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POTENTIALLY PEDAGOGICALLY USEFUL 'PHONETICS' 
IN THE CHINESE SCRIPT: THEIR 
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION 
AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION 
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 
OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 
OF 
RUTGERS 
THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEl-l JERSEY 
BY 
STEPHEN MICHAEL KRAEMER 
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE 
OF 
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION 
COMMITTEE CHAIRPERSON: Ricardo Otheguy, Ph.D. 
NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY MAY, 1980 
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ABSTRACT 
In this dissertation, the Phonetic elements of 
the Chinese script were examined ~or their potential 
usefulness in the teaching and learning of Chinese 
characters. A Potentially Pedagogically Useful (PPU) 
Phonetic was defined as a Phonetic which indicates some 
definite feature of pronunciation in all characters con-
taining it as a common element. In this way, it can 
serve as a clue to the pronunciation of these characters, 
and thus can serve as a potential aid for students learn-
ing Chinese. 
With the above definition in mind, seven cate-
gories of PPU Phonetics were established based upon the 
description of the Chinese sound system given by J. 
DeFrancis in Beginning Chinese. Next, some 858 Phonetic 
Series of characters (as compiled by L. Wieger in Chinese 
Characters) were examined for the existence of PPU 
Phonetics. The result was the compilation of some 579 
PPU Phonetics, comprising all seven categories, which 
were presented in Chapter III of the study. 
Areas for further research were discussed in 
the concluding section of the study, with the suggestion 
being made to possibly extend the study to include the 
identification of PPU Phonetics among the simplified 
characters used in the People's Republic of China. 
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POTENTIALLY PEDAGOGICALLY USEFUL 'PHONETICS' 
IN THE CHINESE SCRIPT: THEIR 
IDENTIFICATION &~ CHARACTERIZATION 
A DISSERTATION 
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 
OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 
OF 
RUTGERS 
THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW JERSEY 
BY . . · 
STEPHEN HICHAEL KRAEMER 
IN PARTIAL FULFILLHENT OF THE 
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE 
OF 
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION 
NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY MAY, 1980 
APPROVED: 
Ricardo Otheguy 
William B. Gillooly 
Wallis Reid 
Ching-I Tu 
DEAN: 
Irene Athey 
~ Copyright 1980 by Stephen Michael Kraemer 
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~ . ~ .. . ... 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
From its inception, this study has required the 
collaboration of many individuals. At this time, I 
would especially like to thank my Committee Chairman, 
Dr. Ricardo Otheguy, for his continued support and 
encouragement throughout all phases of the study. I 
would also like to thank the other members of my Committee: 
Dr. William Gillooly, Dr. Wallis Reid, and Dr~ Ching-I Tu, 
for their valuable assistance and support. 
In addition, I would like to thank Mrs. Jean 
De~ for her suggestions regarding preparation of the 
manuscript, Mrs. Marion Keller who typed the manuscript, 
and Miss Jany Wu for her calligraphy. 
A final note of thanks goes t .o my friends and 
the members of my family, whose patience, support, and 
understanding have helped bring this study to fruition. 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
LIST OF TABLES 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Chapter 
I. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .... 
II. 
III. 
Statement of the Problem 
Purpose of the Study 
Historical Development of 
Compound Characters 
DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . 
. . . . . . . 
the Phonetic 
Selecting an Adequate Description 
of the Chinese Sound System . . . . . 
Establishing Categories of Potentially 
Pedagogically Useful Phonetics Based 
on the DeFrancis Description of . 
the Chinese Sound System . . . . 
Selecting Phonetic Series for Study . . 
Examining Wieger for the Existence 
of PPU Phonetics . . . . . . . . . . 
Compiling the Results . . . . . . . . . 
A COMPILATION OF POTENTIALLY 
PEDAGOGICALLY USEFUL PHONETICS 
Totally Perfect Phonetics . . . . . 
Segment Perfect Phonetics . 
Initial Perfect Phonetics . . . . . . . 
Final Perfect Phonetics • . . . . . 
Tone Perfect Phonetics . . . . 
Initial-Tone Perfect Phonetics . . . . 
Final-Tone Perfect Phonetics 
iii 
Page 
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v 
vi 
1 
1 
7 
7 
12 
12 
22 
31 
33 
45 
53 
53 
65 
82 
86 
101 
106 
107 
-- ------------------------------------------------------------------
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) 
Chapter 
IV. CONCLUSIONS . 
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . • 
iv 
Page 
110 
113 
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Table 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
LIST OF TABLES 
Initials of the P~kiug Dialect 
in I.P.A. and Pinyin ......... . 
Written Conventions for the 
i-Spelt Finals . . . . . . 
Finals_of_the Peking Dialect 
in Pinyin and I.P.A .... 
Spelling Changes in Group-u, -i, 
and -u Finals When Combined 
with the 0 Initial in Pinyin . 
v 
Page 
18 
21 
23 
26 
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Figure 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Wieger Phonetic Series U138 . 
Tones of the Peking Dialect . 
Wieger Phonetic Series U187 . 
Wieger Phonetic Series U103 . 
vi 
Page 
. . . 5 
. . . 15 
. . . . . . . 32 
. . . . . . . 39 
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CHAPTER I 
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 
Statement of the Problem 
At a time when China is growing in international 
prestige, the Chinese language is receiving considerable 
attention from scholars and educators worldwide. In the 
United States, Chinese is taught as a foreign language in 
a number of colleges, universities, and secondary schools. 
Since World War II, the teaching of Chinese has been 
influenced by the development of intensive language pro-
grams, the audio-lingual method, and computerized 
instruction (Chen & Cheng, 1976). Despite these advances, 
however, the American student of Chinese still faces the 
tremendous burden of having to master one of the world's 
most complex writing systems. He not only needs to 
learn a non-alphabetic system that uses several thousand 
symbols (Leong, 1973), but must learn a variety of 
written styles as well (F. F. Wang, 1970). The result 
is a long and tedious process which "can seriously 
challenge one's staying power" (DeFrancis, 1966a, p. 
xxiv). 
In order to alleviate some of the problems of 
students learning Chinese characters, several Chinese 
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textbooks arrange and present characters according to 
their frequency of occurrence in actual Chinese publi-
cations. The student thus does not learn characters in 
random fashon, but learns the most frequent ones first, 
the less frequent ones later, and so on. When the stu-
dent finishes the text and begins readng unedited 
Chinese, a relatively high percentage of the characters 
he encounters will be ones he has already studied 
(DeFrancis, 1966b). Although textbooks organized along 
the lines of character frequency may free the student 
from having to know rare or uncommon characters, they do 
not solve the major problem involved in character learn-
ing, namely memorization. Mos·t textbooks in Chinese still 
present characters in a tedious one-by-one fashon, thereby 
le{iving the student to deal with each character as "a 
distinct entity which must be assigned to , memory by a 
· completely rote process" (Astor, 1970, p. 30). 
Astor (1970) contends that students need not 
memorize characters one by one, but rather that learning 
can be facilitated if one takes advantage of the internal 
structure of the character itself. Specifically, Astor 
is concerned with those characters known as Phonetic 
Compounds, which constitute some 90 percent of all 
.characters (Ching & Ching, 1975). Phonetic Compounds 
consist of two parts: (1) the "Signific," which indicates 
in some general way the meaning of the character, and 
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(2) the "Phonetic," which suggests how the character 
should be pronounced. An example is the character ~ 
pronounced t£ng, which means 'sugar.' It consists of 
the Signific ~ mi, which indicates that it is related 
to the general concept of cereals, and the Phonetic ~ 
t.{ng, "a word principally used elsewhere as a proper 
name and serving here only to give the pronunciation" 
(Chao, 1968b, p. 105). Astor contends that by proper 
exploitation of the clues to character meaning and 
pronunciation given by the Signific and Phonetic elements, 
character learning can be facilitated. 
The Signific elements that comprise Chinese 
characters have been used by numerous scholars (Chinese 
and Western alike) both to teach and to classify 
characters. Many of the Signifies have, through time, 
developed into a specialized set of classifiers known as 
"Radicals." The Radicals have been used in Chinese 
dictionaries to organize characters according to their 
graphic form. (All characters containing the same 
Radical are listed together, under that Radical.) Some 
540 Radicals were first used by Hsu Shen in the Shuo w~n 
chieh tz~ dictionary (2nd century, A.D.). Later, in the 
17th century, the number of Radicals was reduced to 214, 
which is the traditional number still used today (Huang, 
1967). It is important to bear in mind that although 
several of the 214 Radicals are still relatively good 
r. 
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4 
meaning-indicators today, many are no longer true 
Signifies (Newnham, 1971). 
The Phonetic aspect of Chinese characters has 
also been studied by many scholars, such as Hsu Shen and 
later Chinese philologists; as well as western scholars, 
such as Callery (1841, 1842), Chalmers (1911), Karlgren 
(1923a, 1923b, 1958), Soothill (1911), and Wieger (1927). 
In a manner analogous to the Radicals, several Western 
scholars have grouped together those characters that 
possess the same Phonetic element. The number of such 
Phonetic groups of characters varies, depending upon the 
compiler. Wieger, for example, lists 858; Soothill, 
888; while Callery (1841) lists over 1000. 
An example of a Phonetic group of· charaeters is 
Phonetic Series #138 compiled by Wieger (1927) (Figure 
1). In this Series, there are 11 characters, all pro-
' nounced ~  and all of which share the common Phonetic 
~ The Phonetic ~ is also a character by itself, 
' pronounced ~  and is included as the first member of 
h S . 1 t e er~es. 
I will refer to a Phonetic such as t as being 
Totally Perfect, since all characters containing the 
1Although Wieger (1927) indicates character pro-
nunciation by the Wade-Gil~s ~ystem of transcription, 
this author will use the pinyin system of romanization 
t~ro~ghout the current study. For conversion between 
tin;in and Wade-Giles, the reader is referred to Legeza 
19 8) and F. F. Wang (1966, pp. 627-634). 
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SOURCE: 
;;ct 
~f 
~ 
1:} 
1t 
-** 
1~ 
~ 
138 
' mo 
' mo 
' mo 
' mo 
\ 
mo 
\ 
mo 
\ 
mo 
' mo 
' mo 
' mo 
' mo 
5 
(The Phonetic) 
The end of a branch; the 
end; finally; small; the 
meanest part of; powder; 
a negative. 
Foam; spittle. 
To wipe clean, to rub, 
to besmear. 
A girdle. 
Fodder, to feed. 
Red boots. 
A dull fire. 
Broken grain, grits. 
Tricks. 
A kerchief, a turban. 
The jasmine. 
Wieg~r, 1927, p. 42~ and Astor, 1970, pp. 34-35. 
Figure 1. Wieger Phonetic Series #138 
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Phonetic have the same pronunciation, including tone. 
Re~ognizing the pedagogical value of Totally Perfect 
Phonetics, Astor (1970) has identified 63 such Phonetics 
out of the total 858 Phonetics compiled by Wieger. For 
seven of these 63, he has devised actual teaching lessons 
to be used by the student for self-study. (Astor has 
also identified some 50 near-Totally Perfect Phonetics, 
where all characters in a Phonetic Series have the same 
pronunciation, except one.) 
Unlike the Phonetic ~ , however, most Phonetics 
are not Totally Perfect, but rather head Series of 
characters that share some, though not all features of 
pronunciation. As Astor (1970) states, most of the 
characters that comprise Phonetic Series 
have close though not identical phonological 
realization. This is to say, a group of 
characters with a common phonetic element may 
all be pronounced the same,. differing only in 
the various tones or perhaps differing only in 
the feature of aspiration. (p. 65) 
It is important to note that although Astor acknowledges 
the existence of such non-Totally Perfect Phonetics, he 
does not inve~tigate the potential which these Phonetics 
may have for the teaching of Chinese. Instead, he 
directs his efforts mainly towards tre identification 
and teaching of Totally Perfect Phonetics. 
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. ..... -· - • •. • • - k• -
7 
Purpose of the Study 
Astor's work represents an important contribution 
to the field of Chinese language teaching, but is in 
itself of limited scope.· He has identified a total of 
113 Phonetics that may hold some pedagogical value (63 
that are Totally Perfect and 50 that are near-Totally 
Perfect). These Phonetics and. their Series_comprise a 
total of 771 characters. However, since the student of 
Chinese must learn several thousand characters to attain 
a good working knowledge of the language (W. S-Y Wang, 
1973), the 771 characters identified by Astor represent 
a relatively small number. Therefore, in order for the 
student. of Chine-se to gain the maximum benefit from the 
study of Phonetics and their Series, an investigation 
into the pedagogical potential of those Phonetics not 
identified by Astor should be carried out. It is the 
purpose of this dissertation to identify and to 
characterize such Potentially Pedagogically Useful 
Phonetics. 
Historical Development of the 
Phonetic Compound Characters 
To clarify the origin and nature of the Phonetic 
Compound characters, a brief discussion of their 
historical development ,will be presented. 
......--.-- ------------~-- -
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Though the history of the Chinese writing system 
is long and complex, certain major stages in the forma-
tion of the characters can be identified. The earliest 
Chinese characters on record (dating from about 1400 
B.C.) are "pictographs," or drawings of common objects. 
Examples of these are the characters 8 for 'sun' 
(originally written 0 ) and ~ for 'moon' (originally 
written} ). Soon, however, it became "necessary to 
extend this pictorial basis into more abstract or symbolic 
areas" (Newnham, 1971, p. 36), and a second group of 
characters (often called "ideographs") was developed. 
This group includes such characters as 
- 'one ' -
' -
I two' I J:.. I above' I and r I below. I A third type of 
characters, called "associatives," was also developed. 
Here a character took its meaning from "the interaction 
or association of more than one part." For example, 
the character "it~ 'good; to love' consists of the 
character 'woman' on the left and that for 'child' on 
the right, their combination leading naturally to the 
·..rerb or quality directly associated with them'' (Newnham, 
1971, p. 36). 
In time, as the language developed the need for 
a greater number of written forms, a fourth type of 
characters, called "Phonetic loans" was .developed. · In 
principle, t~is type of character was formed as follows: 
The character of a spoken word would be lent to another, 
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homophonous word, which lacked a written form. Thus for 
example, there existed in the ancient language the word 
'wheat,' which had the written form~ (now written 
~ ). A homophonous word meaning 'come' also existed 
in the spoken language, but had no written equivalent. 
The character for 'wheat' was therefore lent to the 
latter, and the word 'come' also came to be written ~ 
(now '* ) (Karlgren, . 1923b). 
The creation of a fifth type of characters, our 
Phonetic Compounds, came about when the relatively 
primitive type of "phonetic" writing just described 
was extended and made more efficient by invoking two 
new principles: The first principle involved the 
addition of Signifies to pairs or groups of Phonetic 
loans in order· to further clarify the meaning of each 
character. For example, Karlgren (1923b) states that 
as the character i for 'thumb,' pronounced cun in 
Mandarin, 
could not serve without modification for the 
word 'village.' Mand. ts'un, because that might 
· lead to misunderstanding, . . . the picture for 
' tree, wood' ~ (evidently the building 
material) . . [was added, · obtaining] a 
character .:f{ where the right part indicated 
a pronunciat~on identical with that of ~ 
'thumb' ... while the left. part, a kind of 
determinative, showed that it was not the word 
for 'thumb' that was concerned, but the homo-
phonous word -which has to do with wood, i.e. 
'village.' (p. 54) 
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10 
The second principle used in the formation of 
Phonetic Compounds was the extension of the phonetic 
loaning process to groups of words which were not 
necessarily homophonous.· If the various words in 
question were similar enough in sound, this was con-
sidered sufficient. As to the motivation for non-
homophonous borrowing, Karlgren (1923a) states that 
There must have been various reasons why 
the scribe did not always put in exact homophones 
as phonetics, but allowed a certain discrepancy 
in sound. In many cases the reason may have 
been his desire that the phonetic should in the 
same time help to express the meaning. In other 
cases the fact is undoubtedly due to the diffi-
culty in finding exact homophones .... the 
Chinese words may in the early stages have been 
very well distinguished phonetically and the 
number of homophones was perhaps not greater 
than in the Indo-European languages. (p. 17) 
In time, thousands of Phonetic Compound 
characters were created according to the principles 
outlined above, and eventually came to comprise, as we 
have seen, some 90 percent of all Chinese characters 
(Ching & Ching, 1975). 
The majority of Phonetic Compound characters, 
according to Karlgren (1923a), were composed over 2,000 
years ago. Since that time, the spoken language has 
undergone its own development, and the sound values that 
Chinese characters once had in ancient times have 
changed over the centuries. However, the graphic form 
of the characters has remained essentially the same 
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since the time the Phonetic Compounds were created 
(Karlgren, 1923b). Therefore, though most of the 
Phonetic Compounds have virtually the same form today as 
they did some 2,000 or more years ago, they are pronounced 
in Modern Chinese quite differently from the way they were 
pronounced in ancient times. It is not surprising, in 
light of these historical developcents, to find that when 
groups of Phonetic Compounds are examined today (such as 
in the Wieger Phonetic Series), a significant number of 
non-Totally Perfect Phonetics are found. 
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CHAPTER II 
DESIGN OF THE STUDY 
In order to identify and characterize Potentially 
Pedagogically Useful (PPU) Phonetics in Chinese, it is 
necessary to (1) select an adequate description of the 
Chinese sound system, (2) establish categories of PPU 
Phonetics based upon this description, (3) ·select Phonetic 
Series for study, and (4) examine these Series for the 
existence of PPU Phonetics. 
Selecting an Adeguate Description of the 
Chinese Sound System 
Although the Chinese sound system has been des-
cribed by numerous authors in a variety of ways, the 
description put forward by John DeFrancis in Beginning 
Chinese (1963) will be used in the current study. The 
DeFrancis description has been . chosen for the following 
reasons: (1) It serves as a basis for the 12-volume 
DeFrancis textbook series, currently one of the most 
popular series of textbooks used to teach Chinese as a 
foreign language. (2) Tt is restricted to the modern 
dialect of Peking. (3) It uses the oinyin system of 
romanization as the sole method of sound transcription. 
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13 
It should be noted that not all aspects of the 
Chinese sound system as described by DeFrancis will be 
included here. Rather, only those aspects considered 
necessary and relevant to the current study will be 
discussed in the following section. For the reader who 
is already familiar with DeFrancis, he or she may want 
to skip this section and turn directly to page 22. All 
readers, however, should note that some modifications 
in DeFrancis have been made by this author (see pp. 19-
21). 
The Nodern Dialect of Peking 
Of the · roughly two-thirds of a billion people 
who speak some form of Chinese, by far the .largest 
number (about 500 million) speak Mandarin. The rest 
speak one of a number of mutually unintelligible forms 
of Chinese, such as Cantonese, Wu, Hakka, Amoy-Swatow, 
and Foochow. Mandarin can itself be divided into several 
mutually intelligible forms, of which the dialect of 
Peking is the. most important. The preeminence of the 
Peking dialect is primarily due to two factors. First, 
an approximate form of the dialect has served as the 
most socially acceptable form of spe~ch in China for 
many years. Second, it has become the basis for what 
is currently being promulgated as the standard national 
language in Maintand China (DeFrancis, 1963, p. xviii). 
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- -The Pinyin Romanization System 
Like most major textbooks written for the study 
of Chinese, the DeFrancis series uses a romanization 
system to transcribe the .sounds of Chinese alphabetically 
. 
and thereby aid the student in learning both the spoken 
and written language. DeFrancis uses the pinyin system 
of romanization, which has been used in Mainland China 
for over 20 years. According to DeFrancis (1963), the 
- -use of pinyin "provides not only a serviceable pedagogical 
tool but also an introduction to a great deal of material 
published in China." Furthermore, it is likely to have 
"wider and wider application in the future in view of the 
current attempt to promote a single national language in 
China" (p·. xviii) • 
The Sounds of the Peking Dialect 
The sounds of the Peking dialect are presented 
by DeFrancis in terms of syllables and their component 
parts. Each syllable can be divided into an initial, a 
final, and a tone. In the majority of cases, the initial 
consists of the initial consonant of a syllable, while 
the final consists of all the vowel and consonant sounds 
that follow the initial. The tone is the particular 
pitch pattern associated with each syllable. For example, 
the syllable ma contains the initial ~' the final a, and 
the - tone; while the syllable mang contains the initial 
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15 
m, the final ang, . and the- tone. In a relatively small 
number of cases, a syllable does not begin with a con-
sonant, and thus consists of a final and tone only. 
Syllables of this type are said to have a "zero initial" 
(symbolized by~). An example is the syllable ai, which 
consists of the ~ initial, the final ai, and the - tone. 
The Tones 
The Peking dialect uses four bas·ic tones, which 
can be described in terms of a speaker's voice range 
. (Figure 2). The "first tone" or "high level" tone 
-
, y 
' ma ma ma ma . 
Top 
Cl) > 
SEeaker's ;l ·Voice J Range Hiddle Bottom 
SOURCE: DeFrancis, 1963, p. xix. 
Figure 2. Tones of the Peking Dialect 
(1) begins near the top of the voice range and continues 
there for its duration. The "second tone" or "high 
rising" tone (2) begins at the middle of the voice range 
and rises rapidly to the top. The "third tone" or "low 
dipping" tone (3) begins below middle range, falls to 
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16 
the lowest part of the range, and then rises above the 
middle. The "fourth tone" or "high fall.ing" tone begins 
near top-range and falls rapidly toward the bottom 
(DeFrancis, 1963, p. xix) ·. 
-· -In the pinyin romanization, the four tones are 
indicated by diacritical marks which correspond to the 
illustrations in Figure 2, namely - for the first tone, 
/ for the second tone, ..., for the third tone, and ' 
for the fourth tone. The tone marks are always written 
above letters representing vowel sounds. Where there is 
one vowel letter in a syllable, the tone is written above 
this, as in the syllables ma, m~, m~, and ma (see Figure 
2). Where there are three vowel letters in a syllable, 
the tone is written above the middle letter, as in miao 
and guai. When two vowel letters are present, the tone 
is written over the first letter, except when. this is i 
or ~ (for example, mai, mei, m6u in the former case and 
jia, jie, zhua in the latter) (DeFrancis, 1963~ p. xix). 
It is important to note that tones in Chinese 
"are an integral part of a syllable and help to dis-
tinguish quite different words, in much the same way as 
the vowels a and u do in English hat and hut" (DeFrancis, 
19 6 3 , p . xix) . The four ma syllables mentioned above 
. -
illustrate this concept well, for they are all separate 
words as follows: ma meaning 'mother,' ma meaning 
'hemp,' ma meaning 'horse,' and ma meaning 'to scold.' 
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17 
The Initials 
In Beginning Chinese, DeFrancis arranges the 
various initials of the Peking dialect (excluding 0) into 
three sub-sets, which he calls the "simple initials" 
(b, .E,, !!!, f, d, J:., g, 1:., _g, k, h) , the "retroflex and 
sibilant init.ials" (zh, ch, sh, ,E; and ~' _£, ~' 
respectively), and the · "palatal initials" <i, ..9., x). 
The initials in each set are described in terms of the 
pronunciation of selected English words (see DeFrancis, 
1963, pp. xix, xxiii, xxvi). 
In addition to showing the approximate equivalents 
of the various initial sounds in terms of English words, 
the initials can also be indicated in I.P.A. · (Inter-
national Phonetic Alphabet) notation. Table 1 gives 
the initials in both I.P.A. transcription, according to 
- -Kratochvil (1968) (in brackets), and in pinyin. Table 1 
also gives the place and manner of articulation of the 
various initials, which are all consonant sounds. 
The Finals 
The finals of the Peking dialect are arranged by 
DeFrancis into several "Groups," according to the 
beginning letter with which the finals are spelt in the 
- -pinyin system. (For example, the Group-a finals (~, ~' 
ang, ai, ~) all begin with the letter~). Like the 
initials, the finals in each Group are also described in 
- - ---
-------------------
TABLE 1 
- -INITIALS OF THE PEKING DIALECT IN I.P.A. AND PINYIN 
Place of Articulation-+ 
Manner of Articulation 
~ 
Non-aspirated 
Stop Unvoiced 
Aspirated 
Nasal Voiced --
Unvoiced 
Fricative 
Voiced 
Lateral Voiced 
Non-aspirated 
Affricate Unvoiced 
-
Aspirated 
Bilabial Labia- Dental Alveolar Alveopalatal Palatal Velar 
dental 
[p-]b- [t-]d- [k-]g-
[p' -]p- [t'- ]t- [k' -)k-
[m- ]m- [n-]n-
[f-]f- [s-]s- [~-]sh- [A -]x- [x-]h-
[~]r-
[1-]l-
[ts-]z- [t~-]zh- [t~- ]j-
[ts'- ]c- [t~r -_]ch- [t~~]q-
SOURCE: From Kratochvil (1968, p. 25). For-aefinitions of the term used here the 
reader is referred to the List of Linguistic Terms in Kratochvil (1968, pp. 171-182). 
~ 
(X) 
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19 
terms of the pronunciation of English words (see 
DeFrancis, 1963, pp. xx-xxii, xxv, xxvii). 
Modifications in the DeFrancis Finals 
The er final. --According to DeFrancis (1963), the 
sound segment ~ "is pronounced like the ~ of fur in the 
first and second tones, and between -~and~ in the 
third and fourth" (p. XXV.ii). Since a number of Chinese 
characters are pronounced with the segment ~' it will 
be included in the current study. 1 However, instead of 
considering er to contain an r final as DeFrancis sug-
gests, this author will follow the convention of Chao 
(1968a) and Chi ch'u han yU (1971), which consider~ 
to be a combination of the final er and the ~ initial. 
The "i" finals.--For sound segments that contain 
the retroflex and sibilant initials followed by the 
letter i (e.g., zhi, chi; zi, ci, etc.), DeFrancis 
invents the term "i" to refer to the sounds represented 
by the letter i in these environments. (He uses "i" 
to distinguish these finals from the 'i-final,' that is 
the i "as in machine"-.;:.see DeFrancis, 1963, p. xxv). 
Regarding the "i" finals, DeFrancis (1963) states the · 
following: 
1The term "segment" is defined by this author 
as a syllable minus the tone, or the combination of an 
initial and final (without the tone). 
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20 
The retroflex consonants are spoken by themselves 
with a sort of r-sound final, so that Chinese sh, 
for example, sounds somewhat like English shr in 
shrill. Similarly, the sibilant consonants-ire 
pronounced by themselves with a sort of buzzing 
sound like a prolonged z in buzz. These final 
sounds of both groups or consonants are written 
with the letter i. (p. xxiv) 
Instead of the ambigu~us symbols "i" used by DeFrancis, 
or i used in pinyin, this author will use the symbolst 
and .2. to refer to the retroflex-i and sibilant-i finals 
respectively, when they are written alone. 1 (The letter 
i will continue to be used for the 'i-final. ') When 
these finals are combined with initials, the regular 
plnyln convention (the letter i) will be used. In such 
- -initial-final combinations or segments, the pinyin spell-
ing is unambiguous, since the three i-spelt finals always 
occur with different initials (i.e., they are in com-
plementary distribution). Table 2 illustrates how the 
three i-spelt finals will be written in their various 
contexts in the current study. For further discussion 
concerning the retroflex-i and sibilant-i finals, the 
reader is referred to Chao (1968, pp. 19, 24), Hartman 
(1944, pp. 31-32), and Howie (1976, pp. 6, 8-11). 
1The terms "retroflex-i" and "sibilant-i" finals 
will refer to the i-spelt finals that occur after the 
retroflex and sibi!ant initials respectively. The 
symbols '\, and .J. are traditional symbols used in 
Chinese phonology, and were originally developed by 
the Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren (see Howie, 1976, p. 
10). 
• 
--------------~----
TABLE 2 
WRITTEN CONVENTIONS FOR THE i-SPELT FINALS 
Final Final Written Final-Plus-Initial Combinations 
Alone in Pinyin 
Retroflex-i t zhi, chi, shi, ri 
~ zi, ci. si N ._. Sibilant-i 
i "as in machine" i bi, pi, mi, di, ti, ni, li, 
ji, qi, xi, yi 
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22 
As has already been done for the initials, the 
finals of the Peking dialect can also be given in I.P.A. 
notation. Table 3 is a table of all finals in both 
pinyin and I.P.A. transcription. 
When a final combine~ with an initial, the result-
ing segment i~ usually spelt by simply combining the 
spellings of the constituent initial and final. 1 For 
example,. the segment bi is spelt by placing the initial 
b and final i together (b + i_,. bi). However, when the 
Group-u, -i, and -u finals combine with the ~ initial, 
they undergo certain spelling changes. These can be seen 
in Table 4. 
Establishin~ Categories of Potentially 
Pedaftog~cally Useful Phonetics 
ased on the DeFrancis 
Description of the 
Chinese Sound System 
For purposes of the present study, a Phonetic 
will be termed Potentially Pedagogically Useful (PPU) if 
it can be shown to indicate some definite feature of 
pronunciation in all characters containing it. In this 
way, it can serve as a clue to the pronunciation of these 
characters, and thus can at least potentially serve as an 
1When the Group-u finals are combined with 
initials·, the umlaut is usually dropped. The segments 
nu, lu, nue, and ltie are exceptions. 
• 
-----------------------------------------------~ 
·. -· . - ··--·- .... _ '· -. -... . 
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23 
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I TABLE 3 
- -FINALS OF THE PEKING DIALECT IN PINYIN 
I AND I. P .A. 
I Category - - a Pinyin I. p .A. 
b 
I Group-a a ~ Finals an an 
I I ang 0..') 
ai ai 
I ao &U 
I Group-ole c Finals 0 .::> 
I e cr 
en an 
I eng "? 
I ei .ei ou ou 
I ong Q? 
I Group-u Finals u u 
I ua ~ uo ul'" 
II uai uai 
I ui uei 
I uan uan 
I 
I 

-··-··-·- ... ~ . 
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t• 
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Category 
The Retroflex-i 
Final ( 1. ) 
The Sibilant-i 
Final (.l.. ) 
25 
TABLE 3 (Continued) 
i 
i 
b I. p .A. 
... d 
.£ 
'\ll e 
a - -Pinyin values from DeFrancis (1963). 
b I.P.A. values from Chao (1968a, p. 24), except 
where indicated. 
cFrom Legeza (1968, p. 32) . 
dA . pprox~mate I .P .A. equivalent from Howie 
(1976, p. 10). 
eA . pprox~mate I.P.A. equivalent from Howie 
(1976, p. 10). 
--~. ~---~-.....---
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TABLE 4 
SPELLING CHANGES IN GROUP-u, -i, AND -u FINALS 
WHEN COMBINED WITH THE ~ INITIAL IN PINYIN 
Final 
Group-u 
u 
ua 
uo 
uai 
ui 
uan 
un 
uang 
ueng 
Group-i 
i 
ia 
iao 
ie 
iu 
ian · 
in 
iang 
ing 
iong 
Final Plus ~ Initial 
wu 
wa 
WO 
wai 
wei 
wan 
wen 
wang 
weng 
yi 
ya 
yao 
ye 
you 
yan 
yin 
yang 
ying 
yong 
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Final 
Group-u 
u 
iie 
Uan 
iin 
27 
TABLE 4 (Continued) 
Final Plus ~ Initial 
yu 
yue 
yuan 
yun 
SOURCE: From DeFrancis (1963, pp. xxiii, xxvi-xxvii). 
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28 
aid for students learning Chinese. It is the intention 
of this author to identify and characterize such PPU 
Phonetics and to make the results known to both students 
and teachers of Chinese. Furthermore, it is the hope of 
the author that the Phonetics identified in the current 
study will eventually be tested in actual classroom 
situations, so that their ultimate usefu.lness can be 
determined. 
In order to identify a PPU Phonetic, one must 
identify those features of pronunciation which are 
carried by all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
(i.e., in those characters that share a common Phonetic, 
~ncluding · the Phonetic · as a character by itself). Since 
Chinese characters are predominantly monosyllabic (Chao, 
1968b, p. 102), one is essentially comparing syllables 
when one examines the pronunciation of characters in a 
Phonetic Series. According to the DeFrancis de.scription 
of the Chinese sound system given above, each syllable of · 
the Peking dialect contains three parts, namely an 
initial, a final, and a tone. In order to identify a 
Phonetic as being PPU based upon this description, one 
must show that all characters sharing a given Phonetic 
are pronounced with the same syllable part or combination 
of parts. This requirement leads, in theory, to seven 
possible categories of PPU Phonetics, which can be 
described as follows: 
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(1) Totally Perfect 
When all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
have the same pronunciation, including tone, the common 
Phonetic of the Series will be called Totally Perfect. 
An example is the Phonetic Jt , which is pronounced 
zhang in all characters containing it. (See Wieger, 
1927, Phonetic Series 113, p. 399.) 
(2) Segment Perfe.ct 
When all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
are pronounced with the same segment (i.e., when all 
characters have the same pronunciation except for tone), 
the common Phonetic of the Series will be called Segment. 
Perfect. An example is the Phonetic ~ , which carries 
the segment ~ in all characters containing it. (See 
Wieger, 1927, Phonetic Series #66, p. 411.) 
(3) Initial Perfect 
When all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
are pronounced with the same initial, the common Phonetic 
of the Series will be called Initial Perfect. · An example 
·is the Phonetic ~ , which carries the initial ch in 
all characters containing it. (See Wieger, 1927, 
Phonetic Series #12, p. 399.) 
(4) Final Perfect 
When all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
are pronounced with the same final, the common Phonetic 
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30 
of the Series will be called Final Perfect. An example 
is the Phonetic Jk which carries the final an in all 
characters containing it. (See Wieger, 1927, Phonetic 
Series #55, p. 409.) 
(5) Tone Perfect 
When all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
are pronounced with the same tone, the common Phonetic 
of the Series will be called Tone Perfect. An example 
is the Phonetic ~ , which carries the ' tone in all 
characters containing it. (See Wieger, 1927, Phonetic 
Series 136, p. 404.) 
(6) Initial-Tone P~rfect 
When all ch~racters in a given Phonetic Series 
are pronounced with both the same initial and tone, · the 
common Phonetic of the Series will be called Initial-
Tone Perfect. An example is the Phonetic ~ , which 
carries the initial 1 and the ' tone .in all characters 
containing it. (See Wieger, 1927, Phonetic Series #375, 
p. 479.) 
( 7) Final-Tone Perfect 
When all characters in a given Phonetic Series 
are pronounced with both the_same final and tone, the 
common Phonetic of the Series will be called Final-Tone 
Perfect. An example is. the Phonetic i\, , which carries 
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31 
the final 1 and the ' tone in all characters containing 
it. (See Wieger, 1927, Phonetic Series #236, p. 450.) 
Selecting Phonetic Series for Study 
The Phonetic Series to be selected for study will 
be the 858 Series compiled by L. Wieger in his second 
edition of Chinese Characters (1927). In the text, 
Wieger sets down each Phonetic Series as follows: First, 
the Series is given a number (from 1 to 858) and a graphic 
heading, which normally corresponds to the common Phonetic 
of. the Series. Next, those characters that share the 
common Phonetic are listed. Since the common Phonetic 
is usually a character by itself, it is included as the 
first member of the Series (see Figure 3). 
In addition to the character itself, the pro-
nunciation of each character, indicated in Wade-Giles 
transcription, and its English translation are also given 
(seep. 4, footnote 1). Where the pronupciation of the 
characters in a Series differ, the characters are set 
into sub-groups of identical pronunciation, disregarding 
tone. These sub-groups are then set apart by solid 
lines. For example, in Wieger Phonetic Series #187, all 
characters pronounced zhou are placed in one sub-group; 
all characters pronounced chou are placed in a separat·e 
sub-group (see Figure 3). 
~.-._-__ .- .-... -.· .. ----.--.... -. __ ,-,_ - ._.-. ----------------------------------:-:---.. . . ..... • .... 
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SOURCE: 
'Hi 
~iH 
187 
Y~'' 
zhou 
zhou 
I 
chou 
chou ' 
~l ch~u 
32 
Wieger, 1927, p. 440. 
(The Phonetic) 
A Department. 
A continent. 
To pledge with wine; 
to repay. 
To answer. 
To grasp. 
Figure 3. Wieger Phonetic Series #187 
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Examining Wieger for the Existence 
of PPU Phonetics 
Each of the 858 Wieger Phonetic Series will be 
examined to see whether or not the common Phonetic of 
the Series falls into one of the seven PPU categories 
mentioned above. (Since Astor, 1970·, has already 
identified a number of Totally Perfect Phonetics in 
Weiger--see p. 6--this author will identify only those 
Totally Perfect Phonetics not already characterized by 
Astor.) For example, consider Wieger Phonetic Series 
#187 (Figure 3, above). One can see that the couunon 
Phonetic of this Series ( ·H~ ) is not Totally Perfect, 
since the characters in the Series have- three different · 
pronunciations, namely zhou, ch6u, and ch~u. Similarly, 
it is not Segment Perfect, since the characters exhibit 
more than one segment pronunciation (i.e., zhou and 
chou). The Phonetic is not Tone Perfect (there are three 
-
tones in the Series: , ~, v ); nor is it Initial 
Perfect (the two initials zh and ch are present). As far 
as Finals are concerned, all char~cters are pronounced 
with the Final ~; and thus the Phonetic is Final Perfect. 
Alternate Pronunciations 
In some cases, more than one pronunciation is 
given for a character in a particular Wieger Phonetic 
Series. In these cases, the pronunciation of the 
character that will lead to the greatest amount of sound 
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34 
agreement among all characters in the Series will be 
chosen. For example, in Wieger Phonetic Series #141, 
the character ip is listed with the pronunciations nti 
and tlng. Since the rest of the characters in the Series 
are pronounced with the segments ~, ~, or ~, the 
pronunciation nu will be chosen for l , making the 
common Phonetic of the Series ( -h) Initial Perfect (g). 
If the pronunciation t~ng had been chosen, there would 
have been no common feature of pronunciation shared by 
all characters in the Series, and the Phonetic~ would 
have been termed No Category. 
Dealing with the Wieger Notes 
In order to point out certain etymological 
phenomena to the reader, Wieger appends various characters, 
along with explanatory notes, to many of his Phonetic 
Series. Since the characters listed under these notes 
often af.fect the PPU category which a particular Phonetic 
is assigned, the treatment given such notes in the cur-
rent study will be discussed here in detail. 
"Abbrev. in" 
At the bottom of certain Phonetic Series, Wieger 
appends the notation "Abbrev. in" [Abbreviation i~ , 
under which he lists one or more characters. These 
characters contain an element which is homographic to 
the common Phonetic of the Series, but which in Wieger's 
·a 
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. . -~- · . . 
35 
opinion does not function as a Phonetic. It serves 
rather, in Wieger's (1927, p. 397) words, as "an arbi-
trary abbreviation used by the scribes." Since the 
graphic unit referred to ·does not function as a Phonetic, 
those characters containing. it will not be considered 
part of the Phonetic Series proper, and will be excluded 
from consideration when studying the Series. 
"It is radical in" 
Under this note, Wieger appends to several 
Phonetic Series certain ch~racters that contain an ele-
ment that is often homographic to the common Phonetic 
of the Series. However, instead of serving as a Phonetic 
in the characters listed, the graphic element referred 
to serves as a Signific. It should be noted that 
although Wieger uses the term "radical" here, he clearly 
means the term Signific as it has been used in this study 
(see pp. 2-4 above), and not the term Radical as it 
refers to the 214 dictionary classifiers (see also 
Wieger, 1927, pp. 14-15). Since any graphic ·unit which 
is noted as "radical [Signific] in" a character clearly 
functions as a Signific and not a Phonetic, all 
characters containing such lmits (i.e., all characters 
listed under the "radical in" note) will .be excluded 
from consideration when studying any given Phonetic 
Series. 
- -- - ~ . --·--· _ .. __ --. ·-·· · 
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"It is unconnected with"; "Not to 
be confounded with"; "To be 
distinguished from"; "Nothing 
to do with'' 
These notes are appended by Wieger to Phonetic 
Series solely for contrastive purposes. Since the 
characters listed under such notes are clearly unrelated 
to the characters in any Phonetic Series proper, they 
too will be excluded from consideration when studying a 
given Phonetic Series. 
"For the following, see L. [Lesson] 
11 
"Compare L. 11 ; etc. 
At the bottom of several. Phonetic Series, Wieger 
appends the notation "For the following, see L~ [Lesson] 
" or "Compare L. " (or something to this 
---
effect), under which he lists one or more characters. 
This note refers the reader to a specific "Etymological 
Lesson" (found in the first part of the Chinese Characters 
text), where explanations concerning the appended 
characters are given. In certain cases, the appended 
characters contain an element which is homographic to 
the connnon Phonetic of the Series. In such cases, the 
Lesson mentioned by Wieger will be consulted by this 
author in order to determine whether or not the graphic 
element in question functions as a Phonetic in the 
appended characters. If it does, the characters will be 
included as part of the Phonetic Series proper. If it 
- --------·-- -- ·-
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does not, the characters will be excluded from the 
Series. 
"It may be found in"; "It is 
perhaps found in"; etc. 
Under this type of note, Wieger appends to cer-
tain Phonetic Series those characters that contain an 
element which is usually homographic to· the common 
Phonetic of the Series. Here, however, Wieger appears 
to be uncertain as to whether or not the graphic element 
in question functions as a Phonetic in the appended 
characters. In such borderline cases, the appended 
characters will be examined to see if they share the same 
features of pronunciation . as. the characters in the 
Phonetic Series proper. If they do, they will be 
included as part of the Series proper; if not, they will 
be excluded from the Series. For example, in Wieger 
Phonetic Series #147, the Phonetic ~ is Final Perfect, 
with the final en being shared by all characters in the 
Series proper. Since the character 1~ (under the note 
"It is perhaps found in") is pronounced bo and thus does 
not carry the final ~' it will be excluded from the 
Series. (See Wieger, 1927, p. 431.) 
"It is phonetic contracted in" 
Wieger uses this note in two basic ways, First, 
he uses it to show that certain characters possess the 
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•• ·· • , _ ,_ · -- · ~ ··-· · ~· · - ·- . .... ... .. ~ • • ··· -·· · .. , ...,., ·-· ·~ • • ;.,1.. .. ··~· · .. · · ._.. ........ .. .. _ 
38 
common Phonetic of a Series, but in a graphically reduced 
or "contracted" form. For example, in Wieger Phonetic 
Series U98, the common Phonetic of the Series is ~J 
However, in the characters '8] and ~ , the Phonetic 
takes the contracted form J In this situation, since 
the Phonetic takes more than one graphic form, the Series 
in question will be dealt with under the section of this 
study entitled "Graphic Variants" (seep. 41, below). 
Secondly, Wieger uses this note to append to a 
Series those characters containing an element which is 
homographic to the common Phonetic of the Series. For 
example, in Wieger Phonetic Series #103 (Figure 4), 
Wieger appends the . characters~,~, and~, which 
he lists under the note, "This is phonetic contracted 
in." All three characters contain an element which is 
homographic to the common Phonetic of the Series, namely 
.Jl& . The purpose of the note, "This is phonetic con-
tracted in" is to comment on the origin of the appended 
characters, namely to indicate that etymologically speak-
ing, the three characters actually contain the character 
-AA-'l (shan) as a Phonetic, which has been contracted to 
the form -mJ' . What is important to note is that this 
contracted Phonetic is now homographic to the common 
Phonetic of the Series ( ~ ) . In a case such as this, 
since the graphic unit repeated in the appended characters 
functions as a Phonetic in these characters, the 
-·--- ~ ,. -- ' ....... - . --
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I SOURCE: 
I NOTE: 
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-»Jrj 
"This is 
~ 
~· 
-tmr 
103 
h '· c aJ.
' zha 
shan 
39 
(Common Phonetic of 
the Series) 
phonetic contracted in" 
shan 
shan 
shan 
Wieger, 1927, p. 419; and Mathews, 1943, 
p. 7 48. 
The English translation of the characters as 
well as four characters listed under the note, 
"It is radical in" are not shown here. 
Figure 4. Wieger Phonetic Series #103 
~~··· 
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__ .., ___ . ___ _ : ~-- --
40 
characters will be included for consideration in studying 
the Phonetic Series. 
Modifications in .the Wieger Phonetic Series 
Derived Phonetics 
One of the properties of the Chinese writing 
system is that certain Phonetic Compound characters (formed 
by combining a Signific and a Phonetic) can in turn serve 
as Phonetic elements in other Phonetic Compounds. For 
example,. the Phonetic Compound t , which contains the 
Phonetic~ (see.· Wieger Phonetic Series #191) se~es in 
turn as a Phonetic in the Compound characterf~ (see 
Wieger Phonetic Series #350). This is a fairly common 
phenomenon, and one can find several such examples in the 
Wieger Phonetic Series. Phonetics of this type will be 
called Derived Phonetics, since they are, in es~ence, 
derived from other Phonetics. (Karlgren, 1958, p. 153, 
calls the former "secondary Phonetics" and the latter 
"primary Phonetics.") 
For purposes of identifying Phonetics that are 
Potentially Pedagogically Useful, the Derived Phonetics 
that are formally listed in Wieger (i.e., that head their 
own Phonetic Series) will be treated in the same manner 
as Phonetics in general, as described above. However, in 
addition to the Derived Phonetics listed in Wieger, one 
can identify in Wieger a considerable number of Derived 
Phonetics that are PPU, but that do not head their own 
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41 
Phonetic Series. Instead, they arelisted by Wieger under 
the original or "primary" Phonetic. Phonetics such as 
these will also be included in the present study. For 
example, in Wieger Phonetic Series #58 (headed by the 
Phonetic Iff ) , the characters jt , ~1 , and 1 are 
listed. Although Wieger does not mention the fact, it 
is clear that the Phonetic Compound i is repeated as a 
graphic unit in the characters following it ( ~~ and JJQ. 
~ ). Furthermore, it is an element that indicates the 
pronunciation in thes.e characters, since all three 
/ 
characters are pronounced pen. Therefore, the character 
~ is itself a Derived Phonetic which is Totally Per-
fect. 
Graphic Variants 
In certain Wieger Phonetic Series, characters are 
listed that contain the given Phonetic in more than one 
graphic form or variant. For example, in Wieger Phonetic 
Series 178, the Phonetic occurs as two variants: -J:' 
and -1f . In the Series, the characters ;-f: , •l'f , and 
tF contain the variant i= ; while the characters ~ , . 
-tQ.. d Jflr • h . 4.. Th . 
-t"l , an .If- conta~n t e varl.ant """T • e two var~ants 
-1= and 4r also occur as rharacters by themselves. (See 
Wieger, 1927, p. 414.) 
Wieger may acknowledge the existence of graphic 
variants in a number of ways. He may list each variant 
r--:----:--:::-=-;-:-:-:--::::c~== -~-- --- - ----- - -·----- ...... I ·-· -----~-·---~· .. '-:.. .., __ ;_,..,,_, . ... ;. .... ~•-- ---- _ __ ... _ ... ~ - - ' .... ....... ............ .. , ... ... .. -• -~ - --· _._ ... .~. · ..... ·-~--· •-J- ~ ~-. .•.•• ~ .• ~: ., .;1 . -:....,.;> ... ~--; .. _~,- u. ;.JoL·-· ~-~~·.:.. ... . .. .,. ; .:, .. ·"'~ ..... ... 
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42 
of a Phonetic at the top of the Series (e.g., Wieger 
Phonetic Series #78, #131); he may point out the 
etymological relationship between the variants (e.g., 
Wieger Phonetic Series #131 and Wieger Etymological 
Lesson 154 F); or he may append a note to the Series, 
such as the note "It is phonetic contracted in" in 
Wieger Phonetic Series /198 (see p. 38 above) . 
Regardless of how Wieger presents them, all 
graphic variants will be dealt with in the current study 
as follows: First, all characters containing each 
variant of a given Phonetic will be placed into separate 
groups. Next, if all the characters in any one group 
are found to share common features of pronunciation that 
are not shared by all the characters in any other group, 
then this first group of characters will be considered 
to form a separate Phonetic Series, with its variant 
being the common Phonetic of the Series. This variant, 
now considered a separate Phonetic, will then be examined 
to see if it falls into any of the seven PPU categories. 
If it does, it will be identified as a PPU Phonetic. 
This process will be repeated for all the variants of 
any given Phonetic. Depending upon the r~lationship 
between form and pronunciation of characters that contain 
graphic variants of a Phonetic listed in Wieger, one or 
more such variants may come to be considered separate 
Phonetics in this study. On the other hand, the 
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43 
relationship may be such that the v~riants in question 
will not be considered as separate Phonetics, but rather 
simply as alternate forms of the same Phonetic, as 
originally presented by Wieger. 
Wieger Phonetic .Series #78 provides one illustra-
tion of how graphic variants of a given Phonetic may come 
to be considered separa,te Phonetics in this study. In 
:· :--~· 
this Series, there aretwo variants of the Phonetic, 
namely t and 4t . The Compound characters )t , •/1:' , 
and ~1F (all pronounced bian) share the first variant -t 
(also pronounced bian) as a common element. The Compound 
characters .~ , 4#- , and .1f (pronounced_ bi~n, pin, and 
f~n respectively) share the second variant 4t (pronounced 
·bi~n) as a common element . . In this case, the two variants 
are taken to. be separate Phonetics, with the first 
variant -f being Totally Perfect (bik), and the 
second variant ~ being· termed No Category. (See Wieger, 
19 2 7 ' p • 414 . ) 
In some instances, a particular variant of a 
Phonetic is contained in only one character in a Series. 
For example, in Wieger Phonetic Series #11, there are 
two variants of the Phonetic: J and ~ . The variant 
r is shared by the vast majority of characters (such 
as 11 , "T , 11 etc.) . The variant 7 is found only 
in the character ~ . In a case such as this, the 
single character containing the second variant of the 
1,------, _ _ ----,-__ . -- ~-.., . .. ~ . . - ----:-.__ _ _ '_-_ ~--~--- . . . - ~--- - . - . ~--· . .. -~- ·- ... :::::-::::-.... . .... - ;: ::-:::-:-:-:-: .·.::- . -~~- ·- ".--:::-..::.-:; ...... . -·~ _, ________ _ ,,,~...,·- ~ - ___ ._, ___ , ~· . ... , ~ .. 
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44 
Phonetic will be examined to see if it shares the same 
features of pronunciation as the rest of the characters 
in the Series. If it does, it will be considered part 
of the Phonetic Series proper, and will be included in 
the study. If not,. it will be excluded from the Phonetic 
Series. In Wieger Phonetic Series 1111, all characters 
containing the Phonetic in the form r are pronounced 
with the final ing, and thus the major variant ~ is 
Final Perfect. Since the character n\ (containing the 
variant 1 ) is pronounced chlng, and does not carry the 
final ing, it will be excluded from the Series. 
Pronunciation Verification 
In certain instances, it may be necessary to 
verify the pronunciation of characters listed in the 
Wieger Phonetic Series. This situation may arise because 
a given pronunciation in Wieger is either obsolete, a 
misprint, or is in some way unreadable (e.g., a letter 
or tone mark is missing or obscured). If and when it 
becomes necessary to check the pronunciation of a 
character in any Wieger Phonetic Series, the character 
in question will first be searched for elsewhere in 
Wieger, namely in the "Lexicon by Order of Radicals" 
(Wieger, 1927, pp. 665-820). This "Lexicon" is essen-
tially a separate dictionary, containing characters which 
are arranged according to the 214 Radicals. or classifiers. 
~--· -·--~-.:_. ...... __ ,_...._,_ .. ., .. _,~-·-----~~ - --·-·.._._ .. _. ___ ...: . __ __ , .. .. _ ·- ····--··-'··· .......... . 
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45 
If further checking of the pronunciation of a character 
becomes necessary, outside sources will be consulted, 
such as DeFrancis (1970), Fenn (1963), Mathews (1943), 
Anderson (1972), Soothili (1911), and the Chung wgn ta 
tz'~ tien (1962-1968). Subsequently, when the pro-
nunciation of any character in the study is taken from 
any source other than. a _~vieger Phonetic Series, this fact 
will be noted in Chapter III. 
Compiling the Results 
After the 858 Wieger Phonetic Series have been 
examined for the existence of PPU Phonetics, the results 
will be compiled and tabulated, and will be presented in 
Chapter III of the current study. Each of the seven PPU 
categories will be given along with those Phonetics that 
have been found to comprise each category. For each PPU 
Phonetic that is identified, pertinent information will 
be given in a series of five columns, from, left to right, 
as follows (see p .. 53): (1) The first column (labelled 1.> 
gives the number of the Phonetic, and refers to the Wieger 
Phonetic Series in which it was found. (2) The second 
columrt (labelled P) gives the Phonetic itself. (3) The 
third column (labelled Pr) gives the pronunciation, in 
- -pinyin, of the Phonetic when it occurs as a character by 
itself. (4) The fourth column (labelled S) gives the 
sound or features of pronunciation, ·in pinyin, that are 
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46 
shared by those characters containing the Phonetic. (For 
the finals 1. and ~ , see Table 2 and page 20, foot-
note 1). (5) The fifth column (labelled C) lists or 
specifies the characters (in Wieger) that contain the 
Phonetic as a common element, and includes the Phonetic 
as a character by itself. The characters in column C 
will be specified either by referring to the Wieger 
Phonetic Series in which they occur, or by writing out 
the characters individually. For the former, the term 
"W.S. 11_" will be used in column C to refer to all 
characters listed in any given Wieger Phonetic Series. 
For the latter, the 'P' convention will be used, as des-
cribed under "Specifying Characters That Share a Derived 
Phonetic," below. The following are some examples of 
how characters containing a common Phonetic will be 
specified in various situations throughout Chapter III. 
Specifying Characters in a Wieger Phonetic 
Series with No Appended Characters 
A good example of this kind of character specifi-
cation is found under Final Perfect Phonetic 1155, which 
is identified in Chapter III as follows (seep. 87): 
(1) t 
55 
p Pr 
v fan 
s c 
an W.S. 155. 
Here "W.S. #55" refers to all the characters listed in 
Wieger Phonetic Series 155. 
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47 
Specifying Characters in a Wieger Phonetic · 
Series with Appended Characters · 
Two examples of this kind of character specifi-
cation are found under Final Perfect Phonetics IJ17 and 
1}52, which are identified in Chapter III as follows (see 
pp. 86-87): 
(2) 1. p Pr s c 
17 ~ . ·"' iu w.s. /}17, excl. M Jl.U 
Here "W.S. #17, excl. M" refers to all the characters in 
Wieger Phonetic Series 117, excluding those characters 
listed under the note "It is perhaps found in" (M). 
(3) 1. p Pr s c 
52 t zhong, ong w. s. 1}52, excl. R, L 
zhong 
Here "w.s·. #52, excl . . R, L" refers to all the characters 
in Wieger Phonetic Series #52, excluding those characters 
listed under the notes "It is radical in" (R) and "Com-
pare L. 153 B" (L). (See Wieger, 1927, p. 408.) (Also 
note that Phonetic #52 ( tf ) has two alternate pro-
nunciations (zhong and zhong), both of which are listed 
under the column labelled Pr) . 
Throughout Chapter III, the following abbreviations 
will be used to refer to ·all characters listed under any 
given Wieger note: 
A 
R 
"Abbrev. [Abbreviation] in" 
"It is radical in" . 
r-
1 
_.- _ .• - ...... - • • -------~,.,.., ___......,_ -~- ---::-_ ~- _--:-~ . - -~4-..• -.. . - .-.. -_ -__ ---, __......,_ ... --.--:-.,.-::-: ... _· _..__ ___ _ ---6 __ ........ ____ _. ~ _ ... ... . M-- ... ~ __ .. ... - --~- - .... . ~·---- - -- ---- -~ ......... _..._ .:.. ......... ... ........... __._ .... u:. .. .. lj ~....,~-· --~- ...... ....;:·--· 
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M 
48 
"It is unconnected with"; "Not to be con-
founded with"; "To be distinguished from"; 
"Nothing to do with" 
"For the following, see L. [Lesson] II 
"Compare L. "; etc. (or other notes 
to this effect= etc.) 
"It may be found in"; "It is perhaps 
found in"; etc. 
Cd "It is phonetic contracted in" 
excl. "excluding" 
Specifying Characters That Share 
a Derived Phonetic 
In the examples just given, it is convenient to 
specify characters that share a common Phonetic by 
referring to the vlieger Phonetic Series in which they 
occur. This also holds true for a Derived Phonetic that 
heads its own Series in Wieger, since such a Phonetic is 
treated like any other Phonetic in the study (see p. 40 
above). However, for-a Derived Phonetic that does not 
head its own Series in Wieger, it is often more convenient 
to write out the characters that share the Phonetic 
individually. An example is the Totally Perfect Phonetic 
#35a, which is identified in Chapter III as follows (see 
p. 53) : 
(4) - fl_ p Pr s c 
35a ~t / / P, , mang mang 
r---::---::--:---=-:-::-:-:::::::-:-:-=~-:::-- -:: .. :::::. __ :-::_ -=-- _:-:.:::::. · ·=-- -~-.-:-. -::: ...:-:-. ::.-.. -... . -. -
-- .. --.... - -~ - ·, · · · ··- ~ · - - -- · ·- . ... .. ~ ·····- ... "' · ·-·· .. ----- .... . - "'- .-. ... ~ .......... - -· "' -.. "' '' ·-.. . .-.... .. . _ .. ·· -···· - . 
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49 
Here, each character in column f is written with the 
recurring Phonetic element being indicated by the letter 
'P,' while the rest of the character is written normally. 
In addition, 'P' written alone stands for the Phonetic 
when it occurs as a character by itself. Thus in the 
.w-
example given, the characters in column C are ;t and ;t , 
~i'hich are written out as 'P' and jt respectively. (Note 
that the Phonetic ~t is also given in the P column.) 
This 'P' convention not only simplifies considerably 
the writing of characters for the current study, but also 
enables the reader to clearly see the opposition of the 
Phonetic and S:ignific elements in Phonetic Compound 
characters. Furthermore, the number of the Phonetic here 
is ·referred to as "35a." The number 35: refers to 1.J'ieger 
Phonetic Series 135, where the Phonetic and the 
characters containing it are found. The letter 'a' 
indicates that the Phonetic is Derived·. The same number-
ing convention will be used for all Derived Phonetics 
that do not head their o~i'n Series in Wieger. ~.J'hen more 
than one Derived Phonetic is found in any given Wieger 
Phonetic Series, consecutive letters of the alphabet 
will be used (i.e., 'a,' 'b,' 'c,' 'd,' etc.). (See, 
for example, Tone Perfect Phonetics #89a and #89b, 
Chapter III, pp. 101-102.) 
.Since · a Derived Phonetic that does not head its . 
own Series in Wieger and the primary Fhonetic upon which 
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it is based (seep. 40) are both found in the same Wieger 
Phonetic Series, the characters that share the primary 
Phonetic can be specified (1) by referring to the Wieger 
Phonetic Series in which they occur, and (2) by excluding 
the characters that share the Derived Phonetic. The only 
exception is the Derived Phonetic itself, which occurs 
as a member character in both the primary and Derived 
Series. For example, Final Perfect Phonetic #56 is 
identified in Chapter III as follows (seep. 87): 
(5) 1. 
56 
p Pr-
fang 
s c 
ang W.S. 156, excl. f.t~ (D) 
Here "W. S. 156, excl. t.f'k (D)" refers to all the 
characters in. Wieger Phonetic Series 1156, excluding 1:69:., 
which is more properly considered to share a Derived (D) 
Phonetic. (~ is found under column C of Segment Per-
fect Phonetic IJ56a as 1P , seep. 66~) It should be 
noted that the Derived Phonetic itself (the character 
~ ) is listed under both the Derived Phonetic (as 'P' 
in column C of Segment Perfect Phonetic 156a) and the 
primary Phonetic '(as part of "W. S. 1/56" in column C of 
Final Perfect Phonetic 1156). 
Specifying Characters That Share 
a Graphic Variant of a Phonetic 
An example of this kind of character specifi-
cation is found under Totally Perfect Phonetic 178, which 
can be identified as follows: 
I -- ---=-- - -···· ··--
1 
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(6) fl. 
78 
p Pr 
b ·' ~an 
s 
b ·' ~an 
51 
c 
In this example, one of the two variants of the Phonetic 
has been found to be PPU and thus has been identified as 
such (see the variant -j: , p. 43 above, and Wieger 
Phonetic Series #78). In instances where more than one 
variant of a Phonetic is identified as being PPU, the 
different variants will be numbered consecutively, as 
#-1, 11-2, etc. (Examples of hypothetical variants \vould 
be Phonetics 1860-1, /1860-2, etc.) 
As mentioned above (seep. 43), there are cases 
in which a particular variant of a Phonetic is contained 
in only one character in a Series. In such a case, a 
decision is made regarding the inclusion or exclusion 
of the single character as part of the Phonetic Series 
proper. An example is Final Perfect Phonetic /Ill, which 
is identified in Chapteriii of the study as follows (see 
p. 86): 
(7) t p Pr s c 
-ding ing W.S. /Ill, excl. R; 
excl. ~ (GV) 
Here "W. S. Ill, excl. R; excl. J5\ (GV)" refers to all 
the characters in Wieger Phonetic Series /Ill, excluding 
11 T 
those characters listed under the note "It is radical 
in," and excluding the character ~ , which contains a 
graphic variant (GV) of the Phonetic. 
::_ .. ::;~-~;?t-,~;-~;x:,::r~S-1:-Yifu.';.I;Q .~~l:Wti~Isi-"'1J·i.?:;ttYi>~"&~~·t!lr .. ~~itriS·W:H&&~~~-l4i~ lt~~WAAtrr>-t4t:.::t¥:itf1Ql{)r~itft6i-AAtti.~tf.;Ak·W:sw 
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Regarding the notation system used for character 
specification discussed above, the reader should note 
that when the term "W. S. IJ " appears alone in column C, 
- -
this author has made no changes in the corresponding 
Wieger Phonetic Series (see example (1), p. 46). On the 
other hand, when the characters specified by this author 
in column C differ in any way from all the characters 
listed in a given Wieger Phonetic Series, one of the 
following types of notation will be used: 
(1) The 'P' convention. (See examples (4), p~ 
4 8 and ( 6 ) , p . 51. ) 
(2) 
(3) 
A term used as "W.S. IJ_, excl. ,"where 
one or more characters are excluded by this 
author from a given Wieger Phonetic Series. 
(See examples (2), p. 47; (5), p. 50; and 
(7), p. 51.) 
Terms such as "The last characters in 
W.S. I " or any other term that refers 
to a partial listing of characters in a 
Wieger Phonetic Series. (See, for example, 
Totally Perfect Phonetics #118a, IJ336a, pp. 
55, 60, respectively; and Tone Perfect 
Phonetic 1332, p. 103.) 
~;..;'/ ....... 
, 
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I CHAPTER III 
I A COMPILATION OF POTENTIALLY PEDAGOGICALLY 
USEFUL PHONETICS 
I I 
Totally Perfect Phonetics 
I II p Pr s c 
I - -2 · rL ji ji Wo So 112, exclo 
'.I R A1 ' 
' \ 
' 13 ' ' WoSo #13o I zhang zhang 
I 16 t 0- 0- w 0 s 0 1116, excl. R q1.an q1.an 
I 20 ~ \ w 0 s. 120, excl. R xun xun 
I 27a ' ~ 4+ ~:9 yao yao P, p I 
' ' 33a 
'+ zi zi P, 1F I 
I 35a " 
I P, -'rl-- , mang mang ~1: p 
I 1The first character entry in Wieger Phonetic Series 12 is JL <.11>. 
I 
I 53 
. - -·---
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54 
I 
I II p Pr s c 
35b +1-
, ~ P, 1P •I'P I -c mang mang .;p J I 
I 53 a 
''* 
ku~i k '· P, ~)C ua~ p 
I 58 a i. , I P, -t+ pen pen ;pI p 
I 62 .- .- w. s. 1162, excl. R; ~ x~ong x~ong I ~ excl. (D) 
I 68a ~ 
., ..., 
P, gun gun ;p 
I 72 7] ~ ~ w. s. 1172. mu mu ~ 
I 78 t b ·' ~an b ·' ~an P, 3 p 1 llf p J ~ p 
I 
81 sheng sheng w. s. #81. 
I 
., ..., 
excl. u1 
I 86 zi zi 
w. s. 1}86, 
f~, 
., ..., 
I 88a min min p, ·J·P 
I 1The pronunciation of the character ~~ in Wieger Phonetic Series #86 i .s missing th~ tone mark. 
I The pronunciation intended by Wieger is zi, and is found in the '_'Lexicon by Order of Radicals" (Wieger, 1927, p. 730). 
I 
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1\\ 
-- - -
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55 
I 
I i1.. p Pr s c 
89c ' ' P, p I $p yu yu $ 
l I 90a 1JJ hu hii P, ·1·r , 4 r. JtU: ~~· 
I 94a ~7G , I ~ chen chen P, p 
I 95 ~ 1 . , w. s. 1195, excl. R, you you 
I Ml 
I lOOa ~ , hun , hun P, •I'P 
I 104a ;t!; zhan zhan p ~ P, ·~· I I 
I 
115a )i ' zhu ' zhu P, ~ 
I 118a ~ 
, , 
The last five qu qu 
characters in W. S. 
I #118. 
I J3fi ' ' P, p 120a fu fu 
I 1The pronunciation for the character · Jt in 
Wieger Phonetic Series 195 is a misprint. The 
I pronunciation intended by Wieger is ~o{, and is found in the "Lexicon by Order of ' Radicals Wieger, 1927, p. 695). 
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56 
I 
I fl. p Pr s c 
I 130a 19" h~ h~ P, 
T+ p 
I 130b POJ - - P, p $ e e ap -it:, F. 
I 131 1;] - - P, 1P. {P gou gou 
I 13la ' ' P, p p~ xu xu 
'"' \ 
I 
132a 
-kt, - - P, -rl gu gu p I 
133b -P' - - P, ....,. /fk I 111..\ gu gu p, p 
I ~ 
.., 
.J..t 135a A-~ ling ling P, 
1' ' p 
I , ., ~. ft 140a 3~ ni ni P, 
I 145a 1!L ' bao ' bao P, ft 
I , I 
15la 5f ping ping P, p I 
I 152 bti bti w.s. 1152. 
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II p 
160 
161 
164a 
172 
175a 
183a 
186a 
201 
220c 
Pr 
' si 
dian 
' you 
' yue 
. \ 
x~ao 
' zhi 
. , 
x~e 
' lao 
57 
s 
' si 
d'· a~
dian 
' you 
' yue 
·' x~ao 
' zhi 
. , 
x~e 
\ lao 
c 
w.s. 11601 
2 w.s. #161 
P, ~p 
W.S. 1172, excl. R 
P, fP 
P, 1P 
P, ~p 
P, tP , F.!· , fP. •I'P. ~F', 
~ 
P, fj 
1The tone mark for the pronunciation of the 
character {t!!] in Wieger Phonetic Series 1160 is 
unclear. T~e pronunciation intended by Wieger appears 
to be sl, which is found in the "Lexicon by Order of 
RadicaiS" (Wieger, 1927, p. 722). 
2Th . . f h h -f-f. . e pronunc~at~on or t e c aracter ~ ~n 
Wieger Phonetic Series #161 is a misprint. The pro-
nunciation intended by Wieger is dai, and is found in 
the "Lexicon by Order of Radicals'""(Wieger, 1927, p. 
778). . 
. . ··· - ·"" ·-· . 
I 
58 
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I fl. p Pr s c 
I 220d li1.o 1'' ~ao P, t 
I i! I I 229a mi mi The last four 
characters in WoSo 
I 112290 
I ~t .., .., 242a zui zui P, ap 
I ~~! ' ' ~pI 1 243a ci ci P, 
I ~ , I 254a chun chun P, ;p 
I F=j 
.. 
0' 
t}'P I ~ I 257a qie q~e . p, 
I 263a ~):. 0 0' 0 0 ' P, p ""- J~U J~U ,~, 
I 271a , I -H· pu pu P, p 
I " I 279 yi yi WoSo IJ279o 
I 
' ' 281 e. yi yi W.So 1}281, exc1o R I 
284a ,. +I ' ' P, ·~' I ;ft~ yu yu 
I 
I 
I 
59 
I 
I fl.. p Pr s c 
302a :!P - - P, f! I ~ suo suo 
I 303a ii ' ' P, sp su su 
I 312a ;'~ liu liu P, ~ 
I 312b Jt shu shu P, ... + p 
I , 
ttf 319a :~ tu P, 1 I J ' I 
319b ~ , I 'P ++ I chu chu P, ;- , p 
I ~ 
~ , 
325 ji ji w.s. 0325. 
I ~~ - -327a qi qi P, 1P 
I t , , P, ~ 327b qi qi . 
I Jr} .., .., excl. R1 329 qi qi w.s. 11329, 
I 
333a fJ~ .. \ .. \ P, ;p I J 1.an J 1.an 
I l"R" here refers to the note in Wieger which reads "It is radical contracted in." 
I 
I . 
I 
60 
I 
I it p Pr s c 
336a $t .. '\ .. '\ The last four I J~U J~U characters in WoSo 
I #336o 
I 337a 11r ·' ·' P, -++ q~an q~an p 
I 34la ~ zhuo zhuo P, p ~~ 0 
I 369 ir .. '\ WoSo 113690 gua gua 
I I ~ bin - -Jn 377a bin P, p 
I 
38la ~1~ ' ' P, 1 yun yun 5P I 
392 \~ ' ' I shou shou w.s. 1392o 
I 427a .. ~1 . , 0 , P, ~ ~ x1.a x1.a 
I I 437b f .., .., P, •I'P dong dong 
I 443a ~ .- . - P, tiP x1.e x1.e I 
1The pronunciation of the character r1~ given 
I 
in 
Wieger Phonetic Series 1381 is missing the tone mark. 
The pronunciation intended by Wieger is~' . and is found 
in the "Lexicon by Order of Radicals" (W1.eger, 1927, 
I p. 798) 0 
I 
I 
61 
I 
I 1!.. p Pr s c 
I 446a ~ zhen zhen P, ,~P 
I 46la 1t 1u l~ P, /fk p 
I 462 e. '\ '\ w. s. #462, excl. M; mao mao 
EJ 
excl. 'f!} I ~ (GV) 
I 465 &}' .v . ., w. s. /1465. 1 IIU.ao mJ.ao 
I 469 t{~< v '<I w. s. 2 ~ nao nao 11469. 
I 487a ~t \ . \ . P, { p weJ. weJ. 
I 
I ~~\ 
503a ~ v .., P, -ti' ou ou p I 
I 510 .i zheng zheng w. s. /1510, excl. the ·-'' '\ three characters 
I listed under the 
comment, "Note" 
I 1The tone mark for the pronunciation of the 
I character ~~' in WiegP.r Phonetic Series #465 is unclear. Th pronunciation intended by Wieger appears to be miao, which is found in the "Lexicon by Order of 
I 
Radica"fS'T'(Wieger, 1927, p. 759). 
2The three characters listed under the note, "It 
is phon. contracted in" are included here. 
I I 
I 
I 
62 
I 
I ! p Pr s c 
511a ~~ I , P, lr~ I teng teng p 
I 517 -:i")"t . ' . \ P, p ~~ qi.ao q~ao '~ 
I 518 ~ .. , .. , w.s. /1518. J~e J~e 
I 527 ~ ., zhong zhong w.s. 11527. 
I tt} b6 bd 528a P, ~~ I p 
530a ~ -. -. P, -1P. 'P ·~ I sa~ sa~ 
~ 
·' ., 544a ~ ., .., P, -tt gao gao p :~ :.; 
I 566 ~' " .., w.s. 11566. suo suo 
I 580a ' ' P, ~ t,~ yun yun p 
I 
i 591a 5$1" .. ' .. ' P, ~. J~an J~an I 
i ' ' I 619a yi yi P, op 
I ~~ ' ' 620a ~ yi yi P, )f 
I 
I 
-
--·· .... 
I 
63 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
i 
\ \ 
I 620b ji ji P, ~p, +P, ~p 
I Jfi ~ ~ aD ftk 628a 1i li P, p I p 
I 632 1~ 1~ W.S. U632, exc1. R 
I 
. . ~ . 
633 JiL 1u 1u W.S. 1633, exc1. R . 
I I 
I 634a !f , , P, -H-I mo mo p 
• 
636a ;~ .., .., P, p - ; man man -~ ,~, 
I 644 1t , shu I shu w.s. 11644. 
I 649 ~ , , w.s. 11649. 
.! tang tang I 
651 dP dou dou W.S. 1651. I ~ 
677 f~ , , w.s. 11677. I fan fan 
I 678a '~ ' . ' P, meJ. mei *'p .;t. 
I 709 - ~ , , P, zan zan or 
'f3 
I 
I 
ii 
; 
I 
64 
I 
I fl. p Pr s c 
~ \ ·' I 731 ju JU w. s. #731, excl. last two characters 
I (D) 
., ., ~ 
I 746 t lin lin w. s. /1746, excl. ~ 1J' (GV) 
I 754 ~ ., ., w. s. #754. pu pu 
I 
764a -~ 
., ., P, -H-.. .,, zao zao p I ~~ 
Ai - -I 767 ying ying w. s. 11767, excl. L 
I 769 - ~11 - - P, fP yong yong ;p, 
I ~~ 
, , 
776a mi mi P, ~p 
I 
'"' 
' ' 804 li li W.S. #804. 
I 
810 A biao biao w.s. /1810. I .,,, 
832 
,,, 
·" ·" w.s. #832. I .... ;- x1.an x1.an 
I 835a ~ ' ' }~/( yu yu P, p 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
.. 
I 
I 
I 
I I 
I 
1/ 
I 
·I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
II 
il p 
839 
846b 
846<:: 
p 
6a 
6b 
21 
2la 
23 
T 
65 
Pr s c 
feng W.S. #839, excl. R 
P, ;p -wan -wan 
luan liian P, -fp 1 
Segment Perfect Phonetics 
Pr 
' fan 
f~ 
' ren 
.., 
ren 
.., 
kou 
s 
fan 
fan 
ren 
ren 
kou 
c 
P, lz. I 1t 
W.S. #21, excl. R; 
1 -::,.n exc . p,~, 
P, ~p 
w.s. #23. 
(D) 
1Though Wieger gives the pronunciation luan for 
the character ~ in Wieger Phonetic Series~6, he 
also gives the pf6nunciation lU~n for this character in 
the "Lexicon by Order of Radicals" (Wieger, 1927, p. 
709). The latter pronunciation (lU~n) is chosen by this 
author~ since it agrees with the pronunciation given by 
Fenn (1963, p. 325) and Mathews (1943, p. 608). It should 
be noted that although the segment lUan is not included 
by DeFrancis (1963) in his description of the Chinese 
sound system, it is found in other sources, such as Fenn 
(1963), Mathews (1943) and Wang, Li, and Brotzman (1963). 
. . 
--- - ---------------------------------------------------------------------
I 
I 66 
I li p Pr s c 
I 26 ~ shan shan w. s. #26, exc1. R ') 
I 31 1 ' cun cun w. s. #31, excl. R 
I .., 33 ~ zi zi w. s. #33, excl. R; ~ 
I exc1. ~ (D) 
I 34 I w. s. 1134, excl. "It wan wan 
I is derived by inversion, from" M. 
I 1t ., 49 jing jing w.s. #49. I 
56 a :0~ ' . fang I fang P, 1P 
I 57 a 5$ \ . pei P, ~ pel. p 
I 59 fu fu w.s. #59, exc1. R 
I r' 
_u 
I 60 ?\. ' fu fu w. s. lf60, exc1. 'if1 
(GV) 
I 66 
.±-. I W. S. #66. ren ren 
1-
I 
·----- -
I 
67 
I 
I !.. p Pr s c 
71 ~ . ' mian w.s. /171, exc1. I m~an 58~ (D) 
I I 71a a~ . ., nu.an mian P, 3P 
I I , 87 
.1. wang, wang W.S . 1187, excl. R, 
I ' L wang 
I 101 lL 
, 
zha zha w. s. /1101. 
I 104b a d.' ~an dian P, •I'P J tP 
I 105a an zhao zhao P, p c ,,, .. 
I \ 107 
.:LE. 
zheng zheng w. s . #107, exc1. R, 
I M 
I 
.., 
111 t7 zhi zhi w.s. #111. 
I \ 
I 113 rr qiu qiu W.S. #113, exc1. U 
-
I 114 f01 .. ., jiong w.s. 1114. J~ong 
I 
115 v zhu zhu w.s. #115, exc1. L; 
I exc1. ~ (D) S.i 
I 
I 
I 
68 
I 
I t p Pr s c 
I 
116 1 ' zhu zhu w. s. 71116, excl. U 
I 119 ' qu qu w. s. /1119, excl. R, 
A 
I 120 11 fu fu w. s. #120, excl. I ++ "Pit (D) 
I 125 ' 
, 
w. s. #125. JK xue xue 
I 13lb 8~ ' P, p xu xu ,,. ' 
I 133a .,.fo - P, 
.ff,aP.3P )'J-'-. wa wa 
I L\t .., P, P, 137a min min I ,~ 
~ 
, 
I 140 ni ni w. s. 1140, excl. ' ni last two characters 
I (D) 
I 142a t( bl ba P, rt 
I .., 150 - bing bing w.s. #150, excl. U; rl'] 
exc1. ~ (GV) I 
I 
I 
I 
I 69 
I II p Pr s c 
-W -I 168a ying ying The last six 
* characters in W.S. 
I 11168 . 
.. ., 
I 173 ,]( yong yong W.S. /1173, excl. R 
I 175 ~ '\ W.S. /1175, excl. yue yue 
I ~ (D) 
176 ' - w.s. /1176. ~ an an I 
190 - w.s. 1190. I qu qu 
I 194 oJ W.S. 1194, excl. R er er 
I 195 It~ fa fa W.S. #195, excl. u 
I 196 11\. f~ fu w.s. #196. I I 
20la ~~ . ~ xie P, *PI ·l·F I p~ x~e I 
218 ~ oJ kao w.s. #218. I kao 
I 220a w , P,~p ge ge 
I 
I 
I 
70 
I 
I 1.. p Pr s c 
223 - kuang kuang w. s. #223. I !!.. 
~ 
.., 
I 229 mi mi w. s. #229, excl. 
last three 
I characters (D) 
I , 230 . ming ming w.s. /}230. 
I 231 1- , w.s. #231. mou mou 
I 235 
. -!-~ bang bang w. s . /1235. 
I 
237 
'1 
., 
shou w.s. #237. shou 
I 
240 ~ .., duo w.s. #240. I duo 
I 265 ~-:r ' zhuang zhuang w.s. #265. 
I 266 ~ . ~ ju w.s. 11266. JU 
I 271b ;~ , P, -t+ pu pu p 
I 
272 ~ ~ han w.s. #272. han I t:2 
I 
I 
• 
' ... - __ ... -· . - ' 
I 
I 
71 
I II p Pr s c -
276 i . ' xiao w. s. /1276, excl. U I xJ.ao 
I 277a t~ 
.., 
shao shao P, ;p 
I 286 ~ kk kun w.s. #286. 
I ' 288 1·1 li li w. s. /1288, excl. I , last two characters ¥1 (D) 
I l I -H-288a li li P, IP, p I 
Pg9 
, 
li.i 29la lU P, 1F, tP I tr I p 
I 296 1 . - nie w.s. #296. nJ.e 
I 297 ~ y W.S. 1297, excl. R e e 
I ~ -305 ting ting w. s. 11305. 
I 1~ - f, p p p 308 can can P, I ,\~,. 1r: ~ 
I 308a u. ' P, "'P , r.p , ~p c-an (!"an 
I 
I 
I 
72 
I 
I j!_ p Pr s c 
315a ~ ~ P, I yu yu 5 p I ~ p ' .t!;P 
I 322 -e -ra· chang chang w.s. 1322. 
I 323a ~. zhang zhang P, ;p 
I 11 
, 
335 zhi zhi w.s. 11335. 
I 
345 J% ju ju- w.s. 1345. I 
I 347 -)1- ·' ju w.s. 11347. JU 
I ~f[ -357 xi xi w.s. #357. 
I ,_: ' 361 xing xing W.S. #361, exc1. L 
I 362 ;t hu hu w.s. 1362. I 
366 llJ - w.s. 11366. I 
gang gang 
I 367 -t ken ken w.s. #367. 
I 374 
*' 
1'· aJ. 1ai W.S. #374, exc1. R 
I 
I 
• 
I 
73 
I 
I I! p ·Pr s c 
380 ~ , lun w. s. #380. I lun ~ 
I 382 ·l ' w.s. #382. meng meng 
I 389 ~ b""" 1.ao biao w.s. #389. 
I 396 ~ ~ ~.J.S. 11396. tao tao I 
399 
*"-
.v tian w.s. #399. t1.an 
I I J '' 
402 ~J ""· cai w.s. #402. I cal. ~ 
I 405 *' 
dong dong W.S. #405, excl. u 
I 409a tl ' . wei P, .{ +f aJ.t wel. p,p I 
I 411 §. ' W.S. 1411, excl. R ya ya 
I , 
412 J( w.s. #412. ~ yao yao I 
413 Jl ~. yai 1 I yal. w.s. #413. 
I 1Although the segment yai is not included by DeFrancis (1963) in his description of the Chinese sound 
system, it is found in other sources, such as Fenn (1963, 
I p. 613), Mathews (1943, p. 1082), Soothill (1911, p. 18), and Wang, Li, and Brotzman (1963, p. 33). 
I 
I 
74 
I 
I 1.. · P Pr s c 
414 ll~ 
, 
w. s. /1414. I ye ye 
I 422a. t che che P, :fP 
I 430 ~. . . ' jian w.s. #430. Jl.an 
.. 
' 
I 433a ~ ., chou P, SP,1P chou 
I 
~~ 
436 ~ chiin chun w.s. 11436. I 
I. 439 ~ feng feng w.s. #439. 
I 442 l fti fu W.S. 11442, exc1. R, U; exc1. jj (D) 
I 
442a ~l f~ fu P, 
' 
I 
444a ~~ ' hou P, !P Jr}( I hou ,p 
I 448 ~ - w. s. #448. xu xu 
I 449 ~ - w.s. 11449. e xu an xuan 
-I 450 ~fo1 h~ hu · w.s. #450. 1'-
I 
I 
75 
I 
I II p Pr s c 
I 453 ~ hong hong W. S. 11453, excl. R 
I 455 i 
, 
w.s. /1455. rou rou 
I 459 ~~J lf la W.S. 11459, excl. Cd 
I 463 1 '· mei w.s. /1463. mel.
I 
. ' 466 mJ.an mian W.S. 11466, excl. R 
I 
I 472 1r ben ben w.s. 11472. 
1 
·' 
-il 483 ~ zong zong W.S. /1483, excl. R ~ 
I 488 ~ ' wei wei w.s. 1488. 
I 493 - ' w.s. #493. ~ yao yao 
I .., 
496 ~ yan yan w.s. /1496. 
I 1j 
497 ~ ' w.s. 11497. I yan yan 
I 500 ~~ .., w.s. 1500. you you 
I 
I 
I 
76 
I 
I II p Pr s c 
502 ~ I W. S. #502. I yu 
yu 
I 507 ;t_ ~ ch~ cha w.s. /1507. 
I 516 . ~. . . - jia w.s. #516. J J.a 
I m -534 xi xi w.s. /1534. 
I 
,~ .. 
~ 536 huang huang w.s. /1536, excl. Jf[ 
I Yf"L . IG 
542 >77 
, 
w.s. /1542. I rong rong ~ 
I 551 {,,7] 1i~ 1iu w. s. #551. r:E1 
I 552 '~ .., w. s. 1552. ma ma 
I , 553 r.::::r ming ming W.S. #553, exc1. R ~ 
I 
" . 554 .t-t nal. nai W.S. #554, exc1. R 
I A~ 
556a ~t 
, 
P, r:f=7 I pang pang p 
I 558 *' 
- w.s. 11558. sang sang 
I 
.I 
I 
77 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
559 L ' shan ~-1. s. #559. I ~ shan 
I 565 't 
., 
w.s. #565. suo suo 
I 571 -e ' w.s. 11571. ta ta 11~ 
I ' 578 
.i! tui tui W.S. 11578, exc1. R 
I 
581 / .. - w.s. #581. A weng weng 
I ~~ 
582 fl - w.s. /1582. ;I wu wu ~~. 
I 587 f, / w. s. #587, exc1. yuan yuan ~ (GV) 
'I 
588 ~ , w.s. #588. 'I yuan yuan 
I 593 t zhang . zhang w.s. #593. 
I ~ -598 qi qi w. s. #598. 
I 599 ~~ .. - jiang w. s. #599. J~ang, 
I .. ' J~ang 
I 
I j 
I 
78 
I 
I II p Pr s c 
600 t . - qian w. s. #600. I q~an 
I 614 * 
, 
w.s. #614. xu an xuan 
I -618 ~~ yi yi W.S. #618, exc1. ~ ; exc1. ~ I (D) 
I ~ -618a yi . yi P, tJP I ~/. 
621 }* - w.s. 11621. I yong yong 
I 622a ~· ' kan kan pt ~p 
I 623 ~ kang kang w.s. #623. 
I 630 1! 1. , ~an 1ian w.s. #630. 
I 
635 :£ , w.s. #635. man man 
I ~ 
636 $:; , w.s. #636, exc1. I man man ~.Jt. ;~ . (D) 
·~~ 
I 
·638 ~t , . w. s. #638, exc1 . R ao ao I 
I 
I• 79 
I 
I iL p Pr s c -
4 ~ I 640 bi bi w. s. 11640. • 
I 1! -655 cui cui w.s. 11655. 
I ·~ -667 ji ji w.s. 11667. 
I :::1: .., 680 xi xi w.s. #680. ~ I ~ ' 681 xi xi w.s. 11681. 
I ~~ 
682 .- xiang W.S. 11682, excl. U 
I; I ~ip .xl.ang 
I 683 ~ ·' xiang w.s. 1683. Xl.ang 
I 694 
* 
~ lao lao w.s. 1694. 
I 697 1 v. mai W.S. #697. mal. 
I 
:& 698 ..., w.s. 1698. mang mang 
I ~ 
699 .J.:! ~ w.s. 11699. I "P.J peng peng 
I 721 ~ \ . ai w.s. #721. ~ al. 
I 
I 
I 80 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
~ ' 727 jin jin w.s. 1}727. I ~ 
I 730 f{ chu chu W .·S. #730. 
I 
I 733a t .. ., jiao P, JP J~ao, 
.. ' 
I J~ao 
~ ' I 737 yi yi w. s. 1}737, excl. ~ (GV) ~ I l 
~ ~ ' ~ 739 yi yi w. s. 1}739. 
! I· . ...:,: 
I 743 ~ l~i lei w.s. 11743. t!l 
I 747" -c .., luo w. s. #747, excl. R ',;# luo ij1{.. 
I ii 
, 
758 sui sui w. s. #758. 
I 
.. ~ I 759 sui sui w. s. #759. 
I l!. 
773 it .v qian w. s. 11773. I q~an 
-:t ' I 774 jin jin w. s. 1774, excl. R J111-
I 
I 
I 81 
I 
II p Pr s c I 
784 ~ I w. s. #784. meng meng 
I ~ · 
792 ~ - P, -H-I zang zang ~pI p 
I 792a ,i\ ' P, zang zang ~pI ~p 
I 795 II , chan chan w.s. #795. 
·~I 797 ~~ .. , jie w.s. 11797. ~ J~e ·1 )I i 798 J!'lr .. , jie w.s. #798. I ~p J~e 11 
SOla ~ - P, ~p I pan pan 
I 803 :1£1 1 '· e~ lei W.S. #803, excl. the 
three characters 
I listed under the 
I note, "It . is found in"; excl. 1t , 
I f. (D) " 
I 803a ~ 1,. lei P, 1P. 1 e~ ,,, 
I . 
... 
I 
I 82 
I 1. p Pr s c 
I 814 ~ v w.s. 11814. yang yang 
I ... .., 819 ~ huo huo w. s. 11819. /11 
I 820 ~ h '· huai w.s. 11820. ~ ua~
I ~ itt: ' 827 yan yan w.s. #827. 
I --· .. 
833 ~ " lan w. s. 11833. I lan 
I 837 ~ .. , j iao w. s. /1837. j1~ J~ao 
I 843 ~ ' w.s. 11843. ~ cuan cuan 
I 846a ~~ li.i~n li.ian P, :(p 
I 
rifp " 853 ling ling w.s . #853. 
I ... o ~ 
I 854 t I w. s. 11854. nang nang 
I Initial Perfect Phonetics 
I t p Pr s c 
I 12 cha ch W. S. i/12. 
I 

I 
84 
I 
I fl. p Pr s c -
I 
289 ~ licing 1 W. S. 11289, excl. A 
II 340 -
, 
zh W.S. /1340. ~ zhuo 
I 376 1 ""' 1 w.s. 1376. 1.ang 
I ~ , 378 ling 1 W.S. #378. 
'I ~ , 
424 ~~ j i, j W.S. /1424. I ' ji 
;I 464 -+-1- . , W.S. /1464. ~ uu.ao m 
I ~ ., 467 mu m w.s. #467. II 
471 ltf, ., b w.s. #471. I bao 
I 484 ;t dli d w.s. #484. 
I ' 521 ~ jin j w.s. #521. a 
I 525 i 
_, 
ch chu w.s. #525. 
I 
' ' 603 1[ jing j w.s. #603. I 
I 
·------··-·-------------·- -- ·-· ··-···· ···· •. -· --· ·-·-·--- ···-·--- - - ·-- -·-- . .. -·· -·---- ~ -- - .. -·· . ... -- . ·--····· .._, ·' •····- ··· - -~~ .. .. ~ -· '"""' ·- . ___ .. ... ---·-·· 
. ··~- - - '"' ,... .. ........ _,. ...... -- ~ -·' -· .. ·-. 
I 
85 
I 
I fl.. 
p Pr s c 
625 ~ ..., w. s. 11625, excl. I 
guo g 
last two characters 
I (GV) 
I 626 ~ 1~' 1 w. s. #626. el., 1' . 
I 
el. 
637 ~ ' 11637. I mo' m W. S. 
' mu 
I 
\I 
695 t 1'" l.ao 1 w. s. 11695. 
! tt , I 696 lin 1 w.s. 11696. 
I ~ , 770 ji j w. s. 11770. 
I 782 l huo h w. s. 11782. 
I r,e , 785 ~ ning n w.s. #785. I 
805 ~~~ ·' 1 w. s. #805. I ~ 1l.e 
I 823 I! 1~ 1 w. s. /1823. 
I 
I 
~ 
I 
86 
I 
I 1. 
p Pr s c 
~ -840 xi X w. s. #840. I 
I Final Perfect Phonetics 
I ! p Pr s c 
6 ~ .., w. s. #6, excl. R; I 
han an 
excl. ;i1.. ~ ~ Jjl • ~~ . . 
I (D)l 
I t , 10 shi w. s. #10, excl. R, 
I 
A2 
-I 11 1 ding ing w. s. #11, excl. R; 
excl. E\ (GV) I 
.., 
I 14 ji i w. s. #14, exc1. R; excl. JZ (D) ,~, 
I 
.. .., 17 ~ J l.U iu w. s. 1117, exc1. M I 
I 
1The first character entry in Wieger Phonetic 
Series #6 is 
·-g (h~n). 
2The first char~cter entry in Wieger Phonetic 
I Series /110 is f (shi). 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I. 
I 
I 
I 
-
·-~-· ._ ., .-. " - ._ ..._..._,_.,__ ~.__ ... . . _ _ • -·.;. ....,. ,_. ., .. ... - ~ - · ,,,. • , • •- , • , . .. . - •• -. •'·- ·· - ·- 1 • , •. .._, .. _ ., , _ _. __ - ~ .. , ... ,. • • •• • .... ·~ >= r - -.. .· ..... ' • • · .1.- ~- - ,_ ,__ """ - -·· ' J • _.. .._. •• • • --~- ·- _. _._, - · .> •- ---•~~- ....... --~ •• ·· •• ••• 
.fL p 
28a 
32 
52 
55 
56 
70 
76 
77 
85 
Pr 
, 
yi 
zhong, 
' zhong 
.., 
fan 
fang 
, 
mao 
., 
bi 
87 
s 
i 
u 
ong 
an 
ang 
ao 
a 
i 
un 
c 
1 W.S. #32, excl. R 
W. S. 1152, excl. R, 
L 
w.s. 1155. 
W.S. #56t excl. 
. 'ti'~ (D) 
W.S. 1170, excl. R 
W.S. #76, excl. L 
W.S. 1177, excl. R, U 
W .S. #85, excL R 
1The pronunciation of the character oJl in 
Wieger Phonetic Series 132 is missing the..,tone mark. 
The pronunciation intended by Wieger is tu, and is found 
in the "Lexicon by Order of Radicals" (Wieger, 1927, p. 
681). 
I 
I 88 
I 1. p Pr s c 
98 ~ 
, 
lin 1}98 , excl. C d ; I yun w.s. excl. ;r~ (D) J:.!j 
I 
98a :i~ ·- .. P, ~t( JUn un p I 
118 
-
. ' .. w. s. #118, excl. I ~ JU u last 4 characters 
I (D) 
I 122 ~ft ' p 
""Sil.& 
hao ao P, ~ 
I 123 J'G ' w.s. #123, excl. Rl huang uang 
I 4 128 .., W.S. #128, excl. R, ran an 
I ' Jt U; excl. ij~ (GV) 
I 130 ~ k~ W.S. 1130, excl. R; e I 11i 1 !;(I f;r I excl. 
~1 (D) I 
132 
.., 
w.s. 1132, excl. I gu u ++ 1t( (D) ~"S I 
I 
1The character JL is also pronounced xiong I (Wieger, 1927, p. 424). 
I 
I 
89 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
147 t ~ w. s. #147, exc1. I ben en M 
I 149a ;Jt - P, ~~~~1t po 0 
I 158 t~ , W.S. #158, exc1. R shu u 
I ~ -159 si w.s. #159. I 
164 . , ian w.s. #164, exc1. R, \1.7 t~an I I' U; exc1. ~i] (D) 
11 { 
,.>--165 ~ tuo uo w.s. #165, exc1. R 
I 
179 n\ , w.s. #179. cheng eng I 
I 18la 
j1] 
. ' ie P, 5P ~' x~e 
I 183 .> .. - iao w. s. #183, exc1. ~ J~ao 
I /~ 
(D) 
~ 
I 187 ~~, zhou ou w.s. #187. 
I 188 zhu u w.s. #188. 
I 
I 
• 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
;I \ 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
189 
203a 
217 
220b 
225 
227a 
233 
244 
246 
247 
248 
p 
jL 
.I ' 
f 
Pr 
chong 
.., 
yan 
, 
rong 
' gong 
hu&' 
' ci 
I tong 
I. 
we1. 
I yang 
90 
s 
ong 
ian 
ong 
e 
ong 
uo 
ai 
ong 
ui 
iang 
c 
w.s. /1189. 
P, p p ~~. ~ 
w.s. /1217. 
P, p~ 
w.s. /1225. 
W.S. #233, exc1. R, 
u 
w.s. 11244. 
w.s. /1246. 
w.s. /1247. 
W.S. #248, exc1. R 
----... .......... -~· ... __... -·-~· -··-- .. ~-- .,, ___ -· - ·- ~ - ..... ·---··--- . ---- -~~ .. ........ . . .. - ·- . .. .. ... · - - ~ ... .. · ···· · -··· · ,. .. . ... . .. .... ' --- - - - · ---- -·· 
I 
I 91 
I 1. p Pr s c 
I 253 
&).t . 
chen en w 0 s 0 11253 0 ~ 
I 259 £ 0 • ' 5.an w 0 s 0 11259, exclo R J~an 
I ~ ' tP I ;P, crp .. ~f. 261 jin in P, ; 
.: ·> iP. ,f.p, 1P I tp I ·- .. 
I :~ - 1. rlr! 26la jin in P, ,~ p 
I 263 4~ . ~ iu w 0 s 0 11263, exclo q'l:u 
I last character (D) 
I 267 ~ .. -- 00 Wo s 0 Jj267o Jun un 
I 269 ~ feng eng w 0 So ll269o 
I 
.¥5} ' ll273o 273 han an WoSo 
I --t 
282a 
.1! ' P, •I'P • 1P zao ao I 
285 
, 
w 0 s 0 1285o I ~l. kuang uang 
I ..., 00 1P. ;ff', p,~ , p, 291 lii u P, 
.....,. 
I p 
I 
• 
i .. .... ......... _._ ...._...,.,.. , ~.-.-.. .~ -... -·--- .. ....... ........ - ---- ~ - · · -J ··· ·· -· -- ··~-- ...... -~ ~ - ~· ~ · ·· - ·-·~ M . · · · - · - · ·· - 0 o0 OMOO _ O_O · · - --
I I 
I 92 
I II p Pr s c 
~ ._, I 299 bi i w. s. 11299. 
I .. 304 ~ · di i w.s. 11304, exc1. R, 
u 
I 
307 - .. w. s. !1307, exc1. R I JL dou ou 
I 321 ~ ' iian w. s. 1321. yuan 
I , 327 
* 
qi i w. s. 1327, exc1. 
/~. t (D) I 
I ;A. , 328 qi, i w. s. 1328. 01 
-ji 
I 330 
* 
.. ~ ie w. s. #330. J~e 
I 334 *tJ zhi t w. s. #334. I 
346 ~ . , .. w. s. #346. JU u I 
350 ~ \ .. w. s. #350. I juan uan 
I 351 l!1 , iin ~.;. s. #351. qun 
I 
I 
.... -.~ .... ··----·--- --- .... ... _~--· · ····· ··--··-·- -
I 
I 93 
I 1. p Pr s c 
359 .>- " w. s. #359. 1 I ~ chun un -1-
I 370 1' - w. s. 11370. guan uan 
I 371 ~~ kUn un w. s. #371. 
I 387 ~~ , W. S. 11387, excl. U peng eng 
I I 39la ~ .., 1P J! shang ang P, I 
I 395 ~ da a w. s. 11395. 
I 398 ~ d·"' ~an ian w. s. 1398. 
I 404 ~ - w. s. 11404. zong ong 
. ---- - ~ 
I 410 ~ ' .., w. s. #410. wu u I 
420 ~ , w.s. 11420. cha a I -
421 1§ , w. s. #421. I cha a 
_a,. 
I 1The character + (chUn) should be distinguished from the etymologically unrelated homographs ~ (xiang) 
I 
and ]; <;so>. The reader is referred to Etymo ogical 
Lesso s I D, E, and H in Wieger (1927, pp. 192-195). 
I 
I 
94 
J· 
J1. p Pr s c 
I 422b Mi zhii ifp 1 P 1 1P 1 u P, I 5P. ~P 
I 423 Ji zheng eng w.s. 1!423. 
I ~ -425 qi i w.s. 11425. I 
427 ~i_ .. ., ia w.s. #427, excl. I J~a A (D) 
I 
•' . , 431 1f.1 q~an ian w.s. 11431. I 
432 ~ .. - iu W.S. #432, excl. R I J~U 
I 437 -f .. w. s. #437, excl. zhong, ong liiJ ~ ch&ng (D) 
I 
444 -~~ , w.s. 11444, 
'I hou ou excl. ~ ~X ~, 1~ (D) 
I j~ .., 458 gui ui w.s. 11458. 
I 
468 ,1J , W.S. 11468, excl. A II nan an 
II 
I 
.,J O ~ " "" j • 0 ....... ... . 0 0 ' ' ., ... ~- -~~ • ..._ ho o• ' ·-·~ -~ ·~O OvN~·- ___ _. • ·-·-•-••• o•••-
1 ..... _ .. ,,.::u:n;:; _ _ z::;:z .... j;<O#~~-·'--~=-- .:-~~.:....:-.. ~ ...... -. ,,.:, _, .... -..... . ...:.. .... --..~o--J'-- ~f\·..:.. .--....... .... ~- - --.:... - - ••• :•, ... _ ..... .... _ ... ....... .:.- ~ _.., _____ ~ · -· ---··· --- -··· •.• - .. - -
1 
I 
I I 
I 
I 
I 
. I 
II 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
Jl. p 
473 
474 
478 
489 
494 
512 
526 
533 
549 
555 
Pr 
b ·"' ~an 
bi~m, 
. , 
p~an 
' di 
, . 
we~ 
' ye 
' sheng, 
I 
cheng 
zhui 
-xi 
-guo 
95 
s c 
ian w.s. 11473. 
ian w.s. #474. 
i w.s. 1478. 
ui W.S. #489, exc1. R 
ie w.s. #494. 
eng w.s. 1512. 
ui w.s. #526. 
i w.s. 1533. 
uo w.s. #5.49. 
an w.s. 1555. 
I 
96 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
556 \~ I w. s. #556, excl. ~ I pang ang =t /) (D) 
I 
~ ~ 557 pi i w.s. 11557. I ~~ 
I . -:~- 570-1 ~ d~ a W.S. 11570, excl . 
the two characters 
I under the note, 
I 
''Modern form" 
I 576 i- v w.s. 1576. zao ao 
I .JJ- -579 ~~ zi w.s. 1579. 
I 594 .{i~ , w.s. #594. ~ chao ao 
I 
* 
, ~, .tP 595a cha a P, I 
.I 602 i " jin in w.s. 11602. 
I 608 i! / w.s. #608. feng eng 
I 
II 
I 
• 
I 
97 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
622 1lt 
.., 
~v. s. #622, excl. R; I gan an excl. s~ (D) 
I 
fJlu 624 -gui ui W.S. /1624. 
I 
642 ..g;, ·' iao w. s. 11642. I ,-, pJ.ao 
I 653 ~ , w. s. #653. cao ao 
I 656 ~ - w.s. 11656. '~'. cong ong 
I ,IJJ, 657 ~ 
, 
w.s. 1657. cong ong 
I 
660 ~ - ian w.s. 11660. yan I I 
I 664 j~ chao, ao W.S. #664, excl. R 
zhao 
I 
665 1~ zhe e w.s. 11665. I 
668 '~ 
. , ~ .ang w.s. 1668. I qJ.ang 
I 669 1:f .. - iao w.s. #669. J J.ao \. ..... ' 
I I II 
- -

-·- -- --- -· . .. . ... -·-. 
I 
99 
I 
I II p Pr s c -
il \ iP I 693a kui ui P, 
I 707 ~~ , w.s. 11707. tang ang 
I 708 ~ deng eng w.s. #708. 
I 710 J:J - W.S. #710, exc1. R zeng, eng 
I tl I ceng 
I 713 j} ziin un w.s. #713. 
I 718 ~ 
, 
W.S. #718. wu . u 
I 1~ 723 ji i W.S. #723. I 
725 ~ 
.. .., ie w.s. 11725. I J~e 
I 726 fY: .- ian w.s. #726. q~an 
I ~ ' 729 jing ing w.s. #729. 
11. 731a it ·' .. P, }'t'_)( -t+ JU u P .. P I 
I 
I 
I 
100 ,, 
I JL p Pr s c 
732 if \ #732. I fen en W. S. 
I 740 ~\ ., w.s. /1740. gan an 
I 761 rt_. d;i a w.s. /1761. 
.. 
I 762 1 , w.s. 11762. tan an 
I -
763 ~ 
" 
dang, ang w. s. 11763. 
I ~ ' dang 
I. 764. ~a ' w. s. #764, exc1. -rl" zao ao :./~ 
I. ~ "~ (D) 
I 768 ~ .., .. W.S. #76&, exc1. L yu u 
I I 790 j, '· ai w.s. #790. tal. 
I ~ 
796 ~~t. zheng eng w.s. 11796. I 
801 .J;t , w. s. #801, exc1.1f I fan an (D) 
I 
I 
I 
-- -----·-·--· -- --- -·-- . 
I 
101 
I 
I 1. p Pr s c 
~ / I 825 pin in w. s. #825. 
I 838 i / .. w.s. #838. qu u 
I 856 l ~ w.s. 11856. shu u 
I 857 tf d~g ang w.s. #857. 
I ... , 
At 858 I ian w. s. 11858. yan I 
I Tone Perfect Phonetics 
I 1. 
p Pr s c 
1 3 .v w. s. q1.ao v 113, excl. R 
I 
36 ' w.s. 136. I wu ' 
I· 44a ·' ' P, ~ p 5~ x1.an p I .mz. 
I 
..J: 
v 1146, excl. R 46 zhi v w. s. 
I 89a ~t v v P, ~p xu I 1The first character entry in Wieger Phonetic 
I Series 113 is 3 <qiao>. 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
II 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I . 
I 
p 
89b 
132b 
134a 
144 
148 
157 
167 
243 
Pr 
. ' x~e 
' gu 
' qi 
' ban 
\ 
bi 
\ 
shi 
' . we~ 
' ci 
102 
s 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
c 
P, ~p 
P, 1P 
W.S. #144, excl. 
"Cd"l 
2 w.s. /1148. 
W.S. 1157, excl. A 
W.S. #167, excl. R 
W.S. #243, excl. R; 
excl. ~·j, f.'l (D) 
1Although the note written in Wieger states "It 
is contracted in," Wieger clearly means "Abbreviation in" 
here (see Wieger, 1927, p. 430). 
2Though not given in Wieger, this author chooses 
the pronunciation bi for the character •')/J' , since 
it is a well-known-pronunciation and is found . in 
numerous sources, such as DeFrancis (1970, p. 11), 
Fenn (1963, p. 400), Mathews (1943, p. 706), and 
Anderson (1972, p. 120). 
I 
I 
I 
·I 
I 
I 
I 
I• 
'I 
L 
I 
I 
I 
I 
-I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
11. p Pr 
268 ~ ., fou 
290 ' - long, #r 
' nong 
302 sha 
332a 
' 400 ding 
440 feng 
44la f~ 
103 
s 
v 
\ 
' 
\ 
c 
w. s. 11268' excl. 
~ (GV) l 
w.s. #290. 
W.S. #302, excl. 
last character (D) 
The six characters 
listed under the 
note, "Sub-Series" 
in W.S. #332. 
w.s. #400. 
w.s. 11440. 
P, f 
~ 1~he pronunciation fao given for the character 
-c in Wieger Phonetic Series #268 appears to be 
obsolete. The current pronunciation (chosen by this 
author) is fou, and can be found in DeFrancis (1970, p. 
74), Fenn (!9b3, p. 139), and Mathews (1943, p. 279). 
- - - - - - ---- --------------
p - . ~ - AJ~~ - • 
-
-· . . -
- -
!t ........ • -· - - rr-.t. -- .... ,., . .. . ... ·- ~- - ~· ..... ~ ... .,.. "''•~-~ • ~ - - ,..,.. • #-~-- .... , A·• - •••• • 00-. • • o " ' o •· ~ ····· 0 -' 0 0 - · • --- -· - . - - . ·~. -
I 
104 
I 
I II p Pr s c 
,[ 
' I 539 
_.. yi \ w. s. 1!539, exc1. R, , .... 
J1fl. 
A 
I ~ \ 541 ru \ w. s. #541. I 
560 ~ \ ' w.s. 11560. I she 
I 563 .,). shuai, w.s. 11563. ~-
suo 
I 
564 1F! ' w. s. 1564. I shuo \ 
I ~L \ {596. 596 ji \ w. s. 
I ' exc1 . .,tl 619 
-tt yi ' w. s. 1619, ..fr 
I (D) 
I " rl,JP. ~ 620 
" 
yi \ . P, 
;t ~ 
I p , p 
648 
' 
' . \ w. s. 1648. I da1. 
I 674 l\·. ' 11674. er \ w. s. 
.I 
I 
---·~·"• -·. -- . 
I 
105 
I 
I fl.. p Pr s c 
~Fr -I. 704 si w.s. 11704. 
I ~\ ' 712 cui \ w.s. 11712. 
I 724 1 . ·- W.S. #724. J J.ang 
-
I ~- ., 736 hui 
' 
W.S. #736, excl. R 
I a ~ 808 . \ \ w.s. #808. mJ.e I 
~ ' I 813 ti . \ w.s. 11813 . 
I 815 ·~i \ \ w.s. #815. yao, 
""if' \ lao 
I 
835 ~ ' \ w.s. #835, nlr I yao excl.~ f'B, (D) 
I ~ 842 ·' ' w.s. 11842. nJ.eI 
851 
' 
' \ w.s. #851. I guo 'st. 
I 
I 
I 
I 
106 
I 
I Initial-Tone Perfect Phonetics iL p Pr s c 
I 24a 1f ' g' P, ~p gong 
I lii~ 292 
"' 
1' w.s. #292. 
I ~· 
I 298 j! b'· e~ b' w.s. #298. 
I 301a 1/J b~ b' P, 3P p 
'"' 
I .. ' 1' 375 J!< 1i w.s. 11375. 
I , 384 BF} ming m"' w.s. 1384. 
I 
461 i 1ti 1' W.S. #461, excl. R; I excl. ,.~ (D) 1f< 
I 520 chi ch- W. S. 1520. 
I 
561 gt shi sh- W.S. 11561. 
II 
574 ~ "· z"' w.s. /1574. I za~-:r 
I 647 1~ ' s' w.s. 1)647. su, 
' sou 
I 
I 
r--="'~-=~~~~~--'--"•"';"~-· .. -.· ... ~. ·-·...,_ .. < •''• '• • •-•-' .... -' · - ·· ~ -' 4_.._ .... , • • 0 °0- oo . ... _, _ __ , •'•·-- "' '' . ,..,_, , _ _. •. --- '-"·Ho ''' - ~'•• 0 --- -~ •- 0•• 0 • ' ''•o• •<O- • •- -- -~-· •··- ·-- ·• -· 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I \ 
786 
806 
8 
30 
57 
83 
199 
p 
p 
107 
Pr s c 
·' bJ.an w.s. #786. 
lif 1" w.s. #806. 
Final-Tone Perfect Phonetics 
Pr 
/, 
cal. 
dan 
\ hou 
s 
-a 
'. al. 
\ . 
el. 
-an 
' ou 
c 
W.S. #8, excl. R 
W.S. #30, excl. R; 
excl. (i , ~ (GV) 
W.S. #57, excl. R, 
U; excl. 'tK (D) 
1 W.S. #83, excl. R 
2 w.s. 1199. 
lrhe correct form for the third character in 
Wieger Phonetic Series #83 is *$i. (see "Lexicon by 
Order of Radicals" in Wieger, 1927, p. 717). 
2The pronunciation of the character tAr . in 
Wieger Phonetic Series #199 is missing the tone mark. 
The pronunciation intended by Wieger is ~o~, and is 
found in the "Lexicon by Order of Radica s (Wieger, 
1927, p. 781). 
I 
108 
I 
I JL 
p Pr s c 
-
- -210 ~ hui ui w. s. U210r I 
* 
, , 
I 212 yi i w.s. #212. 
I ' ' ~ 214 - yi i w.s. #214, exc1 . .if( iff, 
I 
(GV) 
I 234 Jf, 
\ . ' . w.s. #234, exc1. U paJ. aJ. 
I ~ ' ' 236 shi 1. w. s. #236. 
'I 258 Jt\ ... \ . \ w.s. 1258. J J.e J.e 
I ~ heng -274 eng w.s. #274. 
I J 
397 ra d' 
, 
w.s. #397. 
I ~ 
e 
437a ~h \ ' P, ·J·p I dong ong 
I 482 ~ ' ' W.S. 11482. zou ou 
I 504 ~ ~ w.s. 1504. yu u 
I 
I 
\I 
- - -
I 
109 
I 
1. p Pr s c I 
' ' 515 ~ qi i w. s. /1515. I 
570-2 ~ , The last two I )f_~ a ~ characters in W.S. 
I 1570 (under the 
note, "Modern form"). 
I 
612 t .- . - w.s. 11612. I qJ..an 1.an 
I t .., .., 744 li i w.s. /1744. 
..)..-
I ~ \ ' 760 sui ui w.s. #760. 
I 809 t ' 
,_ 
w.s. #809. bao ao 
I 
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·I 
I 
II 
I 
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I 
I 
CHAPTER IV 
CONCLUSIONS 
It has been the aim of the current study to 
identify and to characterize those Phonetics of the 
Chinese script which may hold some value in aiding the 
student who is learning Chinese characters. By selecting 
Phonetics that consistently indicate some feature of 
pronunciation in all characters containing it as a common 
element, a compilation of Potentially Pedagogically Use-
ful Phonetics has resulted. This compilation represents 
an attempt to go beyond the work of Astor (1970) and to 
identify Phonetics that carry a clue to the p=onunciation 
of other characters, even if this clue is not a "total" 
one (i.e., to identify Phonetics in addition to those 
known as Totally Perfect). 
As compared with Astor (1970), a fairly large 
number of PPU Phonetics have been identified in the 
current study. A total of 579 Phonetics are given here 
in Chapter III, as versus 113 in Astor. When broken 
dmvn i!1to the seven PPU categories, the Phonetics 
identified here are distributed as follows: (1) Totally 
Perfect Phonetics: 124; Segment Perfect Phonetics: 
192; (3) Initial Perfect Phonetics: 35; (4) Final 
110 
I 
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I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
----=u-~~---=--.........,·-· •--•·•··~·-·-"··-·-•··~·----··- --- ···-~ · •• ••• •"·-·- ··• - .......... ... ·-··· ··· .. ... •·····---.. --·----·-····-.- . 
111 
Perfect Phonetics: 153; (5) Tone Perfect Phonetics: 40; 
(6) Initial-Tone Perfect Phonetics: 13; (7) Final-Tone 
Perfect Phonetics: 22. It should be noted that the 124 
Totally Perfect Phonetics identified in the current 
study are in addition to the 63 identified by Astor. 
Although a relatively large number of PPU Phonetics 
are presented in Chapter III, certain areas regarding the 
potential usefulness of Phonetics have not been explored 
in the current study. For example, for many Final Per-
fect Phonetics, the characters containing a given Phonetic 
are pronounced with initials that appear to exhibit some 
sort of close phonological relationship. An example is 
Final Perfect Phonetic 1187 (seep. 89). Here, all 
characters containing the Phonetic are not only pro-
nounced with the final ~, but are also pronounced with 
a retroflex initial, namely zh or ch (see Wieger Phonetic 
Series #187, Figure 3). This fact tells the student that 
all characters containing the Phonetic ~41 (#187) are 
pronounced with the segment zhou or chou, thus providing 
him with additional information as to the pronunciation 
of the characters in question. This kind of characteri-
zation of the similarity in pronunciation of characters 
containing a common Phonetic has an obvious bearing on 
the potential usefulness of Phonetics for the learning 
of Chinese, and represents a valuable area for further 
research. Some possible suggestions for such research 
I 
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- · ~-~---~·~---- . 
112 
would be the examination of initial similarity in Final, 
Final-Tone, or Tone Perfect Phonetics; as well as the 
examination of final similarity in Initial, Initial-Tone, 
or Tone Perfect Phonetics. In addition, Phonetics not 
presented in the current study could also be analyzed for 
the existence of such phenomena. 
Perhaps one of the most important areas for 
further research would be the identification and 
characterization of PPU Phonetics among the simplified 
characters used in the People's Republic of China (PRC). 
Because of the growing importance of the PRC in inter-
national affairs, such a study could have wide impli-
cations, not only for the teaching of Chinese abroad, but 
for the continued promotion of literacy in the PRC itself. 
As has already been stated, some 579 Phonetics 
have been identified in the current study as being 
Potentially Pedagogically Useful. These Phonetics have 
been designed and presented for possible use by teachers 
and students of Chinese. What remains now is for them 
to be tested in actuai classroom situations. 
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