that of a sound signal. 105
According to the IALA survey there are about
79U radiobeacons in operation. l06 Of these the
U.S. has about 29% and Canada about 15%. Japan,
France and Norway operate another 18% and England/
Wales, South Africa and Denmark 11% of the radio-
beacons. 107 So these eight nations are respon-
sible for over 70% of the surveyed radiobeacons. l08
Most radiobeacons are either omni-directional
or non-directional. This means that the aids
can be picked up by shipboard receivers in
all directions. 109 A small number of radio-
beacons are directional and therefore can be
received in specific directions only.110 All of
these beacons are operated by Japan, and they
are a combination of directional and non-direc-
tional types. 111
Dutton and other sources classify radiobea-
cons by range of signals. According to Dutton,
"A" range is 200 miles, "B" is 100 miles; "C"
transmit up to 20 miles, and "0" a modest 10
miles. 112 This classification strongly suggests
the short-to-medium-range character of radio-
beacons. l13
In summary, radiobeacons continue to occupy
an important role in navigation. They are no
longer the only electronic aid but their role
is, if anything, greater as more and more bea-
cons are added to various national aids to
navigation systems.
Radar transportation markings are of three
types: ramarks, a form of primary radar; racon,
a type of secondary radar; and radar reflectors,
which can be described as a variety of passive
radar. ll4 "Ramark" is from the words radar
(ra-), and mark. llS Primary radar reflects
signals without being "ignited" by the radar
184
capabilities of shipboard installations. 116 Ra-
mark broadcasts are continuous and omni-direc-
tional. ll ? They indicate bearings for a ship but
they do not provide distance or range information;
a shipboard radar unit, attuned to a ramark unit,
receives a "radial line at the bearing of the
beacon."ll8 According to the IALA survey there
are slightly over 40 Ramarks, of which Ja~an
has about 60% and Canada just under 40\.11
Secondary radar units, including the racon,
need to be triggered before they will transmit
the desired pulse; the trigger is the shipboard
radar set. 120 Racon is also regarded as a trans-
ponder beacon and at times is included under that
designation. 12l In some instances racons produce
an individualized code signal, while in other in-
stances the racon emits an unvarying signal~ the
codes are in the form of dots and dashes. 12 An
uncoded si~nal is formed'by a radial line in the
receiver. l 3 Major users of racons include
Canada, Finland, the U.S., England/Wales, Scot-
land and Denmark. 124 All racons provide both
bearing and distance information; coded racons
also~rovide identification of the specific bea-
con. l 5 Racons are especially valuable for the
marking of wrecks. 126
Radar reflectors are not in strict terms a
form of radar but are rather a "device specially
arranged to have the property of reflecting in-
cident electromagnetic energy parallel to the
direction of incidence to enhance the radar re-
sponse."127 In simpler terms, they may be de-
scribed as "certain aids to navigation fitted
with special features designed to enhance their
ability to reflect radar energy."128 Radar re-
flectors are then objects better able to provide
a surface on which radar waves can "bounced" off
or be reflected off, and superior to natural and
artificial objects' capabilities. In a loose
turn of phrase, they can be called passive radar
185
..
since they are closely tied to forms of active
rudur transmission. I~ad:tr sets can pick lip ["C-
flections from other objects, though less pre,-
cisely and less adequately.
According to the 1983 IALA survey, the U.S.
has nearly 70% of radar beacons, Canada has 10%
and other large users an additional 13%129
Radar reflectors can exhibit a variety of sur-
face forms. IDAMN lists six possible variations:
Trihedral or corner reflector, dieletric, di-
hedral or right angle reflector, Luneberg re-
flector or Luneberg lens, octahedral cluster
(with eight corner reflectors), and the penta-
gonal cluster (with fiver corner reflectors).130
They range in complexity from simple two-dimen-
sional surfaces to complex units of eight faces. 13l
However, the various forms represent a single type
of marking, and light lists do not disttnguish
between the diverse and nuanced differentia-
tions. l32
19E Miscellaneous Navigation
And Non-Navig~tion Systems
Consul and Toran represent two final sys-
tems of electronic aids to navigation. Neither
is of major significance either regionally or
globally. Consul existed as a single station in
France, and Toran consists of six stations in
France and one in the Netherlands. 133 Consul is
a derivative of the German Sonne system of World
War II and a close companion of that system. 134 It
has been classified as hyperbolic by one source,
and azimuthal by another; effectively, it can be
regarded as a radiobeacon system though it is of
great range and of more precise accuracy than
conventional radiobeacons. 135 Consul has a range
of 500 nautical miles in daylight and 900 to 1500
nautical miles at night; it transmits on a medium
frequency. 136
186
•!
-
-
In essence, a Consul installation consists of
one transmission station and it provides both di-
rectional and rotating radiobeacon character-
istics. The transmissions are of medium fre-
quency and these are emitted from three an-
tennae. 137 "Due to the method of feeding the
antennas, the earth's surface from the user's
point of view is divided into alternate dot and
dash sectors.,,138 During a complete period of
transmissions the mariner will hear three trans-
missions: a "continuous sound of short duration
called the equisignal and this will be preceded
and followed by cadenced signs (first dots then
dashes or vice versa). The count of these signs
supplies the user with [her/]his angular posi-
tion within the section or sector where he Cheri]
is 10cated."139 No special receiver is required
with the Consul system. Any standard receiver
which can receive medium-frequency waves that are
continuous will suffice. This receiver also re-
quire.s only a "narrow band-pass" if it should
lack "automatic gain control.,,140
In 1960 there were functioning Consul sta-
tions in Western and Southern Europe and a simi-
lar version, termed Consolan, on the Eastern
coast of the U.S. Only the French station re-
mains. 141
Toran is listed as a hydrographic aid in IHB
publications. 142 But both IDAMN and IALA list
it as an electronic aid to navigation. 143 It is
a hyperbolic system capable of precise informa-
tion. The ship "can obtain its position by the
determination of the phase differences between
the HF waves emitted by a pair of confocal
transmitters and the transmission from a fixed
reference transmitter."144 It has a range of
about 300 miles. 145 The emissions come from a
frequency of about 2 MHz. 146 IHB speaks of several
applications, but none are specifically for
general navigation. 147 IHB perceives Toran as
aiding harbor works such as dredging and surveying. 148
187
,...
There are a variety of hyperbolic systems in
usc that are outside the transportation markings
spectrum. These systems find use in surveying
and other hydrographic projects. They are not
part of this study, but because they are related
to ~and touch upon ~ transportation markings and
maritime matters it is necessary to briefly con-
sider them here. Many publications on transpor-
tation markings include refererences - and even
extended treatments of - hydrographic hyperbolic
systems, and it is therefore necessary to de-
lineate between aids to navigation and hydrographic
electronics. 149 There are instances in which a
variation of a hyperbolic aid to navigation is in
use for hydrographic purposes; the reverse also
seems to be true. Hyperbolic systems which are
directly related to one or other areas include
Lambda, Hi-fix, Raydist, and Shoran. lSO
Lambda, an acronym formed from Low Ambiguity
Decca, follows the basic feature of-Oecca.~Sl
However, the master station is aboard ship ·a~d
the system is design~d for hydrographic purposes.lS 2
A second "phase comparison position fixing system"
is that of Hi-fix. It operates at a higher fre-
quency than Lambda and has a shorter range, but
it is also a derivative of Decca. lS3
Raydist, of which there are four types: M, N,
OM, and F .,are "continuous wave phase comparison
systems used principally for precision location of
a vessel in survey operations. ,,154 Raydists operate
in medium- to high-frequency channels; Raydist M
and N are hyperbolic, while OM and F employ a
variant approach for gaining the needed coordi-
nates for determining position. 155 Shoran, a
separate system from Raydist, also utilizes "cir-
cular co-ordinates systems" for determining posi-
tion and this too finds usage in survey work. lS6
Toran is listed as a hydrographic aid in IHB
publications, but IALA lists it as an aid to
188
-
-
-
navigation. lS7 It can be considered so here, though
it is also under the heading of Toran early in this
section. Two final systems are Lorac and Rana. Lorac,
a hydrographic system, is similar to the Raydist sys-
tem. lS8 Rana varies from most hyperbolic systems in
that each of three units of the system "acts as a
master for one frequency and as a slave for the other
two frequencies."lS9 The result is an approach that
creates lines of position of great precision and
without ambiguity.160 .
In closing this survey of electronic markings
it is necessary to review satellite navigation sys-
tems of Transit and GPS. The Transit system developed
by the U.S. Navy. is also known as the Navy Navigation
Satellite System or NSS; there is confusion on whether
it is also known as NAVSAT. Transit began operation
in 1964 and was 'available for shipboard usage in 1967.
The system is hyperbolic in'nature - as are many major
shore-based systems. Transit is composed of five
satellites in polar orbit at a height of 1110 m;
the system broadcasts on frequencies of 150 and 400
MHz. There are about 150 shipboard receivers in
operation.
Global Positioning System (GPS; also known as Nav-
star or Navstar-GPS) began development in 1973 and
is now partially operational; full implementation has
been delayed by the space shuttle disaster. 162 GPS
is v~ry ~ccura~e, possesses universal availability
and 1S s1mple 1n operation. Simplicity is a key fac-
tor in GPS: "the user can turn the set on without
further adjustment begin to navigate accurately and
continuously." Eventually 18 satell ites are scheduled
for the system. Six orbit planes will each contain
three satellites. These transmit on frequencies of
1575.42 MHz and 1227.6 MHz and are in orbit 20 km
a~ove the planet. The user will be able to pick up
s1gnals from at least four satellites. Measurement of
the incoming signals will give latitude, longitude
a~d time information. GPS employs a pseudo-range and
t1me measurement approach rather than a hyperbolic one.
GPS may in time replace other systems. Both the USSR
and Europeans are working on similar approaches.
189
1, 1985.
1,1985,
Endnotes for 19A, B, C, 0, and E
IBulletin l' AISM/IALA, 1979-2, pp. 22-23.
2Weiss, U.S. Lighthouse Service~ pp. 38-39.
3This is similar to the functions of unlighted
beacons; not surprizingly, the term beacon is added
to these radio signals; many electronic aids as-
sist in determining location of vessels rather
than relate a vessel to a pre-determined point
on land.
41DAMN , Ch. 4, Radio Aids, 1970, 4-3-525.
51HB , Radio Aids to Maritime Navigation and
Hydrography, 1970, p. 3.
6IHB , Ch. 4, "On Computing of Hyperbolic
Lattices" of Radio Aids ...
71HB , Radio Aids, Loran, 11.2-03; Decca 11.3-10.
8U.S. Navy Omega Project, Omega Navigation
Systems: A VLF Radio Aid to Navigation.
9IHB , Radio Aids, Consul, 11.4-01 ff; Toran,
IDAMN, 4-4-340.
lOBowditch, p. 58.
11-13 ,Bowd1tch,.p. 59.
14 1HB , Radio Aids, pp. 11-2-31 to 11.2-33.
15 1HB , Radio Aids, 11.3-24.
l60nly one· form is in use but due to the develop-
ment of DECTRA it seemed necessary to include it
in the classification; "regular" denotes the
single, standard form.
17 1HB , Radio Aids, p. 11.3-28.
18Consul based on Sonne, a German development
in World War II; it is not in use; see p. 11.4-01,
IHB Radio Aids.
191HB , Radio Aids, p. 11.2-01.
190
20USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. 1, 1985,
p. xxx; Pacific, Vol. 3, 1985, p. xxx.
21 IALA, Survey, 1984/3, pp. 17, 19.
22USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. 1, p. xxx;
IALA Survey, 1984/3, pp. 17, 19.
231HB , Radio Aids, p. 2.
24 IHB , Radio Aids, Loran, p. 11.2-01; Decca
p. 11.3-01; USN, Omega Navigation Systems.
251HB , Radio Aids, p. 11.2-02.
26-28See above.
291f this compiler's understanding is correct.
30-33 1HB Rd' .d, a 10 Al S, p. 11.2-02.
34-35 IHB , R d' A'da 10 1 s~ p. 11.2-01.
361HB , Radio Aids, p.II.2-17.
371HB , Radio Aids, p.II.2-30.
38 1HB , Radio. Aids, p.II.2-07 to 09.
39-421HB , Radio Aids, p.II.2-09.
43USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol.
44 USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol.
pp. xxvii-xxviii.
45-48 IHB , R d' A'da lOIS, p.II.2-31.
49USCG , Light List, Atlantic, Vol. I, 1985,
pp. xxvii-xxviii.
501HB , Radio Aids, p.II.2-33.
51-52 .USCG, LIght List, Atlantic, Vol. I,
1985, pp. xxvii-xxviii.
53-55 1HB , Radio Aids, P.II.2-31.
56-57
IHB, Radio Aids, pp.II.2-32-33.
58 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.2-33.
59-60 "IHB, RadIo AIds, p.II.3-05.
191
•61-62 CANS , p. 8.
63BOwditch, p. 345.
64-69 d' 'd eh II 3IHB, Ra 10 Al S, . ..
70-71 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.2-24; IALA, Survey
1984/3, pp. 17, 19 (IALA refers to #71 only).
72 IDAMN , 4-4-245; Omega Navigation System,p.1.
73-84Omega Navigation Systems, pp. 1-3.
85Weiss,U.S. Lighthouse Service, pp. 38-39.
86Weiss, pp. 38-39.
87 W . 38elSS, p. .
88Bowditch, p. 942.
89 I DAMN , p. 4-2-000.
900f course the radiobeacon is intended to
aid the mariner to locate position in relation
to a fixed object not to locate exact position
of the ship in relation to geographical position.
9l0nly radiobeacons and radar installations
are single-station operations.
92 Bowen, pp. 43-44.
93-95 IDAMN , p. 4-2-025.
96USCG , Light List, Vol. 1, Atlantic, p. xvi,
CANS, p. 7.
97-99 IDAMN , 4-2-025.
100Dutton, p. 235; USCG, Light List, Atlantic,
1979, p. xvi.
101USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1979,
p. xvi. (These have declined in usage, retained
by Canada).
102 Bowen, p. 45.
103cANS , p. 7.
104USCG , Light List, Vol. III. Pacific, p. xvi.
192
..
-
-
•
•
•
•
•
•
105IDAMN, 4-2-055.
106-108 IALA , 1984/3, pp. 17, 19.
109IHB, p. I I. 1-06.
110 IHB, p.II.1-07.
111 1ALA , Survey, 1984/3, p. 19.
112Hill , J.e., Utegaard, T.F., and Riordan,
G., Dutton's Navigation and Piloting. Annapolis
(Maryland): U.S. Naval Institute, 1958, p. 25.
113This does not mean that radiobeacons are
one of those four figures; radiobeacons can vary
from 10 to 200 miles and all points in between.
114 B d' h 323ow ItC , p. .
115 I DAMN ,
116-ll7 IDAMN , p. 4-3-450.
118USCG , Light List, Vol. III, Pacific, 1979,
p. xiV.
119 IDAMN , pp. 4-3-005, 4-3-010, 4-3-420,
and 4-3-455; see also USCG Light Lists.
120IALA, Survey, 1979-2, p. 37.
121 I DAMN , p. 4-3-455.
122USCG , Light List, Vol. III, Pacific, 1985,
p. xix.
123-124See above.
125 IALA, Survey, 1979-2, p. 37.
126See Above
127 IDAMN , p. 4-3-525.
l28 USCG , Light List, Vol. III, Pacific,
1985, p. xix.
129 IALA, Survey, 1984/3, pp. 17, 19; see also
USCG, Light Lists; CANS.
130-131 IDAMN , pp. 4-3-530, -540, -550, -555.
193
i'
i
J32 1ALA and other sources do not distinguish
between types of radar reflectors and listing of
lights and other aids to navigation.
133 IALA , Survey, 19R~/3, pr. 17, 19.
l34-135 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.4-0l.
l36 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.4-0l.
l37-l39 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.4-0l.
140 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.4-0l; p.II.4-25.
141 IHB , Radio Aids, p.II.4-26~ 11.4-29.
142 IHB , TAble of Contents.
l43 IALA , Survey, 1984/3, pp. 17, 19; IDAMN,
4-4-430.
144-l46 IDAMN 4-4-430.,
147-l48 IHB , Radio Aids, 111.12-02.
l49For example, IDAMN does not distinguish
between hydrographic and aids to navigation types,
and IHB includes both in one volume though in
separate sections.
l50 IHB , Table of Contents; IDAMN, 4-425,
4-4-270, 4-4-305.
l51 IHB , Radio Aids, p. 2; IDAMN, 4-4-225.
l52 IDAMN , 4-4-225.
l53 IDAMN , 4-4-230.
l54 IDAMN , 4-4-270.
155 IDAMN , 4-4-285 ff.
156 IDAMN , 4-4-305.
l57 IALA , Survey, 1984/3, pp. 17, 19; IHB,
Table of Contents.
l58 IDAMN , 4-4-380.
159-1601DAMN . 4-4-390.
161McDonald, K., The Satellite As An Aid
to Air Traffic Control, pp. 4-5,9; source for para
162Stansell, T.A., The GPS, IHB, July 1986.
p. 5lff. See Also: Thompson, S.D. An Introduction
GPS, 1985. And source for remainder of paragraph.
194
CHAPTER TWENTY
MARINE SOUND SIGNALS
20A Introduction and Classification
With Explanatory Notes
20Al Introduction
Fog signals are a vital though restricted
form of transportation marking. Though not glo-
bal they are significant within limited regions.
Fog signals can be divided into three broad cate-
gories: floating, fixed and electronic. This seg-
ment focusses primarily on fixed forms of sound
signals. The floating types are included with
buoys since they are an integral part of buoys.
Electronic aids, primarily consisting of radio-
beacons on fog signal service, are found in the
chapter on electronic markings. With an increas-
ing number of e1ectric~powered floating fog sig-
nals there is a somewhat lessened gap between
fixed and floating markings. The two segments of
this study detailing fog signals are complementary
to one another, and not a sign of a widening gap
between the fixed and floating markings.
Fog signals represent a broad cacophony of
whistles, sirens, diaphragm horns, diaphones,
reed horns, gongs, and bells. l Increasingly
diaphragm horns dominate fog signals and the
others appear to be fading out into the fog; this
is especially true in the U.S. Fog signals can
be uni-directional or omni-directiona1; the omni
form has shown some growth as the technology of
acoustics and the need for longer-distance sig-
nals has come together allowing for massive
multi-emitter units to be produced and positioned. 2
Fog signals can be powered by the action of the
sea, compressed air, steam, electronics, or
electricity. More and more signals are electric
(more precisely electro-magnetic) in propulsion;
195
i;
General of IALA) , in a letter to the compiler,
notes the replacement of gong, bell, whistle,
and horn signals by electric horns. lO Presumably
these declining types were sea-activated, manually-
operated or steam- or air-powered. It maybe
noted that the use of electronics in maritime
markings allows for the simulation of traditional
sounds without traditional technology.ll
The geographical (specifically, climate) bor-
ders of fog signals are clear-cut: All of the
major users of fog signals are in the Northern
Hemisphere. All'are north of 30 degrees north
latitude and all but one are predominantly -if
not exclusively - north of 45 degrees north lati-
tude. 12 The North Atlantic rim is the primary
realm of fog signals; the North Pacific is a
secondary region. The northern latitudes, of
course, are the areas both of heavy fog and of
heavy shipping.
20A2 A Classification of Fogs Signals
With Explanatory Notes
there are also more electronic type signals. The
older forms appear to he passing away. rog sig-
nals can be heard from a few hundred yards for
traditonal gongs, bells, and whistles up to
several miles for sophisticated models that can
be designed to meet distance requirements that
can range up to four miles.
Based on the responses to the IALA survey of
aids to navigation in 1984 (for the year 1983)
there are slightly less than 1500 fog signals
of a fixed character out of a total of about
3700; just over 40% therefore are fixed, and
just short of 60% are floating. 3 Some members
of the IALA, including the USSR, did not parti-
cipate in the survey, so the resulting figures
can offer only an approximate view of aids to
navigation. Among the nearly 2200 floating
signals Canada has one-quarter, and the U.S.
a little over one-half;4 England and Wales
(Trinity House) and France supply one-eighth
of the total. 5 The location of fixed fog sig-
nals is more diffuse: the bulk (more than 75%)
is divided into three groups: Canada, the U.S.,
and a composite of France, Italy, Japan, Scotland,
South Korea and Trinity House, each have ap-
proximately one-quarter of these signals. 6
The 1979 survey of IALA (that portion of the
1984 survey received by this compiler did not
include trends as such, though comparison of
the raw data with 1979 allows an extrapolation
of trends). For the period from 1971 to 1977
there was an over-all decrease in fixed fog
signals with a corresponding increase in float-
ing aids. 7 From 1979 to 1984 the data indicate
a slight reversal of that earlier trend, though
a reversal that is muted in nature. 8 The 1979
survey did indicate that over a l2-month period
floating aids had experienced a slight drop and
fixed aids were stable. 9 J. Prunieras (Secretary-
251 Diaphone
2510 Regular
2511 Two-Tone
252 Diaphragm Horn
2520 Regular
2521 Nautophone
2522 Chime
253 Explosive Signals
2530 Explosives
2531 Gun
254 Submarine Signals
2540 Submarine Bell
2541 Submarine Oscillator~ 250 Fog Signals, Single types
2500 Whistle
2501 Bell
......... 2502 Gong
~ 2503 Reed Horn
2504 Siren
_______________1_9_6 ~ 1_9_7 _
or air-borne sound waves. The range of watQr-
borner signals is superior to conventional sig-
nals and "their bearing can be determined with
sufficient accuracy for safe navigation" especi-
ally when a submarine bell receiver is aboard
ship.18 The value of the signal may have been
reduced by the need of a shipboard receiver and
by the special requirements for deployment of
the signal.
Sirens are variously described as producing
sound by "means of either a disk or a cup-shaped
rotor actuated by compressed air or electricity"
or by an "emitter using the periodic escape of
compressed air through a rotary shutter."19
Siren sounds are akin to sounds produced by more
common sirens such as those used for fire pur-
poses. 20
Diaphones "produce sound by-means of a slotted
reciprocating piston actuated by compressed air."21
A variant form of the diaphone known as a "two-
tone" contains tones of varying pitches; one high
pitch and one much lower in pitch. 22 .
Reed horns consist of a steel reed that vi-
brates "when the air is passed across its unsup-
ported end."23 A nautophone produces a similar
tone and range through a diaphragm process and is
thereby classified with diaphragm horns. 24
The largest user of fog signals, the U.S. ap-
proved a broad range of signal types during the
1960s. 25 But by the late 1970s only a few forms
were approved and nearly all non-wave-actuated
forms were diaphragm in character. 26 Diaphragm
signals consist of various models but they are
essentially the same in nature. DMA lists a
single diaphragm which can provide sound through
electrical, air or stcam processes. 27 IDAMN di-
vides the diaphragm into the "compressed air horn"
and the "electromagnetic osci11ator.,,28 The later
is described as a "resonant diaphragm maintained
l1li
I
-
-
-
•
•
•
..
..
Types of Fog Signals and Messages20B
The greatest number of distinct fog signal
typcs is to hc found in the singlc types entcp,ory.
No doubt differences in bells, whistles, and gongs
exist; nonetheless, each of these represents a
specific sound emission system in its own right.
And, based on the literature of the field, none
can be significantly subdivided into variant
forms.
Quite possibly the oldest types of fog sig-
nals are the explosive and gun signals. Gun
charges are fired from some form of cannon; ex-
plosive charges are fired in midair. Despite
their seemingly archaic character, these signals
are - or were until recently - in use. For ex-
ample, Trinity House replaced an explosive sound
signal by an electrical one in the 1970s.13 At
the very most such signals are a minor and de-
clining form of warning devices.
Gong, whistle and bell signals (sea-aativated
forms at least) are water-based signals. Gongs
are exclusively found on buoys and exist in only
limited numbers. Whistles are also a buoy sig-
nal according to available evidence. 14 Bells are
both land- and water-based. They constitute an
old type of signal. In former times a li~hthouse
keeper was required to manually ring the bell; in
long periods of fog this hand~ringing might ex-
tend over many hours. 15 Bells are frequently
wave-actuated, though a device known as a bell-
striker can mechanically ring the bell by firing
a piston at the bell. 16 Electronic mechanisms
now exist that can simulate the sound of gong,
whistle, or bell. 17
Submarine bells and oscillators represent an
obsolescent - if not an archaic signal. This de-
spite the fact that they have proved to be more
reliable as a communicator of sound than mechanical~
198
•
199
-
in vibrating motion by electromagnetic action. 1129
DMA and IDAMN are presumahly descrihing the
same signal; the difference is that DMA sees one
signal though powered by various means while
IDAMN sees two signals: one of which can be
pow&red by a new means but rather uses a differ-
ent technology though producing a similiar "pro-
duct." This view of diaphragm signals is slightly
blurred by the "pure tone" and long-distance sig-
nal produced by Automatic Power - the U.S. sup-
plier of diaphragm horns. 30 The signal is not
an oscillator mechanism though similar to other
diaphragms that have one. Duplex and triplex
signals produce a chime signal and seemingly are
known by either the number of units or the sound
produced. 31 Fog signals known as "stacke~ array"
consist of a series of emitters combined. 2 This
produces a distinctive and powerful unit for
longer-range applications.
Fog signal operations have become auto-
matic in some instances through the use of
fog detectors. Fog signals can generate an im-
provement in service through the detector. Some
increase in their numbers has been noted by lALA. 33
The echo board, which can be seen as a
"passive" fog signal, has become a rare marine
marking. 34 By measuring the echoes of a ship's
whistle - as they bounce off the echo board -
the distance from the aid can be determined. One
such echo board existed in the U.S. Pacific North-
west but was eliminated more than two decades ago. 35
Messages for fog signals are composed of two
elements: the character of the sound wave pro-
duced (the sound tone), and the length of the
signal blast/accompanying segment of silence
that makes up a signal emission unit. 36 In-
ternational agreements on buoyage and beacon-
age give little attention to fog signals. There
are not, for example, one fog signal message and
type for starboard and another for port.
200
Nonetheless standards for the operation of fog
signals exist; those of the U.S. Coast Guard and
lALA are two such standards. 37 The U.S., for
example, has nine message possibilities for f~g
signals ranging from a one-second blast and nIne
seconds of silence (lsbl-9ssi) to two three-
second blasts separate by three seconds of si-
lence followed by a three-second blast and end-
ing with 51 seconds of silence (3sbl_3s si_3sbl-
51si).38 Wave-actuated signals are classified
as "random".39 With increasing standardization
of sound tones the specific message character-
istic assumes greater significance. A possible
third element for fog signals is the period of
operation. Some signals operate only during the
fog, others operate continuously through the40year and yet others operate only seasonally.
Even though there are only a few thousand
fog signals, and these concentrated in a
relatively small area, the fog signal is a vital
element in aids to navigation. Electronic ad-
vances may have reduced the significance of
acoustical signals but the need for such signals
continues. There have been advances in acoustics
as well as in electronics.
Endnotes for 20A and 20B
1See introductory sections of any of the
various light lists of DMA~ for example, List of
Lights and Fog Signals, British Isles, English
Channel and North Sea, 1983, (DMA, Topographic
Center, Washington, D.C., Publication '114).
2USCG , Aids to Navigation-Technical Manual,
1979, pp. 7-3, 7-4.
3lALA Survey, 1979/2, pp. 44-47.
4lALA Survey, 1979/2, pp. 18-21.
5-6See above.
7lALA Survey, 1979/2, p. 37.
201
8Cp IALA Survey 1979 and 1984.
91t is difficult to know if this is a
temporary situation or if this change is one
of ongoing growth.
lOp' 1 .runleras, etter to wrlter, 3-12-77.
11 USCG , Aids to Navigation-Technical Manual,
1979, p. 7-28.
l2Britannica Atlas, 1974, pp. 2-3.
13 IALA Survey, 1979/2, p. 51.
l4 USCG , Aids to Navigation Manual, 1964,
Chapter 2, "Buoys."
15 For example, accounts of manually operated
fog bells in Stevenson, World's Lighthouses Be-
fore 1820; H.C. Adamson, Keepers of the Lights,
1955; IDAMN, Chapter 3, "Audible Aids," 3-2-245.
1610~~, 3-2-290.
17Audib1e and Visual Marine Aids to Naviga-
tion, Automatic Power, Inc., Houston TX, "Omni-
directional Pure Tone Signals," and "SA-l0202/1
Buoy Mounted Sound Signal."
l8 DMA , H.O.Publication #114, 1983; for de-
tails see Note # 1.
19IDAMN , Chapter 3, "Audible Signals," 3-2-070.
20For example, Federal Signal Corp. (USA) mar-
keted very similar sirens for fire halls and for
aids to navigation, and Cunningham Air Whistles
produced similar whistles for ships and fog sig-
nals. But these signals are no longer approved
by the USCG.
2l-22USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1985,
p. xviii.
23 IDAMN , Ch. 3, 3-2-160 and 3-2-165.
24 DMA, H.O. Publication #114, see Note # 1
for details.
202
25 USCG , Aids to Navigation Manual, 1964,
Appendix 0, p. 0-30.
26IDAMN, Ch. 3, 3-155.
27 0MA , H.O. Publication # 114; see Note # 1.
28IOAMN, Ch. 3., 3-2-155.
29IDA~1N, Ch. 3., 3-2-220.
30"Fog Signal Systems," Automatic Power,
Houston, TX.
3l0MA , H.O. Publication # 114, see Note # 1.
32 IOAMN , Ch. 3, 3-2-065.
33 1ALA Survey, 1977/2, p.5ls
34-35 USCG , Light List, Pacific, Vol. III,
1962, Orchard Island Echo Board listed in that
edition, p. 173; became a daybeacon subsequently.
3~-39USCG, Aids to Navisation-Technical Manual.
1979, p. 7-1. See also Automatic Power, Audible
and Visual Marine Aids to Navigation, "Sound Sig-
nal Systems" regarding IALA fog signal character-
istics.
40USCG, Light List, Pacific, Vol. III, 1985,
p. xviii.
Special Note
An earlier version of the fog signal classi-
fication included mention of a fog signal known
as a "Sireno." But information supplied by Wayne
Wheeler of the U. S. Lighthouse Society - through
the assistance of Elinor De Wire, a fog signal
specialist - indicated that the Sireno is a trade
name for an electric siren signal. Therefore the
Sireno was dropped from the classification since
it did not appear to represent a variant form of
the siren (letter of Wayne Wheeler to the writer,
7-19-87).
203

Ew
Brooms.
S
207
Topmarks of the Uniform System of Buoyage
N
9
Simple Composite
y 9
Cone Can Sphere
c(P IF
Diamond St. George's T
Cross
I
•
-
l1li
•
•
•
•
•
--.-
..
--
..
.-
--.....
.....,. East_
·e
e
e
IALA
North
South
206
I yellow "X"
II
I red sphere
Lateral marks: location and color of can and
cone dependent on region; colors; red &green
Topmarks: Tynes and Usages in
Cardinal ~'Iarks:
Special r·larks:
Isolated nangers: 2 hlack spheres:
Safe Waters:
West
-
NOTE
The illustrations consist of computer gra-
phic representations based on IALA, USa, and
IHB publications. Selected National Topmarks
are from the IHB publications on buoyage sys-
tems. There are further flag configurations
but of only minor differences from those repre-
sented here.
The IALA topmarks are from the new buoyage
system. The coverage of buoyage message sys-
tems in the text provides a fuller representa-
tion of the IALA cardinal system though on a
reduced scale.
Topmarks of the Uniform System of Buoyage
(League of Nations) are based on illustrations
of IDAMN. Though official USB material indi-
cates one cone for South and North not two
as given in IDAMN.
208
.,
..
III
.-
..
--
•
.-
-
..i-i"
•
...
••
APPENDIX II: A UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE
TRANSPORTATION MARKINGS ( AIDS TO NAVIGATION)
1 Floating Marine Markings
12 Lighted Buoys
121 Standard Single Types
1210 Can
1211 Spherical
1212 Conical
1213 Pillar
122 National/Regional Types
1220 Canadian
1221 U.S.
1222 Greece A/Thailand A
1223 USSR
1224 Thailand B
1225 Greece B
1226 Norway
1227 Beacon buoy-Lateral, West Germany
1228 Beacon buoy-Cardinal, West Germany
14 Unlighted Buoys
141 Conical
1410 USB
1411 IALA
1412 Nun, U.S.
1413 Denmark A
1414 Denmark B
1415 Italy
1416 Poland, France
1417 Canada
142 Can/Cylindrical
1420 IALA/USB
1421 U.S.
1422 Denmark
1423 West Germany
1424 Taiwan
1425 Sweden, USSR
1426
209
..
143 Spar Buoys
1430 Standard, USB/IALA
1431 Modified Standard, USA/IDAMN
1432 Modified Standard, Norway
1433 Modified Standard, Canada
1434 Special, Spar on Can Base,
Iceland, et. al.
1435 Special, Spar on Modified Can
Base, Iceland
1436 Special, Spar on Modified
Conical Base, Netherlands,
Poland
1437 Special, Spar on Conical
Base-A, West Germany
1438 Special, Spar on Conical Base,
Iceland, et. al.
144 Standard Single
1440 Ogival
1441 Spindle
1442 Spherical
1443 Pillar
145 Miscellaneous Buoys
1450 Beacon buoy-Lateral, West
Germany
1451 Beacon buoys-Cardinal, West
Germany
1452 Barrel
1453 Oil-drum
15 Sound Buoys
150 National/Regional Types
1500 Bell, IALA1
1501 Whistle, IALA
1502 Bell, U.S.
1503 Whistle, U.S.
1504 Gong, U.S.
1505 Carillon, France
1506 Bell, France
210
17 Combination Buoys
170 Lighted Sound Buoys
1700 Lighted Bell, Canada
1701 Lighted Whistle, Canada
1702 Lighted Bell, U.S.
1703 Lighted Whistle, U.S.
1704 Lighted Gong, U.S.
1705 Lighted Horn, U.S.
1706 Lighted Bell-Conical, USB
1707 Lighted Bell-Spherical, USB
1708 Lighted Bell-Can, USB
1709 Non-buoyage Aid: Large
Navigational Buoy, U.S.,U.K.,et.al.
1710 Non-buoyage Aid: Lightship
2 Fixed Marine Markings
22 Lighted Aids to Navigation
221 Major Structures (Lighthouses): Sea-girt
2210 Towers on Rocks (submerged &above water)
2211 Towers on Ske1. St.: Screw-pile Towers
2212 Towers on Ske1. St.: Off-shore P1tfms.
2213 Convent. Towers on Sp. Marine Fndtns.
2214 Convent. Houses on Sp. Marine Fndtns.
222 Major Structures: Land-based Towers
2220 Tall Coastal Towers
2221 Towers on P~omontories &Headlands
2222 Skeleton Towers
2223 Framework Towers
223 Major Structures: Non-towers/Composite St.
2230 Houses
2231 Skeleton Towers
2232 Buildings
2233 Composite: House on Structures
2234 Composite: Tower Attached to House/Bldg.
224 Minor/Lesser Structures: Multi-member
2240 Tripod
2241 Pyramid
2242 Pile Structure: Marine-site
2243 Pile Structure: Land-based site
2244 Skeleton Structure
211
2245 Dolphin
2246 Tripodal Tower
2247 Tubular Tower
2248 Skeleton Tower
225 Minor/Lesser Light Structures:
Single-Member I (Slender)
2250 Spindle
2251 Spar
2252 Pipe
2253 Post
2254 Pole
2255 Single Pile
2256 Stake
2257 Mast
226 Minor/Lesser Light Structures:
Single-Member II (Stouter)
2260 Column
2261 Pedestal
2262 Pillar
2263 Pylon
2264 Obelisk
227 Minor/Lesser Light Structures:
Enclosed
2270 Hut
2271 Small House
2272 Cairn
2273 "Beacon"
228 Minor/Lesser Light Structures:
2280 House/Hut on Structure
2281 House/Hut on Pile Structure
2282 House/Hut on Tiipod
229 Minor/Lesser Light Structures:
2290 Stand
2291 Arm
2292 Lighted Banks
212
--
•
•
..
..
•
•
--
--
-
--
..
..
--
•-
24 Unlighted Aids to Navigation
241 Simpler Structures
2410 Dolphin/Multiple Pile
2411 Tripod
242 More Complex Structures
2420 Bake:
2421 Bake:
2422 Lattice-work Structure
2423 Skeleton Tower
2424 Wooden Framework
2425 Landmarks
243 Uni-dimensional Artificial Marks
2430 Spindle
2431 Perch/Pole
2432 Pile
2433 Post
2434 Stake
2435 Edgemarks
244 Natural Marks
2440 Cairn
2441 Small Tree/Petit Arbre
2442 Tree Branch: Natural State
2443 Tree Branch; Tied-down
2444 Stone Construction
240 Daymarks
2400 Daymarks
2401 Daymarks and Structure
25 Sound Signals
251 Diaphone
2510 Regular
2511 Two-tone
252 Diaphragm Horn
2520 Regular
2521 Nautophone
2522 Chime
253 Explosive Signals
2530 Explosives
2531 Gun
254 Submarine Signals
2540 Submarine Bell
2541 Submarine Oscillator
213
BI BLIOGRAPHY
Cloche. 1981.
1972 .
215
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-
-.-
•
-
..
...
...
...
-
•
214
Single Types250 Fog Signals.
2500 Whistle
2501 Bell
2502 Gong
2503 Reed Horn
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261 Radiobeacons
2610 Rotating _
2611 Non-directional: Circular, Omni-directiona
2612 Non-directional: Sequence, group
2613 Non-directional: Continuous
2614 Directional: Sequence, group
2615 Directional: Continuous
262 Radar: Active
2620 Primary Radar: Racon _
2621 Secondary Radar: Ramark ~
263 Radar: Passive: Radar Reflectors
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2631 Corner Reflector: Pentagonal (Corner-5 cl.;
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2633 Dielectric Reflector
2634 Dihedral Reflector
2635 Luneberg Reflector
264 Hyperbolic Radio-navigation Systems
2640 Loran A
2641 Loran C
2642 Decca. Regular
2643 Decca. Dectra
2644 Omega
2645 Consul
2646 Toran
26 Electronic Aids to Navigation
+
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-----::------n,.......",,........,...-. "IALA Buoyage Confer-
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___~ ~~ . Systems of Maritime
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__..-.....,:-:----:--:-_...,...,...---:~__,.----..:... Rad i 0 Aid s to
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__~~ ~. Records and Texts of the
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216
a
.-
--
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
League of Nations. Letter of Secretary of the
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218
Western Pacific and Indian Oceans Includ-
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--
..
-
..
•
•
•
•
•
•
•~
221
__22_0 !! _
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222
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.-
Jill
---
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.-.
•
•
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•
•
•
•
•
..
•
INDEX
Aids to navigation,
pp. 1-6; fixed float-
ing differences,
pp. 1-2; fixed aids-
major-minor, pp.
1-2; forms: fixed
unlighted, p. 3,
electronic, pp. 4-5,
buoys, pp. 5-6; .
lightships &large
navigational buoys,
pp. 6~7.
Argentina, pp. 85,
86, 158, 159.
Australia, pp. 74,
119, 140, 160.
Beacon,
SEE: Daybeacon
Belgium, pp. 58, 74.
Bermuda, p. 137.
Buoys, Classification
of, pp. 35-37; illus-
trated classifica-
tion, pp. 41-48;
notes, pp. 37-41;
lighted, pp. 35, 38,
39; unlighted, pp.
35, 36, 39; 40; sound,
p. 36; combination,
pp. 36, 40; miscel-
laneous, pp. 36, 40.
Buoys, Descriptions
of types. Conical, pp.
52-54; nun, pp. 53-
54; cylindrical &
can, pp. 54, 55;
combination, p. 52;
223
bake buoy, pp. 52,
61,63; bell bUoy,p.
52, 63; lighted buoy,
pp. 51-52; lighted
sound buoy, pp. 51-
52; ogival buoy, pp.
59-60; perch buoy,
p. 58; pillar buoy,
p. 59; Greek pillar
buoy, p. 52; spar
buoy, pp. 56-58;
spindle buoy, pp.
60-63; spherical
buoy, pp. 59, 61;
ton/tun buoy, p.
62; standard single
buoys, pp. 59-61;
whistle buoy, p. 52;
sound buoys, pp.
62-64; unlighted
buoys, pp. 52-62;
carillon buoys, pp.
52, 63; stumpftone
buoy, p. 56; oil-
drum, p. 61; barrel
buoy, p. 62.
Brazil, pp. 88, 160.
Buoys, History, pp.
9-14; buoys and the
Industrial Revolu-
tion, pp. 9-11; "pre-
history," p. 11;
1820-1870 techno-
logical era, pp. 11-
13; buoyage systems
history, pp. 14-20;
British USB, pp. 14-15;
.-
.-
.-
---
•I
.-
•
..!.I.
I
I
i
i
I
I'
I ~
't
.1'
, '
I
International Marine
Conference, pp. 14-
15, 19-20; League
of Nations, USB,
pp. 14, 19, 21, 23;
red-green 'problem,
pp. 17-19; Saint
Petersburg Confer-
ence, pp. 13-14, 18-
19; IALA, pp. 13-14,
20-26.
Buoys, Message Systems,
pp. 69-100; introduc-
tion, p. 69; IALA:
development of, pp.
20-26; Systems A-B
merger, pp. 24-25;
two-zone approach,
pp. 22-23; provi-
sions, pp. 24-25,
91-94; combined
lateral-cardinal, pp.
23, 96-97; lateral,
p. 91; cardinal, pp.
91-93; isolated dan-
gers, p. 93; regions,
pp. 24-25; special
marks, pp. 93-94; new
danger marks, p. 94;
IALA-USB comparison,
pp. 94-95; IALA-IMC
comparison, pp. 94-
97; IMC-influenced
systems, pp. 85-91;
comparative U.S.-
Canada study, pp. 89-
91. Uniform System
of Buoyage: pp. 70-
85; lateral, pp. 70-
71; cardinal, pp. 71-
73; provisions common
224
both, pp. 73-74; spe-
cial situations: Fin-
land, pp. 75-76; Sweden,
pp. 75-77; national ~
entries, full compliance,~
p. 74; variants, pp.
74-5, 77-85 .
Canada, pp. 2,3,6,18,
21,22,26,35,36,42,43,
44,45,48,51,53,56,57,
89,90,94,95,96,107,
110,117,127,134,135,
136,138,146,147,151,
155,156,162,169,176,
183,184,185,186,196,
209,210,211.
Chile, pp. 87, 160.
China, pp. 159.
Classification, degree
of appropriate detail,
pp. 165-166; unified,
pp. 209-214.
SEE ALSO: Buoys, Fixed
Lights, Daybeacons,
Electronic Markings,
Fog Signals.
Congo, p. 89 .
Costa Rica, p. 86.
Cuba, p. 87.
Daybeacons (Unlighted
beacons, beacons), pp.
145-169; anonymity,
p. 145; daymarks, pp.
147, 150; history, pp.
147-148; Stevenson,
pp. 147-148; terminology
problem (bake, balise,
beacon, daybeacon), pp.
145-147; topmarks, p.
147.
Daybeacons, Classifi-
cation by types, pp.
148-149; subdivi-
sions by types (struc-
tures, uni-dimen-
siona1, composite,
natural marks), pp.
148-149; types,
(dolphin, tripod,
skeleton tower,
framework, spindle,
perch, pile, pole,
stake, bake, mul-
tiple piling, cairn,
petit arbre), pp.
148-149; explana-
tory notes, pp. 153-
154.
Daybeacons, Descrip-
tion by types, pp.
150-153; uni-dimension-
aI, pp. 150-151; na-
tural marks, p. 152;
multiple piling, com-
posite, p. 152; struc-
tural, pp. 152-153;
illustrations, pp.
160-162.
Daybeacons, Message
systems, pp. lSI,
153-164; IMC, pp.
153-154; USB, p. 154;
IALA, pp. 154-155;
national systems
(major: Canada, Norway,
West Germany, U.S.),
pp. 155-158; national
systems (smaller), pp.
158-159, 163-164;
Daymarks, pp. 147, 14~,
150, 158.
SEE ALSO: daybeacons,
fixed lights, topmarks.
225
Denmark, pp. 54, 55,
57, 58, 60, 83,
176, 180, 184, 185.
DMA (Defense Mapping
Agency) ,pp. 127,
128, 129, 130, 163,
164, 199.
Ecuador, pp. 86, 87,
159, 160.
Electronic Marine
Markings, pp. 171-
194; characteristics,
(shorter-range, radio-
beacons &radar),
pp. 171-172, (longer-
range, hyperbolic,
etc), pp. 172-173;
history, p. 173;
classification, p.
175, notes, pp. 173-
174.
Electronic Marine
Markings, Description
of types, pp. 178-
184; hyperbolic sys-
tems: loran (prin-
ciples of operation,
equipment, reception
and messages, A,B,C,
types, message char-
acteristics), pp.
176-179; Decca, pp.
179-180; Omega, pp.
180-182; Global Posi-
tioning System, p.
189; radio and radar
devices: radio-
beacons (defined, des-
cription, operation,
station identifica-
tion, statistics,
signal range), pp.
182-184;
radar (types, char-
acteristics), ramarks,
racon, radar re-
flectors, pp. 184-
186. Miscellaneous
radionavigation sys-
tems and non-aids-
to-navigation marine
hyperbolic systems
(descriptions of
types, Consul, Toran,
non-aids-to-naviga-
tion devices, satel-
li te navigation:
GPS, Transit), pp.
186-189.
Finland, pp. 3,7,
57, 75, 76, 107,
155, 159, 162, 163,
169.
Fixed Lights, Classi-
fication, pp. 112-
114; major struc-
tures (towers, houses,
structures, build-
ings, composite),
p. 116, 117; minor
structures, multi-
members (tripod,
pyramid, pil struc-
tures, structures,
dolphins), pp. 117,
118; single-members
(slender types,
stouter types), p.
118; single types
(arm, stand, lighted
borders), p. 119-
120; enclosed types,
p. 118-119; composite,
p. 119; explanatory
notes-major, pp.
115-117; -minor types,
117-120.
226
Fixed Lights, Day
Message systems,
pp. 135-137;
Fixed Lights, Divi-
sion Into Major &
Minor, pp. 109-111;
major lights defined
and described, pp.
109-111; minor
lights described
and defined, pp.
109-111; components
of major and minor
lights described
and defined, pp.
109-111; lightship
as major aid, p. 110;
large navigational
buoy, p. 110; pri-
mary and secondary
lights, pp. 110-
111; phare and
feu de jalonnement,
p. 111.
Fixed Lights, Lighted
Message Systems;
illustrations of
light phase char-
acteristics, pp.
132-133; light
phase character-
istics (fixed, sin-
gle occulting,
group occulting,
composite group-
occulting, isophase,
single flashing,
long-flashing, group-
flashing, composite
group flashing, quick-
flashing, group
quick-flashing,
group quick with
long flash,
interrupted quick-flashing
very quick-flashing, group
very qUick-flashing, group
very quick with long-flash,
interrupted very quick,
ultra quick-flashing, in-
terrupted ultra-quick,
morse code, fixed and flash-
ing, alternating; blink &
schein), pp. 127-
130; application of
light phase character-
istics to specific
situations, p. 131;
colors and use of
colors, pp. 130,131;
sector light, p. 134;
identifying marine
lights, pp. 134-
135.
Fixed Lights, Minor
Message Systems, pp.
137-138.
Fixed Lights, Struc-
tures; Description of
Types; structural
division of Gedye
and Douglass, pp.
120-121; wave-swept
towers, p. 122; low-
lying elevation towers,
p. 124; sea-girt
towers, p. 122; skele-
ton towers/structures,
p. 122; tall coastal
towers, pp. 123-124;
structures-towers dif-
ferentiation, pp. 124-
125; light supports,
pp. 124-125; minor
structures, pp. 125-126;
227
"beacons," p. 126.
Fixed Visual Markings;
methodological prob-
lems and ap-
proaches, pp. '101-
108.
Floating Aids,
SEE: buoys, buoyage
systems, light-
ships, large navi-
gational buoys.
Fog Signals, pp.
195-201; statis-
tics, pp. 196-197;
introduction, pp.
195-197; geogra-
phic locations, p.
198; types, pp.
198-200.
Fog Signals, Descrip-
tion of Types;
(diaphone, reed
horn, siren, ex-
plosive signals,
bell, gong, whistle
horn, diaphragm,
chime, nautophone,
stacked array, fo~
detector, echo
board), pp. 198-
203.
Fog Signals, Message
Systems; elements
and period of opera-
tion, pp. 200-201.
France, pp. 12, 13,
19, 35, 36, 43, 47,
52, 54, 60, 63, 74,
107, 111, 120, 146,
155, 159, 184, 186,
187,196,209,210.
r-
,
Creece, pp. 35, 42,
52, 79, 209.
Greenland, p. 26.
Guatema1~, p. 86.
History
SEE: Buoys and buoy-
age systems, elec-
tronic markings,
daybeacons, fixed
lights, fog signals.
Iceland, pp. 36:_ 45,
58, 77-78, 136, 210.
India, pp. 74, 180.
Indonesia, pp. 3, 74,
160, 163.
International Associa-
tion of Lighthouse
Authorities (IA~A),
pp. 2,5,6,13,17,18,
19,20,21,22,23,24,
25,35,36,37,39,40,
43,44,45,47,51,52,
53,55,56,57,59,60,
61,62,63,69,90,91,
92-97,107,109,119,
121,125,127,128,
129,130,131,134,
137,138,146,154.155,
156,157,159,169,
184,185,186,187,
188,196,197,201,
206,208,209,210.
International Dic-
tionary of Aids to
Navigation (IDAMN),
pp. 36,45,53,54,55,
56,57,60,61,109,111,
127,130,131,147,151,
152,182,186,187,199,
200,210.
228
International Hydro-
graphic Bureau,
(IHB), pp. 37,38,
40,51,52,53,54,55,58,
59,60,62,85,86,119,
146,151,152,159,163,
164,169,187,188,208.
Intergovernmental
Maritime Consulta-
tive Organization
(IMCO), p. 21.
International Mari-
time Conference (IMC/
CIM), pp. 5,13,14,
16,17,18,19,21.
Iran, p. 74.
Ireland, p. 75.
Italy, pp. 35,43,54,
79,161,169,196,209.
Japan, pp. 24,25,87,
88,161,163,176,180,
184,185,196.
Large Navigation Buoy,
(LNB, LANBY), pp. 6,
7,14,29,40,110.
SEE ALSO: Buoys,
Fixed Lights.
Lighthouses,
SEE: Fixed Lights
League of Nations,
pp. 5,13,14,18,19,21,
23,154,208.
Light Phase Character-
istics,
SEE: Fixed Lights,
Buoys,
Malaysia, pp. 78,163.
Major Lights.
SEE: Fixed Lights.
...
--
-
•
-.-
•
Markings,
SEE: Buoys, Fixed Lights,
Daybeacons, Electronic
Markings, Fog Signals.
Message Systems,
SEE: -Buoys, Fixed Lights,
Fog Signals, Electronic
Markings, Daybeacons.
Mexico, pp. 88,89.
Minor Lights,
SEE: Fixed Lights.
SEE ALSO: Buoyage systems ..
Netherlands, pp. 3,45,58,
74,75,107,155,163,186,
210.
Netherlands Antilles, p.
135.
New Zealand, p. 74.
Norway, pp. 3,6,35,36,38,
42,.45,51,57,58,79,107,
126,149,150,152,153,155,
156,161,169,184,209,210.
Pakistan (now Bangladesh),
pp. 74, 75.
Peru, p. 86.
Phi11ipines, p. 26.
Poland, pp. 35,36,43,45,
54,58,74,209,210.
Portugal, pp. 60,74.
Scotland, pp. 75,185, 186.
South Africa, pp. 74,75,
180,184.
South Korea, pp. 26,87,
88,161,163,166.
Spain, pp. 60,74.
Sweden, pp~ 12,35,36,
44,46,56,62,75,76,
77,155,161,169,209.
System, p.16.
Taiwan, pp. 35,44,56,209.
229
Thailand, pp. 35,
42,52,78,79,209.
Topmarks, pp. 6,24,
147.
SeE ALSO: Top-
mark Appendix;
Buoys, Message
Systems.
Tunisia, p. 176.
Turkey, pp. 60,
74.78.
Trinity House, pp.
30,196,198.
Unified Classifi-
cation, pp. 209-
214.
Uniform System of
Buoyage (USB),
pp • 5, 6 , 13 , 14 ,
16,18,19,20,21,
22,23,24,35,36,
39,40,43,44,45,
48,51,53,55,57,
59,60,61,62,63,
69,70-74,75,76,
77,85,94,95,97,
137,154,164,208,
209,210 , 211.
United Kingdom, pp.
5,7,9,12,13,14,15,
16,17,18,37,48,74,
75,120,122,146,
180,184,188,196,
211.
UK 1846, pp. 5,14,
18.
UK 1882, pp. 5,13,
14,15,61.
United States, pp.
2,3,6,7,12,13,15,
U.S.(Cont'd) ,pp.
16,18,21,22,24,
25,35,36,38,39,
40,42,44,45,46,
47,48,51,52,53,55,
56,57,60,62,63,90,
91,94,95,96,107,
110,111,119,122,
127,135,138,146,
147,149,151,152,
153, 155,158,176,
179,180,182,183,
184,185,186,187,
189,195,196,199,
200,201,209,210.
211.
U.S. Coast Guard
(USCG), pp. 24,57,
121,127,128,129,
130,147,158,162,
169,201.
United States Naval
Oceanographic Office,
(USNOO), pp. 127,
159.
United States System,
pp. 5, 37.
West Germany, pp.
3,6,16,35,36,39,40,
42,44,45,46,52,55,
56,58,61,62,63,80-83,
107,130,146,148,149,
153,155,156,157,161,
186,209,210.
Yugoslavia, pp. 74, 155.
230