NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON THE HOLOCENE FIRE
AND VEGETATION HISTORY OF THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY,
NORTHWEST OREGON AND SOUTHWEST WASHINGTON
by
MEGAN KATHLEEN WALSH
A DISSERTATION
Presented to the Department of Geography
and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor ofPhilosophy
December 2008
11
University of Oregon Graduate School
Confirmation of Approval and Acceptance of Dissertation prepared by:
Megan Walsh
Title:
"Natural and Anthropogenic Influences on the Holocene Fire and Vegetation History of
the Willamette Valley, Northwest Oregon and Southwest Washington"
This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Geography by:
Patrick Bartlein, Co-Chairperson, Geography
Cathy Whitlock, Co-Chairperson, Geography
W. Andrew Marcus, Member, Geography
Douglas Kennett, Member, Anthropology
Bart Johnson, Outside Member, Landscape Architecture
and Richard Linton, Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies/Dean of the
Graduate School for the University of Oregon.
December 13,2008
Original approval signatures are on file with the Graduate School and the University of
Oregon Libraries.
© 2008 Megan Kathleen Walsh
III
IV
An Abstract of the Dissertation of
Megan Kathleen Walsh
in the Department of Geography
for the degree of
to be taken
Doctor of Philosophy
December 2008
Title: NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON THE HOLOCENE
FIRE AND VEGETATION HISTORY OF THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY,
NORTHWEST OREGON AND SOUTHWEST WASHINGTON
Approved: _
Dr. Cathy Whitlock
Approved: _
Dr. Patrick J. Bartlein
The debate concerning the role ofnatural versus anthropogenic burning in shaping
the prehistoric vegetation patterns of the Willamette Valley of Oregon and Washington
remains highly contentious. To address this, pollen and high-resolution charcoal records
obtained from lake sediments were analyzed to reconstruct the Holocene fire and
vegetation history, in order to assess the relative influence of climate variability and
anthropogenic activity on those histories. Two sites provided information on the last
11,000 years. At one site at the northern margin of the Willamette Valley, shifts in fire
activity and vegetation compared closely with millennial- and centennial-time scale
variations in climate, and there was no evidence that anthropogenic burning affected the
vnatural fire-climate linkages prior to Euro-American arrival. In contrast, the fire and
vegetation history at a site in the central Willamette Valley showed relatively little
vegetation change in response to both millennial- and centennial-scale climate variability,
but fire activity varied widely in both frequency and severity. A comparison of this
paleoecological reconstruction with archaeological evidence suggests that anthropogenic
burning near the site may have influenced middle- to late-Holocene fire regimes.
The fire history of the last 1200 years was compared at five sites along a north-
south transect through the Willamette Valley. Forested upland sites showed stronger fire-
climate linkages and little human influence, whereas lowland sites located in former prairie
and savanna showed temporal patterns in fire activity that suggest a significant human
impact. A decline in fire activity at several sites in the last 600 years was attributed to the
effects of a cooling climate as well as the decline of Native American populations. The
impacts of Euro-American settlement on the records include dramatic shifts in vegetation
assemblages and large fire events associated with land clearance. The results of this
research contribute to our understanding oflong-term vegetation dynamics and the role of
fire, both natural- and human-ignited, in shaping ecosystems, as well as provide an
historical context for evaluating recent shifts in plant communities in the Willamette
Valley.
CURRICULUM VITAE
NAME OF AUTHOR: Megan Kathleen Walsh
PLACE OF BIRTH: Phoenix, Arizona, USA
DATE OF BIRTH: December 1,1976
GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED:
University of Oregon
University of Utah
University ofDenver
DEGREES AWARDED:
Doctor of Philosophy in Geography, 2008, University of Oregon
Master of Science in Geography, 2002, University of Utah
Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science, 1999, University of Denver
AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST:
Long-term environmental change
Fire-vegetation-c1imate linkages
(Paleo) human-environment relationships
Fire in low- to mid-elevation ecosystems
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:
Graduate Research Assistant, Departments of Geography and Anthropology,
University of Oregon, 2004-2008
Course Instructor, Advances in Physical Geography (GEOG 410/510),
Department of Geography, University of Oregon, Summer 2007
Course Instructor, Biogeography (GEOG 323), Department of Geography,
University of Oregon, Summer 2007
VI
Vll
Course Instructor, Global Environmental Change (GEOG 143), Department of
Geography, University of Oregon, Spring 2005 and 2006
Course Instructor, Introduction to Physical Geography: Natural Environments
(GEOG 141), Department of Geography, University of Oregon, Summer
2003,2004,2006, Spring 2007
Teaching Assistant, Biogeography (GEOG 323), Department of Geography,
University of Oregon, Spring 2004
Teaching Assistant, Geography of Oregon (GEOG 206), Department of
Geography, University of Oregon, Winter 2004
Teaching Assistant, Climatology (GEOG 321), Department of Geography,
University of Oregon, Fall 2003
Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Geography, University of Oregon,
2002-2003
Course Instructor, World Regional Geography (GEOG 130), Department of
Geography, University of Utah, Fall 1999, Winter and Fall 2000, Winter
and Fall 2001
Environmental Protection Assistant, Air Resources Division, National Park
Service, Department of the Interior, Denver, CO, Summer 1998
GRANTS, AWARDS AND HONORS:
Department of Geography AAG Travel Award, University of Oregon, 2008
Department of Geography AAG Travel Award, University of Oregon, 2007
Denise Gaudreau Award for Excellence in Quaternary Studies, Honorable
Mention, American Quaternary Association, 2006
American Quaternary Association Travel Award, 2006
Pacific Climate Workshop Travel Award, 2006
Fire/Climate Conference Travel Award, 2005
American Quaternary Association Travel Award, 2004
V111
Department of Geography Summer Research Grant, University of Oregon, 2003
Outstanding Geography Graduate Student, University of Utah, 1999-2000
Freshman Woman of the Year, University of Denver, 1995-1996
PUBLICATIONS:
Walsh, M.K., Pearl, c.A., Whitlock, C., and Bartlein, P.l., in review. An
11,000-year-long fire and vegetation history from Beaver Lake, central
Willamette Valley, Oregon. Quaternary Science Reviews.
Kennett, D.l., Piperno, D., lones, l., Neff, H., Voorhies, B., Walsh, M.K.,. and
Culleton, B., in review. Origin and impact of maize farming on the Pacific coast
of southwest Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Marlon, l.R., Bartlein, P.l., Walsh, M.K., Harrison, S.P., Brown, K.l., Edwards,
M.E., Higuera, P.E., Power, M.l., Anderson, R.S., Briles, c., Brunelle, A.,
Carcaillet, c., Daniels, M., Hu, F.S., Lavoie, M., Long, C., Minckley, T., Richard,
P.l.H., Shafer, D.S., Tinner, W., Umbanhowar, lr., c.E., Whitlock, C. ,in press.
Wildfire responses to abrupt climate change in North America. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences.
Walsh, M.K., Whitlock, C. and Bartlein, P.l., 2008. A 14,300-year-Iong record of
fire-vegetation-climate linkages at Battle Ground Lake, southwestern
Washington. Quaternary Research 70,251-264.
Whitlock, C., Bianchi, M.M., Bartlein, P.l., Markgraf, V., Marlon, l., Walsh, M.,
and McCoy, N., 2006. Postglacial vegetation, climate, and fire history along the
east side of the Andes (lat 41-42.5°S), Argentina. Quaternary Research 66, 187-
201.
Walsh, M.K., 2005. Vegetation history of the southern Willamette Valley. In:
Love, R.M. (Ed.), Mount Pisgah Arboretum Guidebook: A Natural History of the
Southern Willamette Valley, Oregon, 11 th Edition, pp. 140-146. Mount Pisgah
Arboretum, Eugene.
Walsh, M.K., 2002. Fire History of Two Selected Sites in the Spruce-Fir Life
Zone of the Uinta Mountains, Utah, Determined Using Macroscopic Charcoal
Analysis. Masters Thesis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.
IX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would first like to thank my committee co-advisors, Cathy Whitlock and Patrick
Bartlein, for their unwavering support of this research and my graduate studies at the
University of Oregon. This achievement would not have been possible without your
enduring patience, kindness, and friendship. I have learned so much from you both and I
look forward to many future collaborations. I would also like to sincerely thank my other
committee members, Andrew Marcus, Doug Kennett, and Bart Johnson, for their helpful
critique and much needed encouragement during this process.
Additionally, I would like to thank Jane Kertis, Emily Heyerdahl, Tom Connolly, and
Chris Pearl for their support of this research. Thank you as well to James Budahn for 210Pb
dating, John Pallister for assistance with tephra identification, and Brendan Culleton for 14C
dating. Thank you to Casey Deck and the Lake Oswego Corporation and to the Rosboro
Lumber Company for their assistance with accessing two of my study sites. A huge thank
you to Jennifer Marlon, Mitch Power, Vicky Rubinstein, Serith Hineline, Heather Van
Vactor, Shaul Cohen, Christy Briles, Tyson Lancaster, Matt Moore, Wayne Polumsky, and
Kyle Avery for their much appreciated assistance in the field and laboratory. Thank you
also to Phil Higuera and Dan Gavin who provided assistance in data analysis.
Mostly, I would like to thank my family and friends who have stuck by me and kept
me sane through this time in my life. I especially thank my parents. I could not have done
this without your emotional, financial, and editorial support. Thank you as well to Maylian
Pak, Jennifer Marlon, and Phoebe McNeally for your invaluable friendship and
xencouragement. You are smart, beautiful women and I love you! A big thank you to the
band, The Cheeseburgers, for providing me with the best stress outlet anyone could have
asked for. Lastly, I thank my husband and best friend, Chris Koski, and our hound dog
Luke. You will never know how much you both mean to me and how happy I am to share
this time in my life with you!
This research was supported by grants from the Joint Fire Science Program (04-2-1-
-115) and the National Science Foundation (ATM-0117160 and ATM-0714146), and in
part by funds provided by the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forest Service, U.S.
Department ofAgriculture. Additional support came from a UO Department of Geography
Summer Research Grant.
Xl
I dedicate this to my grandmothers, Sarah Katherine Walsh and Marie Elizabeth Mood.
May their kindness, strength, and love live on through me.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. A 14,300-YEAR-LONG RECORD OF FIRE-VEGETATION-
CLIMATE LINKAGES AT BATTLE GROUND LAKE,
SOUTHWESTERN WASHINGTON 12
Introduction 12
Background .. 12
Site Description 13
Methods 16
Results 20
Chronology and Lithology... 20
Charcoal and Pollen Records 25
Discussion 35
Fire-Vegetation-Climate Linkages at Battle Ground Lake 35
Regional Comparison of Low-Elevation Fire Histories 39
Conclusions .. 46
III. AN 11,000-YEAR-LONG RECORD OF FIRE AND VEGETATION
HISTORY AT BEAVER LAKE, OREGON, CENTRAL WILLAMETTE
VALLEY 48
Introduction 48
Background .. 48
Study Area 49
Methods 52
Results 57
Chronology... 57
Lithology...... 60
Core BL93A Pollen Record .. 63
Core BL05B Pollen Record 68
Core BL05B Charcoal Record .. 70
XlI
Chapter Page
Discussion 74
Beaver Lake Fire and Vegetation History 74
Anthropogenic Versus Climatic Influences on the Beaver Lake
Record 82
Conclusions 85
IV. 1200 YEARS OF FIRE AND VEGETATION HISTORY IN THE
WILLAMETTE VALLEY, OREGON AND WASHINGTON 87
Introduction....... 87
Background 87
The Willamette Valley........ 89
Study Sites 95
Methods............................. 100
Results 104
Chronology.......... 104
Lithology........ 107
Charcoal and Pollen Records 110
Fire Episode Reconstruction 124
Discussion 127
The Presett1ement Landscape of the Willamette Valley (ca. AD
800-1830) 130
The Postsettlement Landscape of the Willamette Valley (ca. AD
1830-present) 137
Conclusions 138
V. SUMMARY 141
APPENDICES
A. BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG04A CHARCOAL DATA 153
B. BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG04A MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 186
DATA ..
C. BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG04A LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA 206
X111
Chapter
D. BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG05B CHARCOAL DATA ..
E. BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG05B POLLEN DATA ..
F. BEAVER LAKE BL05B CHARCOAL DATA .
G. BEAVER LAKE BL05B MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA ..
H. BEAVER LAKE BL05B LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA ..
I. BEAVER LAKE BL05B POLLEN DATA ..
J. LAKE OSWEGO L005A CHARCOAL DATA .
K. LAKE OSWEGO L005A MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA ..
L. LAKE OSWEGO L005A LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA ..
M. LAKE OSWEGO L005A POLLEN DATA .
N. PORTER LAKE PL05C CHARCOAL DATA ..
O. PORTER LAKE PL05C LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA ..
P. PORTER LAKE PL05C POLLEN DATA ..
Q. WAIU\TER LAKE WL04A CHARCOAL DATA .
R. WARNER LAKE WL04A MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA ..
S. WARNER LAKE WL04A LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA .
T. WARNER LAKE WL04A POLLEN DATA ..
REFERENCES .
XIV
Page
217
221
228
263
286
291
301
308
313
316
326
329
330
339
349
354
357
367
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1. Map of the Pacific Northwest and the ca. AD 1850 vegetation cover of
the Willamette Valley................................................................................ 3
1.2. Photos of oak savanna and oak woodland 5
2.1. Map of the Pacific Northwest and location of Battle Ground Lake 14
2.2. Photos of woody and herbaceous charcoal particles 18
2.3. Age-versus-depth model for long core BG04A and short core BG05B 23
2.4. Battle Ground Lake core lithology, charcoal concentration, organic
content, and magnetic susceptibility.... 26
2.5. Battle Ground Lake long core charcoal and pollen 28
2.6. Charcoal concentration and selected pollen accumulation rates for the
Battle Ground Lake short core 34
2.7. Pollen zones and inferred fire activity for eight low-elevation sites .. 40
3.1. Map of the Willamette Valley and location of Beaver Lake 50
3.2. Photos of woody, herbaceous, and lattice charcoal particles 55
3.3. Age-versus-depth relations for core BL93A and core BL05B 59
3.4. Lithology, 14C_AMS dates, charcoal concentration, organic content, and
magnetic susceptibility for core BL05B 61
3.5. Percentages ofpollen taxa and APINAP ratios for core BL93A 64
3.6. Charcoal concentration, herbaceous and lattice charcoal, selected pollen
taxa percentages, and APINAP ratios from core BL05B 69
3.7. Core BL05B charcoal concentration, charcoal accumulation rate, fire
episodes, fire frequency, fire magnitude, herbaceous charcoal, lattice
charcoal, and sedimentation rate 71
3.8. Reconstructed fire-episode frequency, fire episodes, and vegetation for
northwest Oregon sites... 77
4.1. Map of the Pacific Northwest and location of the study sites 90
4.2. Vegetation cover maps and aerial photos of Battle Ground Lake, Lake
Oswego, Beaver Lake, Porter Lake, and Warner Lake 97
XVI
Figure Page
4.3. Age-versus-depth relations for Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego,
Porter Lake, and Warner Lake 106
4.4. Lithology, AMS 14C dates, charcoal concentration, organic content, and
magnetic susceptibility for Lake Oswego, Porter Lake, and Warner
Lake 108
4.5. Battle Ground Lake charcoal and pollen 111
4.6. Lake Oswego charcoal and pollen 114
4.7. Beaver Lake charcoal and pollen 116
4.8. Porter Lake charcoal and pollen 119
4.9. Warner Lake charcoal and pollen 121
4.10. Charcoal accumulation rate, fire episodes, and fire-episode magnitude
for Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake, and Warner
Lake 125
4.11. Charcoal influx, fire episodes, and AP/NAP ratios for the five study
sites 128
4.12. Map ofWillamette Valley late Holocene and historic archaeological
sites in relationship to lake-sediment study sites 131
5.1. Conceptual model showing the relative influence of climate and
humans on the fire and vegetation histories of the five Willamette
Valley study sites 147
XVll
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1. Age-depth relations in long core for Battle Ground Lake 21
2.2. Age-depth relations in short core for Battle Ground Lake 24
2.3. Average charcoal concentration, CHAR, fire frequency, fire-return
interval, fire-episode magnitude, herbaceous charcoal values, and fire
regime description for Battle Ground Lake 30
3.1. Age-depth relations for Beaver Lake 58
3.2. Average charcoal concentration, CHAR, fire frequency, fire-episode
magnitude, mean fire return interval, herbaceous charcoal, lattice
charcoal, and fire regimes for Beaver Lake 72
4.1. Physical and climatic data for study sites 96
4.2. Age-depth relations for Lake Oswego, Porter Lake, and Warner Lake 105
1CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The state of the natural environment of the Americas prior to Euro-American
settlement is a matter of great debate (Denevan, 1992; Cronon, 1995). Were presettlement
landscapes truly natural (Le., created and maintained by environmental processes such as
climate variability and soil formation), were they a result ofhurnan landscape modification
(i.e., created and maintained by anthropogenic activities such as the use of fire), or were
they some combination ofboth (Vale, 2002)? This contentious debate extends to the
Pacific Northwest and even the Willamette Valley where many scholars have proposed that
the open prairie and oak savanna ecosystems widespread at the time ofEuro-American
settlement were the result of thousands of years ofNative American burning (Boyd, 1986;
Zybach, 1999; Ames, 2004), however, direct evidence to substantiate this hypothesis is
rather limited (see Whitlock and Knox, 2002). Ethnographic records suggest that Native
Americans used fire for many purposes, such as encouraging the growth of important food
sources, as fertilizer for tobacco plants, and to drive deer for hunting (Boyd, 1986; Leopold
and Boyd, 1999, Knox, 2000), but details as to the spatial and temporal extent ofthe
burning is poorly understood. The driving question remains: were the presettlement
vegetation patterns of the Willarnette Valley the result ofclimate and other natural
variations, Native American use of fire, or both?
Relatively little is known about the prehistoric vegetation patterns of the
Willamette Valley. Two pollen profiles completed by Hansen (1947) from lakes that no
2longer exist described the general history ofa few major tree taxa, but without the benefit
of radiocarbon dating, they do not disclose the timing of land cover shifts. A 20,000-
year-long pollen record from Battle Ground Lake (Whitlock, 1992) situated at the
northern extent of the valley is the only other paleoecological work from the area and is
discussed in detail in Chapter II. This vegetation reconstruction describes changes in
land cover since the Last Glacial Maximum, including the existence of a parkland/tundra
ecosystem at the site during the late-glacial period, followed by shifts to a closed forest at
ca. 13,000 cal yr BP, open savanna at ca. 10,800 cal yr BP, and a closed forest dominated
by more mesic taxa at ca. 5200 cal yr BP. However, whether or not the vegetation
history at Battle Ground Lake was representative of the Willamette Valley as a whole
could not be determined in the absence of other records.
Land survey records of the Federal Land Office from ca. AD 1850 provide a
record ofthe valley's vegetation at the time of Euro-American settlement. Figure 1.1
shows the distribution of the five major vegetation types mapped by the surveyors:
prairie, oak savanna, oak woodland, Douglas-fir forest, and riparian forest. Over the past
150 years these ecosystems have changed greatly in terms of general abundance, spatial
distribution, and species composition. The two greatest forces of these changes have
been land conversion and the removal of fire, both natural- and human-ignited, from the
landscape (Sprague and Hansen, 1946; Habeck, 1961; Johannessen et aI., 1971; Towle,
1982; Franklin and Dyrness, 1988).
Prairie, ranging from moist to dry, was once widespread across the floor of the
Willamette Valley (Hulse et aI., 2002). Upland prairie was more abundant than
3,I'
A \ C<1li1oml3
Brillsh Columbia
Washington
O(egon
, -
I
i
Nevada
Montana
IdC'lho
B
o 15 30 60km 123;W
ca AD 1850 vegetation cover
o Prairie
o Oak savanna
o Oak woodland
o Douglas·flr forest
o nrpaHJlI'-IOfe~l
Figure 1.1. Map showing A) the location of the Willamette Valley in the Pacific
Northwest and B) the ca. AD 1850 vegetation cover of the Willamette Valley known
from General Land Office surveys (data source: Hulse et al. (1998)).
seasonally wet prairie; both were dominated by bunchgrasses such as Deschampsia
cespitosa (tufted hairgrass), as well as a wide variety of other grasses, sedges, and forbs
(Streatfield and Frenkel, 1997; Clark and Wilson, 2001). Christy and Alverson (1994)
found that there was less than 1% of the original native wet prairie remaining in the
valley. Most was converted into areas of cultivation or grazing (Towle, 1982), while the
remainder has become increasingly dense with shrubs and trees and is no longer
considered prairie (Johannessen et aI., 1971).
Oak savanna, dominated by Quercus garryana (Oregon white oak) and often
associated with Quercus kelloggii (California black oak) and Pseudotsuga menziesii
(Douglas-fir), was also widely distributed across the Willamette Valley at the time of
settlement. Characterized by the oak trees growing relatively far apart, oak savanna
covered the valley's rolling hills and the foothills of the Coast and Cascade ranges
(Franklin and Dymess, 1988). Oak savanna has probably seen the greatest change since
AD 1850, and today is confined to the valley edges and steep hillsides where other trees
cannot establish. Most former oak savanna has grown into oak woodland or even closed
forest (Fig. 1.2). Habeck (1961) and Thi1enius (1968) attributed this conversion to the
absence of fire on the landscape, which once kept Quercus garryana reproduction in oak
savanna to a minimum.
Oak woodland was similar to oak savanna, but covered less total area and was
more densely populated with oak trees. Today, with the absence of burning, oak
woodlands support only scattered oaks under dense forests of either Pseudotsuga
4
5Figure 1.2. Photos taken at the Howard Buford Recreation Area near
Eugene, OR, showing a crowded fonner oak savanna (top) and a
fonner oak woodland crowded with conifer trees with a field of
Camassia quamash (camas lily) in the foreground (bottom).
(Photos: M. Walsh)
6menziesii or Acer macrophyllum (big-leaf maple), depending upon the local moisture
conditions (Fig. 1.2) (Thi1enius, 1968).
Douglas-fir forest dominated at higher elevations along the eastern and western
slopes of the valley at the time of settlement. Pseudotsuga menziesii was the most
common species, but Acer macrophyllum, Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock), Thuja
plicata (western red cedar), Quercus garryana, and Comus nuttallii (dogwood) were also
common components. Douglas-fir forest is often a successional stage between oak
savanna or woodland and Abies grandis (grand fir) forest (Franklin and Dymess, 1988).
With the lack ofbuming in the forests, Abies grandis (a fire-intolerant species) has been
able to invade and take over areas once dominated by Pseudotsuga menziesii, such as
north-facing slopes and lower south-facing slopes, accompanied by an overall decrease in
species diversity (Cole, 1977).
Riparian forest was once widely distributed across the floodplains of the
Willamette River and its tributaries, often 1.5 to 3.5 km wide on either side (Towle, 1982;
Sedell and Froggatt, 1984). Most common in these forests were Fraxinus latifolia
(Oregon ash), Populus trichocarpa (black cottonwood), Pseudotsuga menziesii, Salix sp.
(willow), and Acer macrophyllum in about equal abundance (Franklin and Dymess, 1988;
Frenkel and Heinitz, 1987). The understory of these forests supported many shrubs
including Spiraea (hardhack), Berberis aquifolium (Oregon grape), and Sambucus glauca
(elderberry). With changes in the hydrology of the Willamette River and the expansion
of cultivation in the valley, most riparian forest is gone (Habeck, 1961; Johannessen et
aI., 1971; Dykaar and Wigington, 2000). That remaining today retains a composition
7similar to the ones that existed before AD 1850, but also houses many introduced species
(Towle, 1982).
Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine), although not mapped as an individual
vegetation unit, was another important component of the presettlement vegetation
(Johannessen et aI., 1971; Cole, 1977) and was widely distributed in the Willamette
Valley (Hibbs et aI., 2002). It occurred in oak savanna and woodland along with Quercus
garryana and Pseudotsuga menziesii and was found on a range of sites from flooded
valley bottoms to well-drained southerly exposed hills. Mostly it was distributed in the
lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade ranges (Johannessen et aI., 1971). Since the AD
l850s, however, removal of fire from the landscape has led to a decreased abundance of
Pinus ponderosa in its former habitat and its replacement by Thuja plicata, Abies
grandis, and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Hibbs et aI., 2002).
Even less is known about the prehistoric fire regimes of the Willamette Valley.
Although some accounts by early explorers and settlers to the area contain references to
Native American use of fire (Wilkes, 1845; Morris, 1934; Douglas, 1959), it is
impossible to tell if these actions were typical ofNative American land-management
practices throughout the Holocene. Additionally, no previous lake-sediment studies have
been conducted and limited dendrochronological studies have targeted the valley'S
foothill forests, given the lack of long-lived trees on the valley floor. Sprague and
Hansen (1946), looking at succession in the McDonald Forest showed that fires were
more frequent in the forests flanking the valley since at least AD 1647, but were less
frequent after AD 1848. Dendrochronological studies in the Coast Range by Teensma et
8aI. (1991) and Impara (1997) show more frequent fire activity in the foothills during the
presettlement time period. Weisberg (1998) calculated a mean fire interval in the western
central Cascades of ca. 52 years for the period ofAD 1545-1849 (presett1ement), ca. 28
years for the period of AD 1849-1910 (settlement), and ca. 310 years for the period of
AD 1910-present (postsettlement). Additional studies at higher elevation in the Cascade
Range (Morrison and Swanson, 1990; Weisberg, 1997; Cisse1 et aI., 1998) reinforce this
pattern of frequent presettlement fire activity and the near-absence of fire in the 20th
century, although the cessation of fire in the last 100 years did not occur synchronously
(Weisberg and Swanson, 2003).
The need to better understand past and present fire regimes and vegetation
patterns of the Willamette Valley provides the impetus for this study. The main research
objectives were: 1) to use paleoecological methods to reconstruct the spatial and temporal
variations in the Holocene fire and vegetation history of the Willamette Valley, and 2) to
assess the relative role of environmental variability and anthropogenic activities on
shaping those histories. This dissertation is part of a larger collaborative project designed
by researchers at Montana State University (Cathy Whitlock) and the US Forest Service
(Jane Kertis and Emily Heyerdah1). It is funded by a Joint Fire Science Program grant
(04-2-1-115) and in part by funds provided by the Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture. Additional work following the
completion of this dissertation will seek to combine sediment-based fire reconstructions
with tree-ring data from Willamette Valley foothill forests of the Coast and Cascade
ranges collected by Heyerdah1 and Kertis. The goal of this is to provide information on
9past vegetation and fire regimes in order to facilitate more informed, successful
management decisions concerning the Willamette Valley's natural ecosystems and
hazards faced by its inhabitants.
Chapter II of this dissertation describes a l4,300-year-long fire reconstruction
from Battle Ground Lake, southwestern Washington, and compares it to a previous
vegetation reconstruction from the site (Whitlock, 1992). Independent records of
regional climate change and human activity were used to determine the influence of both
natural and anthropogenic factors on those histories. Additionally, the reconstruction was
compared with other paleoenvironmental reconstructions from the region to contextualize
the changes seen at the site. Also described is a high-resolution, 700-year-long charcoal
and pollen record from the site, which examines the impact of recent fires on the local
vegetation composition and structure. This chapter is important as it details the
relationships between fire, vegetation, and climate during the late-glacial and Holocene
periods in low-elevation ecosystems. This chapter was prepared as a co-authored
manuscript with Cathy Whitlock (who provided the pollen data, assisted with field work,
study design, data analysis and interpretation, and edited the manuscript) and Patrick
Bartlein (who assisted with data analysis and interpretation and edited the manuscript)
and has been published in the journal Quaternary Research.
Chapter III describes an 11,OOO-year-long fire and vegetation history from Beaver
Lake, Oregon, located in the central Willamette Valley. This record provides information
on valley-floor fire regime and vegetation shifts experienced during the Holocene
associated with changes in the drainage of the Willamette River and its tributaries,
10
regional climatic variability, and anthropogenic activities. The Beaver Lake record was
compared to the Battle Ground Lake record from Chapter II and was placed within the
larger framework ofHolocene paleoecological work in the region. This chapter builds on
the Masters thesis of Christopher Pearl (Pearl, 1999) at the University of Oregon, and
with his permission uses data and analysis presented in his document. This chapter was
prepared as a co-authored manuscript with Christopher Pearl (who carried out the
collection and analysis of core BL93A and assisted with writing the manuscript), Cathy
Whitlock (who assisted with field work, study design, data analysis and interpretation,
and edited the manuscript), and Patrick Bartlein (who assisted with data analysis and
interpretation and edited the manuscript), and has been submitted for publication in the
journal Quaternary Science Reviews.
Chapter IV describes the fire and vegetation history ofthree additional sites in the
Willamette Valley: Lake Oswego, Warner Lake, and Porter Lake, Oregon. The Lake
Oswego record spans the last ca. 1200 years, Warner Lake the last ca. 900 years, and
Porter Lake the last ca. 250 years. Combined with the most recent portions of the Battle
Ground Lake (Chapter II) and Beaver Lake (Chapter III) reconstructions, these records
provide a detailed look at landscape change over the last 1200 years in the Willamette
Valley as a result of decadal- to centennial-scale climate variability and land-use change
(e.g., Native American burning and Euro-American land clearance). This chapter is
important as it provides an historical context for evaluating recent shifts in plant
communities and illustrates the magnitude of the impact of Euro-American land-use
activities on the ecosystems in the Willamette Valley. This chapter is being prepared as a
11
co-authored manuscript with Cathy Whitlock (who assisted with field work, study design,
data analysis and interpretation, and edited the manuscript) and Patrick Bartlein (who
assisted with data analysis and interpretation and edited the manuscript) for submission to
the journal The Holocene.
Chapter V summarizes the major findings of this dissertation.
12
CHAPTER II
A l4,300-YEAR-LONG RECORD OF FIRE-VEGETATION-CLIMATE LINKAGES
AT BATTLE GROUND LAKE, SOUTHWESTERN WASHINGTON
This chapter has been published as a co-authored manuscript in the journal Quaternary
Research (Walsh et a1., 2008).
Introduction
Background
Little is known about the presettlement fIre history of the interior valleys of the
PacifIc Northwest, including the Puget Lowland and lower Columbia River Valley of
Washington and the Willamette Valley of Oregon. Historical data and tree-ring studies
spanning the last several hundred years suggest that the low- to mid-elevation ecosystems,
including wet and upland prairie, Quercus garryana (Oregon oak) savanna and woodland,
and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-frr)-dominated forests, are adapted to fIres of varying
frequency and severity, and rely on it for their perpetuation (Thilenius, 1968; Franklin and
Dymess, 1988; Agee, 1993). Summer drought, which typically extends from July through
September, often leads to conditions appropriate for late-summer wildfIres (Gedalof et a1.,
2005). However, as a result of effective fIre suppression since the 1930s (Morris, 1934)
and considerable human alteration of the region's ecosystems (Hulse et a1., 2002), frres
13
rarely occur. In an effort to reduce hazardous fuel build-up and restore native plant
communities, fire's reintroduction into many ecosystems is underway (Pendergrass et aI.,
1998; Maret and Wilson, 2005), but information regarding its role in maintaining prairie,
savanna, woodland, and forest ecosystems in prehistoric times is needed.
Paleoecological studies provide an opportunity for understanding the long-term
environmental history of the interior valleys of the Pacific Northwest. In the lower
Columbia River Valley, late Quaternary pollen records are available from Fargher Lake,
WA, (Heusser and Heusser, 1980; Grigg and Whitlock, 2002) and Battle Ground Lake,
WA (this site- Barnosky, 1985; Whitlock, 1992). In this paper, we supplement our
understanding of the region by presenting a 14,300-year-long fire history record from
Battle Ground Lake, WA. High-resolution macroscopic charcoal, sedimentological and
new palynological analyses provide information on the long-term fire and vegetation
history of southwestern Washington and the influence of natural controls and
anthropogenic activities on those histories. The reconstruction was compared with records
from other low-elevation sites across the Pacific Northwest in order to assess regional
trends in fire-vegetation-c1imate interactions.
Site Description
Battle Ground Lake, WA, (45°08.00'N, 122°49.17'W, 154 m a.s.L), is located
approximately 30 km north of the city of Portland, OR (Fig. 2.1). The 13.5 ha lake lies in a
remnant volcanic crater of late Pleistocene age in the Boring Lava field (Wood and Kienle,
1990). Maximum depth is 16 m, drainage area is 1.6 times the size of the lake, and its rim
Pacific Ocean
I I II I I I I I
o 40 80 km
Figure 2.1. Map ofthe Pacific Northwest and the location ofthe study site,
Battle Ground Lake, and other sites mentioned in the text. Inset A shows an
aerial photograph ofthe site taken in 1990 (photo: USGS).
14
15
rises approximately 72 m above the lake surface and the surrounding valley floor. The
climate of the area is influenced by the seasonal shift in the position of the polar jet stream
and the northeastern Pacific subtropical high-pressure system, leading to warm, dry
summers and cool, wet winters (Mitchell, 1976; Mock, 1996). For the period of 1971-
2000, the city of Battle Ground weather station (located approximately 4 km SW ofBattle
Ground Lake) recorded an average July temperature of l7.9°C and an average January
temperature of3.8°C (Western Regional Climate Center, 2007). During that period, an
average total of 1349 mm ofprecipitation fell annually, approximately 73% of it between
November and April, mostly as rain (Western Regional Climate Center, 2007). The site is
also influenced by an occasional cold wintertime easterly flow emanating from the
Columbia Gorge (Sharp and Mass, 2004).
The vegetation surrounding Battle Ground Lake is a closed, second-growth forest
ofmostly Pseudotsuga menziesii and Thuja plicata (western red cedar), with scattered
Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock), Abies grandis (grand fir), and Picea sitchensis
(Sitka spruce). Other common trees and shrubs found in the crater include Alnus rubra
(red alder), Acer macrophyllum (big-leafmaple), Fraxinus latifolia (Oregon ash), Salix spp.
(willow), Corylus cornuta (beaked hazel), Cornus nuttallii (Pacific dogwood), and Spiraea
douglasii (hardhack), with an understory ofPolystichum (sword fern) and other ferns.
Pteridium (bracken fern), a heliophyte, grows in forest openings. Botanical nomenclature
follows Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973). Pseudotsuga-dominated forests of the Pacific
Northwest typically experience stand-replacing fires at>100 year-intervals, although this
estimate varies considerably across the region and probably includes fires that have resulted
16
from both human- and lightning-caused ignitions (Agee, 1993). Euro-American settlement
of the Battle Ground Lake area began after the establishment ofnearby Fort Vancouver
(AD 1825); the population remained low throughout the 19th century, but increased rapidly
in the early part of the 20th century (Allworth, 1976). The local forest near Battle Ground
Lake was logged in the late l800s and the only recorded historical fire in the crater was the
Yacolt Fire of AD 1902 (Allworth, 1976).
Methods
In 2004, an 8.04 m-long sediment core (BG04A) was collected from the deepest
part of the lake with a modified Livingstone piston corer (Wright et aI., 1983) lowered from
a floating platform (water depth=16 m). Core segments were wrapped in cellophane and
foil and refrigerated in the laboratory at the University of Oregon. In 2005, a 0.67 m-long
short core (BG05B) was collected using a Klein piston corer, which recovered the
sediment-water interface. The short core was sampled in the field at 0.5-cm intervals.
BG04A long-core segments were split longitudinally, photographed, and the lithologic
characteristics were described. Magnetic susceptibility was measured at contiguous I-em
intervals on the intact core using a Sapphire Instruments magnetic coil. Samples of l-cm3
volume were taken at I-em intervals for the upper 3 m and at 5-cm intervals for the lower 5
m of the core for loss-on-ignition analysis, which determines the water, organic, and
carbonate content of the sediment (Dean, 1974).
Contiguous l-cm3 samples were taken for charcoal analysis at I-em intervals for
the upper 3 m and at 0.5-cm intervals for the lower 5 m of the long core. From the short
17
core, contiguous l-cm3 samples were taken at 0.5-cm intervals for charcoal analysis.
Charcoal samples were soaked in a solution of 5% sodium hexametaphosphate for >24
hours and a weak bleach solution for one hour to disaggregate the sediment. Samples were
washed through nested sieves of250 and 125 !!m mesh size and the residue was transferred
into gridded petri dishes and counted. Only charcoal particles>125 !!m in minimum
diameter were tallied because previous studies indicate that large particles are not
transported far from the source and thus are an indicator of local fire activity (Whitlock and
Millspaugh, 1996; Whitlock and Larsen, 200 I). Charcoal particles were identified and
tallied as either woody or herbaceous based on their appearance and comparison to burned
reference material collected at the study site (Fig. 2.2). Charcoal particles that were flat
and displayed stomata within the rows of epidermal cells were counted as herbaceous
charcoal, and were assumed to come from grasses or other monocots (see Jensen et aI.,
2007). The ratio ofherbaceous/total charcoal provided information on the fuel type and
severity of fire events, and allowed for a comparison of fire activity in different sections of
the core (see Whitlock et aI., 2006). Plant macrofossils, such as needles and twigs, were
also identified whenever possible and provided material for AMS 14C dating. Charcoal
counts were converted to charcoal concentration (particles/cm3) by dividing by the volume
of each sample.
Charcoal accumulation rates (CHAR; particles/cm2/yr) were obtained by
interpolating the charcoal data to constant 10-yr time steps, which represented the median
temporal resolution in the core; the data were not log-transformed. The CHAR data series
was decomposed into a "background" and "peaks" component. The background
AI , I
a 500 1000 f.!m
B
I
a
Figure 2.2. Photos of (A) woody charcoal particles
and (B) herbaceous (i.e., grass) charcoal particles.
18
19
component has been discussed at length (see Millspaugh and Whitlock, 1995; Long et aI.,
1998; Carcaillet, 2002; Whitlock et aI., 2003). Marlon et aI. (2006) attributed CHAR
background variation to slow changes in charcoal production associated with changing fuel
types, and Higuera et aI. (2007) concluded that at large temporal scales (i.e., lOx mean fire
return interval), it correlates well with area burned within the entire charcoal source area.
The peaks component represents inferred "fire episodes" (i.e., one or more fires occurring
in the duration ofa peak) (Long et aI., 1998). Charcoal analysis for core BG05A followed
methods outlined in Higuera et aI. (2008) and used the program CharAnalysis (Higuera et
aI., 2008; http://CharAnalysis.googlepages.com).
The CHAR background component was described using a robust (Lowess)
smoother with a 500-yr window width, and the CHAR peaks component was taken as the
residuals after background was subtracted from the interpolated time series. The threshold
value separating fire-related from non-fire related variability in the peaks component was
set at the 95th percentile of a Gaussian distribution modeling noise in the CHAR peaks time
series. Sensitivity analysis of window widths between 300 and 1000 years showed that the
signal-to-noise ratio (i.e., the measure of the separation between peaks and non-peak
values) was maximized at 500 years. All CHAR peaks were screened to eliminate those
that resulted from statistically insignificant variations in charcoal counts (Gavin et aI.,
2006). If the maximum charcoal count from a peak had a >5% chance of coming from the
same Poisson-distributed population as the minimum count within the preceding 75 years,
then it was identified as not significant (Higuera et aI., 2008).
20
The CHAR time series was plotted on a 10g-transfonned scale in order to facilitate
comparison between different sections of the core. The significant peaks (i.e., fire
episodes) were also plotted and used to calculate smoothed fire frequency, mean fire return
interval, and fire-episode magnitude. Fire frequency (episodes/lOOO yr) is the sum of the
total number of fires within a 1000-yr period, smoothed with a Lowess filter. Mean fire
return interval (mFRI) is the average years between fire episodes. Fire-episode magnitude
(partic1es/cm2) is the total charcoal influx in a peak and is related to fire size, severity, and
taphonomic processes (Whitlock et aI., 2006; Higuera et aI., 2007).
Twelve l-cm3 pollen samples were taken from core BG05B at 5-cm intervals (ca.
50-100 year intervals) and processed following standard techniques (Faegri et aI., 1989).
Lycopodium was added to each sample as an exotic tracer to calculate pollen concentration
and 300-500 terrestrial pollen grains and spores were counted per sample. Pollen types
were assigned based on modem phytogeography, the presence of identified macrofossils,
and previous macrofossil identification on an earlier core (Bamosky, 1985; Whitlock,
1992). Pollen counts were converted to percentages of the total terrestrial pollen and
spores in each sample. Pollen accumulation rates (PAR; grains/cm2/yr) were calculated by
dividing pollen concentrations by the deposition time (yr/cm) of the sample.
Results
Chronology and Lithology
The age model for core BG04A was developed using seven AMS_14C age
detenninations and the identification of four dated tephra (Table 2.1). 14C dates were
Table 2.1
Age-depth relations in long core (BG04A) for Battle Ground Lake, Washington
Depth (cm below mud surface) Lab number Source material Age (14C yr BP)a Age (cal yr BP)b
3 St. Helens D tephra -30
67 AA65507 conifer needle 596±81 600 (506-679)
94 AA65739 conifer needle 911±52 830 (731-927)
144 AA65740 twig 1585±68 1470 (1336-1620)
271 AA65741 twig 3339±60 3570 (3442-3716)
333 AA65508 conifer needle 4159±42 4700 (4569-4833)
401 AA65742 conifer needle 4907±66 5650 (5577-5756)
512 Mazama 0 tephra 7627 (7577-7777)C
646.5 AA69495 bulk sediment 8671±52 9630 (9533-9778)
710 St. Helens J (upper) tephra 10490±360d 12260 (11243-13058)
770 St. Helens J (lower) tephra 11280±590d 13180 (11600-14771)
a 14C age determinations were completed at the University of Arizona AMS Facility.
b Calendar ages determined using Calib 5.0.2 html (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005). Median ages rounded to the nearest decade
with 20 range are reported.
CAge as reported in Zdanowicz et al. (1999).
d Age as reported in Juvigne (1986).
tv
.......
22
converted to calendar years before present (cal yr BP) using Calib 5.0.2 html (Stuiver and
Reimer, 2005). Median ages were selected and rounded to the nearest decade when
appropriate. The long core contained seven tephra ofknown age (Juvigne, 1986;
Mullineaux, 1986), but only four had reliable enough dates to include in the age model.
Tephra ages based on 14C age determinations were also converted to cal yr BP using Calib
5.0.2 and median ages were used. Because the deposition of tephra is likely a rapid event,
the thickness of individual layers was subtracted from the true core depth to create an
adjusted depth. Probability density functions for each 14C age determination were plotted
in Figure 2.3 to show the uncertainty of individual calendar ages, and clearly illustrate the
greater uncertainty of the tephra ages as compared to the AMS_14C age determinations.
The resulting age model for core BG04A was best described by a 4th-order polynomial,
suggesting a basal date of 14,300 cal yr BP for the core (Fig. 2.3a).
The age model for core BG05B was developed from 18 210pb age determinations
and one correlated AMS 14C date from core BG04A (Table 2.2). Cores BG04A and
BG05B were correlated based on charcoal peaks and tephra units present in both cores.
The age model for BG05B was best described by a 4th-order polynomial for the upper 14
cm of the core, and a 2nd-order polynomial for lower 53 cm ofthe core (Fig. 2.3b). This
shift in the sedimentation rate at ~14 cm depth was likely caused by increased slopewash
following the Yacolt fIre ofAD 1902, which burned within the Battle Ground Lake crater.
Core BG05B was composed entirely of fIne detritus gyttja with the AD 1980 Mount St.
Helens D tephra occurring at 2-3 cm depth.
A0o I~»
2000
4000
a::- 6000
OJ
~ 8000ro
~
~10000
«
12000
14000
16000
Depth (cm below mud surface)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
I I I , I I J I
......-»»'>~
~.,,<>~
23
y = 0.000000059188x4 - 0.000084431820x3 + 0.044408204123x2
+ 6.317702970180x - 54.0, R2 = .99
B
Depth (cm below mud/water interface)
20 30 40 50 60
200
<~
-"",)
LO '(-A
0 '-\~t
0
N 300~
.E
OJ
.0
400...
b
OJ
Ol
« 500
100
600
..... a
'.••• • 210Pb dates+ AMS 14C dateC
700
a y =0.003x4 _0.058x3 + 0.0277x2 + 9.4547x, R2 =0.99
b Y= -0.117x2 + 20.228x - 165.35, R2 = 0.99
cAMS 14C date correlated from core BG04A
Figure 2.3. (A) Age-versus-depth model for long core BG04A (see
Table 2.1 for 14C and tephra dates). (B) A~e-versus-depth model
for short core BG05B (see Table 2.2 for 21 Pb dates). The
radiocarbon date was correlated from the long core based on core
stratigraphy (see Table 2.1 for 14C date).
Table 2.2
Age-depth relations in short core (BG05B) for Battle Ground Lake, Washington
24
Depth (cm below mud surface)
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19b
19-20b
210Pb age a (yr before 2005)
3.0
14.1
24.0
31.7
38.8
46.3
52.0
56.1
61.2
68.3
73.7
77.6
82.2
87.9
100.8
122.0
140.6
149.4
176.3
253.0
Age (AD)
2002.0
1990.9
1981.0
1973.4
1966.2
1958.7
1953.0
1948.9
1943.8
1936.7
1931.3
1927.4
1922.8
1917.1
1904.2
1883.0
1864.5
1855.6
1828.7
1752.0
a 21 0Pb age determinations were completed by J. Budahn at the USGS Denver Federal
Center, Colorado.
b Age determinations for these samples were not used in the age-versus-depth model.
25
Three lithologic units were observed in core BG04A. Silty organic clay extended
from the bottom to 660 em depth and was characterized by low organic (~5%) and
relatively high magnetic susceptibility values (~.0005 emu) (Fig. 2.4). Apparently, little
ground cover resulted in large amounts of inorganic clastic material washing into the lake.
Above 660 em depth, organic values were ~O% and magnetic susceptibility values were
less than 0.0001 emu, indicating a more productive lake system with little clastic input,
except during the deposition of tephra units. From 660-360 em depth, the sediment was
laminated fine detritus gyttja, and above 360 em depth, it was nonlaminated fine detritus
gyttja. Clay layers of~.5 em width were noted between 335 and 325 em depth. Tephra
from the Mt. Mazama eruption was found at a depth of 514-519 em depth and is the only
identified tephra in the core not from Mount St. Helens.
Charcoal and Pollen Records
The charcoal record for core BG04A was compared to a previous vegetation
reconstruction for Battle Ground Lake and both were described using the pollen zonation of
core BG80B (Bamosky, 1985) (Fig. 2.5 and Table 2.3). The age model for core BG80B
was updated by calibrating the 14C dates using Calib 5.0.2 html (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005)
and using a newer age determination for the Mt. Mazama eruption (Zdanowicz et aI.,
1999). A 4th-order polynomial was used to develop an age-depth curve for core BG80B.
Zone BG2 (15,000-11,200 14C yr BP; 14,300-13,100 cal yr BP): Charcoal
concentration was low in this zone with an average of 1.5 particles/cm3• CHAR values
ranged between 0-0.32 particles/cm2/yr with an average of 0.04 particles/cm2/yr. Average
26
Figure 2.4. Battle Ground Lake long core BG04A lithology, charcoal concentration
(linear scale), charcoal concentration (log scale), organic content (%), and magnetic
susceptibility (emu) plotted against sediment depth (em below mud surface). For
the charcoal concentration curves, the black line is the total macroscopic charcoal
> 125 !lm and the gray line is the herbaceous charcoal>125 !lm. The gray
horizontal bars indicate identified tephra layers in the core.
0.0002 0.0004 0.0006
.~
.,!:)'<
~C,'li
.::>"6
.C,"6
rt;;
>:'~'I>\$
~~'li
c'0
~C,
'I>
0<..\$
1000 0 20 40 60 80 100010
5
-0<::-it~
c,'li
o~
~G
'I>~C,o ~q;.,
0'<:' ":Jv~oo.,
0.1
Sl. Helens D (AD 1980)
Sl. Helens W (AD 1482)
Sl. Helens P (ca. 3000 cal yr BP)
Sl. Helens Y (ca. 3500 cal yr BP)
200 400 600 800 0.001
I ' I ' I I I I I
o
~o<::-
~ ~ffj
<§"I ~'!? c,'lJ~~ ~ ~'lJ~ C,o~
&0\$ '.:2~ 'lJ~ o~ ~q;.,
.;f' .....~ &-<$" ~~G ~":JV
, e;,'li G _~'lJ'I>~.
o
fine detritus
gyttja l. '~-600
-830 100
-1470
200
............
-3570
fine gytlja with 300
clay layers -4700
-5650 400
laminated
clay gyttja 500
600
silty/organic 700
clay
800
mineral layer
tephra layer
particies/cm3 particles/cm3 % emu
M. Walsh, analyst
N
-...l
28
Figure 2.5. Battle Ground Lake long core BG04A charcoal concentration
(particles/cm3), charcoal accumulation rate (CHAR-log scale) (particles/cm2/yr),
fire episodes (black bars), fire frequency (episodes/lOOO yr), fire-episode
magnitude (particles/cm2), herbaceous charcoal (%), selected summed pollen
percentages from the Battle Ground Lake core BG80B, and July insolation
anomaly at 45° north plotted against an age scale (cal yr BP). Pollen data are
from Bamosky (1985) (Pic=Picea, Pin=Pinus, Aln sin= Alnus sinuata, Tsu mer=
Tsuga mertensiana, Art=Artemisia, Cyp=Cyperaceae, Pse=Pseudotsuga
menziesii, Abi=Abies, Aln rub=Alnus rubra, Sal=Salix, Pte=Pteridium,
Que=Quercus, Poa=Poaceae, Thu=Thuja plicata, Tsu het=Tsuga heterophylla).
Insolation values are from Berger and Loutre (1991).
!:' oil, :>.-'1>~O .~ ~ <..'1> :>.-'1>~'1> ~ <-0 :>.-'1> § <..'1>
<-e<.:'::,.e -;\ <$''1>0) ~--§ b<..'1> e r.;:.'1> :>.-'1>,o~
0<.:' ,,<-'I> oe" "'(; Oil, ~(J ~'1><.:' C> '1><.:' <..'1>C I:l> eo,:) 1'*' c,~~ 'b-l. §~ ,0 •~o ~ •~ eO ~ c," ,o',e
o ' ~"<Z;~" <.: ~ ~:p'" (:'5"c ':ff e;,~ ,<Z; 'iQ'I> ~c, 'C>~ to '\~~~(5''1> <f «.~e «.~e «.~<Z; ~e~ ~~ q,c,Q; o.~
~-l.,
o~
'1><.:'
~o<'<-
~0'1>
'~",,~~-l., <.<-0'l~
T"TT'1
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000 ~
7000 ~
u
8000 -a;
C'l
9000 «
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
L......1...o..l
0 20 40
W/m2
I I -rl,~
~ I , I , I I, I , I 1" """""",1" ",,,,,,,,,,,!.,,,,, .. ,,.,,," .. ,, 1."",,, ..
o 10 200 3000 0 50 100 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 100 20 40
episodes/ particles/ % % Pic + Pin + Pse + Abi + Que + Poa + selected Thu + Tsu het
1000 yrs cm2 Aln sin + Tsu mer + Aln rub + Sal + Pte herbs
Art+Cyp
L..L....l..-1.. ,............ '.....
o 400800 0.0001 1 100
particles/ particles/
cm3 cm2/yr
~I"''''''''''i'''''
o <-
1000 BGlal it
2000 ~
..... j'.:::. ..•.•..
3000 t:- -
.ot4000 BGla2 ~~ i.
5000 \ == ) ~ ~ f--------j
~6000
>..
Iii 7000
~
M,Walsh, charcoal analyst C.Whitlock, pollen analyst
IV
\0
Table 2.3
Average charcoal concentration, CHAR, fire frequency, fire return interval, fire-episode magnitude, herbaceous charcoal values, and fire regime description for Battle Ground Lake core BG04A.
Average charcoal Average CHAR Average fire Average fire Average Average Fire regime Vegetation
concentration (particles/cm2/yr) frequency return interval fire-episode herbaceous description"
(particles/cm3) (episodes/1000 yr) (yr) magnitude charcoal ('Ie)
(particles/cm2)
BG1a: 5200- present 77.0 5.4 10 113 282 8.2 Relatively infrequent, Pseudotsuga/Thuja-
BG1a1' 2500- presentb 886 72 9 124 533 7,6 moderate- to high- dominated forest
8G 1a2: 52GO-2500a 65,8 3.8 10 107 97 B.a severity, understory with openings
and crown fires
BG1 b: 10,800-5200 116.7 6.4 13 87 68 20.8 Frequent, low- to Quercus-dominated
moderate-severity, savanna with
surface and herbaceous understory
understory fires
BG1c: 13,100-10,800 17.5 0.7 8 149 84 5.6 Infrequent, low- to Pseudotsuga/Abies-
moderate-severity, dominated forest
surface and with openings
understory fires
BG2: 14,300-13,100 1.5 0.04 2 N/A 12 3.5 Little to no fire PinusJPicea-
dominated open
forest or parldand
" Vegetation reconstructions are from Battle Ground Lake core BG80B (Barnosky, 1985; Whitlock, 1992).
b The zones in gray are not based on vegetation zones (Bamosky, 1985).
VJ
o
31
fire frequency was 2 episodes/lOOO yr and only one significant charcoal peak was
registered in this zone (fire-episode magnitude: 12 partic1es/cm2). The average herbaceous
charcoal content for the zone was low (3.5%). The vegetation was an open forest or
parkland ofPicea, Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine), Alnus sinuata (Sitka alder), Tsuga
mertensiana (mountain hemlock), Artemisia (sagebrush), and Poaceae.
Zone BG1c (11,200-9500 14C yr BP; 13,100-10,800 cal yr BP): Charcoal
concentration and CHAR were higher in this zone than in the previous one. Average
charcoal concentration was 17.5 partic1es/cm3• CHAR values ranged from 0-10.3
partic1es/cm2/yrwith an average of 0.7 partic1es/cm2/yr. Fire frequency increased from 4-
11 episodes/lOOO yr from the bottom to the top of this zone; mFRI was 149 yr. Fire-
episode magnitude varied greatly from 0.3-785 partic1es/cm2, with the largest of these
episodes at ca. 12,800 cal yr BP. Another large charcoal peak with a magnitude of 359
partic1es/cm2 coincided with the Mount St. Helens J (upper) tephra. Average herbaceous
charcoal content in this zone was low (5.6%). The vegetation was a Pseudotsuga/Abies-
dominated forest with Alnus rubra-type and Pteridium in disturbed areas.
Zone BG1b (9500-4500 14C yr BP; 10,800-5200 cal yr BP): Charcoal
concentration and CHAR were much higher in this zone than the previous zones. Average
charcoal concentration was 116.7 partic1es/cm3• CHAR ranged from 0.2-24.3
partic1es/cm2/yr with an average of 6.4 partic1es/cm2/yr. Fire frequency generally increased
throughout this zone to a maximum of 17 episodes/1000 yr at ca. 6700 cal yr BP. This was
followed by a sharp decrease in fire frequency to its lowest point in the zone of 9
episodes/lOOO yr at ca. 5400 cal yr BP. The mFRI for the zone was 87 yr. Fire-episode
32
magnitude varied widely from 0.6 to 569 particles/cm2 (average: 68 particles/cm2). Large-
magnitude peaks occurred immediately following the deposition ofMazama ash and had a
high herbaceous charcoal content (~30%). Average herbaceous charcoal content for the
zone was 20.8%, with many values as high as 40-50%. The vegetation was savanna-like
with Quercus, Pseudotsuga, and Poaceae dominating, and herbaceous taxa such as
Camassia-type (either Camassia quamash (camas lily) or Zigadenus venenosus (death
camas)), Heuchera-type (alumroot), Asteraceae (sunflower family) subfamily Tubuliflorae,
and Apiaceae (carrot family) were also present.
Zone BGla (4500 14C yr BP - present; 5200 cal yr BP - present): This zone
was divided into two subzones based on fire activity: Subzone BGla2 (5200-2500 cal yr
BP) had an average charcoal concentration of65.8 particles/cm3, average CHAR of3.8
particles/cm2/yr, and average fire-episode magnitude of97 particles/cm2. Average fire
frequency was 10 episodes/IOOO yr (mFRI: 107 yr) and average herbaceous charcoal
content was 8.8%. Subzone BGlal (2500 cal yr BP - present) had an average charcoal
concentration of 88.6 particles/cm3 and average CHAR of7.2 particles/cm2/yr. Average
fire frequency was 9 episodes/IOOO yr (mFRI: 124 yr) and herbaceous charcoal content was
7.6%. Most notably, the average fire-episode magnitude (533 particles/cm2) was the
highest of the entire record.
Fire frequency initially increased in Zone BG1a to 13 episodesll 000 yr at ca. 4600
cal yr BP. This was followed by a general decrease until ca. 2500 cal yr BP. Fire
frequency then increased again and was higher than the zone average of 11 episodes/IOOO
yr between ca. 1500 and 700 cal yr BP. The most recent portion of the record showed a
33
sharp decrease in fire frequency (present-day value: 3 episodes/IOOO yr). The vegetation of
Zone BGla was a closed forest dominated by Pseudotsuga, Thuja-type, Tsuga
heterophylla, Abies, and Alnus rubra-type, with Pteridium and other herbaceous taxa
present in disturbance-related openings.
The charcoal record for core BG05B registered three major fire episodes over the
last ~700 years, at ca. AD 1350, ca. AD 1390, and the Yacolt fire of AD 1902 (Fig. 2.6).
The large magnitude of the charcoal peaks and the high woody charcoal content suggests
that these were high-severity crown fires. A smaller fourth peak at ca. AD 1930 probably
represents re-burns associated with the AD 1902 Yacolt fire (Gray, 1990), or other fires
burning outside the crater. The early 20th century was a period of high fire activity in the
lower Columbia River Valley (Morris, 1934). The BG05B pollen record indicates the
presence of a closed forest at Battle Ground Lake prior to ca. AD 1325, evidenced by high
PAR of Thuja-type and Pseudotsuga. Early seral communities followed the fires at ca. AD
1350 and 1390, as evidenced by the increased PAR ofPteridium, Alnus rubra-type, and
Poaceae at ca. AD 1425, and decreases in Thuja-type and Pseudotsuga PAR. Over the next
four hundred years, Thuja-type and Pseudotsuga reestablished, although not to previous
levels. Their PAR remained relatively high until the Yacolt fire ofAD 1902, when
Pteridium and then Alnus rubra-type increased. The decrease in Thuja-type and
Pseudotsuga PAR after AD 1800 is consistent with the beginning of logging in the lower
Columbia River Valley and the establishment of nearby Fort Vancouver (Allworth, 1976).
Later declines in arboreal PAR indicate local logging in the late 1800s and are associated
with an expansion ofPoaceae. Poaceae PAR rose dramatically at ca. AD 1930 and again at
34
, '" t-I.............-,--.----,--.--, f-,-....,...-r,.....--,--.--, f-,-....,...-r,........,.--.--" I " "I"
400 800 200 400 400 800 100 200
grains/cm2/yr
i ' I ' I ' I ' I ' Io 400 800
particles/cm3
2000
1800
1400
1600
0'
:'5.
<JJ
OJ
«
M. Walsh, analyst
Figure 2.6. Charcoal concentration (particles/cm3) and selected pollen accumulation
rates (PARs) for the Battle Ground Lake short core BG05B plotted against age (yr
AD). The black line on the charcoal concentration curve is the total number of
charcoal particles>125 Jlm and the gray line is the number of herbaceous charcoal
particles>125 Ilm. The gray shading shows the approximate dates of the Little Ice
Age (ca. AD 1450-1850; Grove, 2001).
------------ _.-
35
AD 1950, marking extensive grass seed farming in the Willamette Valley and the lower
Columbia River Valley.
Discussion
Fire-Vegetation-Climate Linkages at Battle Ground Lake
In the late-glacial period (>14,300-13,100 cal yr BP), the regional climate was still
likely cold and dry (Bart1ein et aI., 1998) and the vegetation surrounding Battle Ground
Lake was an open forest or parkland dominated by Pinus contorta and Picea. The sparse
vegetation and cold conditions supported little to no fIre activity. As conditions warmed in
the transition from the late-glacial to the early Holocene (Bart1ein et aI., 1998),
Pseudotsuga, Alnus rubra, and Abies expanded at the expense ofPinus contorta and Picea,
and a more closed forest developed at the site. After ca. 13,100 cal yr BP, fIre episodes
increased in frequency and size or severity, likely due to increased fuel biomass.
Influenced by greater summer drought in the early Holocene (i.e., ca. 11,000 cal yr
BP) relative either to present or earlier (Bart1ein et aI., 1998), the vegetation at Battle
Ground Lake shifted from a PseudotsugalAbies-dominated forest to a Quercus-dominated
savanna, and fIre activity increased dramatically (Fig. 2.5 and Table 2.3). Throughout the
early and middle Holocene (ca. 10,800-6500 cal yr BP), frequent surface fIres that burned
mostly herbaceous (grass) biomass maintained the open vegetation. The ignition source for
these fIres may have been lightning strikes associated with increased convection during
warmer summers because more subtropical moisture was likely advected into the western
United States than at present (Bart1ein et aI., 1998; Brown and Hebda, 2002a). It may also
have come from human activities. Archaeological fIndings suggest human habitation of the
36
Pacific Northwest for at least the last 11,000 years (Ames, 2003). Evidence in the lower
Columbia River Valley extends as far back as ca. 8000 yr BP, but is most abundant after
ca. 2500 yr BP (Pettigrew, 1990, Aikens, 1993). No archaeological evidence has been
found in the Battle Ground Lake crater or the immediate vicinity, although it is likely that
the area was used by prehistoric peoples. Abundant Camassia-type pollen in the record is
attributed to the presence of Camassia quamash near the site in the early to middle
Holocene (Whitlock, 1992). Cultural records document the burning of this important root
crop in the interior valleys of the Pacific Northwest to enhance its growth (Turner and
Kuhnlein, 1983; Boyd, 1986), consequently, human ignitions may be part of the fire signal
at this time.
The largest or most severe fires of the early to middle Holocene occurred
immediately after the eruption ofMt. Mazama. The 6 cm of tephra found in the core
probably blanketed the landscape, damaging or killing the vegetation, providing additional
fuel for several moderate-severity fires. Zobel and Antos (1997) reported that following
the AD 1980 Mount 81. Helens eruption, >2 cm of tephra was enough to kill many mosses
and 15 cm killed most understory plants. The fires following the Mt. Mazama eruption,
fueled by the dead or damaged shrubs and herbs, may have favored savanna taxa over
forest as evidenced by increased abundance of Quercus, Poaceae, and other herbs at ca.
7500 cal yr BP.
The establishment of the modern forest at Battle Ground Lake, indicated by
increased percentages ofPseudotsuga, Thuja-type and Tsuga heterophylla pollen,
increased fuel loads and led to a rise in fire activity between ca. 5400 and 4600 cal yr BP.
37
The climate was transitional at this point, with winters becoming wetter, but with summers
still sufficiently dry to support fIres (Bartlein et aI., 1998). The subsequent decrease in
fIre-episode frequency over the next 2500 years is consistent with cooler, wetter conditions
in the late Holocene (Thompson et aI., 1993) and the establishment ofmesophytic forests in
the PacifIc Northwest (Heusser et aI., 1985; Whitlock, 1992). This period of lower fIre
frequency at Battle Ground Lake occurred during a period when glaciers were advancing
on Mt. Rainier, ca. 4500-2000 cal yr BP (Crandall and Miller, 1974; Kaufman et aI., 2004).
The data from the past 2000 years show the influence of centennial-scale climate
variability, such as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly (ca. 1100-700 cal yr BP (AD 850-
1250); Mann, 2002) and the Little Ice Age (ca. 500-100 cal yr BP (AD 1450-1850); Grove,
2001) on the fIre and vegetation history at Battle Ground Lake. Evidence of the Medieval
Climate Anomaly in the western United States, usually in the form of increased aridity,
comes from tree-ring records (Graumlich, 1993; Stine, 1994; Cook et aI., 2004), lake-
sediment records (Mohr et aI., 2000; Brunelle and Whitlock, 2003), and changes in treeline
(Leavitt, 1994). At Battle Ground Lake, fIre frequency was higher than at any other time in
the past 4000 years between ca. 1500 and 700 cal yr BP (Fig. 2.5), likely due to the warmer
and/or effectively drier conditions associated with the Medieval Climate Anomaly. Similar
to the fIre regime of the early and middle Holocene, these fIres were relatively small in size
or severity, as compared to fIre episodes directly before and after this period. Several
modem studies have shown that fIre activity increases as summer temperatures increase
and relatively humidity decreases in the PacifIc Northwest (Gedalof et aI., 2005; McKenzie
et aI., 2004). The higher fIre frequency at Battle Ground Lake during the Medieval Climate
38
Anomaly was likely the result of extended summer drought (i.e., a longer fire season),
which would have increased the probability that late-summer lightning strikes ignited the
vegetation.
Regional evidence of cooler temperatures and greater precipitation associated with
the Little Ice Age comes from tree-ring dated glacial advances (Luckman, 1995; Wiles et
aI., 1999), tree-ring records (Graumlich and Brubaker, 1986; Weisberg and Swanson,
2003), and lake-sediment records (Brunelle and Whitlock, 2003). Between ca. 700-100 cal
yr BP only two fire episodes were registered in the Battle Ground Lake long core (Fig. 2.5)
and the short core shows little fire activity during this time (Fig. 2.6). The cooler
temperatures and/or effectively wetter conditions of the Little Ice Age probably shortened
the fire season and suppressed most summer fire ignitions. Although fire activity at Battle
Ground Lake seems to have responded to the cooler conditions, the vegetation, as inferred
from the pollen data, shows no dramatic changes due to the long life span of many Pacific
Northwest conifers. The pollen data do show a response to large-magnitude fire episodes,
as evidenced by the increase in Alnus rubra and Pteridium following fires at ca. AD 1400
and 1900 (Fig. 2.6). Recovery from these events seems to have taken several hundred
years based on the pollen changes.
In the late Holocene, settlement sites in the lower Columbia River Valley were
strategically concentrated along the Columbia River and its tributaries to utilize abundant
salmon and other resources (Boyd and Hajda, 1984; Pettigrew, 1990). Historical evidence
suggests that at the time ofEuro-American settlement in the lower Columbia River Valley,
fire was used by the native inhabitants to promote the growth of many food sources,
39
including nuts, berries, and root crops (Leopold and Boyd, 1999). Such fires were likely
small and are not expressed in the Battle Ground Lake fire record. The close
correspondence between the expansion of closed, mesophytic vegetation and the general
decrease in fire frequency over the last ca. 5000 years argues against a sustained
anthropogenic influence in the Battle Ground Lake area. Long-term cooling related to
decreased summer insolation seems to have been the overriding control of fire and
vegetation change in the late Holocene.
Regional Comparison of Low-Elevation Fire Histories
Regional syntheses have shown that vegetation change in the Pacific Northwest
throughout the late-glacial and the Holocene has been nearly synchronous across multiple
and environmentally diverse sites (Cwynar, 1987; Whitlock, 1992; Sea and Whitlock,
1995; Brown and Hebda, 2002a; Brown and Hebda, 2003). Similar shifts in fire regimes
have been documented as well (Brown and Hebda, 2002b; Long and Whitlock, 2002;
Hallett et aI., 2003). Here we compare fire and vegetation reconstructions from several
lowland sites «500 m a.s.l.) in the region (Figs. 2.1 and 2.7). A wide array of charcoal
analysis techniques were used in these studies, therefore only general comparisons of fire
activity could be made. The largest difference between the techniques is in the charcoal
source area; macroscopic charcoal records tend to indicate local to watershed-scale fire
activity (Whitlock and Millspaugh, 1996; Gardner and Whitlock, 2001), while microscopic
charcoal records provide a more regional fire signal (Patterson et aI., 1987) (see Whitlock
and Bartlein (2004) for more a more detailed discussion). Fire frequency estimates are
40
Figure 2.7. Pollen zones and inferred fire activity for eight low-elevation sites in
the Pacific Northwest arranged from south (left) to north (right): Little Lake, OR
(Worona and Whitlock, 1995; Long et aI., 1998), Battle Ground Lake, OR (this
study, Bamosky, 1985), Mineral Lake and Hall Lake, WA (Tsukada et aI., 1981),
Kirk Lake, WA (Cwynar, 1987), East Sooke Fen, Pixie Lake, and Whyac Lake,
BC (Brown and Hebda, 2002a). Pollen zones were plotted based on the published
information; all uncalibrated ages were calibrated to calendar years before present
using Calib 5.0.2 html (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005), and median ages were chosen
and rounded to the nearest century. The fire activity determinations for the pollen
zones (box shading) are based on these author's interpretations of fire-episode
frequency curves and CHAR values from Little Lake and Battle Ground Lake,
charcoal fragment influx curves from Mineral Lake and Hall Lake, and CHAR
curves and values from Kirk Lake, East Sooke Fen, Pixie Lake, and Whyac Lake,
and are independently scaled for each site. The hatched lines indicate when the
age of a vegetation zone was unknown by the author. The arrows indicate when
the vegetation zone extends beyond the age scale ofthe figure.
Pine
Pixie Lake, BC
48°59.64'N
124°19.67'W
70 m a.s.!.
East Sooke Fen, BC
48°35.19'N
123°68.17'W
155 m a.s.1.
Kirk Lake, WA
48°24.36'N
121°63.28'W
194ma.s.1.
''''~ /r'ar!R'~re der'",/ "".
-----
Hall Lake, WA
47°80.81'N
122°30.81 'W
104ma.s.1.
Pine! spruce!
;ountain hemlloc
-l,.
Pine! spruce! fir!
alder
Pine! spruce!
fir! sitka alder
"'--.. ------->r=--
. ~~
Battle Ground • North
Lake,WA
45°08.00'N
122°49.17'W
154 m a.s.1.
-l,.
South
Little Lake, OR
44°16.72'N
123°58.39'W
210ma.s.!
'\
\~
Do',tgjaS-fir!
red ak&T1 pine
'~
\
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
~ 6000
a::>
~
to 7000
~
(l)
Jl 8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
_ High fire activity 1_.Moderate fire activity I ILow fire activity I INo fire activity I>< INo charcoal data
.f:::.
......
42
only available for the macroscopic charcoal records that used high-resolution sampling
schemes and identified individual fire episodes.
Similar to the fire-history reconstruction at Battle Ground Lake, low-elevation sites
across the Pacific Northwest show little to no fire activity in the late-glacial period and
increased fire activity into the early Holocene (Fig. 2.7). A high-resolution macroscopic
charcoal study at Little Lake (44° 16.72'N, 123°58.39'W, 210 m a.s.!.) in the Oregon Coast
Range approximately 200 km southwest of Battle Ground Lake, shows highest fire
frequency in the early Holocene, between ca. 9000 and 6850 cal yr BP (Little Lake lacks
charcoal data prior to this time). At Mineral Lake, WA (46°71.81 'N, 122°17.69'W, 433 m
a.s.l.), in the southern Puget Trough approximately 105 km northwest ofBattle Ground
Lake, and at Hall Lake, WA (47°80.81 'N, 122°30.81 'W, 104 m a.s.l.), in the central Puget
Lowland approximately 220 km north ofBattle Ground Lake, pollen-slide microscopic
charcoal records show fire activity was low in the late-glacial period and greatest in the
early Holocene, between ca. 11,500 and 8000 cal yr BP (Tsukada et al., 1981). At Kirk
Lake, WA (48°24.36'N, 121°63.28', 194 m a.s.l.), in the northern Puget Lowland
approximately 280 km north of Battle Ground Lake, a pollen-slide microscopic charcoal
record suggests low fire activity before ca. 13,000 cal yr BP and highest fire activity
between ca. 12,500 and 9500 cal yr BP (Cwynar, 1987). Disturbance-adapted species
including Pseudotsuga, Alnus rubra, and Pteridium, were also highest at Kirk Lake in the
early Holocene.
Approximately 330 km to the northwest ofBattle Ground Lake, three sites on the
southern part ofVancouver Island, British Columbia, provide macroscopic charcoal
43
records: East Sooke Fen (48°35.l9'N, 123°68.17'W, 155 m a.s.l.), Pixie Lake (48°59.64'N,
124°19.67'W, 70 m a.s.l.), and Whyac Lake (48°67.22'N, 124°84.44'W, 15 m a.s.l.)
(Brown and Hebda, 2002a). Fire activity was low in the late-glacial period and increased
in the early Holocene, although at slightly different times and to different magnitudes.
Pixie Lake recorded a higher charcoal influx (partic1es/cm2/yr) in the early Holocene than
the other two sites, but the increased abundance of disturbance-adapted taxa implies
increased fire activity at all three sites (Brown and Hebda, 2002a).
Like Battle Ground Lake, all of the sites indicate decreased fire activity in the early
and middle Holocene, but only at Little Lake and Hall Lake did this trend continue toward
present (Kirk Lake lacks charcoal data after ca. 2500 cal yr BP). At Little Lake, fire
episodes in the middle to late Holocene were larger or of higher severity, but less frequent
than during the early Holocene. In contrast to the Battle Ground Lake record, Mineral
Lake charcoal influx was higher in the middle to late Holocene, but the coarse sampling
resolution makes specific fire interpretations difficult. On southern Vancouver Island,
charcoal influx was variable among the sites in the middle and late Holocene. East Sooke
Fen had higher charcoal influx between ca. 6400 and 5000 cal yr BP and after ca. 2000 cal
yr BP. At Pixie Lake, charcoal influx was low between ca. 8500 and 6000 cal yr BP, and
increased and remained high until ca. 2300 cal yr BP, when it dropped. At Whyac Lake,
charcoal influx was low in the middle and late Holocene prior to ca. 2000 cal yr BP. The
difference in charcoal accumulation between the sites is partially explained by their relative
location along a moisture gradient (Brown and Hebda, 2002a). The rise in charcoal influx
after ca. 2000 cal yr BP at East Sooke Fen and Whyac Lake, as well as at additional sites
44
on Vancouver Island, is attributed to anthropogenic burning (Brown and Hebda, 2002b).
However, given the coarse sampling resolution of the records, the increase in charcoal
influx may simply reflect changes in fuel biomass associated with increased moisture
leading to larger, less frequent fires, not increased fire activity. A shift at Little Lake at ca.
2000 cal yr BP to even less frequent fire episodes but overall higher CHAR values
indicates decreased fire activity throughout the most recent portion of the record (Long et
aI., 1998).
Charcoal and pollen records from these sites reveal relationships between fire and
vegetation during the late-glacial and Holocene periods. Several sites indicate that
increased fire activity lagged the change to more thermophilous vegetation by several
centuries in the late-glacial period. For example, the shift to more frequent, greater
magnitude fire episodes at Battle Ground Lake at ca. 12,500 occurred --400-500 years after
the rise ofPseudotsuga. At Kirk Lake, the expansion ofPseudotsuga and Tsuga
heterophylla at ca. 12,900 cal yr BP preceded the rise in fire activity by ~500 years.
Likewise, fire activity increased at Hall Lake ~750 years after the appearance of
Pseudotsuga at ca. 11,500 cal yr BP. At Pixie Lake, the expansion ofPicea at ca. 12,600
cal yr BP was followed ~500-700 years later by an increase in fire activity. Fire activity at
Whyac Lake increased ~300-500 years following a rise in Picea at ca. 10,800 cal yr BP. In
all of these cases, the lag in the fire regime shift probably represents the time required for
fuel to accumulate following the establishment of closed forests. The lag could, however,
also indicate a lack of ignitions during the transition from the late-glacial to the early
Holocene period, or possibly wetter conditions (see Mathewes, 1993) associated with the
45
North Atlantic-focused Younger Dryas climate reversal (ca. 12,900-11,500 cal yr BP;
Alley, 2000). The latter explanation seems less likely because vegetation change during
the Younger Dryas was not uniformly registered across the Pacific Northwest (Grigg and
Whitlock, 1998; Vacco et aI., 2005; Marlon et aI., in press). The exception to the general
occurrence of a lag in the shift in fire regime behind that of the vegetation is at East Sooke
Fen, where fire activity seemingly increased simultaneously with rises in Picea and Alnus
spp. at ca. 11,400 cal yr BP.
Shifts in vegetation and fire activity were more synchronous in the early Holocene.
For example, as the climate warmed and dried, the shift from a closed forest to a savanna at
Battle Ground Lake was accompanied by a concurrent shift in the fire regime.
Additionally, fire activity dropped as Thuja-type increased at ca. 7000 cal yr BP at Little
Lake and at ca. 5000 cal yr BP at Whyac Lake. At Pixie Lake, increased Tsuga
heterophylla at ca. 8500 cal yr. BP occurred as fire activity decreased. At East Sooke Fen,
fire activity decreased as Pseudotsuga increased at ca. 9800 cal yr BP. It also seems that
fire history cannot be linked to the history of a particular taxon. For example, at Little
Lake, Kirk Lake, Mineral Lake, Hall Lake and Pixie Lake, fire activity rose with increased
Pseudotsuga in the early Holocene. However, at East Sooke Fen, fire activity decreased
with increased Pseudotsuga at ca. 9800 cal yr BP. Additionally, at Whyac Lake, fire
activity increased along with Tsuga heterophylla at ca. 10,500 cal yr BP, but it decreased at
Pixie Lake when Tsuga heterophylla increased at ca. 8500 cal yr BP.
46
Conclusions
The pollen and charcoal records from Battle Ground Lake suggest that the
relationships between fire, vegetation, and climate in the late-glacial and Holocene
changed, depending upon the time scale of investigation. On a millennial-time scale, fire
activity seemed to track climate-induced vegetation change with varying degrees oflag on
the order of a few decades to several hundred years. This finding has also been noted in
regional comparisons of westem North and South America (Whitlock et aI., 2006, 2008).
When the vegetation at Battle Ground Lake shifted from a cold, PinuslPicea-dominated
parkland to a warmer PseudotsugalAbies-dominated forest at ca. 13,100 cal yr BP,
increased fire activity lagged ~500 years behind. This probably reflects a delayed response
in the build up of fuel to support fires, but it may also be related to climate variations in the
late-glacial period. Vegetation and fire activity shifts were more synchronous in the early
and middle Holocene when xerophytic Quercus-savanna replaced a more closed forest at
Battle Ground Lake. Apparently fuel levels were able to support the shift to more frequent,
but less severe or smaller fires at this time. The lagged fire response in the late-glacial as
compared with the more synchronous fire response to vegetation change in the Holocene is
evident at other low-elevations sites in the Pacific Northwest.
The Battle Ground Lake data also suggest a direct link between climate and fire
activity on a centennial-time scale, in the absence ofmajor vegetation change. For
example, fire frequency was high during the Medieval Climate Anomaly, while fire
episodes were nearly absent during the Little Ice Age. The only responses in the vegetation
were brief and expected shifts in seral status following individual fires. Evidently, it was
47
the influence of these shorter-scale climatic shifts on the length and severity of the fire
season that controlled fire frequency, not a climate-driven change in forest composition or
structure.
Finally, although humans were present in the lower Columbia River Valley during
the Holocene and quite likely burned the landscape near Battle Ground Lake, the charcoal
record does not show a clear anthropogenic signal. The long-term trends in fire activity can
be explained through known climate variations and attendant vegetation shifts, and are
observed at other sites in the Pacific Northwest. Even in the last 2500 years when human
habitation in the lower Columbia River Valley was greatest, fire activity at Battle Ground
Lake remained closely correlated with climate. Whether or not the fire history at Battle
Ground Lake is representative ofother parts of the lower Columbia River Valley and the
Willamette Valley where anthropogenic burning is thought to have been important prior to
Euro-American settlement, remains to be seen.
48
CHAPTER III
AN 11,000-YEAR-LONG RECORD OF FIRE AND VEGETATION HISTORY AT
BEAVER LAKE, OREGON, CENTRAL WILLAMETTE VALLEY
This chapter has been prepared as a co-authored manuscript with C.A. Pearl, C. Whitlock
and P.l. Bart1ein and submitted to the journal Quaternary Science Reviews.
Introduction
Background
Paleoecological records from across the Pacific Northwest have increased our
understanding of vegetation and climate history since the last glaciation (Hansen, 1947;
Hibbert, 1979; Leopold et aI., 1982; Heusser, 1983; Whitlock, 1992; Hebda, 1995; Sea
and Whitlock, 1995; Worona and Whitlock, 1995; Pellatt and Mathewes, 1997; Grigg
and Whitlock, 1998; Pellatt et aI., 1998; Pellatt et aI., 2001; Lacourse, 2005). In addition,
some studies have also considered the prehistoric role of fire in such areas as southern
British Columbia (including Vancouver Island) (Heinrichs et aI., 2001; Brown and
Hebda, 2002a; Brown and Hebda, 2002b; Brown and Hebda, 2003), northwestern
Washington (Cwynar, 1987; Tsukada et aI., 1981; McLachlan and Brubaker, 1995; Gavin
et aI., 2001; Greenwald and Brubaker, 2001; Higuera et aI., 2005; Sugimura et aI., 2008),
southwestern Washington (Walsh et aI., 2008), and western Oregon (Long et aI., 1998;
49
Long and Whitlock, 2002; Long et aI., 2007). Conspicuously missing from this network
of paleofire and vegetation reconstructions are sites from the Willamette Valley of
Oregon, south of the Columbia River, even though this was historically an area of
widespread prairie and oak savanna, purportedly maintained by anthropogenic burning
(Habeck, 1961; Johannessen et aI., 1971). Unfortunately, most natural wetlands in the
Willamette Valley lie in floodplain settings, and are typically young or have been
disturbed by land-use activities. Hansen (1947) described two valley-floor Holocene
pollen records from sites that no longer exist, but these reconstructions lacked
radiometric dating, which limits their interpretability.
In this paper, we describe the paleoecological history of Beaver Lake, OR, based
on high-resolution macroscopic charcoal, pollen, and sedimentological data. Our
objective was to assess the relative influence of natural (i.e., geomorphic development,
hydrologic shifts, and millennial- and centennial-scale climate variability) and
anthropogenic activities (i.e., Native American burning and Euro-American settlement)
on the vegetation and fire history of the site over the past 11,000 years. The Beaver Lake
reconstruction is also placed within the framework of the Holocene paleoecological
history of the Pacific Northwest.
Study Area
The Willamette Valley forms the southern portion of a structural depression
between the Coast and Cascade ranges from southern British Columbia to central western
Oregon (Fig. 3.1) (Gannett and Caldwell, 1998). Beaver Lake (44°55.03'N,
c
ro
Q)
u
o
U
li=
'0
ro
a..
Figure 3.1. Map of the Willamette Valley and location of the study site Beaver
Lake and other sites mentioned in the text. Inset shows an aerial photograph of
the site taken in 2000 with the approximate coring location (white cross) (photo:
USGS).
50
51
123°17.78'W, 69 m a.s.l.) is located in the central Willamette Valley, ~7 km east of
Corvallis, OR (16 km east of the Coast Range and 35 km west of the Cascade Range
foothills). It occupies an oxbow/abandoned meander bend that is ~1 km in length and has
an average width of 50 m. The site experiences warm dry summers and cool wet winters
typical of the Willamette Valley, as a result of the seasonal shift in the position of the
polar jet stream and the northeastern Pacific subtropical high-pressure system (Mitchell,
1976; Mock, 1996). The climate ofthe site is known from the city ofCorvallis weather
station located ~7.5 km WNW of the site, which for the period of 1971-2000 recorded an
average July temperature of 19.2°C, an average January temperature of4.6°C, and an
average annual total precipitation of 1109 mm (~78% of it between November and April)
(Western Regional Climate Center, 2007). Water depth in Beaver Lake varies seasonally
and is typically less than 1.5 m by late summer.
General Land Office (GLO) survey notes from AD 1853 indicate that the study
area supported a large Salix (willow)-dominated riparian forest, surrounded by prairie on
the upland surface east of the lake and to a lesser extent Quercus garryana (Oregon white
oak) savanna at the time of settlement (Christy et aI., 1997). The presettlement Salix
forest was significantly reduced following Euro-American settlement and converted to
intensive agriculture by the time ofthe first aerial photograph in AD 1935. Agricultural
production ofmostly ryegrass (Lolium spp.) and wheat (Triticum spp.) continues near the
site today (Fig. 3.1, inset). The current vegetation surrounding Beaver Lake is a narrow
riparian forest composed ofSalix spp., Populus trichocarpa (black cottonwood),
Fraxinus latifolia (Oregon ash), and Quercus garryana, with an understory ofSpiraea
52
douglasii (hardhack), Oemleria cerasiformis (Indian plum), Rhus diversiloba (poison
oak), and Symphoricarpos albus (snowberry). Beaver Lake is presently a shallow
eutrophic system, with the littoral zone dominated by wetland vegetation, including
Phalaris arundinacea (reed canarygrass), Ludwigia palustris (water purslane), Nuphar
polysepalum (yellow pond-lily), and Lemna sp. (duckweed). Larger strips of riparian
hardwood forest ofAcer macrophyllum (bigleafmaple) and Populus trichocarpa grow
along the Willamette River (ca. 5 km to the west) and the Calapooya River (ca. 2 km to
the east). Botanical nomenclature follows Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973).
Methods
Two sediment cores were recovered from Beaver Lake using a 5-cm diameter
modified Livingstone piston corer (Wright et aI., 1983): a 7.87 m-long sediment core
(BL93A) in 1993, and an 8.07 m-long sediment core (BL05B) in 2005, which recovered
the sediment/water interface. Core segments were extruded on site, wrapped in plastic
wrap and foil, transported to the University of Oregon and refrigerated.
BL93A and BL05B core segments were split longitudinally and photographed,
and the lithologic characteristics were described. Magnetic susceptibility was measured
in electromagnetic units (emu) to determine the inorganic content of core BL05B
(Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). Measurements were taken at contiguous I-em intervals
using a Sapphire Instruments magnetic coil. Loss-on-ignition analysis on core BL05B
was undertaken to determine the bulk density and organic and carbonate content of the
sediment (Dean, 1974). Samples of l-cm3 volume were taken at 5-cm intervals, dried at
53
80°C for 24 hours and combusted at 550°C for 1 h to determine the percent organic
content and at 900°C for 2 h to determine the percent carbonate content.
Pollen samples of 1_cm3 were taken from core BL93A at 4-cm intervals above
Mazama ash and at 8 to 30-cm intervals below. Pollen samples of l-cm3 were also taken
at 5-cm intervals (ca. 20-80 year intervals) from the top 65 cm of core BL05B. Pollen
analysis followed standard techniques (Faegri et aI., 1989). Lycopodium was added to
each sample as an exotic tracer to calculate pollen concentration and 300-500 terrestrial
pollen grains and spores were counted per sample. Pollen was tallied at magnifications
of 400 and 1000x and identified based on modem phytogeography. Pinus monticola-type
pollen included the haploxy10n pines (P. monticola [western white pine], P. lambertiana
[sugar pine], and potentially P. albicaulis [whitebark pineD. P. contorta-type pollen
included diploxylon pines (P. contorta [lodgepole pine] and P. ponderosa [ponderosa
pineD. Pseudotsuga/Larix-type pollen was considered to be from Pseudotsuga menziesii
(Douglas-fir), since Larix (larch) grows on the east slope of the Cascade Range (Franklin
and Dyrness, 1988). Pollen counts were converted to percentages using different sums.
The terrestrial sum included all upland forest, oak savanna, and disturbance taxa, and
some wet prairie (i.e., Apiaceae and Liliaceae) taxa, and was used to calculate the
percentages of those taxa. The terrestrial sum plus Poaceae and Cyperaceae was used to
calculate percentages for the disturbance taxa. The terrestrial sum plus the riparian sum
was used to calculate percentages for Poaceae and Cyperaceae. The terrestrial sum plus
the aquatic sum was used to calculate percentages for the aquatic taxa. Arboreal to
54
nonarboreal (APINAP) pollen ratio was calculated by dividing the arboreal sum by the
total arboreal plus nonarboreal sum.
Contiguous l-cm3 samples were taken from core BL05B for charcoal analysis at
0.5-cm intervals between 0.0-2.5 m depth and from 4.5 m depth to the bottom of the core.
The remainder of the core was sampled at l-cm intervals. Charcoal samples were soaked
in a 5% solution of sodium hexametaphosphate for >24 hours and a weak bleach solution
for one hour to disaggregate the sediment. Samples were washed through nested sieves
of250 and 125 11m mesh size and the residue was transferred into gridded petri dishes
and counted. Previous studies indicate that large particles are not transported far from the
source and thus are an indicator of local fire activity (Whitlock and Millspaugh, 1996;
Whitlock and Larsen, 2001); therefore, only charcoal particles>125 11m in minimum
diameter were considered. Charcoal particles were identified and tallied as either woody,
herbaceous, or lattice type based on their appearance and comparison to burned reference
material (Fig. 3.2). Herbaceous charcoal, which comes from grasses or other monocots,
was flat and contained stomata within the epidermal walls (Jensen et aI., 2007; Walsh et
aI., 2008). Lattice charcoal, which likely comes from leaves and non-woody material,
was abundant in some samples. Comparison of the abundance of charcoal from different
sources helped characterize fire activity in different sections of the core by providing
information on fire severity. A previous study has shown that as fire severity increases,
the proportion of herbaceous charcoal to the total charcoal decreases (Walsh et aI., 2008).
Plant macrofossils, mostly wood fragments, provided material for 14C AMS dating.
55
A \'l
"" ,
'#/1 ~;
I
0
B
c
I I I
o 500 1000 rIm
Figure 3.2. Photos of (A) woody
charcoal, (B) herbaceous (i.e., grass)
charcoal, and (C) lattice (source
unknown) charcoal particles.
56
Charcoal counts were divided the by the volume of the sample to calculate
charcoal concentration (particles/cm3). Analysis of the charcoal data followed methods
outlined in Higuera et aI. (2008) and used the statistical program CharAnalysis (Higuera,
2008; http://charanalysis.googlepages.com/). Concentration values were interpolated to
constant 5-yr time steps, which represents the median temporal resolution of the record,
to obtain the charcoal accumulation rate (CHAR) time series. The non-log-transformed
CHAR time series was decomposed into a peaks (Cpeak) and background (Cbackground)
component in order to determine individual fire episodes. Cpeak represents the inferred
fire episodes (i.e., one or more fire occurring during the duration of a charcoal peak)
(Long et aI., 1998; Whitlock and Bartlein, 2004) and Cbackground has been attributed to
many factors, including long-term changes in fuel biomass (Marlon et aI., 2006) and area
burned (Higuera et aI., 2007). A robust Lowess smoother with a 400-yr window width
was used to model Cbackground, and Cpeak was the residuals after Cbackground was subtracted
from the CHAR time series. A locally determined threshold value to separate fire-related
(i.e., signal) from non-fire related variability (i.e., noise) in the Cpeak component was set
at the 95th percentile of a Gaussian distribution model of the noise in the Cpeak time series.
Sensitivity analysis of window widths between 100 to 1000 years showed that the signal-
to-noise ratio was maximized when a window width of 400 years was used. Cpeak was
screened and peaks were eliminated if the maximum charcoal count from a peak had a
>5% chance of coming from the same Poisson-distributed population as the minimum
count within the preceding 75 years (Gavin et aI., 2006; Higuera et aI., 2008).
57
The CHAR time series was plotted on a log-transfonned scale in order to
facilitate comparison between different sections of the core. Smoothed fire-episode
frequency, mean fire-return interval, and fire-episode magnitude were also calculated and
plotted. Fire-episode frequency (episodes/lOOO yr) is the sum of the total number of fires
within a 1000-yr period, smoothed with a Lowess filter. Mean fire-return interval
(mFRI) is the average years between fire episodes within a zone. Fire-episode
magnitude (partic1es/cm2) is the total charcoal influx in a peak and is related to fire size,
severity, and taphonomic processes (Whitlock et aI., 2006; Higuera et aI., 2007).
Results
Chronology
Eight 14C age detenninations on bulk sediment, one AMS 14C age detennination,
and the accepted age ofMazama ash (Zdanowicz et aI., 1999) were used to develop the
age-depth model for core BL93A (Table 3.1, Fig. 3.3a). Eleven 210Pb age detenninations,
seven AMS 14C age detenninations on wood fragments, one AMS 14C age detennination
on bulk sediment, and the accepted age ofMazama ash were used to develop the age-
depth model for core BL05B (Table 3.1, Fig. 3.3b). All l4C age detenninations were
converted to calendar years before present (cal yr BP; present= 1950 AD) using Calib
5.0.2 html (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005). The probability density function (PDF) curves
were plotted (Figs. 3.3a and 3.3b) to show the range ofpossible calendar ages for each
14C age detennination. Calendar ages were selected based on the following criteria: 1)
the median age was chosen if it did not fall in a trough on the PDF curve and did not
58
Table 3.1. Age-depth relations for Beaver Lake, OR
Depth Lab number Source material Dates (210Pb, Calibrated age
(cm below mud surface) 14C,volcanic (cal yr BP)
tephra)
Core BL93A
63.0-70.0 Beta-85262 lake sediment 1370 +/- 808 1100b
101.0-111.0 Beta-81660 lake sediment 1130 +/- 608 1220b
218.0-228.0 Beta-72836 lake sediment 2570 +/- 608 2520b
239.0-249.0 Beta-109116 lake sediment 2920 +/- 608 2900b
291.0-301.0 Beta-81661 lake sediment 2940 +/- 608 3310b
390.0-400.0 Beta-81662 lake sediment 5710 +/- 908 6420b
420.0-430.0 Beta-109117 lake sediment 6070 +/- 1208 6940b
479.0-481.0 Mazama tephra 7627 +/- 150c
670.0-680.0 Beta-109118 lake sediment 9290 +/- 508 10440b
709.0-719.0 Beta-72837 lake sediment 9860 +/- 3608 10800b
Age-depth model: y = -39.03x3 + 428.13x2 +445.13x
Core BL05B
1.0-2.0 lake sediment 3.0d -52.0
5.0-6.0 lake sediment 28.6d -26.4
9.0-10.0 lake sediment 36.9d -18.1
13.0-14.0 lake sediment 41.6d -13.4
17.5-18.5 lake sediment 46.4d -8.6
21.0-22.0 lake sediment 54.8d -0.2
25.0-26.0 lake sediment 68.0d 13.0
29.0-30.0 lake sediment 79.0d 24.0
33.0-34.0 lake sediment 94.3d 39.3
37.0-38.0 lake sediment 117.6d 62.6
41.0-42.0 lake sediment 148.7d 93.7
45.5-46.5 lake sediment 272.6d,e 217.6
84.5 AA71936 twig 1102 +/- 35f 980b
144.0 AA71937 twig 1842 +/- 42f 1750b
220.0 AA71938 wood 3512 +/- 44f 3780b
316.5 AA71939 wood 5050 +/- 43f 5830b
400.0 Mazama tephra 7627 +/- 150c
451.0 AA71940 twig 8413 +/- 51 f 9330b
555.0 AA71941 twig 8860 +/- 53f 9920b
642.5 AA72365 twig 8776 +/- 60f 10100b
849.0 AA72364 lake sediment 9623 +/- 96f 11100b
8 14c age determinations were completed at Beta Analytic, Inc.
b Calibrated ages determined using Calib 5.0.2 html (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005).
c Age as reported in Zdanowicz et al. (1999).
d 210Pb age determinations completed by J. Budahn at the USGS Denver Federal Center, Colorado.
e Denotes samples not used in the age-depth model.
f 14C age determinations completed at the University of Arizona AMS facility.
59
I j I I i I I I I I I I I I I I I , I I I ' I I , I ii, I , •• , • Ii. , i I • , • I I
123456789
I I
8
I i I I
7
Depth (m below mud surface)
d 0.2 0.4 0.6
o
c
100
Ii:'
co 200
~
~300
&400
«
'~ 500
'\ 600
'C--
--._-.--~
----.
Depth (m below mud surface)
Depth (m below mud surface)
I I I I i I I I I I I I I I iii I I , iii • I I
1 234 5 6
-..............,
"',~~
"'""
A
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
gj 5000
? 6000
rn
(J
';D' 7000
Cl
« 8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
13000
B
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Ii:'
~ 5000
>-
~ 6000
Q)
~ 7000
8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
Figure 3.3. Depth-versus-age relations for (A) core BL93A and
(B) core BL05B based on the age model information given in
Table 3.1. (C) shows the depth-versus-age relations for the top
0.65 m of core BL05B based on 210Pb dating, which is the area
indicated by the rectangle on curve B.
60
cause a reversal in the core chronology; 2) if the median age fell in a trough on the PDF
curve, then the value of the nearest, largest peak was chosen; and 3) if choosing the
median age caused a reversal in the core chronology, then the value of the nearest, largest
peak that did not lead to a reversal in the core chronology was chosen. All age
determinations fell within the 2 cr range ofpossible ages. The resulting age model for
core BL93A was best described by a 3rd-order polynomial (y = -39.03x3 + 428.13x2 +
445.13x), suggesting a basal date of approximately 10,920 cal yr BP (Fig. 3.3a). A
constrained cubic smoothing spline was used to fit the age model of core BL05B,
suggesting a basal date of 11,190 cal yr BP (Fig. 3.3b). Cores BL93A and BG04B were
correlated based the chronology of the two records.
Lithology
The lithology of cores BL93A and BL05B was nearly identical and only the
longer ofthe two cores (BL05B) is described here (Fig. 3.4). The base of core BL05B
consisted ofcoarse sand and gravel. Between 8.65 and 7.55 m depth, the sediments were
fine silty gyttja with inorganic silt layers interspersed. Magnetic susceptibility values
were highest in this part of the core (""{}.0011 emu), and the organic content was lowest
(~3%). These results are consistent with a fluvial environment receiving large amounts
of inorganic input. Between 7.55 and 5.55 m depth, the sediments were clay gyttja
(~12.5% organic content) interspersed with inorganic clay, silt, and sand layers.
Magnetic susceptibility values dropped to ""{}.0003 emu, although peaks in magnetic
susceptibility were associated with several silt and clay layers. The sediments indicate a
61
Figure 3.4. Lithology, 14C_AMS dates, charcoal concentration (linear scale),
charcoal concentration (log scale), organic content, and magnetic susceptibility for
core BL05B plotted against depth (m). The vertical ticks on the charcoal
concentration (log scale) curve represent zero values.
0.0012
emu
0.0006
.~.~~
rx>;$
o/Q
>:>-""~oOJ
~/Q~~<$
I I I I 1
%
25 50 75 100 0
~#
00
~O
~<fo
I I 1 I I I I II
1000 010 100
particles/cm3
'0<:-~if
0°
0<:'
~v~oo'li ~i;'.
v,<:-'li e"o'li
~o<?,
~
JTnmDl I 11111111 I I1IT1T1jITfTIlllj
200 0.1
Mazama 0
(7,627 cal yr BP)
50 100 150
particles/cm3
,-I I Io I I I I ,
-980
-1750
2
-3780
-5830 3
4
-9330
5
-9920
6
-10100
7
"j
.... ..... ~~~
8
-11100
9
<§'~~ ~o<:-
1!2'li ~ ~'li
"" ~'.Q~~l) rx~ 0<:-<'·'-(yO~ ~C:J ~o/Q o/ltVJ-i;'.
JS' ....b<v'?' rlJ,&-~/Q v'<:-~:rS- e,;
__ ~ ~f
................ clay
............ tephra
O~Otla;::m;:)Da wood
Laminated
clay gyttja
Clay gyttja with
silt and clay layers
Silty gyttja
sand
•••••••••••• silt
Coarse sand/gravel
Medium detritus gyttja
with scattered peat
and woody debris
Medium detritus gyttja
with silt and clay
01
N
63
period of lacustrine deposition interrupted by periods of flooding, typical of an oxbow
lake. Sediments were laminated clay gyttja between 5.55 and 4.85 m depth, and medium
detritus gyttja with some silt and clay between 4.85 and 4.20 m depth. A tephra in the
core at 4.00 m depth was assumed to have come from the eruption ofMt. Mazama, (Sea
and Whitlock, 1995; Walsh et aI., 2008). From a depth of4.20 m to the top ofthe core,
sediments were medium detritus gyttja containing layers of peat and woody debris. High
organic content (~40%) and low magnetic susceptibility indicate a productive lake with
little fluvial input. Organic content decreased to ~31.5% in the top 0.25 m ofthe core,
most likely due to the removal of the surrounding Salix-dominated riparian forest and the
conversion of the watershed to agriculture (discussed below).
Core BL93A Pollen Record
The BL93A record was divided into six pollen zones based on visual changes in the
abundance ofmajor taxa (Fig. 3.5).
Zone BL93A-1 (7.78 m-4.57 m; ca. 10 920 to 7250 cal yr BP): Percentages of
upland forest taxa were generally low in this zone with the exception ofPinus contorta-
type, Pinus undifferentiated, Picea, Thuja-type, and Polystichum-type, which were high at
the start of the record, and then decreased and remained low until the top of the zone. Oak
savanna taxa (i.e., Pseudotsuga-type, Quercus, Corylus, and Acer macrophyllum) were
present in relatively high percentages. Disturbance taxa, predominantly Alnus rubra-type,
dominated most this zone and declined toward the top. Pteridium was initially high at the
start of the record, decreased for most of the zone, and then increased toward the top of the
Mazama
ash
BG93A-6
BG93A-5
BG93A-2
BG93A-4
_"!!~~f;:3.
~ Upland foresltaxa 7 /Oaksavanna taxa~/ DiSIUrtlanCer- .......~'".7 W. ",'00-/ ""',""7xa~4' ~'" '~'" II?' / .c'" .f' /", ~ l"i ",~ ",'l; "" ~"I. ~ ~'" ~\~-e' ·co ~Nl>' f'y~" '15 <5<<:' <:'i '~O' ~~ i:-~'" ..,' ?!>.'#~. i:,"'- ~"':f> iI-<f ~,,!" ~ ~'15 ~ ~ ,'/)~ ~ ",* !1> iF 0>P."?-~;s-~ ",1t ,§>!'o$> "".s "'~'0" ''15~ I!!~ <5<'f> i'1F 1>"" ~,," ~ o$>~ iI-/:}" '{><-+ ~~,§> .i1/ c,p'" i§J .#*c<!P"'"i' il'j".~~ ~~~.?~.
<:f"l. ~<f q~ q~ q~ q-fJ ",V' ",'<:'~ ",,,.;, \)d <1" Q-,f- cP~ l' '?>~ <1'f> vi"l ~~ ",~ qCf cj."I. ~~ s'lf'Q~ ",,,Q ~"y <10' ,,,ri'~~ ZOne
o"b~I;l:,--.--.~I=-r-~b=:r-r--~~~ 6:.::-:=~1 ..~b.1 '~tj" ~l, l--n~~~i;Z:..l!!~~f;:1.
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
41
6000
7000
8000
9000
6j 10000
~ 11000
20% 20 20 20 20 40 20 20 20 40 60 20 20 40 60 80 20 40 20 40 60 20 40 20 40 20 o 1
Pollen analyst M. Worona
Figure 3.5. Percentages of selected pollen taxa and spores, and APINAP ratios for core BL93A plotted against age (cal yr
BP). Gray curves represent a 3X exaggeration of solid black curve. Dashed lines indicate zone boundaries.
~
65
zone. Riparian forest taxa (i.e., Salix and Spiraea-type) and wet prairie taxa (i.e., Poaceae
[grasses], Cyperaceae, and Apiaceae) were characterized by very low percentages. The
pollen data suggest the presence ofxeric woodland near the site, with Alnus rubra and
some Pteridium in disturbed areas. The high AP/NAP ratio indicates a relatively closed
forest canopy.
Zone BL93A-2 (4.57-3.73 rn; ca. 7250 to 5600 cal yr BP): Percentages of
many upland forest taxa (i.e., Pinus undifferentiated, Abies, Thuja-type, Tsuga
heterophylla, and Dryopoteris-type) increased in this zone. Oak savanna taxa percentages
remained relatively high and variable. Percentages ofAlnus rubra-type decreased greatly
from the previous zone, but remained relatively high. Pteridium percentages increased
from the previous zone and Equisetum (horsetail) percentages were highest in this zone.
Riparian forest taxa percentages of Salix increased dramatically and Fraxinus first appeared
and increased in the zone. Wet prairie taxa percentages (i.e., Poaceae, Cyperaceae, and
Apiaceae) increased steadily above BL93A-llevels, and Liliaceae pollen first appeared in
this zone. Several aquatic taxa, including Brasenia (water shield), Typha latifolia
(broadleaf cattail), and Nuphar, were also abundant. The pollen percentages in this zone
suggest that upland forest increased in abundance, probably on hillsides near the site,
although this pollen may represent changes in forests of the Coast Range. The high
percentages ofFraxinus and Salix, both ofwhich produce pollen that is not widely
dispersed (Faegri et aI., 1989), imply the development ofriparian forest near Beaver Lake.
Elevated percentages ofPoaceae, Cyperaceae, Apiaceae, and Liliaceae pollen also suggest
increased availability of moisture in the immediate area and likely indicate the development
66
of seasonally wet prairie near the site. Prairie expansion, perhaps at the expense of oak
savanna, is further supported by a decrease in the APINAP ratio, suggesting less forest
cover. Lower percentages of some disturbance taxa (i.e., Alnus rubra-type), yet higher
percentages of others (i.e., Pteridium and Equisetum) implies that the type ofdisturbance at
the site may have changed, but disturbance in general remained common.
Zone BL93A-3 (3.73-2.32 rn; ca. 5600 to 2850 cal yr BP): Percentages of upland
forest taxa and oak savanna taxa were generally unchanged in this zone, although Thuja-
type pollen reach its highest percentages and Corylus percentages gradually decreased.
Disturbance taxa percentages changed little from the previous zone, but with the absence of
Equisetum, Alnus rubra-type percentages increased slightly from the previous zone and
were highly variable. Among the riparian forest taxa, Salix percentages increased at the
expense ofFraxinus and Spiraea-type, and dominated the pollen assemblage. Wet prairie
taxa percentages of Cyperaceae, Apiaceae, and Liliaceae changed little in this zone, while
Poaceae percentages generally increased toward the top. High percentages of Salix and
Fraxinus indicate the persistence ofriparian forest close to Beaver Lake. Little overall
change in oak savanna taxa and wet prairie taxa indicate the continued presence of these
ecosystems near the site as well. Fairly consistent percentages ofAlnus rubra-type and
Pteridium suggest disturbance near the site.
Zone BL93A-4 (2.32-2.00 rn; ca. 2850 to 2300 cal yr BP): This zone was
characterized by sharp declines in Salix, Spiraea-type, Cyperaceae, and Apiaceae
percentages. Brasenia increased dramatically from the previous zone, along with increased
Alnus rubra-type and Fraxinus. At the top of the zone, however, the aforementioned taxa
67
had returned to their previous levels. This zone recorded a period of low water or short-
term drying at Beaver Lake. Changes in littoral hydrophytes can be considered indicators
of water-level variations (Barnosky, 1981; Singer et ai., 1996). High percentages of
Brasenia suggest more littoral zone and decreased water depths in the lake basin.
Decreased Salix and Spiraea-type also suggest drier conditions than before. Increased
Alnus rubra-type may indicate greater disturbance at the site or expanded Alnus rubra-
dominated riparian forest.
Zone BL93A-5 (2.00-0.18 m; ca. 2300 to 100 cal yr BP): This zone is generally
similar to Zone BL93A-3. Upland forest taxa percentages changed little in this zone or
compared to the previous one. Tsuga heterophylla percentages were highest of the record
and Thuja-type percentages decreased from the bottom to the top of the zone. Tsuga
heterophylla can be transported relatively long distances on prevailing winds (Minckley
and Whitlock, 2000), and is likely a regional signal from the slopes of the Coast and
Cascade ranges. Oak savanna percentages of Pseudotsuga-type, Quercus, and Acer
macrophyllum remained relatively high, while Corylus decreased toward the top of the
zone. Percentages of the disturbance taxa Alnus rubra-type decreased in this zone, while
Pteridium percentages increased to its highest values of the record at the top of the zone.
Riparian forest taxa percentages of Salix and Spiraea-type increased, while Fraxinus
decreased. Wet prairie percentages ofPoaceae increased slightly toward the top of the
zone, and Cyperaceae and Apiaceae percentages were higher than the previous zone.
Several aquatic taxa were more abundant in this zone, including Typha and Nuphar. The
pollen percentages in this zone suggest a heterogeneous mix ofvegetation types around
68
Beaver Lake, similar to the mosaic ofSalix-dominated riparian forest, prairie, and oak
savanna first described by the AD 1853 GLO survey notes.
Zone BL93A-6 (0.18-0.00 rn; 100 to 0 cal yr BP): The uppermost zone from core
BL93A illustrate changes associated with mid_19th century Euro-American settlement and
land-use activities and are discussed in further detail in the next section.
Core BL05B Pollen Record
The pollen from the top 60 cm ofcore BL05B illustrate in greater detail the
vegetation at Beaver Lake over the last ~550 yr (Fig. 3.6). Little change was observed
prior to ca. 170 cal yr BP and pollen percentages were generally similar to Zone BL93A-5.
Following settlement at ca. AD 1830, Salix-dominated riparian forest in the Beaver Lake
meander bend, as well as Quercus-dominated savanna around the lake, was greatly
reduced. Salix percentages increased initially following settlement, but then sharply
decreased, as did Spiraea-type percentages. Fraxinus percentages initially decreased but
then slightly increased after ca. AD 1950. Quercus percentages decreased after ca. AD
1900 and remained low. Alnus rubra-type declined after ca. AD 1775, but became more
abundant by ca. AD 1950. Pteridium abundance increased after ca. AD 1850 and has
varied since then. The development of intensely cultivated grassland was evidenced by the
sharp increase in Poaceae pollen at ca. AD 1930. Poaceae pollen reached its greatest
Holocene abundance at ca. AD 1960 and remains high today.
Further indication ofEuro-American impact on the vegetation near Beaver Lake is
evident in the initial decrease ofPseudotsuga-type pollen percentages after ca. AD 1850 as
1900
1850
1800
1750
1700
1650
1600
1550
1500
1450
I'
0 1
Charcoal and pollen analyst: M. Walsh
20 40 2020 40 602020 40 60 8020
I
I
m,p,...,~r,-,l
20% 20 20 40 20
,,/ ~·-Z~·· ':"'":~ _~~{7'ntrOducedlaxa
'If C(" '" '" .~U" ",0 "'''
,,($ ,0'1 ,'If *-<i. \'1>" oi.,G Po'" ",'" ",,<i. ",* ",:{l
:!? '" ~G .\11 f:' '" '" "" '" <J' '" <f .",G •
.;,Ip f>" ~,,'" ". ""v {,,-> 'Iio" ,i' "," <J'''' <" <J'''' ,'1>($ ',V Iio'" ~
,?",'" 0"'" Cp<:\ f"'\''I-'' <t-"'('. a;" ,«!,f! ,?o'lcl~o'" Ci'l<i.'" .,f.'''' ,?\'I>'l-qf"'';; i l {l\~
~r~r,£~ rrr...-~r-rrtr c:::
,,0
::>e,~ !t
#. <',0
"," ",:.~""~.,8'G
,~
~o~
,;,-<P'
,,8'
,,0
W
°(;~,,}O#0
,<f'
~~o<:t
8'''
6'''
>-~cp'" I"W0(;~'lj ~q-'
~<::-0
2000
1600
1850
1750
1700
1550
1800
1450-'1 ' 1 I 1 I 1 1 '""", '"lll, '''''''I 1 I I I
o 100 200 3001 10 100 10000 50 100
particles/cm3 particleslcm3 %
1950
1900-j~
1650
1500
40
10
20
30
60
E
~
., 50
"-~
Figure 3.6. Charcoal concentration (linear scale), charcoal concentration (log scale), herbaceous (black line) and
lattice (gray line) charcoal, selected pollen taxa percentages, and AP/NAP ratios from the top 65 em of core BL05B
plotted against depth (em) and age (yr AD). Gray curves represent a 3X exaggeration of solid black curves.
0\
'-0
70
a result of logging, and a slight increase after ca. AD 1950 with the elimination of fire and
spread ofPseudotsuga into oak savanna (Johannessen et ai., 1971). A large peak in
Corylus pollen at ca. AD 1950 is attributed to large-scale hazelnut farming near the site,
given that Linn County is one of seven counties that account for 97.5% of the commercial
hazelnut production in Oregon (O'Connor, 2006). Pollen from additional
ornamentallcultigen taxa appeared in the uppermost sediments of the core after ca. AD
1950, including Brassicaceae (mustard family) and Juglans (walnut) pollen. Plantago-type
(plantain) pollen also appeared at ca. AD 1850 and generally increased in abundance
toward the top of the record. This is probably the non-native Plantago lanceolata (English
plantain), commonly found in remnant Pacific Northwest prairies (Dunwiddie et ai., 2006).
Core BL05B Charcoal Record
The BL05B record was divided into six charcoal zones based on a visual inspection
of CHAR and fire-episode frequency curves (Fig. 3.7). See Table 3.2 for zone averages.
Zone BL05B-l (8.67-4.50 rn; 11,190 to 9300 cal yr BP): Charcoal concentration
and CHAR were high in this zone. The highest CHAR value (47.8 particles/cm2/yr) of the
record occurred at ca. 10,000 cal yr BP. Fire-episode frequency was also high and
increased from 17 episodes/lOOO yr at the beginning of the record to 25 episodes/lOOO yr at
ca. 10,000 cal yr BP, and then decreased to 13 episodes/lOOO yr by the end ofthe zone.
Fire-episode magnitude was high, but varied widely from 0.4-607 particles/cm2•
Herbaceous charcoal content was also high, especially before ca. 10 500 and after 9500 cal
yr BP. Lattice charcoal content was low.
BL93A-l
BL93A-4
BL93A-2
BL93A-3
BL93A-5
20 40
Bro +Nup
+Pot+{so
...'1>+'1>
.~ro
&'If
"q & Zone
=;;;;=::::: 1~0 tr IBL93A:6
20 40 60 80 20 40 60
50/+ Fro +5pi Poa +Cyp + ryp
20 40 60
Aln +Pte
...'1>+'1> -!p+'1>
<} ~b
,0'''' J''If '1>+'1> ~'1>
,,':J ~o rJ''" <}
...."',0 ~':J '1>'" ,o~&" 0~ .§'O ''1><:'() OV'~ §'~~ <i?-q'_"_"~'"'.__"""M""~'~_"_~ _ •
B
20 20 40
%Pin Que +
+Pic+Abi Pse+ Cor
+ Thu+ Tsu +Acemoc
o
1000
3000
4000
6000
2000
9000
7000
5000
11000
10000
cmlyr
(,.~ro
~o<::-
~~~'"
<-:>'"
%
Eo ., ...." BOOO
~~6'
is
~v0
,,'If
%
~
&VO
is'If
,,':J
",0
'1>v
~"'~
b'"j::<iS
~'1>C$
«",'"
episodes! # particles!
1000 yr episode
fTTITTl I'T'l I'T'l I'T'l fTTITTl
o 10 20 30 0 400 800 0 50 1000 50 100 0 0.4 0.81.2
<}'"
,00.,':J Ob"'':J ~v'"~ 'f? ,,"'"v~ «",,,,eq .~"'~"'(S.
BL05B-& {~ - «.';[~ ~
'Op
.ie. '";''' -
-r- ~
.......1.:,.
.,
t§;-0~
~
v'"
6''''~~6'
v~
J:;;
-:l.',~~
-----l~--"~,,--,i~c
,.~
./Ir:....
....'.
.;,;..
BL05B-3 ---'::F
L
.1..
tL
'i~
.....\~
~l:;.:
'!!!i.. .
~~
7~~~..-
I'T'l 11lI1II llllllll~ lilll
o 200400.01.1 1 10100
particles! particles!
cm3 cm2!yr1
A
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
1L
~ 5000
"iii
~ 6000
Q)
Cl
<l: 7000
8000
9000
10000
11000
Charcoal analyst: M. Walsh Pollen analyst: M. Worona
Figure 3.7. (A) Core BL05B charcoal concentration, charcoal accumulation rate (log scale), fire episodes, fire frequency,
fire magnitude, herbaceous charcoal, lattice charcoal, and sedimentation rate plotted against age (cal yr BP). (B) Core
BL93A selected summed pollen percentages plotted against an age scale (cal yr BP). Pollen abbreviations are as follows:
Pic=Picea, Abi=Abies, Thu=Thuja pUcata, Tsu het=Tsuga heterophylla, Que=Quercus, Pse=Pseudotsuga menziesii,
Cor=Corylus, Ace mac=Acer macrophyllum, Aln=Alnus rubra, Pte=Pteridium, Sal=Salix, Fra=Fraxinus latifolia,
Spi=Spiraea, Poa=Poaceae, Cyp=Cyperaceae, Typ=Typha lati/olia, Bra=Brasenia, Nup=Nuphar, Pot=Potamogeton,
Iso=Isoetes.
-....l
-
Table 3.2. Average charcoal concentration values, CHAR values, fire frequency, fire- episode magnitude, mean fire return interval, herbaceous charcoal, lattice charcoal, and fire regimes for Beaver
Lake core BL05B
Zone (age, cal yr BP) Ave. charcoal Ave. CHAR Ave. fire Ave. fire-episode Mean fire Ave. herbaceous Ave. lattice Fire regime
concentration (particles/ frequency magnitude return interval charcoal charcoal
(particles/cm3) cm2/yr) (episodes/1000 yr) (particles/cm2) (yr) (%) (%)
BL05B·6: 550--55 19.9 2.2 15 71 54 12 14 Frequent, small to medium size
or low- to moderate-severity fires
BL05B-5: 2500·550 33.1 1.9 14 50 87 20 6 Frequent, small to medium size
or low- to moderate-severity fires
BL05B-4: 5000·2500 35.9 1.4 12 8 100 19 12 Relatively frequent, very small size
or low-severity ground fires
BL05B·3: 7800-5000 38.0 1.7 8 86 159 25 6 Relatively infrequent, medium size
or moderate-severity fires
BL05B-2: 9300·7800 21.7 0.6 6 117 230 36 5 Infrequent, small to medium size or
small- to moderate-severity fires
BL05B·1: 11,190-9300 25.4 5.5 21 63 52 29 0.3 Very frequent, small to large size
or low- to high-severity fires
-..l
N
73
Zone BL05B-2 (4.50-4.05 rn; 9300 to 7800 cal yr BP): CHAR was low in this
zone, but charcoal concentration remained relatively high. Fire-episode frequency was also
low and dropped to its lowest level of the record of 4 fire episodes/1000 yr at ca. 8600 cal
yr BP. The mFRI was highest of the record. Because the sedimentation rate in this zone
was slow (0.03 cm/yr), it is difficult to compare fire-episode frequency with other intervals.
Fire-episode magnitude varied widely from 0.4-269 partic1es/cm2• Herbaceous charcoal
content was higher in this zone than before, and lattice charcoal content increased slightly.
Zone BL05B-3 (4.05-2.76 rn; 7800 to 5000 cal yr BP): CHAR rose from the
previous zone, but remained relatively low. Charcoal concentration was relatively high.
Fire-episode frequency was slightly higher in this zone than before, and gradually increased
from 6-9 episodes/1000 yr. The mFRI dropped from the previous zone. Fire-episode
magnitude had the greatest variability in this zone, ranging from 0.3-517 partic1es/cm2•
Herbaceous charcoal content decreased in this zone as compared to the previous interval,
while lattice charcoal content remained almost unchanged.
Zone BL05B-4 (2.76-1.75 rn; 5000 to 2500 cal yr BP): Charcoal concentration
and CHAR were similar to the previous interval. Fire-episode frequency increased from 9-
13 episodes/1 000 yr from the bottom to the top of the zone, with even higher values than
the zone average between ca. 4200 and 3700 cal yr BP. The mFRI was lower than the
previous zone. Overall, fire-episode magnitude was low and ranged from 0.01-34
partic1es/cm2. Grass charcoal content decreased from the previous zone and lattice
charcoal content doubled.
74
Zone BL05B-5 (1.75-0.65 rn; 2500 to 550 cal yr BP): Charcoal concentration and
CHAR were similar to the previous two zones. Fire-episode frequency increased overall,
but changed little; however, a period of higher than average fire-episode frequency
occurred from ca. 1700 to 1000 cal yr BP. The mFRI was lower than the previous zone.
Fire-episode magnitude and variability (0.02-201 particles/cm2) increased dramatically
from the previous zone. Herbaceous charcoal content remained constant, while lattice
charcoal content decreased.
Zone BL05B-6 (0.65-0.0 rn; 550 to -55 cal yr BP): Charcoal concentration
dropped in this zone as compared to the previous one and was lowest of the record. CHAR
was similar to the previous zone, but displayed greater variability after ca. 160 cal yr BP.
Fire-episode frequency increased slightly from 14-16 episodes/IOOO yr from the bottom to
the top ofthe zone. The mFRI and fire-episode magnitude, which ranged from 2-418
particles/cm2, were similar to Zone BL05B-1. Herbaceous charcoal content was lowest of
the record and lattice charcoal content was highest.
Discussion
Beaver Lake Fire and Vegetation History
Regional climate variability and local geomorphic/hydrologic development in the
Willamette Valley have influenced Beaver Lake and its fire and vegetation history over
the last ca. 11,000 years. Between ca. 15,000 and 12,800 cal yr BP, as many as 40
outburst floods from glacial Lake Missoula flowed down the Columbia River (Waitt,
1985; Allen et aI., 1986), inundated the Willamette Valley and deposited an enormous
75
amount of sediment across the valley floor (Allison, 1978). This basin fill has been
eroded and redeposited throughout the late Pleistocene and Holocene by the Willamette
River and its tributaries (Gannett and Caldwell, 1998). The formation of the Beaver Lake
meander bend occurred soon after the cessation of these floods, evidenced by the age of
the lowest sediments and the lake's position on the Winkle geomorphic unit, the oldest
erosional/alluvial terrace associated with the present drainage system (Balster and
Parsons, 1968). The location ofBeaver Lake raises the possibility that the site could
have been subjected to flooding, however, the continuity and character of the sediments
(i.e., the presence oflaminations) indicates that such flooding did not substantially
modify the sediment record.
Although the Beaver Lake record does not technically extend into the late-glacial
period, the earliest pollen samples from zone BL93A-l seem to have captured the end of
the Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine)-dominated landscape described by Hansen (1947).
Similar Pinus-dominated landscapes existed further north in the lower Columbia River
Valley and the Puget Trough (Whitlock, 1992). The long-term climate history of the
Pacific Northwest changed gradually during the Holocene as the Earth's orbital
parameters changed (i.e., timing ofperihelion, tilt of the Earth's axis) (Berger and Loutre,
1991; Kutzbach et aI., 1993). Paleoclimatic model simulations show that during the early
Holocene (ca. 11,000-7500 cal yr BP) when summer insolation was amplified and
effective moisture was reduced, the Pacific Northwest experienced warmer summers and
drier conditions than present (Thompson et aI., 1993; Bartlein et aI., 1998). Xerophytic
(drought-tolerant) taxa, including Quercus andPseudotsuga (Minore, 1979), and
76
disturbance-tolerant taxa, such as Corylus, Alnus rubra, Quercus, and Pseudotsuga
(Agee, 1993), were more abundant near Beaver Lake in the early Holocene. Fire-episode
frequency was highest during this period, but the relatively low magnitude of most
episodes and high proportion of herbaceous charcoal imply frequent surface fires. Large-
magnitude fire episodes dominated by woody charcoal occurred at ca. 10,000 cal yr BP
and indicate some crown fire events. Although it is impossible to rule out the possibility
that floods transported charcoal during this period, there was no correspondence between
inorganic (i.e., sand, silt, clay) layers and charcoal peaks to suggest that the fires were not
local. More frequent lightning ignitions in the early Holocene as compared to earlier, the
result of generally warm and dry conditions that increased convection due to stronger
radiational heating at the surface (Bartlein et aI., 1998), likely caused the high fire
activity.
Studies from additional sites in the Willamette Valley and other areas of the
Pacific Northwest reveal early-Holocene trends similar to those observed at Beaver Lake.
At Lake Labish and Onion Flat, Quercus expansion occurred prior to the deposition of
Mazama ash (ca. 7627 cal yr BP; Zdanowicz et aI., 1999) (Hansen, 1947). An expansion
of Quercus, Alnus rubra, and Pteridium was also noted at Little Lake in the central
Oregon Coast Range in the early Holocene (Worona and Whitlock, 1995), at a time when
fire frequency was also high (Long et aI., 1998) (Fig. 3.8). Quercus and Corylus pollen
maxima were recorded at Indian Prairie Fen in the central Cascade Range in the early to
middle Holocene (ca. 10,000-7000 cal yr BP), when these taxa apparently extended their
elevational range as much as ca. 500 m above the Willamette Valley floor (Sea and
77
Figure 3.8. Reconstructed fire-episode frequency, fire episodes (peaks), and
vegetation plotted on an age scale (cal yr BP) for northwest Oregon sites. Sites are
arranged from low to high elevation (left to right). Also shown are July insolation
anomaly for 45°N latitude and Pacific Northwest Holocene climate history and a
generalized human history for the Willamette Valley, Oregon.
II)
c:
2l
o
o
I
2
111
....I
II)
c:
2l
o
o
I
II)
=c
'0
~
II)
c:
2l
o
o
I
>.
1ij
W
o
11000
10000
1000
9000
7000
8000
3000
5000
2000
4000
6000
~
Relatively mobile
groups of people;
sites inhabited for a
limtted duration
Larger and
increasingly
sedentary groups
of people
toward present
Small, highly mobile
groups of people
Earliest evidence of
food proCessing
Willamette Valley
Human History
Massive population
decline due to disease ~
.Processing of Camassia
and other food sources ~
. becomes common
403020
Decreasing July
temp and
increasing moisture
toward present
10o
I'T'I'I'I
July temp higher
than present;
drier in summer
than present
July Insolation
Anomaly 45°N and
PNW Holocene Climate
July temp
higher
than present. but
cooler than
previous;
drier in summer
than present
15
-
=
;;;
105
Pseudotsuga, A/nus
rubra, and Thuja forest
T-~
I I I
o20
;;;;
=
15105
1
Quercus-dominated
savannah with
Pseudotsuga and
an herbaceous
understory
I I I I I I I I I
o
Battle Ground Lake, WA, Little Lake, OR,
Lower Columbia River Valley, Oregon Coast Range,
45°08.00'N, 122°49.17'W 44°16.72'N, 123°58.39'W
154 m a.s.1. 210 m a.s.1
30
~
;;;
=
;:
-
-
20
Salix- -
dominated
riparian forest
with prairie
and Quercus _
woodland _
surrounding -
1 -
10
I I I I I I
Xeric woodland
of Quercus,
Cory/us, and
Pseudotsuga
1
o
Beaver Lake, OR,
Central Willamette Valley,
44°55.03'N, 123°17.78W,
69 m a.s.1.
o
1000
2000
3000
7000
8000
4000
9000
10000
11000
Cl:'III 5000
~
! 6000
II)
:f
episodes/1000 yrs episodes/1000 yrs episodes/1000 yrs watts m-2
(This study) (Whitlock, 1992;
Walsh et aI., 2008)
(Worona and Whitlock,
1995; Long et aI., 1998)
(Berger and Loutre, 1991;
Bartlein et aI., 1998)
(Boyd, 1990;
Connolly, in press)
-...l
00
79
Whitlock, 1995). Quercus and herb-dominated savanna also extended north to Battle
Ground Lake in the lower Columbia River Valley (Whitlock, 1992), and prairies in the
central Puget Trough expanded as well (Hibbert, 1979). The fire history from Battle
Ground Lake indicates relatively frequent, low- to moderate-severity fires burning mostly
herbaceous material helped maintain the open landscape (Fig. 3.8) (Walsh et ai., 2008).
The early-Holocene savanna at Battle Ground Lake featured less Corylus and more
Poaceae and other herbs (Barnosky, 1985) than at Beaver Lake, suggesting a more open
landscape in the lower Columbia River Valley as compared to the central Willamette
Valley.
Fire activity decreased after 9500 cal yr BP at Beaver Lake, although a drastic
drop in sedimentation rate in the core at this time may overemphasize the decline (Fig.
3.7). Less frequent silt and clay layers after ca. 9000 cal yr BP also suggest reduced
flooding and greater hydrologic isolation of the oxbow lake. The drop in Alnus rubra
pollen after ca. 8500 cal yr BP is consistent with decreased flooding and fires at this time.
Quercus increased to its highest level, suggesting that it may have colonized the former
fluvially-disturbed habitats previously dominated by Alnus rubra.
Cooler and effectively wetter conditions as a result of decreasing summer
insolation (Bartlein et aI, 1998) and changes in the Willamette River system in the middle
Holocene (ca. 7500-4000 cal yr BP) (Parsons et ai., 1970) likely led to the establishment
of mesophytic and hydrophytic vegetation near Beaver Lake. Increased Salix and
Spiraea by ca. 7500 cal yr BP and the appearance ofFraxinus latifolia at ca. 7250 cal yr
BP mark the development of riparian forest at the site. The rise in Poaceae, Cyperaceae,
80
Apiaceae, and Liliaceae at ca. 7500 cal yr BP is associated with the appearance of wet
prairie habitats. A slight decrease in the APINAP ratio, suggests less forest cover at the
site. Oak savanna, which probably included Quercus, Pseudotsuga, Corylus, and Acer
macrophyllum (Thilenius, 1968), decreased from its early-Holocene maximum, but the
pollen data suggest it persisted through the middle and late Holocene (ca. 4000 cal yr BP-
present), probably on drier hillsides and other upland areas.
A period ofEquisetum abundance occurred at Beaver Lake between ca. 7500 and
5600 cal yr BP, coincident with a decrease in magnetic susceptibility values to almost
zero, and an increase in organic content of the sediment. Equisetum species are proficient
colonizers of newly exposed substrates and this period probably marks the establishment
ofBeaver Lake as a closed, productive system perched above the active floodplain.
Beyond a short period of inferred low water depth from ca. 2850-2300 cal yr BP, during
which Brasenia, Alnus rubra, and Fraxinus expanded at the expense ofSalix and
Spiraea, Beaver Lake was relatively uninfluenced by further major hydrologic changes in
the middle and late Holocene (Fig. 3.7). The lack of silt and clay layers in the record and
the low magnetic susceptibility values after this time suggest that the site was
infrequently flooded in the middle and late Holocene, although the site was likely
seasonally inundated with water due to abundant winter precipitation.
Pollen records throughout the Pacific Northwest indicate an expansion of
mesophytic vegetation in the middle Holocene (Cwynar, 1987; Whitlock, 1992; Worona
and Whitlock, 1995; Brown and Hebda, 2002a). At Little Lake, Thuja pollen increased at
the expense of Quercus and Pseudotsuga at ca. 6400 cal yr BP (Worona and Whitlock,
81
1995). At Indian Prairie Fen, Abies expanded at the expense of Quercus and Corylus at
ca. 7600 cal yr BP (Sea and Whitlock, 1995). Quercus-dominated savanna at Battle
Ground Lake decreased in the middle Holocene and was replaced by PseudotsugalThuja-
dominated forest by ca. 5200 cal yr BP (Whitlock, 1992).
Further increases in effective moisture and decreased seasonal differences in
insolation in the late Holocene (Bartlein et aI, 1998) led to the establishment of modem
coniferous forests in the Cascade and Coast ranges. At most sites, this transition is
marked by a decline in Pseudotsuga and Alnus and an expansion of Tsuga spp. and Thuja
(Tsukada et aI., 1981; Sea and Whitlock, 1995; Long and Whitlock, 2002; Brown and
Hebda, 2003). At Battle Ground Lake, savanna was greatly reduced as indicated by the
decrease in Quercus and numerous herbaceous taxa (Whitlock, 1992). In contrast, the
vegetation record from Beaver Lake showed little change through the middle and late
Holocene. The increased presence of conifer pollen likely reflects the expansion of
mesophytic forest in the Coast and Cascade ranges and foothill regions of the Willamette
Valley (Worona and Whitlock, 1995). SalixlFraxinus riparian forest, herb-dominated
wet prairie, and Quercus-dominated savanna persist near the site over the last ca. 8000
years with little change (Fig. 3.7). Beyond a general shift from more xerophytic to more
mesophytic vegetation at ca. 7500 cal yr BP and an early-Holocene fire activity
maximum between ca. 11,200 and 9300 cal yr BP, this reconstruction has little similarity
with other low-elevation «500 m a.s.l.) records in the Coast and Cascade ranges, the
lower Columbia River Valley, Vancouver Island, or the Puget Lowland (Walsh et aI.,
2008).
82
Anthropogenic Versus Climatic Influences on the Beaver Lake Record
Relatively little is known about the Holocene human history of the Willamette
Valley, but the discovery of Clovis projectile points suggests habitation since ca. 13,000
years ago (Aikens, 1993; Waters and Stafford, 2007). Early-Holocene evidence is sparse
(Cheatham, 1984, 1988), either because repeated flooding of the Willamette River and its
tributaries removed or buried many archaeological sites (Aikens, 1993), or because the
highly mobile lifeways of the inhabitants left few cultural remains (Connolly, in press).
High magnetic susceptibility values and numerous sand, silt, and clay layers present in
the Beaver Lake record prior to ca. 9000 cal yr BP suggest that the lake was located on a
floodplain and intermittently inundated by floodwater in the early Holocene. This would
have made the area surrounding the site inhospitable for permanent settlement and
unlikely that human ignitions were important.
Fire-episode frequency increased over the last 8000 years at Beaver Lake. The
initial increase occurred at the time when the pollen record registered the appearance of
wet prairie taxa near the site. Fires apparently occurred in prairie vegetation, which dried
seasonally, as indicated by the relatively high proportion of herbaceous charcoal (~30%).
One would expect that the fire-episode frequency would stabilize or even drop as the
regional climate cooled and became wetter toward present (Bartlein et aI., 1998), but that
did not occur at Beaver Lake (Fig. 3.8). In contrast, at Little Lake, fire-episode frequency
decreased from ca. 7500 cal yr BP to the present, with a slight increase in activity
between ca. 4000-3000 cal yr BP and after ca. 2000 cal yr BP (Long et aI., 1998). At
83
Battle Ground Lake, fire-episode frequency was high at ca. 6800 cal yr BP but generally
decreased toward present (Fig. 3.8) (Walsh et a1., 2008).
The fact that Beaver Lake remained fairly open with frequent fires during middle-
and late- Holocene cooling suggests that anthropogenic burning may have been more
important at Beaver Lake than at other sites. Middle Holocene archaeological sites in the
Willamette Valley are more abundant than earlier and dominated by pit ovens containing
the charred remains of Camassia quamash (camas lily) bulbs, hazelnut shells, and oak
acorn meats (O'Neill, 1987; O'Neill et a1., 2004; Connolly., in press). With an
intensification of food processing, Kalapuyan groups may have seasonally occupied or
managed the area around Beaver Lake to harvest local resources such as acorns and
hazelnuts (both Quercus and Cory/us pollen remained relatively abundant in the record
through the middle to late Holocene). Although no Camassia-type pollen was found at
Beaver Lake (unlike at Battle Ground Lake in the early to middle Holocene; Whitlock,
1992), modem plant associations of relic stands place it within lowland riparian forest
and wet prairie ecosystems (Christy, 2004).
A dramatic shift from a period of highly variable fire-episode magnitude to a one
of small-magnitude fires near Beaver Lake occurred at ca. 5000 cal yr BP and persisted
until ca. 1500 cal yr BP. A greater proportion of lattice charcoal in the record also
occurred at this time, indicating that the fire regime was inherently different than before.
The timing of this shift coincides with increases in human populations in the Willamette
Valley (Cheatham, 1988; Connolly et a1., 1997; O'Neill et a1., 2004) and the
establishment of cooler, effectively wetter conditions typical of present day. This change
84
in climate greatly altered the seasonal availability of food resources and necessitated food
storage, which in tum led to a semi-sedentary lifestyle where seasonal camps were
frequently re-used or inhabited for extended amounts of time (Prentice and Chatters,
2003; O'Neill et aI., 2004). Population pressure and resource competition between
neighboring groups may have decreased the amount of land available to each community,
thus necessitating the use of fire as a management tool. The small magnitude of the fire
episodes during this period suggests that climatic conditions were too wet for large fires
to spread, or that small surface fires were used to enhance the growth of desired food
sources.
Between ca. 1500-500 cal yr BP, fire episodes became much greater in magnitude
than before (Fig. 3.7) and could be the result of drier conditions associated with the
Medieval Climate Anomaly. Five fire episodes with an average magnitude of 45.3
particles/cm2 were recorded during the time of the Medieval Climate Anomaly (ca. 1100-
700 cal yr BP, AD 850-1250; Mann, 2002), and a shift to less herbaceous charcoal
(...;.,16%) suggests fires were more severe than before. Two later fire episodes (at ca. 630
and 540 cal yr BP) are notable, not only because they were last relatively large/intense
fire episodes, but also because they were composed almost exclusively of lattice charcoal
(60% and 85%, respectively). Only two other fire episodes at ca. 6400 and 4450 cal yr
BP had a similar composition to these fire episodes.
At ca. 500 cal yr BP, during another period oflower fire frequency, the fire
regime at Beaver Lake shifted again, this time to very small/low-severity fire episodes
and the lowest charcoal concentration of the entire record. This decline in burning may
85
have been the result of cooler wetter conditions during the Little Ice Age (ca. 500-100 cal
yr BP, AD 1450-1850; Grove, 2001); only five fire episodes with an average magnitude
of 10 particles/cm2 were registered during this time. However, this shift could also
indicate human abandonment of the area due to lack of resources, or a reduction in
population size due to introduced disease. Boyd (1990) estimated that as early as ca. AD
1770 (ca. 190 cal yr BP) disease had reached the Northwest Coast and had begun to
reduce Native American populations. Others suggest that this may have occurred even
earlier (Dobyns, 1983; Campbell, 1990), although there is no evidence to support this
hypothesis. After ca. AD 1875, fires at Beaver Lake are attributed to Euro-American
settlement and land clearance (Figs. 3.6 and 3.7). A shift to a high proportion oflattice
charcoal occurred simultaneously with these activities and indicates that these fires were
anomalous to those of the previous 400 years. The largest/most severe postsettlement fire
episode occurred at ca. AD 1890 (ca. 60 cal yr BP) and was composed predominantly of
lattice charcoal (~76%). No significant fire episodes were recorded at Beaver Lake over
the last 45 years, and today, approximately half ofthe charcoal entering the lake is
herbaceous and likely comes from annual burning ofnearby grass seed fields.
Conclusions
Beaver Lake provides the first Holocene fire and vegetation history from the
Willamette Valley. In the early Holocene, warmer drier summers than at present and
frequent flooding were responsible for relatively xeric woodland of Quercus, Corylus, and
Pseudotsuga, with abundant Alnus rubra in disturbed areas. Riparian forest and wet prairie
86
habitat developed in the middle Holocene, likely a result ofless frequent flooding and a
shift to effectively cooler wetter conditions than before. The vegetation at Beaver Lake
remained relatively unchanged over the last 8000 cal yr; riparian forest and wet prairie
grew around the lake and on the active floodplains, oak savanna existed on surrounding
uplands, and conifer forest covered the foothills of the Coast and Cascade ranges. The
exceptions to this were a briefperiod of inferred local drying/lowered lake level from ca.
2850 to 2300 cal yr BP, and the period Euro-American land clearance and agriculture after
ca. 160 cal yr BP.
Highest fire activity at Beaver Lake occurred between ca. 11,200-9300 cal yr BP in
association with warm dry conditions and the presence of xeric woodland near the site.
Fires were frequent surface bums, although a few crown fires were also registered. A
drastic decrease to the lowest fire frequency of the entire record occurred after 9300 cal yr
BP, possibly the result of cooler wetter climatic conditions. Increased fire frequency
throughout the middle and late Holocene, a period in which climatic conditions became
wetter and cooler, points to the likely importance of anthropogenic burning. The middle
and late Holocene fire history from Beaver Lake differs from other fire-history records at
low-elevation sites in the Pacific Northwest, suggesting that the maintenance of wet prairie
and oak savanna in the Willamette Valley, especially over the last 5000 years, may have
been aided by human activity.
87
CHAPTER IV
1200 YEARS OF FIRE AND VEGETATION HISTORY ll"1 THE WILLAMETTE
VALLEY, OREGON AND WASHINGTON
This chapter has been prepared as a co-authored manuscript with C. Whitlock and P.J.
Bartlein for submission to the journal The Holocene.
Introduction
Background
The current vegetation of the Willamette Valley is vastly different from that seen
by 19th-century Euro-American explorers and settlers. Survey notes from the General
Land Office (GLO) provide detailed documentation that presettlement vegetation (ca. AD
1850) was a complex mosaic of Quercus (oak) savanna and woodland, prairie (ranging
from moist to dry), coniferous upland forest, and extensive riparian forests (Habeck,
1961; Towle, 1982; Christy et a1., 1997). Today, only small remnants of these
ecosystems remain, precariously perched between rapidly expanding urban and
agricultural areas (Hulse et a1., 2002). Numerous studies have shown that over the past
ca. 150 years, shrubs and trees have established in former wet and upland prairie, and
conifers have come to dominate former oak savanna and woodland (Thilenius, 1968;
Johannessen et a1., 1971; Cole, 1977; Frenkel and Heinitz, 1987; Hibbs et a1., 2002).
The removal of fire, both naturally- and human-ignited, from these ecosystems is
88
partially, if not entirely, responsible for the magnitude of change seen, but the question
remains as to how much of the presettlement fire regime was the result of human
modification of the landscape?
Few records of any kind are available to detail the presettlement fire history of the
Willamette Valley. Limited historical records, mainly journal entries by early explorers
(ca. AD 1800), make reference to areas of scorched vegetation and attribute these fires to
Native Americans (e.g., Wilkes, 1845; Douglas, 1959). Ethnographic studies document
the use of fire by the native inhabitants as a means of encouraging the growth of food
plants, hunting and warfare tactics, as well as other uses (Boyd, 1999), but the spatial and
temporal details of the burning remains unknown (Whitlock and Knox, 2002).
Dendrochronological studies that provide a record of past fires on the valley floor are
sparse due to the lack oflong-lived trees. In a synthesis often tree-ring-based fire-history
studies from western Washington and Oregon, including studies in valley foothill forests
(Impara, 1997; Weisburg, 1997), Weisburg and Swanson (2003) identified four general
periods of fire activity: ca. AD 1400s to 1650, widespread burning; ca. AD 1650 to 1800,
reduced burning; ca. AD 1800 to 1925, increased fire activity; and ca. AD 1925 to
present, limited burning. A recent study specifically targeting low-elevation Willamette
Valley fringe forests, however, suggests that pre- to postsettlement burning patterns were
more spatially variable than Weisburg and Swanson (2003) propose (J. Kertis, personal
communication, 2008).
In this paper, we use high-resolution macroscopic charcoal and pollen analyses to
reconstruct the fire and vegetation history of the Willamette Valley for the last 1200
89
years. Presented in this paper are three new paleoecological reconstructions from Lake
Oswego, Porter Lake, and Warner Lake, Oregon, and portions of reconstructions from
Battle Ground Lake, Washington (Chapter II), and Beaver Lake, Oregon (Chapter III).
The five study sites sit along a north-south transect through the valley (Fig. 4.1). The
purpose of this study was to 1) better understand the fire and vegetation history of the
Willamette Valley over the last 1200 years, and 2) assess the relative role of climate
variability and anthropogenic activities on those histories.
The Willamette Valley
The Willamette Valley is a broad structural depression that lies between the Coast
and Cascade ranges of northwestern Oregon and southwestern Washington (Fig. 4.1) (Orr
and Orr, 1999). Bounded by the Lewis River to the north, it stretches ~210 km south to
Cottage Grove, OR, and is typically 40 to 65 km wide with an average elevation of~90
m above sea level (a.s.1.). The Willamette Valley gently slopes to the north and is
drained by the Willamette River, which flows into the Columbia River at Portland. Small
hills mark the landscape (e.g., the Portland, Salem, Eola, and Coburg hills), which
otherwise consists of broad alluvial surfaces (Balter and Parsons, 1968).
The climate of the Willamette Valley, as well as the rest of the Pacific Northwest,
is characterized by cool wet winters and warm dry summers. Annual precipitation is
influenced by the position of the polar jet stream and the contraction and expansion of the
northeastern Pacific subtropical high pressure system (Mitchell, 1976; Mock, 1996). In
winter, the Pacific subtropical high contracts and the polar jet stream shifts southward to
/
/
/
\!--_.~-~._-- -_.__.. __.-
A \ California
British Columbia
~ --- -- -f- --\
, '
! \ Montana
'\
\
''I •
\:~)i123°W
l>\~~.
90
Figure 4.1. (A) Map of the Pacific Northwest showing the location of the study
area (gray box) and the study sites (black dots), and (B) map of the Willamette
Valley showing the location of the five study sites.
91
the latitude of the Pacific Northwest, enhancing precipitation in the region. In summer,
the jet stream shifts northward as the subtropical high expands (due to increasing
seasonal insolation) and suppresses precipitation. The Willamette Valley sits in the rain
shadow ofthe Coast Range and receives an average of 110 em of precipitation annually,
approximately 89% of that between the months of October and May (Western Regional
Climate Center, 2007). Precipitation between June and September is infrequent, and a
mild summer drought is typical. Temperatures are fairly mild in the Willamette Valley,
with an average July temperature of~19°C and an average January temperature of
~4.5°C (Western Regional Climate Center, 2007), although averages vary slightly from
north to south.
The climate of the Pacific Northwest has varied during the last 1200 years,
although the exact cause of these variations is not clear. Two relatively well-
documented, centennial-scale climate change events are the Medieval Climate Anomaly
(ca. 1100-700 cal yr BP [ca. AD 850-1250]; Mann, 2002) and the Little Ice Age (ca. 500-
100 cal yr BP [ca. AD 1450-1850]; Grove 2001). Evidence of the Medieval Climate
Anomaly in the western United States comes from tree-ring records (Graumlich, 1993;
Stine, 1994; Cook et aI., 2004), lake-sediment records (Mohr et aI., 2000; Brunelle and
Whitlock, 2003), and changes in treeline (Leavitt, 1994). Cook et ai. (2004), using
annually-resolved tree ring records to extend the Palmer Drought Severity Index to ca.
1200 years ago, calculate the annual percent ofthe western United States affected by
drought from AD 800 to the present. In doing so they provide evidence of substantial
92
periods of elevated aridity in the western United States during the Medieval Climate
Anomaly; the four driest periods were centered on AD 936, 1034, 1150, and 1253.
Evidence of cooler temperatures and greater precipitation in the region associated
with the Little Ice Age comes from multi-proxy temperature reconstructions (Jones et aI.,
2001), tree-ring dated glacial advances (Luckman, 1995; Wiles et aI., 1999) and tree-ring
records (Graumlich and Brubaker, 1986; Graumlich, 1987). Cross-dated subfossi1 wood
from glacial forefie1ds and times of moraine stabilization show several "Little Ice Age"
glacial advances in western Prince William Sound, AK, during the last 1000 years (Wiles
et aI., 1999); the first between ca. AD 1200-1300, the second between ca. AD 1600-1700,
and the third between AD 1874-1895. Tree-ring data from Graum1ich and Brubaker
(1986) in Longmire, WA (46°47'N, 121°44'W, 842 m a.s.I.) show that cool episodes
occurred between AD 1600-1650, 1700-1760, and 1860-1900, and that the mean
reconstructed temperature (AD 1590-1913) was almost 1DC lower than the mean
temperature of the observed record (AD 1914-1979). Their record shows a distinct rise
in temperatures (ca. AD 1840) and a decrease in snow accumulation (ca. AD 1900),
marking the end of the Little Ice Age in the Pacific Northwest.
GLO land survey records divide the presettlement vegetation ofthe Willamette
Valley into five general types: riparian forest, prairie, oak savanna, oak woodland, and
upland (coniferous) closed forest (Habeck, 1961; Johannessen et aI., 1971). Ki1ometer-
wide riparian forests once covered the active floodplains of the Willamette River and its
tributaries (Towle, 1982; Sedell and Froggatt, 1984). The most common trees were
Populus trichocarpa (black cottonwood), Fraxinus latifolia (Oregon ash), Salix spp.
93
(willow), Alnus rubra (red alder), Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), and Acer
macrophyllum (big-leaf maple), with an understory of shrubs, including Spiraea
douglasii (hardhack), Berberis aquifolium (Oregon grape) and Sambucus glauca
(elderberry) (Franklin and Dyrness, 1988; Frenkel and Heinitz, 1988). Seasonally wet
and upland prairie were also widespread on the valley floor and were dominated by
Deschampsia cespitosa (tufted hairgrass), but also supported numerous other herbaceous
plants (Habeck, 1961; Streatfield and Frenkel, 1997). Oak savanna, dominated by
Quercus garryana (Oregon white oak) with the occasional Quercus kelloggii (California
black oak) and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), covered the rolling hills of the
valley and lower Coast and Cascade range foothills (Franklin and Dyrness, 1988). Oak
woodland was also found in the valley and was more densely populated with Quercus
trees than savanna (Habeck, 1961). Closed upland forests dominated at higher elevations
along the eastern and western slopes of the valley, with Pseudotsuga menziesii as the
dominant species, and Acer macrophyllum, Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock), Thuja
plicata (western red cedar), Quercus garryana, and Comus nuttallii (dogwood) also
present (Habeck, 1961). Additionally, Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine) grew on a
range of sites from flooded valley bottoms to oak savanna and woodland, and in the
lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade ranges (Johannessen et aI., 1971; Hibbs et aI.,
2002). Botanical nomenclature follows Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973).
Archaeological evidence from the Willamette Valley and the lower Columbia
River Valley (the portion of the valley immediately to the south and north of the
Columbia River) suggests that human populations grew larger and more sedentary during
94
the Late Holocene (ca. 3000 cal yr BP- Euro-American contact) (Beckham et aI., 1981;
Pettigrew, 1990; Ames, 1994; Connolly, in press). Many settlement sites in the
Willamette Valley appear to have been continuously occupied for the last 2000-3000
years, with activities focused on the seasonal processing of vegetable foods (O'Neill et
aI., 2004). In the early 19th century, Kalapuyan-speaking tribes inhabited most of the
Willamette Valley in elongated territories extending from the Willamette River to the
Coast or Cascade Range and incorporated river channel, floodplain, and mountains
(Zenk, 1990). These groups subsisted by fishing, hunting, and gathering the natural
resources found in the valleys and surrounding montane areas, such as the bulb of
Camassia spp. (camas lily) and other root crops, nuts, and berries (Zenk, 1990). Native
inhabitants followed the seasonal availability of different food sources and used fire as a
means of encouraging the growth of many plants (Boyd, 1999; Leopold and Boyd, 1999).
In contrast to the Kalapuyans, Chinookan-speaking tribes at the time ofEuro-American
contact were gathered in large numbers along both sides of the lower Columbia River and
its tributaries (Aikens, 1993). Fish was a main staple for them and settlements were more
permanent (Boyd and Hajda, 1987; Pettigrew, 1990).
European contact led to a rapid decline in native populations caused by the
outbreak of several epidemics beginning as early as AD 1770 (Boyd, 1985, 1990). Down
from a pre-contact population estimate of 16,000, Kalapuyans numbered only 600 in AD
1841 (Wilkes 1926; Boyd, 1990). Between AD 1830-1841, total loss of tribal population
in the Willamette Valley and lower Columbia River Valley was ~92% (Boyd, 1990). In
the 1850s and 1860s, the remaining small populations were moved to the Grande Ronde
95
and Siletz reservations in Oregon and the Nisqually and Puyallup reservations in
Washington, and land in the Willamette Valley was converted to agricultural fields and
homesteads (Beckham, 1990; Marino, 1990). Fires continued to occur as a result of
Euro-American land-use activities including land clearance, but by AD 1933, fire
suppression efforts had become very successful (Morris, 1934). Today, most fires occur
as a result of accidental human ignition or field burning, but lightning-started fires are
important in the upland areas surrounding the valley floor (Hardy et al., 2001; Bartlein et
al.,2008).
Study Sites
Battle Ground Lake, WA (45°08.00'N, 122°49.17'W, 154 m a.s.l.), is located
approximately 30 km north of the city of Portland and sits in a remnant volcanic crater of
late Pleistocene age (See Table 4.1 for site information, Fig. 4.2a) (Wood and Kienle,
1990). The vegetation surrounding the site is closed, second-growth forest of
Pseudotsuga menziesii and Thuja plicata, with scattered Tsuga heterophylla, Abies
grandis, Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce), Alnus rubra, Acer macrophyllum, Fraxinus
latifolia, Salix spp., Corylus cornuta, Cornus nuttallii, Spiraea douglasii, and
Polystichum (sword fern).
Lake Oswego, OR (45 0 24' 40" N, 1220 39' 58" W, 30 m a.s.l.), is a former
channel of the Tualatin River and is located approximately 13 km south of the city of
Portland (Johnson et al., 1985). Originally named Sucker Lake, it was enlarged after
construction of a small dam across the outlet and completion of the Tualatin Canal in AD
Table 4.1.
Physical and climatic data for study sites
Battle Ground Lake Lake Oswego Beaver Lake Porter Lake
---
Warner Lake
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation (m)
Area (ha)
Drainage basin area (ha)
Maximum water depth (m)
Climate station
Location relative to site
Period of record
Ave Jan temp (OC)
Ave July temp (OC)
Ave annual precip (mm)
% precip Nov-April
45°48'17" N
122°29'38" W
157
14
21.6
16
Interpolateda
N/A
1961-1990
3.4
17.6
1543
75
45°24'40" N
122° 39' 58" W
30
160
1600
17
City of West Unn
7.5 km SW
1961-1990
2.5
19.1
1223
75
44°33'01" N
123°10'40" W
69
2.2
N/A
3
Interpolateda
N/A
1961-1990
4.4
18.6
1135
78
44°26'52" N
123°14'34" W
73
1.4
N/A
3
City of Corvallis
13.8 km SSW
1971-2000
4.6
19.2
1109
78
44°14'46" N
122°57'27" W
590
15.5
150
18
Interpolateda
N/A
1961-1990
2.3
16.9
1426
76
a Elevationally adjusted interpolations based on CRU CL 2.0 (New et aI., 2002).
""0"1
97
Figure. 4.2. AD 1851 reconstructed vegetation cover maps and AD 2000 USGS aerial
photos of (A) Battle Ground Lake, (B) Lake Oswego, (C) Beaver Lake, (D) Porter
Lake, and (E) Warner Lake. Vegetation cover maps were made using the Willamette
Explorer map tool (available at http://vaduz.library.oregonstate.edu:8080).
98
A
Not available
99
1863, which connected the Tualatin River with the east end of the lake (City of Lake
Oswego, 2007). The dam raised the water level by several meters and increased its
length from approximately 4.4 to 5.6 km (City of Lake Oswego, 2007). GLO maps
indicate that Sucker Lake was surrounded by upland closed forest and oak woodland
at the time of Euro-American settlement (Fig. 4.2b). The current forest includes many
native taxa, such as Pseudotsuga menziesii, Thuja plicata, Quercus garryana, Alnus
rubra, and Fraxinus latifolia, as well as numerous introduced and ornamental species.
Today, a mixture of forest and development (including private homes and the town of
Lake Oswego) surrounds the site.
Beaver Lake, OR (44°55.03'N, 123°17.78'W, 69 m a.s.l.), is a small oxbow lake
located in the central Willamette Valley between the Willamette and Calapooya rivers,
approximately 7 km ESE of the city of Corvallis. GLO survey notes indicate that the
lake and the rest of the meander bend supported a riparian shrubland surrounded by
prairie and oak savanna at the time of settlement (Fig. 4.2c). The current vegetation is a
narrow riparian forest composed ofPopulus trichocarpa, Salix spp., Fraxinus latifolia,
and Quercus garryana, Oemleria cerasiformis (Indian plum), Rhus diversiloba (poison
oak), Spiraea douglasii, and Symphoricarpos albus (snowberry), surrounded by extensive
agricultural fields.
Porter Lake, OR (44°26'52"N, 123°14'34"W, 73 m a.s.l.), is a small oxbow lake
located just to the west of the Willamette River, approximately 14 km SSV/ of the city of
Corvallis. GLO maps indicate that oak savanna surrounded a small riparian shrubland at
the time of settlement, with prairie and larger tracts of riparian forest nearby (Fig. 4.2d).
100
Similar to Beaver Lake, the current vegetation is a narrow riparian forest composed
predominantly ofPopulus trichocarpa, Salix spp., Fraxinus latifolia, Quercus garryana,
Spiraea douglasii, Symphoricarpos albus, and numerous invasive species including
Rubus discolor (Himalayan blackberry). Agricultural fields, predominantly grass seed
farms, surround Porter Lake.
Warner Lake, OR (44°14'46"N, 122°57'27"W, 590 m a.s.1.), is a landslide-
dammed lake located in the Coburg foothills of the Cascade Range, approximately 25 Ian
NNW of the city ofEugene. GLO maps indicate the site was entirely surrounded by
closed upland forest at the time of settlement, but oak woodland, oak savanna, and prairie
existed nearby (Fig. 4.2e). Today the landscape is a mixture of second- and third-growth
forest, with some recent clear cuts. Major forest components include Pseudotsuga
menziesii, Pinus ponderosa, Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, Alnus rubra, Acer
macrophyllum, Calocedrus decurrens (incense-cedar), and Arbutus menziesii (Pacific
madrone), with an understory of Sambucus racemosa (elderberry), Berberis aquifolium,
Polystichum spp., and Equisetum spp. (horsetail).
Methods
Field and laboratory methods are described here for the Lake Oswego, Porter
Lake, and Warner Lake cores. Methods for Battle Ground Lake and Beaver Lake can be
found in Chapters II and III, respectively, except where noted.
In 2004 and 2005, sediment cores were collected from the deepest part of each
lake. Long cores were recovered from Lake Oswego (L005B) and Warner Lake
101
(WL04A) using a 5-cm diameter modified Livingstone piston corer (Wright et aI., 1983).
Core segments were extruded on site, wrapped in plastic wrap and foil, and transported to
the laboratory at the University of Oregon and refrigerated. Short cores were collected
from Lake Oswego (L005C) and Porter Lake (PL05C) using a Klein piston corer that
recovered the sediment-water interface. The cores were extruded in the field at I-em
intervals and samples were stored in plastic bags.
In the laboratory, long core segments were split longitudinally and photographed,
and the lithologic characteristics were described. Magnetic susceptibility, which
determines the allochthonous inorganic content of the core (Thompson and Oldfield,
1986; Gedye et aI., 2000), was measured on the long cores at contiguous I-em intervals
using a Sapphire Instruments magnetic coil. Loss-on-ignition analysis, which determines
the bulk density, organic, and carbonate content ofthe sediment (Dean, 1974), was
completed at 5-cm intervals on all cores. Samples of l-cm3 volume were dried at 80°C
for 24 hours, weighed, and combusted at 550°C for 1 h and 900°C for 2 h. Weight
measurements after each combustion determined the percent organic and percent
carbonate content of each sample.
Contiguous l-cm3 samples were taken for charcoal analysis at I-em intervals
from the Lake Oswego long core (L005B) and the Porter Lake short core (PL05C), and
at 0.5-cm intervals from the Lake Oswego short core (L005C) and the Warner Lake long
core (WL04A). Charcoal samples were soaked in a 5% solution of sodium
hexametaphosphate for >24 hours and a weak bleach solution for one hour to
disaggregate the sediment. Samples were washed through nested sieves of250 and 125
102
J..lm mesh size, and the residue was transferred into gridded petri dishes and counted.
Charcoal particles were identified and tallied as either woody, herbaceous, or lattice type,
based on their appearance and comparison to reference material (see Chapters II and III
for photos). Herbaceous charcoal, which comes from grasses or other monocots, was flat
and contained stomata within the epidermal walls (Jensen et aI., 2007; Walsh et aI.,
2008). Lattice charcoal, which likely comes from leaves and non-woody material, was
only present in the Beaver Lake core. Previous studies indicate that large particles are
not transported far from the source and thus are an indicator of local fire activity
(Whitlock and Millspaugh, 1996; Whitlock and Larsen, 2001); therefore only charcoal
particles>125 !-lm in minimum diameter were considered. Charcoal counts were divided
the by the volume of the sample to calculate charcoal concentration (particles/cm3).
Charcoal influx (particles/cm2/yr) was determined by dividing charcoal concentration by
the deposition time (yr/cm) of the samples.
The Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake, and Warner Lake charcoal
records were analyzed statistically using the program CharAnalysis (Higuera, 2008;
http://charanalysis.googlepages.com/), which decomposed the records into a peaks (Cpeak)
and background (Cbackground) component in order to determine individual fire episodes
(Higuera et aI., 2008). Concentration values were interpolated to constant time steps,
which represented the median temporal resolution of each record, to obtain the charcoal
accumulation rate (CHAR) time series. The median temporal resolution for Battle
Ground Lake was 6 years, Lake Oswego and Beaver Lake was 5 years, and Warner Lake
was 2 years. The non-log-transformed CHAR time series were fit with a robust Lowess
103
smoother that modeled Cbackground and Cpeak , which were the residuals after Cbackground was
subtracted from the CHAR time series. A locally determined threshold value to separate
fire-related (i.e., signal) from non-fire related variability (i.e., noise) in the Cpeak
component was set at the 95th percentile of a Gaussian distribution model of the noise in
the Cpeak time series. Sensitivity analysis of window widths between 100 to 1000 years
showed that the signal-to-noise ratio was maximized at a window width of 500 years for
Battle Ground Lake and Lake Oswego, 400 years for Beaver Lake, and 300 years for
Warner Lake. Cpeak was screened and peaks were eliminated if the maximum charcoal
count from a peak had a >5% chance of coming from the same Poisson-distributed
population as the minimum count within the preceding 75 years (Gavin et aI., 2006;
Higuera et aI., 2008).
Pollen samples of l-cm3 were taken at 5-1 O-cm intervals on all cores except the
Lake Oswego long core (samples were taken at 5-30-cm intervals) and analysis followed
standard techniques (Faegri et aI., 1989). Lycopodium was added to each sample as an
exotic tracer to calculate pollen concentration and 300-500 terrestrial pollen grains and
spores were counted per sample. Pollen was identified and tallied at magnifications of
400 and 1000x, and pollen types were assigned based on modern phytogeography.
Pollen counts for terrestrial taxa were converted to percentages using different sums. The
terrestrial sum for Lake Oswego excluded Alnus rubra-type, Pteridium, and Poaceae
when percentages were calculated for the remaining terrestrial taxa. The terrestrial sum
for Porter Lake excluded Salix, Fraxinus latifolia, and Poaceae. The terrestrial sum at
Warner Lake excluded Alnus rubra-type and Cupressaceae. The terrestrial sum for Battle
104
Ground Lake excluded Pseudotsuga-type and Thuja-type. Aquatic taxa percentages were
calculated using the modified terrestrial and aquatic taxa sum. Arboreal/non-arboreal
pollen ratio was calculated by dividing the arboreal sum by the total arboreal plus non-
arboreal sum.
Results
Chronology
Age-depth models were developed based on 210PB and AMS 14C age
determinations (see Table 4.2 for the age-depth relations for the Lake Oswego, Porter
Lake, and Warner Lake cores; age-depth relations for the Battle Ground Lake and Beaver
Lake cores are listed in Chapters II and III, respectively). All 14C age dates were
converted to calendar years before present (cal yr BP; present= 1950 AD) using Calib
5.0.2 htrnl (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005). The Battle Ground Lake short core (BG05B) and
a portion ofthe long core (BG04A) were correlated based on tephra and charcoal
stratigraphy and combined to create a continuous record for the last 1200 years (hereafter
referred to as core BG05C; see Chapter II for a description of the cores). A constrained
cubic smoothing spline based on 20 210Pb dates and two AMS 14C dates was used to fit
the age model of the core (Fig. 4.3a). For Lake Oswego, the chronology of core L005C
was based on eleven 210Pb and one AMS 14C age determination and the chronology of
core L005B was based on two AMS 14C age determinations. Using stratigraphic markers
present in both cores, L005B and L005C were correlated and combined to create one
continuous record from the site (hereafter referred to as core L005A). A constrained
Table 4.2
Age-depth relations for Lake Oswego, Porter Lake, and Warner Lake, OR
105
Depth (cm below mud surface) Lab number Source material Dates (210Pb, Calibrated age
14C yr BP) (cal yr BP)8
Lake Oswego, OR: Core LOO5C
0.0-3.0 lake sediment 2.3b -53.2
3.5-5.5 lake sediment 7.0b -48.5
6.5-8.5 lake sediment 11.4b -44.2
9.0-10.5 lake sediment 14.3b -41.3
11.5-12.5 lake sediment 16.3b -39.2
14.0-15.0 lake sediment 19.6b -35.9
16.5-17.5 lake sediment 27.3b -28.2
19.0-20.0 lake sediment 37.0b -18.5
21.5-22.5 lake sediment 43.2b -12.3
24.0-25.0 lake sediment 55.9b 0.4
26.5-27.5 lake sediment 90.34b 34.8
29.0-30.0 lake sediment 155.8b,c 100.3
89.0 AA72363 lake sediment 693 +/- 55d 670
Lake Oswego, OR: Core LOO5B
157.0 AA72362 lake sediment 1243 +/- 56d 1180
261.0 AA69497 lake sediment 3042 +/- 32d 3260
Porler Lake, OR: Core PL05C
83.0 UCI33408 wood 200 +/- 25e 180
Warner Lake, OR: Core WL04A
1.0-2.0 lake sediment 3.7b -50.3
4.0-5.0 lake sediment 15.8b -38.2
8.0-9.0 lake sediment 29.8b -24.2
13.0-14.0 lake sediment 41.3b -12.8
16.0-17.0 lake sediment 49.7b -4.3
20.0-21.0 lake sediment 6U b 7.1
24.0-25.0 lake sediment 76.6b 22.6
28.0-29.0 lake sediment 87.6b 33.6
34.0-35.0 lake sediment 96.6b 42.6
37.0-38.0 lake sediment 109.6b 55.6
40.0-41.0 lake sediment 121.7b 67.7
43.0-44.0 lake sediment 147.3b 93.3
69.0 AA69046 twig 277 +/- 33d 310
168.0 AA63176 twig 813 +/- 37d 720
8 Calibrated ages determined using Calib 5.0.2 html (Stuiver and Reimer, 2005).
b 210Pb age determinations completed by J. Budahn at the USGS Denver Federal Center, Colorado.
c Denotes samples not used in the age-depth model.
d 14C age determinations completed at the University of Arizona AMS facility.
e 14C age dertermination completed at the University of California Irvine AMS facility.
106
A B
Battle Ground Lake BGOSC Lake Oswego LOOSA
Depth (em)
I I I I i i i i i i i
0 40 80 120 160 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
·50 2000
'\ 0 195050 1900 250 1700150 1800 500 1450250 1700 750 12001000 950EL 350 1600~ 1500 EL1250 700aJ 450 ~ 1500 ~ 450~
(ij 550 ~ 1400
"iii 1750 ~ 200
,£ ~ 1300Q) 650
';;;2000
Q)
:l Cl :l ·50750 1200 « 2250 ·300
850 1100 2500 ·550
950 1000 2750 ·800
1050 900 3000 -1050
1150 800 3250 -1300
3500 -1550
C D
Porter Lake PLOSC Warner Lake WL04A
Depth (em) Depth (em)
i i i i I I I I I I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
-50 2000 -50 2000
50 1900
0 1950 150 1800
EL 250 1700EL 50 1900 aJ 0 ~aJ 0 ~350 -:: 1600~ « (ij >-~ 100 ~1850 ,£ 450 ';;;1500Q) Q) ClCl «Q) Cl « 550 1400Cl «« 150 1800 650 1300200 1750 750 1200850 1100
250 1700 950 1000
Figure 4.3. Age-versus-depth relations for (A) Battle Ground Lake (BG05C), (B) Lake
Oswego (L005A), (C) Porter Lake (PL05C), and (D) Warner Lake (WL04A) based on
the age model information given in Table 4.2. The + symbol indicates 2lOPb age
determinations and the. symbol indicates AMS 14C age determinations.
107
cubic smoothing spline was used to fit the age model of core L005A, suggesting a basal
date of 3340 cal yr BP (Fig. 4.3b). Only the last 1200 years of the record is presented
here. For Porter Lake, the chronology of core PL05C was based on one AMS 14C age
determination and a date of -55 cal yr BP for the top of the core. Linear interpolation was
used to develop the age model, suggesting a basal date of220 cal yr BP (Fig. 4.3c). For
Warner Lake, the chronology of core WL04A was based on twelve 210Pb and two AMS
14C age determinations. A constrained cubic smoothing spline was used to develop the
age model, suggesting a basal date of875 cal yr BP (Fig. 4.3d).
Lithology
The lithology, charcoal concentration, organic content, and magnetic
susceptibility values for the Lake Oswego (L005A), Porter Lake (PL05C), and Warner
Lake (WL04A) vary considerable within and between cores (Fig. 4.4). Core L005A
consisted almost entirely of brownish/gray clay gyttja (Fig 4.4a). Magnetic susceptibility
values were extremely low for the core (4.5 xlO-5 emu) and changed little overall.
Organic content was also relatively low (16%), but rose slightly at the top of the core to
~21%. Black bands occurred in the sediment above 35 cm depth (ca. 120 cal yr BP),
presumably the result of pollution, first from iron smelters located on the shores of the
lake (ca. AD 1865-1900) and later from recreational motor boat use (ca. AD 1940-
present) (City of Lake Oswego, 2007).
The lithology ofcore PL05C consisted of clay gyttja from the base of the core to a
depth of29 cm, and fine-detritus gyttja above that (Fig. 4.4b). The organic content of the
A B c
Lake Oswego L005A Porter Lake PL05C Warner Lake WL04A
rit" .#-(f ,,~~
~'I> "IQ'<
.;;,'0
'0
~"
o<.<l~IQ~
o~
G
-----l-not j ~clayey
gyttja
fine clay
gyttja
fine clay
gyttja
medium
det~it,~~.fJ~ja
fin.J..~,ilYIlJl
laminated
clay gyttja 1-31 0
1'1'1'1'1 I'T'I I'T'I
---sand layer 0 200 4000 501000 0.001
particles/cm3 % emu x1 0"
0~ ~ PoiY~ '!2~ ~ o.f'Q)«" o~ $>0<:-
C;)IQ ~ ;:yo ~CJ _~ ~G ~01Q'~ ~"' CJ~ "IQ
o v '!2 "o~
50
25
75
200
100
125
150
175
~"
o<.<l~IQ~
"o~
1'1'1'1'1 f'I'I
o 50100150200 0 50100
particleslcm3 %
IQ~ ~iY~ '!2~ ~ 0,;;.1QQ)«" 6'~ $>0<:-
C;)IQ fl.'$' ;:yo ...."'CJ -~ -§ ~01Q'~ ~"' CJ~ "IQ
o v '!2 "o~
90
100
.......... vegetation layer
emu x10"%
'1>~" ~ rit" 'i$>~
o<'Ci> ~IQ~ (f rf"o~ ~'I>.;;,"o,,1Q
"0
particles/cm3
10
20
30.}~ ~ 40gyttja with
50
black
layers
60l I fine clay
-670
gyttJa
70
fine
I ~ I I 80-j ~_.._..._---...1-180claygyttja
-1180
LI------', I' I ' I 'I I'T'l ~
o 40 80 120 0 50 100 0 0.001
0~ ~ ~IQ ~ -0<:-iY~ '!2~ ~ 0'1> Q)«" ~"o'l>-,I,~
C;)IQ $ ;:yo ~CJ ~ -<;-'1> IQ~
01Q'< .~ --» (j ~G
v ~ ,,0
o
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
Figure 4.4. Lithology, AMS 14C dates, charcoal concentration (partic1es!cm3!yr), organic content (%), and magnetic
susceptibility (electromagnetic units) for (A) Lake Oswego, (B) Porter Lake, and (C) Warner Lake plotted against
sediment depth (cm). Magnetic susceptibility data are not available from Porter Lake.
......
o
00
109
core remained almost constant at 12%. A vegetation layer was found at a depth of 83 cm
and provided material for a 14C date.
The lithology ofWL04A consisted of clay gyttja from the base of the core to a
depth of 170 cm, with an average organic content of24% (Fig. 4.4c). Between 170 and
80 cm depth the sediment was clay gyttja with clay layers interspersed, and the average
organic content was 21%. A sand layer occurred at a depth of 172 cm and sediments
were not recovered from 145 to 138.5 cm depth. Between 80 and 55 cm depth, the
sediment was laminated clay gyttja with an average organic content of25%, and was
fine-detritus gyttja between 55 and 35 cm depth with an average organic content of30%.
An unconsolidated section of medium-detritus gyttja occurred between 35 and 25 cm
depth in the core and had a lower average organic content (11 %). The sediment was fine
clay gyttja above 25 cm depth with an average organic content of 22%, although the
organic content value for the top loss-on-ignition sample dropped to 11 %. Magnetic
susceptibility values remained relatively low throughout most of the core, especially
below 55 cm depth (average of 1.27 X 10-4 emu). Magnetic susceptibility peaks in this
section of the core, however, correlated well with large charcoal concentration peaks
(e.g., at 177 and 167 cm depths, and higher in the core at 124.5 cm depth and between
111.5 and 107.5 cm depth). This correlation indicates that fires in the watershed
triggered allochthonous input into the lake following these events. Above 55-cm depth,
magnetic susceptibility values were generally higher (average of2.2 xl 0-4 emu),
indicating greater slopewash of clastic material into the lake. Again, several magnetic
susceptibility peaks correlated well with large charcoal concentration peaks (e.g., at 50.5
110
and 38.5 cm depths). However, the sustained period of relatively high magnetic
susceptibility values between 35 and 25 cm depth occurred when charcoal concentration
values were low. The anomalous lithology, low organic values, and high magnetic
susceptibility values in this part of the core likely indicate the start of logging in the
watershed (ca. AD 1880).
Charcoal and Pollen Records
Battle Ground Lake, WA
The Battle Ground Lake charcoal and pollen record was divided into pre- and
postsettlement zones (Fig. 4.5). Zone BG05B-1 (ca. AD 1340 -1850): High charcoal
concentration values were recorded near the beginning of the zone, at ca. AD 1350 and
1390. Almost no fire activity occurred throughout the rest of zone, indicated by generally
low concentration values and low variability in the charcoal influx values. However,
influx variability did increase somewhat between ca. AD 1700-1850. The average
herbaceous charcoal content for the zone was relatively low (11 %). The pollen record
shows the successional response of the forest taxa to disturbance. Following the high
charcoal values at ca. AD 1350 and 1390, Pteridium increased, followed by Alnus rubra,
which was eventually replaced by Pseudotsuga and Thuja over the next two hundred
years. The small decrease in the APINAP ratio further suggests a loss of forest cover
following these events. Overall, the pollen assemblage in this zone suggests a closed
forest with some disturbance-related openings and a small riparian community near the
edge of the lake.
BG05B-1
BG05B-2
20 40 020202020 20 4020 40 20
%
20 40
/ M~'~ --------/ "f ./ "f;Non_arb70rea'laxa~ " ,@ "C " <'
"'" .<, ".,p I' .... ~.~v~ p,'If "v'" ,J> ,~. <::-0
. S" '1" ,$ .,f .<' of ,4. I?' ,'If"fi ~,,",yv \V" .,," r;;~ ~
, .' ,<?,", "" ,#' '" ~ '" #' § ", ~', ,0 ,":>~ ,~J>,qo'lfO <tJ'''''' 0~~ <~",< ~.~,,<f cr-~'" 9.~
, ,'?' , Zone
~
,cP
§"'If
,;:,<0
",0
~o
~"'~
~~
~~
~c5'
0""
~o<:::­
~'If
",'"
1:-0
cP~
cP0~'If-
I I I I I I I I I I IIIII~ 11111011111", I'T'l
o 250 500 7501000 1 10 1001000 0 50 100
particleslcm3 particles/cm2/yr %
___ =210Pb dates + =14C date
2000
1950
1900
1850
1800
6' 1750
« 1700I!!
ell
'"
16502::
'"Cl 1600«
1550
1500
1450
1400
+1350
Figure 4.5. Battle Ground Lake (BG05B) charcoal concentration (particles/cm3/yr; black line =total charcoal, gray line =
herbaceous charcoal), total charcoal influx (partic1es/cm2), herbaceous charcoal (%), selected pollen percentages (gray curves
represent a 3X exaggeration of solid curve), and APINAP ratio plotted against age (AD). The vertical black bar to the left of
the age axis represents the age range ofthe 210Pb dates and the + symbol represents the age of the AMS 14C date.
......
......
......
112
Zone BG05B-2 (ca. AD 1850 - 2005): This zone shows the impact of Euro-
American settlement and land clearance near the site. The charcoal concentration curve
recorded the most recent fire within the Battle Ground crater, the Yacolt fire of AD 1902.
This fire had a low herbaceous charcoal content (~5%). The subsequent high charcoal
concentration value at ca. AD 1930 may be from a re-burn associated with the Yacolt fire
(Gray, 1990), although none occurred inside the crater. Charcoal influx values remained
high through the rest of the zone and charcoal may have come from fires outside the
crater or possibly from campfires (the site has been a popular recreation destination
during the 20th century and is now part of the Washington State park system) (Allworth,
1976). The pollen record shows the effects of both logging and fire on the vegetation in
the Battle Ground Lake crater over the last 200 years. The drop in Thuja sometime after
ca. AD 1800 probably indicates the start of nearby logging associated with the
establishment of Fort Vancouver in AD 1825 (Allworth, 1976). The simultaneous drop
in Pseudotsuga, Tsuga heterophylla, Pinus, Populus trichocarpa, as well as an additional
drop in Thuja, in the late l800s indicates local logging inside the crater. The forest
succession recorded in Zone BG05A-1 occurred again following these events (i.e., an
initial rise in Pteridium followed by a subsequent rise in Alnus rubra). Further evidence
of Euro-American impact near the site is evident in the rise in Poaceae in the last 50
years, which is the result of grass seed farming in the Willametle Valley and lower
Columbia River Valley, and a rise in non-native Rubus in the Pacific Northwest.
113
Lake Oswego, OR
The Lake Oswego charcoal and pollen record was divided into three zones (Fig.
4.6). Zone L005A-1 (ca. AD 800 -1200): This zone records a high level of fire activity
indicated by high charcoal concentration and influx values. The average herbaceous
charcoal content was generally low (7.5%). The pollen record indicates that the local
forest was dominated by taxa such as Pseudotsuga, Thuja, Tsuga heterophylla, and some
Pinus. Disturbance taxa, including Alnus rubra and Pteridium, were common as well.
Other riparian and woodland taxa, such as Fraxinus latifolia, Salix, Populus trichocarpa,
Corylus, and Quercus, were present, but relatively low in abundance. The pollen
assemblage and the high APINAP ratio suggest a closed forest surrounded the site, with
some disturbance-related openings and probably a narrow riparian shrubland.
Zone L005A-2 (ca. AD 1200 -1700): This zone records major changes in both
the fire regime and vegetation. Higher charcoal concentration values occurred between
ca. AD 1200-1450 and coincided with a major vegetation shift. At this time, many
herbaceous taxa including Poaceae, Polystichum, Pteridium, and Rumex increased at the
expense of the coniferous taxa, especially Pseudotsuga. The large drop in the APINAP
ratio at ca. AD 1250 points to the loss of canopy cover near the site. After ca. AD 1450,
charcoal concentration decreased drastically to almost zero by ca. AD 1700. As the
charcoal input into the lake decreased, the abundance of most herbaceous taxa (i.e.,
Pteridium, Polystichum, Rumex, and Plantago) decreased. Forest slowly returned to the
site over this 350-year period, evidenced by the increased APINAP ratio, but it was
dominated by Alnus rubra and Fraxinus latifolia instead ofPseudotsuga and Thuja as in
LOO5A-2
LOO5A-1
LOO5A-3
20 4020202020
Arboreal taxa ~ ~Non_arborealtaz
~~~l #~~\> ~\# ifrf'f >I>~"<!i ,,:-.<f.'Q<'.> # ~.{l'
I'> \\>"''1 ",'Ii >1>'" \>'" '1>0 ~C}' ,,~~ ;\- ~O' ""rtf 'v'~QX
.;\- \>' ,\'~ ," <!P ~ ~p ~0 ,,'Ii & l§$ ~cl' «0'< -r"'O vO 0.\>'0 nO'lJ' «cr. «\.0 ~\) «\'I>~o<$'0 ...&.s~ Zb6~~b--b--t:--- ....,., . one
20 40
~'I> .~,l>
,,~'\. ~r/;0~ rb0,,:-.4'~~ <::-&'<:,":sJ~
,,'I> v <:S
.",\>'" . \>'" \>'"\ «'~.t?>~
20 40 20
,,:-.4'
~~~
20 40
~/
~"<!i
",.§$
>I>~P"
«"'0
% 0/0
W
&,,0
:;::.'0
ro
G
0"
,,0
f>'O
-<-0
~,,+
~~
'0~6'
v""
•
",0<::-
~'O
,J><::-
6''''
&"r¥'
V",,'O
1
2000
1950
1900
1850
1800
1750
1700
1650
1600
~ 1550
~ 1500
l!! 1450
ill 1400
-'" 1350
~ 1300
« + 1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
+ 850
800
--- = 210Pb dates + = 14C dates
Figure 4.6. Lake Oswego (L005A) charcoal concentration (particles/cm3/yr; black line =total charcoal, gray line =herbaceous
charcoal), total charcoal influx (particles/cm2; ticks below the curve represent zero values), herbaceous charcoal (%), selected
pollen percentages (gray curves represent a 3X exaggeration of solid curve), and APINAP ratio plotted against age (AD). The
vertical black bar to the left of the age axis represents the age range of the 210Pb dates and the + symbol represents the age ofthe
AMS 14C dates.
......
......
.j:::..
115
Zone L005A-l. Percentages ofAlnus rUbra-type, Fraxinus latifolia and Poaceae
remained high through the zone. The average herbaceous charcoal content was low for
this zone (3.6%), which implies that mostly woody material was burned.
Zone L005A-3 (ca. AD 1700 - 2005): This zone records almost no fire activity
near the site. Charcoal concentration remained near zero, and although charcoal influx
varied greatly, it was still low. For the first time in the record, charcoal influx values of
zero were recorded starting at ca. AD 1740. The average herbaceous charcoal content of
the zone was higher than the previous two zones (10.6%), indicating that a greater
proportion of herbaceous charcoal was burned. The lack of fire activity near the site after
ca. AD 1700 evidently led to a major shift in the vegetation. Coniferous taxa, such as
Pseudotsuga and Thuja, increased in abundance again at this time, while herbaceous taxa,
such as Poaceae, Polystichum, Pteridium, Rumex, and Plantago, all generally decreased
from the beginning to the end of the zone. Alnus rubra continued to be a major forest
component. Decreased percentages ofPseudotsuga-type and Thuja-type after ca. AD
1840 are the result oflogging near the lake. The pollen assemblage at ca. AD 1851 is
consistent with the GLO map of this area (Fig. 4.4b), which indicates a mixture of closed
upland forest and oak woodland.
Beaver Lake, OR
The Beaver Lake charcoal and pollen record was divided into pre- and
postsettlement zones (Fig. 4.7). Zone BL05B-1 (ca. AD 1460 -1830): This zone records
little fire activity near the site. Charcoal concentration and influx values remained low in
BL05B-2
BL05B-1
20 400 1202020 4020 40 602020 40
Arboreallaxa ;r-: Non-arboreal taxa~ ~ ~ -:7C?~ 0~ 'l>0~ r;f> rl;0 rl;00'" .~ ~0 (,0 <!P.~~ ~~<:$nO'l> lJi .. ,(:' ~4' 0~ '", ,,< R .~v ,,0' ."," !i=' _-4.'/;.v'" ",0" ~'I>'" ~<r ~0 .(,,,"'"
..... ,X . ~,'1> <s-'/;"';s-& ,,<If
, , ,0 ,?-'S.
20 40 60 8020202020
%
/
",,4' ~ ','1>
'11'" ~'< .~<j~<:$ ~ ,'11 ,§
r:,0<P ~'< ~ 'iI-~'i>0'" ,)'0/ i' {O-f! ~+<t· ,-<,,'<:' .~ ,'( .cf
'/;<::-0
,.§> 'it(,.P ~6'
;0'1> 0-~r§ ',<!P,~
S:,.v+
.;..,~
0'1>
d~"
~o~
~(,0
0<:'
'it"
~6'
C:<:'
1450""'"1 iii I i I I ""iiil ""'" """ ""i~ r--'"I
o 100 200 3000.010.1 1 10 1000 50 100
particles/cm3 particles/cm2/yr %
___ = 210Pb dates
2000
1950
1900
1850
0 1800
«
~ 1750
'"CD
.b 1700
CD
OJ
« 1650
1600
1550
1500
Figure 4.7. Beaver Lake (BL05B) charcoal concentration (particles/cm3/yr), total charcoal influx (particles/cm2; ticks to the
left of the curve represent zero values), herbaceous charcoal (%; black line) and lattice charcoal (%; gray line), selected
pollen percentages (gray curves represent a 3X exaggeration of solid curve), and APINAP ratio plotted against age (AD).
The vertical black bar to the left of the age axis represents the age range of the 210Pb dates.
.....
.....
0'\
117
this zone and the vegetation remained relatively constant. Salix, Alnus rubra, and Fraxinus
latifolia dominated the local riparian shrubland and Pseudotsuga and Thuja probably grew
in nearby upland closed forests, while Corylus, Quercus, Spiraea, Poaceae, Cyperaceae,
and Pteridium grew in surrounding savanna and prairie.
Zone BL05B-2 (ca. AD 1830 - 2005): This zone records the impact ofEuro-
American settlement and land clearance near the site. Starting as early as ca. AD 1830, the
fIre regime at Beaver Lake changed drastically. Charcoal influx became much more
variable and higher charcoal concentration values were recorded. Fire activity at the
beginning of this zone was probably the result of local land clearance and produced a high
proportion of a different type of charcoal (i.e., lattice charcoal, which was not identifIed as
either woody or herbaceous) than the fire activity of the previous 350 years. The
vegetation also changed dramatically near Beaver Lake following settlement. Salix and
Cyperaceae increased in abundance initially at ca. AD 1900, but then sharply decreased
over the next 100 years. Pseudotsuga, Thuja, Alnus rubra, Fraxinus latifolia, Quercus, and
Spiraea all decreased in abundance after settlement, although some taxa have rebounded in
recent years (e.g., Pseudotsuga, Alnus rubra, and Fraxinus latifolia). Higher Pteridium
percentages after ca. AD 1850 probably indicate a more open landscape near the site,
which is further supported by the drop in the AP/NAP ratio. The sharp increase in Poaceae
pollen at ca. AD 1930 recorded the conversion of the region to an intensely cultivated grass
landscape. Herbaceous charcoal content also increased greatly at this time. From AD 1960
- 2005, the average was 23%, with some values as high as 58%, and a large percentage of
the charcoal reaching the lake today is from the burning of nearby grass fIelds. A large
118
peak in Corylus pollen at ca. AD 1950 indicates the intensification of hazelnut farming near
the site (O'Connor, 2006). Several other postsettlement ornamental/cultigen taxa were
recorded after ca. AD 1850, including Brassicaceae (mustard family), Juglans (walnut),
and Plantago-type (plantain, probably the non-native Plantago lanceolata [English
plantain]).
Porter Lake, OR
The Porter Lake charcoal and pollen record was divided into pre- and
postsettlement zones (Fig. 4.8). Zone PL05C-1 (ca. AD 1730 -1830): This zone
records little fire activity near the site, indicated by low charcoal concentration values.
The average herbaceous content ofthis zone was relatively high (55%), suggesting that
mostly herbaceous material was burned. The vegetation remained fairly stable during
this zone and validates the ca. 1851 GLO map ofthe area surrounding Porter Lake (Fig.
4.3c), which suggests that riparian shrubland and oak savanna surrounded the site at the
time of settlement. Relatively high percentages ofAlnus rubra-type, Fraxinus latifolia,
Salix, and Populus trichocarpa-type indicate that these taxa dominated the local riparian
shrubland, as well as the larger tracts of nearby riparian forest. Relatively high
percentages of Quercus and Cory/us indicate that extensive oak savanna surrounded the
site. Poaceae and Pteridium were probably common in the understory ofthe savanna but
may have also come from nearby prairie. Pseudotsuga-type, Thuja-type, and Pinus
percentages likely reflect nearby upland closed forest not shown on the GLO map.
PL05C-,
PL05C-2
20 02020 402020
-.0: TNon_arboreallaxa7
# ~ ~
·rJ° '" ~'" ~~, '" ~ "~~Q.,-,,, x'"
,},," ~,," ",(>"" ~'I>'I-" '$;>,," &'1} iI-&\! ;$'"",,,, ~,,(j.'If ,:,1J''' iI.'(o'~ .(,0"'" .o\! ~"t$ ,'(-\! .<J,<fJ 1'''' fv~, e,,1i ,tr-'S. ,~ ,Zone
~
20
e,,-ifi-
20 40 60
il\~
~<;-""
v.<?
2020
/~~Q.'" ;,-"''1i '"
'If ,"' ~Q.'O"~ '" &-~'" {!f
ii:,o" ~Q. \>~ <:>'Q
_.~ ~f ,," ,,"'(~ ~ .~~ .~~
% %
50 '00
~~c9
0'
,:,'0
~,,~
-<-t'
&,\>+
..;.0$"
~o'1i
c:<:-'1i
~o~
If'
,,'"c9~
~~o
C:<:-'1i
6'
-0:
l!!
'"
.,
-'" 1850
.,
C>
-0:
1800
+
1750
+ = 14C date
Figure 4.8. Porter Lake (PL05C) charcoal concentration (particles/cm3/yr; black line =total charcoal, gray line =
herbaceous charcoal), total charcoal influx (particles/cm2), herbaceous charcoal (%), selected pollen percentages (gray
curves represent a 3X exaggeration of solid curve), and APINAP ratio plotted against age (AD). The + symbol to the left of
the age axis represents the age of the AMS 14C date.
......
......
\0
120
Zone PL05C-2 (ca. AD 1830 - 2005): This zone records the impact of Euro-
American land clearance for agriculture near the site. After ca. AD 1830, charcoal
concentration and the influx values greatly increased in the Porter Lake record. High
charcoal concentration values between ca. AD 1860-1920 probably indicate several
decades of burning related to local land clearance (Morris, 1934). The average
herbaceous charcoal content of this period was 18%, suggesting that a greater proportion
of woody material burned as compared to Zone PL05C-1. After ca. AD 1920, charcoal
concentration and influx decreased toward present. Today, very little charcoal
accumulates in the lake, and the majority of it is herbaceous charcoal (average of 39%
since AD 1960), most likely from the burning of nearby grass fields. This is consistent
with the rise in Poaceae pollen after ca. AD 1915. Also notable is the increase in
Fraxinus latifolia after ca. AD 1850, as other riparian trees, such as Salix and Populus
trichocarpa, decreased. Decreased percentages of Quercus and Corylus after ca. AD
1950 indicate the loss of nearby savanna, although Corylus has increased in recent
decades (again, probably due to hazelnut farming near the site). Alnus rubra and
Equisetum both increased in abundance after ca. AD 1850 and indicate increased
disturbance near the site. Other invasive and exotic species found in the record after AD
1850 included Juglans and Rubus, and increased percentages of nonnative Salsola-type
(Russian thistle).
Warner Lake, OR
The Warner Lake charcoal and pollen record was divided into four zones (Fig.
4.9). Zone WL04A-1 (ca. AD 1075 -1350): This zone records relatively little fire
WL04A-1
200 1202020 4020 4020
Arboreal taxa
,;t 7 ...,."""',,,...
_(l' rJf<f~;,;,~ 7"l>~ 0'0 ~-'\
_,c, 'i>~ <?'1. 'I> ~0
_<:;v c, 'l>v ~'<
(1)'' ~;. ,i,~ "c, rYc, 'If.& '" ,,~~ ",,'I! '(~ -r& cf'~O_i",,~.f>0 &"",'/; ",":>"'<1' _-,,,~ ~~ ",# #'11 ~"~ '(d--'\ >19<:;1$ _,c,0 rt;.<:' -,,,'" i'
'( «,& o'S' ii!' ",#\" ~ Zone
20 40 6020
~""'I> ;"wJ>
,0'1.'<1' """,<:- ff
0'-0 if (f'<!.,,'I>~ ,,~,.§l
~\'"' "c, '"
.<,."'- Q.'<:' ~<:;.;s
20 40 6020 40
%
~~0/
,,!:i,'If rI>'"
or}CO 4>&
<?c,0V v,,~'0C,
~~r5>
0'
wc,
r!l'0
<Ii~",IP
s>"+
.;..~
,,,r§i
c:<:-'/;
~o(:o
~
,,'"r5>~
#'11~
v~
I'l'T'l ~ I'T'l
o 150 300 1101001000 0 50 100
particles/cm3 particleslcm2/yr %
- ; 210Pb dates +; 14C dates
1
2000
1950
1900
1850
1800
1750
1700
~+1650---j~
5! 1600
~ 1550
~ 1500i 1450
<l: 1400
1350
1300
+ 1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
Figure 4.9. Warner Lake (WL04A) charcoal concentration (particles/cm3/yr; black line =total charcoal, gray line =
herbaceous charcoal), total charcoal influx (particles/cm2; ticks to the left ofthe curve represent zero values),
herbaceous charcoal (%), selected pollen percentages (gray curves represent a 3X exaggeration of solid curve), and
APINAP ratio plotted against age (AD). The vertical black bar to the left ofthe age axis represents the age range ofthe
210Pb dates and the + symbol represents the age ofthe AMS 14C dates.
......
tv
......
122
activity near the site. Charcoal concentration values and charcoal influx variability were
generally low compared to later in the record, but the average herbaceous charcoal
content was relatively high (26%). The pollen assemblage of this zone suggests that
Pseudotsuga, Cupressaceae, and Alnus rubra were the major components of the local
forest, with Poaceae, Polystichum, and Pteridium dominating the understory. Tsuga
heterophylla, Pinus, and Acer macrophyllum were also present in the forest in lower
abundance, and Fraxinus latifolia and Salix grew near the edge of the lake. Corylus and
Quercus likely grew in nearby oak woodland and savanna. Alnus rubra and herbs such
as Poaceae, Polystichum, and Pteridium were probably common in the fire-created
openings in the forest.
Zone WL04A-2 (ca. AD 1350 -1600): This zone is characterized by greater fire
activity than the previous zone. Higher charcoal concentration values were recorded and
charcoal influx variability increased. The average herbaceous charcoal content also
increased from the previous zone to 29%. Highly variable percentages ofAlnus rubra-
type, generally decreased percentages ofPseudotsuga-type, Cupressaceae, and Tsuga
heterophylla, increased percentages of herbaceous taxa such as Poaceae and Polystichum-
type, and a generally lower APINAP ratio in this zone, suggest a loss of forest cover and
a more open environment near the site (i.e., more prairie and oak savanna). Riparian taxa
percentages also increased in this zone, including Salix and Populus trichocarpa-type, as
well as Acer macrophyllum, Corylus, Quercus, and Spiraea-type.
Zone WL04A-3 (ca. AD 1600 -1880): This zone records a large shift in fire
activity. Charcoal concentration values generally increased until ca. AD 1800 and
123
charcoal influx variability was even greater than the previous zone. After ca. AD 1800,
however, charcoal concentration values dropped to near zero and influx variability
increased even further, recording zero values for the first time in the record. The average
herbaceous charcoal content for this zone decreased to 24%. The pollen assemblage of
this zone is similar to Zone WL04A-l and suggests that the local forest was dominated
by Pseudotsuga, Cupressaceae, and Alnus rubra, with Tsuga heterophylla and Pinus.
Decreased percentages of Corylus, Quercus, and many other herbs, as well as an increase
in the APINAP ratio, indicates that oak woodland/savanna and prairie decreased near the
site at the beginning of this zone. However, increased Corylus percentages after ca. AD
1700 suggest its importance as a member of the local forest understory. The pollen
assemblage of this zone is consistent with the ca. AD 1851 GLO map, which indicates
that the site was surrounded by an upland closed conifer-dominated forest, but oak
woodland/savanna and prairie existed nearby.
Zone WL04A-4 (ca. AD 1880 - 2004): This zone is characterized by steep
declines in percentages ofmost arboreal taxa, including Pseudotsuga-type, Cupressaceae,
Tsuga heterophylla, Pinus, Alnus rubra-type, Fraxinus latifolia, Populus trichocarpa-
type, Acer macrophyllum, and Corylus, most likely associated with logging in the Warner
Lake watershed. Sharp increases first in Pteridium, Polystichum-type, and other herbs, as
well as a drastic drop in the APINAP ratio, indicate the loss of forest near the site. The
generally high abundance ofAlnus rubra, Polystichum, and Equisetum after ca. AD 1900
suggests that disturbance remained frequent near the site, probably as a result of
continued logging in the watershed. High charcoal concentration values occurred at ca.
124
AD 1890 in association with logging and slash pile burning (Agee, 1989). The average
herbaceous charcoal content was only 3% between ca. AD 1880-1950, which suggests
that mostly woody material was burning. Charcoal concentration and influx remained
low between ca. AD 1900-1950, but then increased and remain relatively high at present.
This increase was coincident with a rise in herbaceous charcoal (average of 45% after AD
1950) and Poaceae pollen, suggesting that the likely source of the charcoal is from grass
fires on the valley floor and foothills.
Fire Episode Reconstruction
Decomposition ofthe charcoal records from Battle Ground Lake (BG05C), Lake
Oswego (L005A), Beaver Lake (BL05B), and Warner Lake (WL04A) indicate fire-
episode occurrence and magnitude over the last 1200 years (Fig. 4.10). Years of fire
episodes discussed below are the beginning of a charcoal peak in the record. Analysis of
the charcoal record from Battle Ground Lake indicates that 15 fire episodes occurred over
the last 1200 years. In general, fires were more frequent between ca. AD 800-1200 (10
fire episodes), but were small-to-moderate in magnitude. After that, fires decreased in
frequency, but increased in magnitude. Between ca. AD 1300-2005, only five fire
episodes occurred, three of which were the largest magnitude fires of the record (ca. AD
1340, 1400, and 1910). No fire episodes occurred between ca. AD 1500-1800.
The charcoal reconstruction from Lake Oswego indicates that 20 fire episodes
occurred during the last 1200 years. Fires were more frequent before ca. AD 1630, with
17 of the 20 fire episodes of the record occurring during this time. In general, larger
125
Figure 4.10. Charcoal accumulation rate (CHAR-log scale) (partic1es/cm2/yr), fire
episodes (+ symbols), and fire-episode magnitude for (A) Battle Ground Lake
(BG05C), (B) Lake Oswego (L005A), (C) Beaver Lake (BL05B), and (D) Warner
Lake (WL04A) plotted against age (yr AD).
A. Battle Ground Lake (BG05C) B. Lake Oswego (L005A) C. Beaver Lake (BL05B) D. Warner Lake (WL04A)
......
IV
0\
particles/em'
t
+
+
+
+
+
+
t
:j:
+
+
'*'
+
+
:j:
1
~(Q
:-,.(Q ~'S
<ou'li p" ~'l>C$
,oC1> ~(Q >.(Q
1'1!' .p,,0 OU~'?-' (Q~ il~ «~(Q «~q;(Q
+
+
~.;+
<:"'1
+
partieles/em'/yr
IIIIIII~ IIIII~ IIIIII~ I I I 1 1
0.1 1 10 100 0 1000 2000
1'1'l
o 200 400
particles/em'
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
'*'
:j:
+
+
~(Q
.~-~(Q ~
<oU" p" ~'Ii
,oC1> o~(Q ~(Q
1'1!' ;..~ .p,,0
'!.?" (Q'< IX"0~ «~(Q «~q;(Q
particles/em'/yrparticles/em'
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
:j:
:j:
partieles/em'/yr
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
~(Q
ltt(Q it'S
<oV Q>C$
,oC1> ~(Q<O ~(Q~
.g: ~<o0 .p,,0~ (Q'< IX"CJ ,;~(Q. q;'liIJ '< <.:~
"4,
IIIIIII~ 111119 IIIII~ Iii 1 I
0.1 1 10 100 0 75 150
~(Q
.~
ltt(Q ~
<oV p" ~'Ii
,oC1> o~(Q >.(Q
1'1!' '!':j OU~~' (Q~ i::P
CJ «~(Q «~e!'
1 11111111 IIIIII~ I [lIlIIl I 1
0.1 1 10 100 0 1000 2000
particles/em'/yr particles/em'
800
900
2000
1800
1100
1700
1600
1900
1000
1200
51500
«
on
m1400
""Q)Jf 1300
127
magnitude fire episodes occurred prior to ca. AD 1425 and smaller ones between ca. AD
1425-1630. No fire episodes occurred between ca. AD 1630-1870. Three fire episodes
occurred after this time, at ca. AD 1875, 1915, and 1960. The ca. AD 1875 and 1915
fires were small-magnitude events, but the ca. AD 1915 fire episode was larger.
The fire-history reconstruction from Beaver Lake indicates that 17 fire episodes
occurred over the last 1200 years. Eight fires occurred between ca. AD 800-1400 and
were relatively moderate in magnitude, with the greatest magnitude fire episodes at ca.
AD 1320 and 1390. Six fire episodes occurred between ca. AD 1400-1870 and were
small magnitude events. The largest-magnitude fire episode ofthe record occurred at ca.
AD 1890, followed by two smaller events at ca. AD 1950 and 1960.
The Warner Lake fire-history reconstruction indicates that 34 fires occurred over
the last 950 years. Eleven fire episodes occurred prior to ca. AD 1400 and were generally
small magnitude. Eighteen fire episodes occurred between ca. AD 1400-1800 and ranged
widely from small- to large-magnitude. Two especially large fires were recorded at ca.
AD 1436 and 1780. Five fire episodes have occurred since ca. AD 1800 and again, vary
widely from small- to large-magnitude, with the two largest at ca. AD 1890 and 1960.
Discussion
Charcoal influx values, fire episodes, and APINAP ratios from the five study sites
were compared in order to assess the pre- to postsettlement landscape ofthe Willamette
Valley (Fig. 4.11). Charcoal composition (Figs. 4.5-4.9) and fire-episode magnitude
(Fig. 4.10) were evaluated in tandem as indicators of fire size/severity. APINAP ratios
128
Figure 4.11. Charcoal influx (total= black curve; herbaceous= green curve), fire
episodes (+ symbols), and APINAP ratios (brown lines with T symbols) for the five
study sites arranged from north (top) to south (bottom) plotted against age (yr AD).
The placement ofthe fire episode symbols has been adjusted to illustrate the mid-
point of the charcoal peaks. A portion ofthe Battle Ground Lake APINAP ratio
curve was correlated based on age from core BG80B (Whitlock, 1992; see Chapter
II) and a portion ofthe Beaver Lake APINAP ratio curve was correlated based on age
from core BL93A (Pearl, 1999; see Chapter III). Palmer Drought Severity Index
(Cook et aI., 2004) interpolated to Eugene, OR, is also shown (purple line). This was
calculated with a Lowess curve using the loess 0 function in R with a span equal to
0.025. Negative values indicate drier conditions and positive values indicate wetter
conditions. The vertical orange shading represents the approximate years of the
Medieval Climate Anomaly (ca. AD 850-1250; Mann, 2002) and the vertical blue
shading represents the approximate years of the Little Ice Age (ca. AD 1450-1850;
Grove, 2001).
129
Medieval ClimaleAnomaly' lillie Ice Age'
"'~ _1~Ql '"ro E -0.5
1: g 0-Ol'"
i5 1,\ 0.5o -g -
- 1-
Palmer Drought Severity Index, Eugene Interpolated'
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
o
.,
~
c
~
o
a.
~
o
.D
ro
c
o
c
""
'"~
o
.D
~
Ui
-e
Ql
.£:
~
o
E.
c
Ql
a.
o
2000
2000
2000
2000
+
+ + +
" ,,·A E1
- 0.5
+
1800
1800
1800
1800
.. " ..
.. ..
++ +++ *
1600
1600
1600
1600
+
1400
1400
1400
1400
-I- + +
+ +
.. ..
-y
..
+
1200
1200
1200
1200
or
"
1000
1000
1000
.,,, ..... -. .., .. ,,........
Lake Oswego, OR
+ + + + ++ ++ + + -I- + + ++ ++
Porter Lake, OR
"
Baltle Ground Lake, WA
++ + -I- +++H+
Beaver Lake, OR
+ + + + +
800
~~ ~-30
20
10 -
o r---r--,---,..-~·_-,--r-..---,.-----,--
800 1000
20
15
10
5
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M~
;: ~.
o 1~~~~~~~III!II!I!II~~II!!!!III!~I1!!!!111!~~=-=-;o'=I-=-'T
1
~~t
800
ill
o I~_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
800
200018001600
+++ + ** +-+++ + -H-+
Warner Lake, OR
++
:~ ~~
40 j2~ '-1--r--'I-'~~~
800 1000 1200 1400
Years AD
'Mann (2002)
'Grove (2001 )
'Cook et al. (2004)
130
were used as an indicator of openness in the upland vegetation as a result of disturbance
(Fig. 4.11). The results were interpreted within the framework ofknown climatic events
and cultural records of human habitation and activity. The Palmer Drought Severity
Index (Cook et aI., 2004) was used to characterize the climate of the region over the last
1200 years and highlight moisture availability during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and
the Little Ice Age (Fig. 4.11). The comparison of the location of the study sites in
proximity to know cultural sites helped address potential human influences on the fire
and vegetation reconstructions (Fig. 4.12). Additional consideration was given to the
interplay between climatic variability, landscape change, and resource availability.
The Presettlement Landscape of the Willamette Valley (ca. AD 800 - 1830)
Reconstructions from the five study sites reveal presettlement similarities in fire
activity across the Willamette Valley. Prior to ca. AD 1450, Battle Ground Lake, Lake
Oswego, and Beaver Lake recorded relatively high fire activity (Fig. 4.11). Fires were
relatively frequent at all of these sites during this period; however, the effects of fire
episodes on the vegetation varied. At Battle Ground Lake, generally small, 10w- to
moderate-severity fire episodes prior to ca. AD 1200 seem to have had little impact on
the surrounding forest, but two larger, higher-severity fires at ca. AD 1340-1400 briefly
opened the landscape for the next approximately 100 years. At Lake Oswego, relatively
frequent, moderate-severity fires between ca. AD 1100-1400 led to a shift from a
relatively closed forest dominated by Pseudotsuga, Thuja, and Alnus rubra to an open
131
c
'".,
u
a
u
-=
'u
'"0..
o
I
20
I
.,
Cl
c
'"0::
tl
ro
o
U
40
I
Oregon
60 km
I
Washington
.,
Cl
c
'"0::
.,
u
ro
u
(/)
'"u
Figure 4.12. Map of Willamette Valley late Holocene and historic
archaeological sites (purple squares) in relationship to lake-sediment study
sites (orange stars). Adapted from Pettigrew (1990); other sources: Burnett
(1995); O'Neill et al. (2004).
132
landscape dominated by herbaceous taxa, such as Poaceae, Polystichum, and Pteridium.
Similarly at Beaver Lake, relatively frequent, low- to moderate-severity fires before ca.
AD 1400 maintained openness near the site, although the impact was less than at Lake
Oswego.
The Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, and Beaver Lake fire histories are also
alike in that they record a general drop in fire activity after ca. AD 1450, but again, the
effects that this had on the vegetation varied. Few fires occurred at Battle Ground Lake
after ca. AD 1450 and the vegetation at the site remained generally unchanged. At Lake
Oswego, fires continued to occur until ca. AD 1630, but greatly decreased in severity
over that time. The vegetation at the site responded to the lower fire activity by steadily
increasing forest cover. Lower-severity fire episodes than before also continued to occur
at Beaver Lake after ca. AD 1450, but the vegetation remained generally unchanged.
The fire activity trends illustrated in the Willamette Valley reconstructions are
generally similar to tree-ring-based fire-history records from the Pacific Northwest.
Weisberg and Swanson (2003) suggest that burning was relatively widespread before ca.
AD 1650. This is consistent with the records from Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego,
and Beaver Lake; however, their findings suggest that this period of high fire activity
lasted until later than indicated by the Battle Ground record (which lasted until ca. AD
1475), but is consistent with the sharp decline in fire activity at Lake Oswego at ca. AD
1650. The remainder of the presettlement fire reconstructions from Battle Ground Lake,
Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake, and the short presettlement record from Porter Lake is also
consistent with their findings of reduced burning between ca. AD 1650-1800.
133
Centennial-scale climate change may help explain the fire histories of the
Willamette Valley. The relatively high fire activity at Battle Ground Lake, Lake
Oswego, and Beaver Lake between ca. AD 850-1250 (Fig. 4.11) may be the result of
increased aridity during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (Cook et al., 2004). Only at
Battle Ground Lake and Lake Oswego was the number of fire episodes during the
Medieval Climate Anomaly greater than the number of fire episodes during the Little Ice
age, but at all three sites, fire-episode size/severity was much greater/higher. The
subsequent reduction in fire activity at Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, and Beaver
Lake after ca. AD 1450 could be the result of regionally cooler temperatures and greater
precipitation (Graumlich and Brubaker, 1986; Cook et al., 2004) during the Little Ice Age
(AD 1450-1850; Grove, 2001). At all three sites, fire episodes were infrequent and/or
low severity during this time. For example, only two fire episodes occurred at Battle
Ground Lake during the Little Ice Age and both were extremely small/low-severity. Fire
episodes at Lake Oswego greatly decreased in size/severity after ca. AD 1450 and did not
occur between ca. AD 1630-1870. And although fires continued to occur at Beaver Lake
during the Little Ice Age, they were all small/low-severity events.
Climate change, however, does not explain the record from Warner Lake, which
indicates that fire episodes were generally less frequent between ca. AD 1075-1400, but
then increased in frequency and size/severity until ca. AD 1800. It is possible that the
higher elevation ofWarner Lake (590 m a.s.l.) led to more frequent lightning ignitions
than on the valley floor. The National Interagency Fire Center suggests that lightning-
fire ignition rates for the Willamette National Forest were 43 lightning fires/400,000
134
ha/yr for the period of 1970-2002, or 0.0001075 lightning fires/ha/yr (reported in Kay,
2007), and Day (2005) reported seven lightning-fire ignitions at Jim's Creek, a 276 ha
former savanna in the Willamette National Forest (approximate elevation 850 m) since
1970. This suggests that lightning strikes are not uncommon in the lower Cascade
foothills. However, if lightning was the primary ignition source for fires at Warner Lake,
then fire-episode frequency should have decreased during the Little Ice Age when
effective moisture was greater.
Anthropogenic burning may help explain the elevated fire activity at Warner Lake
as compared to the other Willamette Valley sites. Cultural records suggest relatively
large populations inhabited the valley prior to Euro-American contact and that settlement
patterns were heterogeneous and determined by resource availability (Boyd and Hajda,
1987; O'Neill et aI., 2004). There is no archaeological evidence from the Warner Lake
watershed (Fig. 4.12), but it seems likely that this forest-savanna-prairie ecotone was
visited at least seasonally by Native Americans. The elongated territories ofthe
Kalapuyans extended into the Coburg foothills of the Coast Range (Zenk, 1990), and
Warner Lake may have offered important summer resources since lakes and perennial
streams are somewhat rare in this area. Higher fire frequency between ca. AD 1350-1800
(Fig. 4.11) may have been an attempt to increase openness near the site since burning
would have encouraged the growth of important food resources. The shift in the fire
regime at Warner Lake at ca. AD 1800 coincides well with the timing ofNative
American population decline in the valley suggested by Boyd (1990), and may explain
the greatly decreased fire activity after ca. AD 1790. Additional archaeological and fire-
135
history records from the foothills of the Oregon Coast Range are needed to substantiate
this hypothesis.
Native American use of fire may also help explain why fire histories are different
between valley-floor sites. At Battle Ground Lake, the Pseudotsuga/Thuja forest of the
late Holocene (see Chapter II) was probably relatively unimportant in terms of resource
availability and likely explains why no archaeological evidence of Native American
activity has been found in the Battle Ground Lake crater (Fig. 4.12). Camassia grew at
the site in early Holocene, and in the late Holocene, it probably grew in nearby prairies
and oak savannas (Boyd and Hajda, 1987). These surrounding environments may have
been burned regularly (Leopold and Boyd, 1999), but such fires were not reflected in the
Battle Ground Lake charcoal record. In addition, the lake did not contain fish until it was
stocked in ca. AD 1900 (Allworth, 1976). The relative lack of resources at Battle Ground
Lake and the fact that the fire-history reconstruction correlates well with known climatic
shifts during the last 1200 years suggests little presettlement human influence at the site.
In contrast, sites farther south in the Willamette Valley may have experienced a
greater human influence. Archaeological evidence from Lake Oswego suggests human
occupation at the site between ca. 6000-300 years ago (Fig. 4.12) (Burnett, 1995), and
historical records indicate that the Clackamas (considered to be part of the Chinook tribal
group) probably lived in fairly permanent dwellings near the site prior to Euro-American
settlement (Ruby and Brown, 1986; Pettigrew, 1990). Ka1apuyan tribes also may have
seasonally migrated to the lake to take advantage of the abundance of root crops, fish,
and waterfowl (Kohnen, 2008). Frequent anthropogenic burning, enabled by the warmer
136
and drier climate ofthe Medieval Climate Anomaly, probably explains the high fire
activity at Lake Oswego before ca. AD 1450. Burning continued near Lake Oswego into
the Little Ice Age, when cooler and wetter conditions than today would have suppressed
naturally-ignited fires, although fire-episode size/severity did decrease during this time.
The drop in fire activity starting at ca. AD 1450 and the lack of fire episodes between ca.
AD 1630-1870 may indicate human abandonment of the Lake Oswego area due to drastic
declines in Native American populations associated with Euro-American contact (Boyd,
1990), but it could also be the result of the climatic conditions of the Little Ice Age.
However, given the fact that fire activity had all but ceased by ca. AD 1700, which is the
same time that humans are suspected to have abandoned the area (Burnett, 1995), a
human-related explanation seems more likely. Either way, the fire history from Lake
Oswego indicates that the upland closed forest and oak woodland that surrounded the site
at the time of Euro-American settlement had not burned in more than 200 years.
O'Neill et al. (2004) suggest that seasonally inundated, fluvial areas (i.e., river
and stream edges and floodplains) were the focus of land and resource use in the central
and lower Willamette Valley due to the abundance of Camassia and other wetland staples
and the relative ease of harvesting these plants from the soft soil as compared to more
dense upland soils. Bowden (1995) argues that the late-Holocene inhabitants of the lower
Willamette Valley relied heavily on the harvesting of Camassia as a food source, and its
distribution and abundance determined the location of settlements and duration of
occupation throughout the year. Relatively abundant archaeological evidence (i.e.,
mounds containing artifact assemblages and human burial remains; see Bowden, 1995)
137
near Beaver Lake suggests hunting and gathering activities took place near the site (Fig.
4.12). Because fire was used for such activities (Boyd, 1999), human-set fires are likely
part of the charcoal record. Increased fire activity at Beaver Lake throughout the middle
and late Holocene until ca. AD 1450 (see Chapter III) indicates that this area may have
been intensely used as a resource base for several thousand years. The reduction in fire
activity after ca. AD 1450 may have been caused by cooler conditions associated with the
Little Ice Age; however, it could also be the result of human abandonment of the area.
The Postsettlement Landscape of the Willamette Valley (ca. AD 1830 - Present)
The fire and vegetation reconstructions from the five study sites reveal the nature
and magnitude of landscape change experienced in the Willamette Valley since Euro-
American settlement. Battle Ground and Warner lakes recorded concurrent logging and
burning activities in the local watersheds (ca. AD 1890-1910), which were expressed by
the large drops in AP/NAP ratios associated with high-severity fire episodes. Beaver and
Porter lakes also recorded major postsettlement fire episodes (ca. AD 1880-1890) as a
result of burning associated with land clearance for agriculture. The anomalous increase
in AP/NAP ratios at Porter Lake at ca. AD 1900 probably reflects a reduction in the
extent ofprairie, as this land was most highly prized for settlement and agriculture
(Bowen, 1978). The fire records from Battle Ground, Beaver, Porter, and Warner lakes
are somewhat consistent with the findings ofWeisberg and Swanson (2003) (who
identified a second period of widespread fire from ca. AD 1800-1925), but indicate that
138
fires associated with Euro-American settlement were greatest at the tum of the 20th
century.
The exception to this trend is Lake Oswego, where only a small Euro-American
settlement signal was recorded. The persistently high APINAP ratios, which unlike the
Battle Ground Lake, Beaver Lake, and Warner Lake records, do not show the effects of
logging in the watershed, are probably a result of the changes that occurred when the
Tualatin River was diverted into the lake (AD 1863). This would have greatly increased
the source area from which pollen was accumulating and may have masked the local
vegetation signal. The fire-history reconstruction does record a smallllow-severity fire
episode at ca. AD 1875, which likely came from burning associated with an iron blast
furnace that operated with limited success near the lake between ca. AD 1865-1884 and
was powered by charcoal produced from local timber (Minor and Kuo, 2008).
Few fires occurred in the Willamette Valley after ca. AD 1930, which likely
indicates the effectiveness of fire suppression efforts (Morris, 1934). Two fire episodes
that occurred at Beaver Lake and three at Warner Lake after ca. AD 1950 were probably
grass fires, given the high proportion of herbaceous charcoal. One fire episode also
occurred at Lake Oswego and although it did not have a high proportion of grass
charcoal, the timing (ca. AD 1960) suggests that it was related to agricultural activities.
Conclusions
The presettlement vegetation and fire regimes of the Willamette Valley were
influenced by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. Some sites show a
139
stronger influence from climate, whereas others were more impacted by human activity.
Resource availability, which probably to a great extent determined human habitation
patterns in the valley, likely explains why some sites were maintained by Native
American fires and others were not. For example, Battle Ground Lake near the northern
end of the valley had few important resources and remained forested up to Euro-
American time. This consideration, as well as evidence that changes in the charcoal
record corresponded well with known climatic shifts, suggests that human ignitions
contributed little if at all to the presettlement fire regime. On the other hand, the location
of Beaver Lake in a seasonally inundated area of the valley that provided abundant food
resources was more likely to have been subjected to anthropogenic fires. Human-set fires
near Lake Oswego also seem to be the best explanation for the observed changes in the
fire and vegetation history. However, fires may have been modulated by changes in
regional climate during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age. Finally,
all four valley-floor fire reconstructions, including the short presettlement record from
Porter Lake, imply that fires in Willamette Valley, whether the result of climate or human
activities, were small/low-severity and infrequent in the 200-300 years prior to Euro-
American settlement. The presetdement record from Warner Lake, however, indicates
that fires in the foothills of the Cascade Range were much larger/more severe and more
frequent than on the valley floor, at least until ca. AD 1800. This may be the result of
anthropogenic burning near the site and its cessation as a result of Native American
population decline resulting from introduced disease (Boyd, 1990)
140
The postsettlement portions of the reconstructions indicate that the impacts of
Euro-American settlement in the Willamette Valley were relatively synchronous between
the five study sites. With the exception ofLake Oswego, high-severity fire(s) occurred
between ca. AD 1880-1910. In addition, the most dramatic shifts in vegetation occurred
in association with Euro-American land clearance for agriculture and logging. As a final
point, the postsettlement records from the five study sites indicate that few fires in the
Willamette Valley have occurred since ca. AD 1930, and fires today are predominantly
grass fires.
141
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY
In this dissertation I examined the fire and vegetation history of the Willamette
Valley using high-resolution macroscopic charcoal and pollen analysis. Paleoecological
records were evaluated from five study sites located in different ecological settings,
including closed upland forest, former oak savanna and prairie, and riparian forest. The
goal of this research was to provide information on the environmental history of the
region and to determine the relative role of natural and anthropogenic factors in shaping
past and present landscapes. Two time scales of investigation were used, one spanning
the Holocene, and the other focused on the last 1200 years. The results from this study
inform our understanding of fire-vegetation-climate-human relationships on multiple
spatial and temporal scales, and suggest that both climate and humans influenced the fire
regimes and vegetation patterns of the Willamette Valley.
The paleoecological record from Battle Ground Lake suggests that fire regimes
varied greatly during the Holocene and that fire-vegetation-climate relationships differed
depending upon the timescale ofthe investigation. On a millennial-scale, climate-
induced vegetation shifts influenced fire activity through shifts in fire frequency, fire-
episode magnitude, and fire size/severity throughout the late-glacial and Holocene. In the
late-glacial period (ca. 14,300-13,100 cal yr BP) when conditions were cold and dry,
Pinus contortalPicea-dominated open forest or parkland experienced little fire activity
and fire-episode magnitudes were low. In the transition from the late-glacial to the early
142
Holocene (ca. 13,100-10,800 cal yr BP), the vegetation shifted to a closed forest of
mostly Pseudotsuga and Abies, and shortly after, fire frequency and fire-episode
magnitude increased, suggesting a fire regime of relatively infrequent surface and
understory fires. In the early Holocene (ca. 10,800-5200 cal yr BP) when greater summer
insolation led to increased drought, Quercus-dominated savanna supported frequent
surface fires, evidenced by an increased fire frequency, decreased fire-episode
magnitude, and a greater proportion of herbaceous charcoal than before. Finally, during
the late Holocene (ca. 5200 cal yr BP- present) when climatic conditions were becoming
cooler and wetter, vegetation shifted to a closed forest dominated by Pseudotsuga, Thuja,
and Tsuga heterophylla. Fire frequency dropped accordingly, but fire-episode magnitude
generally increased, suggesting infrequent crown fires. The Battle Ground Lake
reconstruction also provides evidence that shifts in fire regime lagged vegetation changes
from a few decades to several hundred years, depending upon local fuel conditions and
the presence of an ignition source.
A more direct relationship between fire and climate variability was observed at
Battle Ground Lake on a centennial-scale. This was evidenced by higher fire frequency
and a shift to smaller surface fires during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and a drop in
fire frequency during the Little Ice Age. These regime shifts apparently occurred in the
absence of major vegetation changes, probably a consequence of the long life span of
conifers in the Pacific Northwest. Additionally, the Battle Ground Lake record provides
no direct evidence that anthropogenic burning had any influence on the paleoecological
history of the site prior to Euro-American settlement.
143
The Beaver Lake reconstruction also provides evidence ofmajor shifts in
vegetation and fire regimes in the Willamette Valley during the Holocene, although the
driver of those changes is less clear than at Battle Ground Lake. In the early Holocene
(ca. 11,000-7250 cal yr BP), the site supported a relatively xeric woodland of Quercus,
Corylus, and Pseudotsuga; Alnus rubra grew disturbed areas. Fire frequency was highest
between ca. 11,190-9300 cal yr BP, probably the result of warm dry climatic conditions.
It decreased dramatically afterwards, possibly the result of cooler wetter conditions. At
ca. 7250 cal yr BP, the vegetation at Beaver Lake shifted to more mesophytic taxa,
including Salix and Fraxinus and members of the Poaceae family, indicating the
establishment of riparian forest and wet prairie near the site. Also, the continued
presence of Quercus and Corylus suggests that oak savanna grew on nearby on upland
areas. These ecosystems persisted until Euro-American land clearance (ca. AD 1850),
when most of the surrounding landscape was converted to agriculture.
Over the last ca. 8000 years, fire frequency at Beaver Lake increased. The
relatively high levels ofherbaceous charcoal throughout this interval suggest that these
were predominantly surface fires occurring in nearby prairie. This increase took place in
the absence of any additional major vegetation shifts and also occurred as the regional
climate became cooler and wetter. Subsequent shifts in fire-episode magnitude and
charcoal composition coincided with known cultural shifts (i.e., when populations
became more sedentary due to the necessity of food storage), as indicated by the
existence ofmiddle and late Holocene archaeological sites near Beaver Lake. Native
American activities probably contributed to the high levels of fire occurrence and helped
144
maintain the wet prairie and oak savanna near the site, especially over the last 5000 years.
However, the impact of shorter-scale climate variability (e.g., the Medieval Climate
Anomaly and the Little Ice Age) is also evident in the fire-history record through changes
in fire size/severity.
A comparison of paleoecological records from western Washington and Oregon
provides context for the Battle Ground Lake and Beaver Lake reconstructions. Whereas
major shifts in vegetation and fire regimes at Battle Ground Lake were similar in both
timing and direction to several other sites, changes observed at Beaver Lake were
relatively unique. This may be due the difference in the ecological settings of the study
sites; Battle Ground Lake is located in an isolated remnant volcanic crater at the northern
edge of the valley and Beaver Lake is located in an abandoned meander bend in the
central valley. Human activity, which according to archaeological records, was focused
on the valley floor in former oak savanna and prairie and may thus account for the
increased fire frequency at Beaver Lake throughout the middle and late Holocene. This
trend of increasing fire activity during the Holocene is opposite to that observed at Battle
Ground Lake. It is possible that human-ignited fires contributed to the Battle Ground
Lake record, especially in the early Holocene when more open xerophytic vegetation
would have been favorable for Native American resource harvesting, but direct evidence
does not exist to confirm this. The Battle Ground Lake and Beaver Lake reconstructions
jointly suggest that the extent to which natural and anthropogenic factors influenced the
fire and vegetation histories varied greatly between the two sites. More Holocene records
are needed to assess valley-wide patterns.
145
The combined results from Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake,
Porter Lake, and Warner Lake reveal that over last 1200 years, presettlement vegetation
and fire regimes in the Willamette Valley were influenced by a combination of natural
and anthropogenic factors. Battle Ground Lake, which remained forested over the last
several thousand years, was more strongly influenced by climate. Seasonally inundated
valley sites (i.e., Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake) were more influenced by human activity,
but human-set fires were also modulated by climate variability. For example, at Lake
Oswego and Beaver Lake, fire-episode frequency was higher and fire size/severity was
greater during the Medieval Climate Anomaly as compared to the Little Ice Age.
Additionally, the records from Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake, and
Porter Lake imply that fires were infrequent in the 200-300 years prior to Euro-American
settlement. In contrast, the presettlement record from Warner Lake indicates that fires
were more frequent in the foothills of the Coast Range, at least until ca. AD 1800. The
decline in fire activity at all of the sites sometime in the last 600 years indicates a cooling
climate and declining Native American populations.
The postsettlement portions of the reconstructions illustrate the impact of Euro-
American settlement in the Willamette Valley. The most dramatic shift in vegetation at
Battle Ground Lake, Beaver Lake, Porter Lake, and Warner Lake occurred as a result of
Euro-American land clearance for agriculture and logging, and all four sites recorded
major fires between ca. AD 1890-1910 in association with these activities. Lake
Oswego, however, experienced a drastic decline in fire activity earlier than the other
sites, starting at ca. AD 1500, and displayed a smaller Euro-American signal in the fire
146
and vegetation records. The postsettlement reconstructions from all of the sites indicate
few fires in the Willamette Valley after ca. AD 1930, and fires today are predominantly
grass fires.
The Willamette Valley sites can be arranged along a continuum between those
mostly influenced by natural factors and those influenced by human activity (Fig. 5.1).
Consequently, the answer to the question "were the presettlement vegetation patterns of
the Willamette Valley the result of climate and other natural variations, Native American
burning, or both?," is both, but the relative proportions of those influences vary
depending upon the spatial and temporal scale of the investigation. For example, on a
Holocene timescale, Battle Ground Lake seems to have been strongly influenced by
variations in vegetation and climate (Fig. 5.la). The same is true during the early
Holocene at Beaver Lake, but not in the middle and late Holocene, when the site seems to
have been more influenced by human activity (Fig. 5.la and 5.lb).
On a centennial timescale, the records suggest a high degree ofvariability
between climatic and human influences, especially during the last 1200 years (Fig, 5.lc).
For example, at Battle Ground Lake, fire regime shifts seems to correlate well with
known climatic shifts (i.e., the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age). At
Lake Oswego and Beaver Lake, human activity, including the deliberate use of fire as a
land management tool, was superimposed on regional climatic shifts. At Wamer Lake,
no clear climatic influence on the record was detected; therefore, it is assumed that
human activity strongly influenced the environmental history of the site. The
~j
""C
C Q)
:::J ..><:
o lO
.... ....J(9 ....
~ ~
:I::: lO
lO Q)
roro
Climate _~-=---~-=---_--- Humans
A. Early Holocene (ca. 11,000-7500 cal yr BP)
Q)
..><:j
""C§ ~
e lO(9 ....J
Q) ~E w
lO Q)
ro ro
Climate ----'-~ _'_~ Humans
B. Middle Holocene (ca. 7500-4000 cal yr BP)
Q)
..><:
lO
....J
§ Q) ~ ~ ~
e ..><: j ~ lO
(9 j en";:
Q) .... Q;>o Q)
E ~ lO ~ E~ ~ ~ j ~
Climate ---=-~ ---:'~ ~'----"":'~_-'-~_Humans
C. Late Holocene (ca. 4000-120 cal yr BP)
Climate
D. Post Euro-American settlement (ca. 120 cal yr BP· present)
Figure 5.1. Conceptual model showing the relative influence of climate and
humans on the fire and vegetation histories of the five Willamette Valley study
sites in the (A) early Holocene, (B) middle Holocene, (C) late Holocene, and (D)
post Euro-American settlement.
147
148
postsettlement portions of the records reveal an almost exclusive human (i.e., Euro-
American) influence on the fire and vegetation histories (Fig, 5.1d).
The reconstructions from Battle Ground Lake, Lake Oswego, Beaver Lake, Porter
Lake, and Warner Lake bring forth several testable hypotheses that might help guide
future research examining the natural and anthropogenic influences on the fire and
vegetation history of the Willamette Valley.
Hypothesis 1) Climate more strongly influencedfire and vegetation history than
did human activity in the closedforests ofthe Willamette Valley. This hypothesis
suggests that climate variability, not Native American use of fire, shaped prehistoric fire
regimes in forested areas. This is plausible given that closed forests provided few
important food resources, which means that human-set fires would have been of little
benefit in this environment. Support for this hypothesis comes from the Battle Ground
Lake record, which shows that the late-glacial and Holocene fire regimes could be
explained through known climatic and attendant vegetation shifts. At first glance, the fire
and vegetation record from Warner Lake (which was also surrounded by a closed forest
over the last several hundred years) seems to provide evidence against this hypothesis
(i.e., changes in fire activity and vegetation at Warner Lake during the last 1200 years
were not correlated with known climatic shifts). However, if we consider the existence
of ecologically important ecotones near the site, then it becomes clearer why human-set
fires would have been more frequent at Warner Lake as compared to Battle Ground Lake.
Additional reconstructions from sites in the northern Willamette Valley and the foothills
149
of the Cascade Range would help reveal the extent to which climate variability controlled
prehistoric fire regimes in the closed forests of the valley.
Hypothesis 2) Human activity more strongly influencedfire and vegetation
history than did climate in seasonally inundated areas (i.e., river edges andfloodplains)
and ecologically important ecotones (i.e., prairie-oak savanna, oak savanna-oak
woodland, oak woodland-closedforest) ofthe Willamette Valley. This hypothesis
suggests that Native Americans used fire more often in areas that provided necessary
food resources than in other less productive areas. Evidence to support this comes from
the middle and late Holocene record from Beaver Lake and the l200-year-long record
from Lake Oswego, which show that human-set fires helped maintain vegetation, and
even caused vegetation shifts, favorable for resource availability. However, these fires
were modulated by centennial-scale climate variability. To an even greater extent, this
hypothesis is supported by the record from Warner Lake, which shows little to no
climatic influence on the fire and vegetation history at the site during the last 900 years
(i.e., fires burned during warm dry periods as well as during times of increased effective
moisture). None of the records from the five study sites suggest a lack of human
influence on oak savanna/woodland and prairie fire regimes, except during the 200-300
years prior to Euro-American settlement of the valley. This is evidenced by the low level
of fire activity at Lake Oswego and Porter Lake between ca. AD 1600-1875. Additional
study sites from ecologically similar areas would illustrate whether anthropogenic
burning was a local phenomenon, or whether this activity was typical of all seasonally
inundated and ecologically important areas in the valley.
150
Hypothesis 3) Human-set fires strongly influenced the fire and vegetation history
ofareas in the Willamette Valley where there is an archaeological record ofhuman
habitation during the middle to late Holocene. This hypothesis is based on the idea that
as human resource use became more focused on harvesting, processing, and storing food
in the middle to late Holocene, Native American use of fire as a land management tool
subsequently increased or became more spatially focused. Therefore, in areas where
there is greater cultural evidence of food processing (i.e., archaeological sites that include
rock-lined pits containing Camassia (camas) bulbs, Quercus (acorn) meats, and Corylus
(hazelnut) shells), Native Americans used fire more intensely to encourage the growth of
these food resources. The records from Lake Oswego and Beaver Lake support this
hypothesis (archaeological sites containing this type of evidence exist nearby), which
suggests at least a partial human explanation of the fire regimes. Conversely, the fire and
vegetation history from Battle Ground Lake supports this hypothesis as well (there is no
known archaeological evidence from the Battle Ground Lake crater) and the fire-history
reconstruction suggests a climate-driven system. Additional study sites located close to
known archaeological sites would help determine if anthropogenic burning was
commonly used as a land management tool.
Hypothesis 4) Human-set fires strongly influenced the fire and vegetation history
ofareas in the Willamette Valley even where there is no archaeological evidence of
human habitation during the Holocene. This hypothesis is built around the idea that the
lack of archaeological evidence does not necessarily mean that anthropogenic burning did
not affect certain portions of the valley (i.e., the absence of evidence is not necessarily
151
evidence of absence). Several explanations exist as to why archaeological evidence may
be lacking from some areas: 1) activities were such that no cultural evidence was left on
the landscape; 2) geomorphic events (i.e., floods and landslides) and Euro-American
agricultural activities removed or buried cultural evidence; and 3) insufficient searches
for cultural evidence have been conducted (especially on private land). The last reason
likely explains why no archaeological evidence has been found near Warner Lake;
however, the anomalously high fire activity, as compared to the valley-floor records,
suggests there is a high probability that archaeological evidence of human land use exists
near the site.
Hypothesis 5) The prehistoric fire and vegetation histories ofsimilar ecosystems
(i.e., prairie, oak savanna, deciduous woodland) in geographic areas outside the
Willamette Valley were strongly influenced by human use offire. This hypothesis
suggests that for the same reasons Native Americans used fire in the Willamette Valley
(i.e., to encourage the growth of food resources, hunting, clearing trails, etc.), other
indigenous cultures also modified prehistoric vegetation patterns through the use of fire.
Areas such as the prairie and oak savanna ecosystems in the Puget Lowland and
Vancouver Island (British Columbia), the prairie-forest border of the upper Midwest, the
tall grass prairies of the Great Plains, and the hardwood forests of the northeastern and
southeastern United States are all believed to have been managed to some extent by
anthropogenic burning prior to Euro-American settlement. Much paleoecological work
has been done in an effort to support this hypothesis (see Delcourt and Delcourt, 1997;
Loope and Anderton, 1998; Brown and Hebda, 2002b; Foster et aI., 2002; Lepofsky et
152
aI., 2003; Fowler and Konopik, 2007), but the relative extent to which climate and
humans controlled prehistoric fire regimes remains unclear in many cases.
Additional studies that incorporate multiple lines of evidence (i.e., lake-sediment
and dendrochronological records, archaeological evidence, ethnographic studies) are
needed and will help elucidate the extent to which natural and anthropogenic influences
shaped the prehistoric fire regimes and vegetation patterns of the Willamette Valley.
APPENDIX A
BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG04A CHARCOAL DATA
Depth Age Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Herbaceous
(em) (cal yr BP) particles particles concentration charcoal
>250 )lm >125 )lm (particles/cm3) (%)
0.0 -54.00 1 5 6 16.7
1.0 -47.64 3 10 13 7.7
2.0 -41.19 2 13 15 0.0
3.0 -34.65 6 21 27 7.4
4.0 -28.02 11 39 50 12.0
5.0 -21.31 18 57 75 8.0
6.0 -14.51 24 67 91 2.2
7.0 -7.63 21 85 106 0.9
8.0 -0.66 31 103 134 3.0
9.0 6.40 27 119 146 2.7
10.0 13.53 19 142 161 3.7
11.0 20.76 28 109 137 0.7
12.0 28.06 25 90 115 1.7
13.0 35.45 36 105 141 5.0
14.0 42.92 61 164 225 3.1
15.0 50.48 99 297 396 7.3
16.0 58.11 154 193 347 12.1
17.0 65.83 97 242 339 8.6
18.0 73.62 115 219 334 5.1
19.0 81.50 103 214 317 0.9
20.0 89.45 118 233 351 2.3
21.0 97.49 256 434 690 2.6
22.0 105.60 389 369 758 2.9
23.0 113.79 114 151 265 7.9
24.0 122.06 49 62 111 5.4
25.0 130.40 14 19 33 9.1
26.0 138.82 18 29 47 12.8
27.0 147.32 13 28 41 4.9
28.0 155.89 7 23 30 10.0
29.0 164.54 11 22 33 15.2
30.0 173.27 16 32 48 2.1
31.0 182.06 22 40 62 1.6
153
154
32.0 190.94 49 71 120 9.2
33.0 199.88 59 69 128 5.5
34.0 208.90 33 34 67 37.3
35.0 217.99 13 34 47 12.8
36.0 227.15 17 37 54 9.3
37.0 236.38 5 30 35 14.3
38.0 245.69 8 19 27 18.5
39.0 255.06 6 19 25 28.0
40.0 264.51 5 11 16 0.0
41.0 274.02 4 18 22 9.1
42.0 283.61 9 10 19 15.8
43.0 293.26 7 11 18 11.1
44.0 302.98 4 8 12 25.0
45.0 312.77 7 10 17 11.8
46.0 322.63 3 4 7 28.6
47.0 332.55 4 6 10 30.0
48.0 342.54 3 33 36 19.4
49.0 352.60 18 15 33 15.2
50.0 362.72 3 25 28 14.3
51.0 372.91 20 25 45 17.8
52.0 383.16 4 20 24 8.3
53.0 393.48 7 23 30 3.3
54.0 403.86 19 84 103 8.7
55.0 414.30 5 42 47 4.3
56.0 424.81 16 71 87 2.3
57.0 435.38 56 78 134 3.0
58.0 446.01 33 71 104 5.8
59.0 456.71 47 78 125 3.2
60.0 467.46 63 66 129 4.7
61.0 478.28 121 196 317 1.6
62.0 489.15 115 192 307 1.0
63.0 500.09 192 181 373 13.7
64.0 511.09 106 229 335 9.3
65.0 522.14 100 100 200 10.0
66.0 533.26 16 62 78 5.1
67.0 544.43 20 36 56 12.5
68.0 555.66 8 24 32 6.3
69.0 566.95 4 32 36 2.8
70.0 578.30 6 30 36 8.3
71.0 589.70 12 54 66 4.5
155
72.0 601.16 13 56 69 8.7
73.0 612.68 8 47 55 10.9
74.0 624.25 11 57 68 13.2
75.0 635.88 8 46 54 20.4
76.0 647.56 15 53 68 39.7
77.0 659.29 19 26 45 20.0
78.0 671.08 7 49 56 16.1
79.0 682.93 11 63 74 12.2
80.0 694.82 13 65 78 7.7
81.0 706.77 39 71 110 6.4
82.0 718.78 143 223 366 5.2
83.0 730.83 28 43 71 1.4
84.0 742.94 23 57 80 0.0
85.0 755.09 96 331 427 1.4
86.0 767.30 50 133 183 3.3
87.0 779.56 28 103 131 4.6
88.0 791.87 68 76 144 2.1
89.0 804.22 64 46 110 3.6
90.0 816.63 42 95 137 0.7
91.0 829.09 51 58 109 5.5
92.0 841.59 30 42 72 6.9
93.0 854.15 39 74 113 8.0
94.0 866.75 62 102 164 8.5
95.0 879.40 38 52 90 4.4
96.0 892.09 19 45 64 3.1
97.0 904.84 57 86 143 7.0
98.0 917.62 33 78 111 7.2
99.0 930.46 38 112 150 0.7
100.0 943.34 89 153 242 13.6
101.0 956.27 14 114 128 8.6
102.0 969.24 34 74 108 10.2
103.0 982.25 43 105 148 15.5
104.0 995.31 22 48 70 14.3
105.0 1008.41 9 35 44 18.2
106.0 1021.56 4 5 9 0.0
107.0 1034.75 9 32 41 19.5
108.0 1047.98 13 23 36 19.4
109.0 1061.26 3 12 15 33.3
110.0 1074.57 4 16 20 0.0
111.0 1087.93 3 18 21 4.8
156
112.0 1101.33 3 37 40 12.5
113.0 1114.77 1 16 17 11.8
114.0 1128.25 14 30 44 6.8
115.0 1141.78 39 103 142 4.2
116.0 1155.34 29 95 124 3.2
117.0 1168.94 4 24 28 10.7
118.0 1182.58 7 14 21 14.3
119.0 1196.26 7 14 21 0.0
120.0 1209.98 5 17 22 0.0
121.0 1223.73 10 21 31 9.7
122.0 1237.53 21 17 38 5.3
123.0 1251.36 7 15 22 4.5
124.0 1265.23 16 30 46 6.5
125.0 1279.14 7 15 22 13.6
126.0 1293.08 9 5 14 14.3
127.0 1307.06 70 63 133 6.0
128.0 1321.07 35 34 69 2.9
129.0 1335.12 24 80 104 2.9
130.0 1349.21 13 16 29 6.9
131.0 1363.33 28 27 55 9.1
132.0 1377.48 3 14 17 0.0
133.0 1391.67 2 7 9 0.0
134.0 1405.90 7 18 25 4.0
135.0 1420.15 26 50 76 1.3
136.0 1434.45 31 112 143 9.8
137.0 1448.77 19 40 59 6.8
138.0 1463.13 25 77 102 1.0
139.0 1477.51 37 70 107 1.9
140.0 1491.94 11 43 54 1.9
141.0 1506.39 0 3 3 0.0
142.0 1520.87 2 7 9 11.1
143.0 1535.39 3 5 8 0.0
144.0 1549.94 11 15 26 7.7
145.0 1564.51 3 9 12 8.3
146.0 1579.12 4 16 20 0.0
147.0 1593.76 10 18 28 14.3
148.0 1608.42 11 21 32 12.5
149.0 1623.12 7 25 32 0.0
150.0 1637.85 2 27 29 3.4
151.0 1652.60 7 22 29 0.0
157
152.0 1667.38 4 22 26 0.0
153.0 1682.20 1 11 12 8.3
154.0 1697.03 1 19 20 5.0
155.0 1711.90 12 34 46 4.3
156.0 1726.79 28 86 114 3.5
157.0 1741.72 10 19 29 0.0
158.0 1756.66 3 23 26 3.8
159.0 1771.64 32 146 178 0.6
160.0 1786.64 4 27 31 0.0
161.0 1801.67 256 340 596 2.9
162.0 1816.72 20 40 60 1.7
163.0 1831.80 8 14 22 4.5
164.0 1846.90 2 3 5 0.0
165.0 1862.03 3 9 12 25.0
166.0 1877.18 4 18 22 13.6
167.0 1892.35 9 16 25 4.0
168.0 1907.56 5 10 15 0.0
169.0 1922.78 6 17 23 13.0
170.0 1938.03 4 9 13 7.7
171.0 1953.30 9 55 64 6.3
172.0 1968.59 6 13 19 0.0
173.0 1983.91 4 13 17 5.9
174.0 1999.25 0 3 3 0.0
175.0 2014.61 3 32 35 2.9
176.0 2029.99 13 59 72 11.1
177.0 2045.40 3 9 12 16.7
178.0 2060.82 7 16 23 8.7
179.0 2076.27 16 52 68 14.7
180.0 2091.74 3 27 30 3.3
181.0 2107.23 25 106 131 1.5
182.0 2122.74 21 51 72 2.8
183.0 2138.27 153 308 461 1.3
184.0 2153.82 25 102 127 2.4
185.0 2169.39 46 125 171 1.8
186.0 2184.97 18 40 58 10.3
187.0 2200.58 2 11 13 0.0
188.0 2216.21 0 7 7 0.0
189.0 2231.85 5 20 25 4.0
190.0 2247.52 16 33 49 2.0
191.0 2263.20 9 16 25 0.0
158
192.0 2278.90 2 4 6 0.0
193.0 2294.62 2 13 15 6.7
194.0 2310.35 3 12 15 13.3
195.0 2326.10 2 5 7 42.9
196.0 2341.87 0 5 5 20.0
197.0 2357.66 6 17 23 8.7
198.0 2373.46 7 18 25 4.0
199.0 2389.28 11 26 37 2.7
200.0 2405.11 8 20 28 10.7
201.0 2420.97 16 30 46 0.0
202.0 2436.83 29 27 56 3.6
203.0 2452.72 40 58 98 0.0
204.0 2468.61 11 34 45 6.7
205.0 2484.53 10 30 40 2.5
206.0 2500.45 15 24 39 0.0
207.0 2516.39 17 39 56 1.8
208.0 2532.35 16 30 46 2.2
209.0 2548.32 8 27 35 2.9
210.0 2564.31 9 14 23 0.0
211.0 2580.30 5 19 24 0.0
212.0 2596.32 3 23 26 0.0
213.0 2612.34 5 36 41 2.4
214.0 2628.38 5 12 17 0.0
215.0 2644.43 13 38 51 2.0
216.0 2660.49 26 90 116 0.9
217.0 2676.57 5 13 18 0.0
218.0 2692.66 5 11 16 18.8
219.0 2708.76 7 24 31 3.2
220.0 2724.87 3 23 26 7.7
221.0 2741.00 1 12 13 0.0
222.0 2757.13 19 35 54 1.9
223.0 2773.28 53 42 95 4.2
224.0 2789.44 6 18 24 12.5
225.0 2805.61 14 22 36 0.0
226.0 2821.79 1 18 19 5.3
227.0 2837.98 6 29 35 8.6
228.0 2854.18 11 20 31 19.4
229.0 2870.39 12 37 49 2.0
230.0 2886.62 33 53 86 3.5
231.0 2902.85 17 41 58 17.2
159
232.0 2919.09 26 56 82 1.2
235.0 2967.87 14 0 14 28.6
236.0 2984.15 1 17 18 0.0
237.0 3000.43 4 20 24 12.5
238.0 3016.73 9 31 40 2.5
239.0 3033.03 3 16 19 5.3
240.0 3049.35 6 13 19 0.0
241.0 3065.67 3 21 24 4.2
242.0 3082.00 5 14 19 0.0
243.0 3098.33 6 14 20 10.0
244.0 3114.68 5 27 32 9.4
245.0 3131.03 11 20 31 0.0
246.0 3147.39 4 12 16 6.3
247.0 3163.75 2 14 16 6.3
248.0 3180.13 6 12 18 5.6
249.0 3196.51 10 44 54 1.9
250.0 3212.89 51 96 147 1.4
251.0 3229.29 39 70 109 4.6
252.0 3245.69 4 10 14 7.1
253.0 3262.09 7 16 23 13.0
254.0 3278.51 4 12 16 18.8
255.0 3294.92 11 9 20 0.0
256.0 3311.35 3 15 18 11.1
257.0 3327.78 10 18 28 3.6
258.0 3344.21 1 11 12 8.3
259.0 3360.65 17 32 49 6.1
260.0 3377.10 15 29 44 2.3
261.0 3393.55 10 8 18 5.6
262.0 3410.01 14 32 46 15.2
263.0 3426.47 5 17 22 18.2
264.0 3442.93 13 25 38 0.0
265.0 3459.40 12 16 28 7.1
266.0 3475.88 30 67 97 2.1
267.0 3492.35 43 80 123 0.8
268.0 3508.84 13 41 54 14.8
269.0 3525.32 10 32 42 4.8
270.0 3541.82 14 62 76 68.4
271.0 3558.31 30 122 152 0.7
272.0 3574.81 10 53 63 6.3
273.0 3591.31 4 28 32 6.3
160
274.0 3607.82 5 28 33 9.1
275.0 3624.33 5 52 57 5.3
276.0 3640.84 18 36 54 3.7
277.0 3657.35 12 65 77 5.2
278.0 3673.87 14 68 82 4.9
279.0 3690.39 4 27 31 0.0
280.0 3706.92 4 46 50 6.0
281.0 3723.44 4 59 63 4.8
282.0 3739.97 8 29 37 10.8
283.0 3756.50 14 72 86 5.8
284.0 3773.04 13 67 80 3.8
285.0 3789.57 19 122 141 7.1
286.0 3806.11 24 181 205 2.9
287.0 3822.65 32 146 178 8.4
288.0 3839.19 64 257 321 4.4
289.0 3855.74 22 79 101 4.0
290.0 3872.28 7 63 70 10.0
291.0 3888.83 12 62 74 16.2
292.0 3905.38 12 57 69 1.4
293.0 3921.93 27 38 65 3.1
294.0 3938.48 14 35 49 8.2
295.0 3955.03 17 55 72 5.6
296.0 3971.59 23 30 53 13.2
297.0 3988.14 40 94 134 6.7
298.0 4004.70 14 45 59 8.5
299.0 4021.25 20 58 78 15.4
300.0 4037.81 18 36 54 22.2
301.0 4054.37 10 72 82 3.7
302.0 4070.93 54 135 189 1.1
303.0 4087.49 9 24 33 9.1
304.0 4104.05 3 36 39 10.3
305.0 4120.61 7 34 41 9.8
306.0 4137.17 9 50 59 0.0
307.0 4153.74 13 42 55 9.1
308.0 4170.30 37 89 126 11.9
309.0 4186.86 31 45 76 3.9
310.0 4203.42 25 63 88 6.8
311.0 4219.98 36 92 128 3.9
312.0 4236.55 24 65 89 7.9
313.0 4253.11 9 22 31 19.4
161
314.0 4269.67 10 26 36 2.8
315.0 4286.23 17 31 48 8.3
316.0 4302.79 12 41 53 13.2
316.5 4311.07 14 31 45 6.7
317.0 4319.35 47 126 173 57.2
317.5 4327.63 12 48 60 8.3
318.0 4335.91 15 33 48 4.2
318.5 4344.19 13 27 40 25.0
319.0 4352.47 5 26 31 12.9
319.5 4360.75 23 49 72 6.9
320.0 4369.03 13 41 54 11.1
320.5 4377.31 17 56 73 15.1
321.0 4385.59 16 90 106 9.4
321.5 4393.87 15 64 79 10.1
322.0 4402.15 20 57 77 5.2
322.5 4410.43 11 27 38 13.2
323.0 4418.71 21 36 57 3.5
323.5 4426.99 9 36 45 20.0
324.0 4435.27 17 52 69 2.9
324.5 4443.55 6 33 39 0.0
325.0 4451.82 4 72 76 6.6
325.5 4460.10 12 57 69 8.7
326.0 4468.38 17 48 65 21.5
326.5 4476.66 38 113 151 1.3
327.0 4484.93 12 37 49 18.4
327.5 4493.21 14 28 42 9.5
328.0 4501.49 16 34 50 4.0
328.5 4509.76 23 46 69 5.8
329.0 4518.04 19 50 69 2.9
329.5 4526.32 40 63 103 43.7
330.0 4534.59 20 54 74 8.1
330.5 4542.87 11 41 52 9.6
331.0 4551.14 28 55 83 22.9
331.5 4559.42 148 157 305 36.7
332.0 4567.69 25 42 67 19.4
332.5 4575.97 12 34 46 8.7
333.0 4584.24 19 36 55 21.8
333.5 4592.52 7 23 30 6.7
334.0 4600.79 15 47 62 8.1
334.5 4609.06 18 60 78 5.1
162
335.0 4617.34 26 71 97 8.2
335.5 4625.61 15 68 83 8.4
336.0 4633.88 28 43 71 4.2
336.5 4642.15 17 29 46 2.2
337.0 4650.42 18 53 71 15.5
337.5 4658.70 16 60 76 9.2
338.0 4666.97 10 53 63 9.5
338.5 4675.24 19 20 39 7.7
339.0 4683.51 10 31 41 34.1
339.5 4691.78 3 15 18 0.0
340.0 4700.05 11 51 62 11.3
340.5 4708.32 28 69 97 34.0
341.0 4716.59 5 22 27 7.4
341.5 4724.86 28 43 71 5.6
342.0 4733.13 14 34 48 27.1
342.5 4741.39 14 27 41 14.6
343.0 4749.66 13 42 55 21.8
343.5 4757.93 14 32 46 21.7
344.0 4766.20 25 26 51 2.0
344.5 4774.46 48 56 104 28.8
345.0 4782.73 11 44 55 3.6
345.5 4791.00 5 61 66 10.6
346.0 4799.26 14 34 48 8.3
346.5 4807.53 17 28 45 4.4
347.0 4815.79 12 22 34 11.8
347.5 4824.06 8 22 30 0.0
348.0 4832.32 24 58 82 9.8
348.5 4840.59 29 40 69 8.7
349.0 4848.85 9 24 33 36.4
349.5 4857.11 19 36 55 1.8
350.0 4865.38 21 39 60 11.7
350.5 4873.64 22 52 74 12.2
351.0 4881.90 10 58 68 13.2
351.5 4890.16 14 76 90 10.0
352.0 4898.42 30 78 108 2.8
352.5 4906.69 13 42 55 14.5
353.0 4914.95 165 212 377 2.9
353.5 4923.21 8 60 68 2.9
354.0 4931.47 14 91 105 1.9
354.5 4939.73 14 92 106 0.9
163
355.0 4947.99 53 192 245 1.6
355.5 4956.24 42 106 148 2.0
356.0 4964.50 12 48 60 6.7
356.5 4972.76 27 60 87 5.7
357.0 4981.02 13 60 73 16.4
357.5 4989.28 6 41 47 10.6
358.0 4997.53 6 41 47 6.4
358.5 5005.79 11 83 94 10.6
359.0 5014.05 5 39 44 6.8
359.5 5022.30 18 49 67 9.0
360.0 5030.56 41 78 119 15.1
360.5 5038.81 69 245 314 4.1
361.0 5047.07 15 60 75 9.3
361.5 5055.32 14 68 82 4.9
362.0 5063.57 17 46 63 1.6
362.5 5071.83 24 36 60 3.3
363.0 5080.08 6 20 26 3.8
363.5 5088.33 117 115 232 4.7
364.0 5096.59 14 47 61 3.3
364.5 5104.84 42 44 86 3.5
365.0 5113.09 8 12 20 10.0
365.5 5121.34 5 16 21 14.3
366.0 5129.59 6 21 27 7.4
366.5 5137.84 12 31 43 7.0
367.0 5146.09 16 20 36 8.3
367.5 5154.34 6 17 23 0.0
368.0 5162.59 6 28 34 2.9
368.5 5170.84 11 29 40 10.0
369.0 5179.09 9 45 54 16.7
369.5 5187.34 5 13 18 5.6
370.0 5195.59 8 39 47 2.1
370.5 5203.83 16 43 59 3.4
371.0 5212.08 23 44 67 13.4
371.5 5220.33 4 36 40 7.5
372.0 5228.58 12 63 75 8.0
372.5 5236.82 38 159 197 5.6
373.0 5245.07 13 72 85 2.4
373.5 5253.31 10 35 45 11.1
374.0 5261.56 10 28 38 2.6
374.5 5269.80 7 42 49 8.2
164
375.0 5278.05 10 30 40 5.0
375.5 5286.29 11 29 40 2.5
376.0 5294.54 5 22 27 3.7
376.5 5302.78 3 41 44 11.4
377.0 5311.02 10 31 41 12.2
377.5 5319.27 8 34 42 11.9
378.0 5327.51 6 34 40 7.5
378.5 5335.75 7 52 59 32.2
379.0 5344.00 3 40 43 7.0
379.5 5352.24 10 34 44 9.1
380.0 5360.48 14 47 61 16.4
380.5 5368.72 10 22 32 3.1
381.0 5376.96 28 58 86 44.2
381.5 5385.20 24 51 75 44.0
382.0 5393.44 1 28 29 0.0
382.5 5401.68 23 71 94 46.8
383.0 5409.92 0 33 33 39.4
383.5 5418.16 2 21 23 21.7
384.0 5426.40 11 29 40 7.5
384.5 5434.64 2 34 36 5.6
385.0 5442.88 5 34 39 2.6
385.5 5451.12 3 25 28 7.1
386.0 5459.36 17 47 64 20.3
386.5 5467.60 11 49 60 0.0
387.0 5475.84 4 28 32 12.5
387.5 5484.07 11 63 74 10.8
388.0 5492.31 10 58 68 7.4
388.5 5500.55 22 79 101 5.0
389.0 5508.79 10 25 35 8.6
389.5 5517.02 4 11 15 26.7
390.0 5525.26 5 22 27 37.0
390.5 5533.50 6 36 42 16.7
391.0 5541.73 0 48 48 20.8
391.5 5549.97 19 35 54 18.5
392.0 5558.21 12 51 63 14.3
392.5 5566.44 7 60 67 4.5
393.0 5574.68 17 34 51 13.7
393.5 5582.91 8 68 76 36.8
394.0 5591.15 3 30 33 12.1
394.5 5599.39 3 26 29 3.4
165
395.0 5607.62 4 33 37 5.4
395.5 5615.86 1 27 28 7.1
396.0 5624.09 3 41 44 4.5
396.5 5632.33 4 36 40 25.0
397.0 5640.56 8 37 45 2.2
397.5 5648.80 12 40 52 13.5
398.0 5657.03 1 37 38 7.9
398.5 5665.27 7 23 30 0.0
399.0 5673.50 6 41 47 8.5
399.5 5681.74 10 78 88 11.4
400.0 5689.97 25 83 108 5.6
400.5 5698.20 15 51 66 3.0
401.0 5706.44 22 55 77 22.1
401.5 5714.67 17 72 89 6.7
402.0 5722.91 35 79 114 6.1
402.5 5731.14 18 52 70 4.3
403.0 5739.38 41 151 192 2.1
403.5 5747.61 14 49 63 17.5
404.0 5755.85 7 22 29 6.9
404.5 5764.08 4 23 27 7.4
405.0 5772.31 11 34 45 13.3
405.5 5780.55 7 28 35 8.6
406.0 5788.78 13 57 70 4.3
406.5 5797.02 19 82 101 12.9
407.0 5805.25 13 37 50 4.0
407.5 5813.49 9 48 57 19.3
408.0 5821.72 18 89 107 17.8
408.5 5829.96 25 73 98 9.2
409.0 5838.19 15 50 65 24.6
409.5 5846.43 18 94 112 17.0
410.0 5854.66 83 268 351 46.2
410.5 5862.90 21 110 131 10.7
411.0 5871.13 45 103 148 23.6
411.5 5879.37 11 41 52 0.0
412.0 5887.61 11 42 53 17.0
412.5 5895.84 12 71 83 12.0
413.0 5904.08 8 78 86 15.1
413.5 5912.31 3 22 25 12.0
414.0 5920.55 25 88 113 43.4
414.5 5928.79 22 64 86 33.7
166
415.0 5937.02 8 39 47 25.5
415.5 5945.26 6 14 20 30.0
416.0 5953.50 12 53 65 29.2
416.5 5961.74 18 61 79 17.7
417.0 5969.97 13 74 87 21.8
417.5 5978.21 10 86 96 11.5
418.0 5986.45 20 115 135 16.3
418.5 5994.69 25 112 137 14.6
419.0 6002.93 9 75 84 17.9
419.5 6011.17 22 101 123 8.9
420.0 6019.41 5 63 68 4.4
420.5 6027.65 15 45 60 10.0
421.0 6035.89 30 88 118 2.5
421.5 6044.13 9 85 94 8.5
422.0 6052.37 16 37 53 9.4
422.5 6060.61 16 66 82 11.0
423.0 6068.85 9 92 101 4.0
423.5 6077.10 33 108 141 16.3
424.0 6085.34 18 90 108 8.3
424.5 6093.58 23 81 104 18.3
425.0 6101.83 21 121 142 9.2
425.5 6110.07 18 112 130 19.2
426.0 6118.31 21 52 73 11.0
426.5 6126.56 19 46 65 16.9
427.0 6134.80 24 98 122 21.3
427.5 6143.05 14 31 45 8.9
428.0 6151.30 30 52 82 7.3
428.5 6159.54 18 47 65 23.1
429.0 6167.79 43 78 121 42.1
429.5 6176.04 36 86 122 20.5
430.0 6184.29 19 46 65 9.2
430.5 6192.54 5 39 44 15.9
431.0 6200.79 32 126 158 12.7
431.5 6209.04 15 87 102 19.6
432.0 6217.29 24 81 105 7.6
432.5 6225.54 39 62 101 20.8
433.0 6233.79 49 118 167 21.0
433.5 6242.05 50 146 196 12.2
434.0 6250.30 48 128 194 8.2
434.5 6258.55 39 120 167 19.8
167
435.0 6266.81 27 99 147 9.5
435.5 6275.06 14 43 113 6.2
436.0 6283.32 25 116 68 55.9
436.5 6291.58 16 50 132 11.4
437.0 6299.84 6 40 56 5.4
437.5 6308.09 14 54 54 29.6
438.0 6316.35 15 38 69 8.7
438.5 6324.61 13 38 51 15.7
439.0 6332.88 26 74 100 15.0
439.5 6341.14 11 56 67 20.9
440.0 6349.40 20 73 93 19.4
440.5 6357.66 9 58 67 31.3
441.0 6365.93 28 133 161 9.3
441.5 6374.19 17 75 92 13.0
442.0 6382.46 19 75 94 11.7
442.5 6390.73 27 158 185 25.4
443.0 6399.00 46 131 177 24.9
443.5 6407.26 33 93 126 13.5
444.0 6415.53 57 164 221 7.2
444.5 6423.81 8 97 105 17.1
445.0 6432.08 7 50 57 10.5
445.5 6440.35 12 74 86 19.8
446.0 6448.62 16 120 136 8.8
446.5 6456.90 10 43 53 15.1
447.0 6465.18 18 51 69 14.5
447.5 6473.45 27 75 102 28.4
448.0 6481.73 7 84 91 23.1
448.5 6490.01 25 134 159 17.6
449.0 6498.29 11 82 93 21.5
449.5 6506.57 38 111 149 30.2
450.0 6514.86 41 61 102 30.4
450.5 6523.14 13 76 89 29.2
451.0 6531.43 29 131 160 12.5
451.5 6539.71 14 77 91 29.7
452.0 6548.00 37 99 136 22.1
452.5 6556.29 31 93 124 36.3
453.0 6564.58 16 49 65 29.2
453.5 6572.87 10 66 76 28.9
454.0 6581.16 16 108 124 18.5
454.5 6589.46 19 90 109 31.2
168
455.0 6597.75 16 98 114 23.7
455.5 6606.05 15 85 100 17.0
456.0 6614.35 23 146 169 22.5
456.5 6622.65 30 187 217 21.7
457.0 6630.95 57 184 241 14.5
457.5 6639.25 18 134 152 39.5
458.0 6647.55 30 134 164 22.0
458.5 6655.86 34 186 220 21.4
459.0 6664.16 15 52 67 13.4
459.5 6672.47 12 54 66 36.4
460.0 6680.78 21 88 109 16.5
460.5 6689.09 45 222 267 40.8
461.0 6697.40 20 73 93 15.1
461.5 6705.72 15 71 86 27.9
462.0 6714.03 19 88 107 26.2
462.5 6722.35 32 152 184 18.5
463.0 6730.67 12 88 100 17.0
463.5 6738.99 5 66 71 8.5
464.0 6747.31 13 44 57 22.8
464.5 6755.64 25 147 172 14.0
465.0 6763.96 39 153 192 32.8
465.5 6772.29 27 124 151 21.2
466.0 6780.62 2 32 34 5.9
466.5 6788.95 6 37 43 9.3
467.0 6797.28 17 59 76 23.7
467.5 6805.61 56 126 182 45.6
468.0 6813.95 23 68 91 30.8
468.5 6822.29 17 43 60 11.7
469.0 6830.63 16 47 63 23.8
469.5 6838.97 11 50 61 21.3
470.0 6847.31 27 54 81 35.8
470.5 6855.66 48 90 138 37.0
471.0 6864.01 16 69 85 31.8
471.5 6872.36 20 82 102 27.5
472.0 6880.71 16 108 124 27.4
472.5 6889.06 15 104 119 22.7
473.0 6897.41 12 54 66 25.8
473.5 6905.77 21 106 127 19.7
474.0 6914.13 42 194 236 55.1
474.5 6922.49 14 68 82 24.4
169
475.0 6930.86 22 111 133 33.1
475.5 6939.22 12 61 73 34.2
476.0 6947.59 17 89 106 46.2
476.5 6955.96 9 49 58 10.3
477.0 6964.33 52 163 215 44.2
477.5 6972.70 14 56 70 38.6
478.0 6981.08 20 61 81 43.2
478.5 6989.46 7 51 58 36.2
479.0 6997.84 15 52 67 19.4
479.5 7006.22 11 44 55 14.5
480.0 7014.61 27 63 90 30.0
480.5 7023.00 30 56 86 29.1
481.0 7031.39 31 104 135 34.8
481.5 7039.78 8 55 63 42.9
482.0 7048.17 68 126 194 43.8
482.5 7056.57 21 79 100 20.0
483.0 7064.97 21 100 121 34.7
483.5 7073.37 75 141 216 25.5
484.0 7081.78 18 108 126 11.1
484.5 7090.19 11 82 93 14.0
485.0 7098.59 30 111 141 18.4
485.5 7107.01 39 157 196 34.2
486.0 7115.42 7 72 79 30.4
486.5 7123.84 14 77 91 33.0
487.0 7132.26 14 53 67 19.4
487.5 7140.68 16 62 78 14.1
488.0 7149.11 41 89 130 24.6
488.5 7157.54 22 59 81 30.9
489.0 7165.97 7 67 74 20.3
489.5 7174.40 20 58 78 23.1
490.0 7182.84 23 100 123 39.8
490.5 7191.27 15 80 95 24.2
491.0 7199.72 26 87 113 36.3
491.5 7208.16 10 61 71 21.1
492.0 7216.61 18 67 85 21.2
492.5 7225.06 23 78 101 26.7
493.0 7233.51 14 70 84 41.7
493.5 7241.97 19 102 121 33.1
494.0 7250.43 65 114 179 26.8
494.5 7258.89 67 164 231 48.1
170
495.0 7267.35 59 166 225 46.7
495.5 7275.82 14 53 67 25.4
496.0 7284.29 42 90 132 40.9
496.5 7292.77 13 70 83 39.8
497.0 7301.24 20 165 185 31.9
497.5 7309.73 18 103 121 34.7
498.0 7318.21 27 111 138 33.3
498.5 7326.70 64 200 264 59.1
499.0 7335.19 9 86 95 44.2
499.5 7343.68 22 87 109 50.5
500.0 7352.18 16 59 75 46.7
500.5 7360.67 21 89 110 30.0
501.0 7369.18 9 136 145 23.4
501.5 7377.68 26 96 122 20.5
502.0 7386.19 17 69 86 16.3
502.5 7394.71 23 130 153 26.1
503.0 7403.22 70 347 417 32.9
503.5 7411.74 79 294 373 15.0
504.0 7420.27 89 357 446 28.3
504.5 7428.79 80 265 345 42.3
505.0 7437.32 32 183 215 45.6
505.5 7445.86 30 179 209 19.1
506.0 7454.39 25 172 197 26.4
506.5 7462.94 15 190 205 28.8
507.0 7471.48 50 379 429 51.5
507.5 7480.03 34 197 231 23.8
508.0 7488.58 20 127 147 23.8
508.5 7497.14 33 158 191 35.1
509.0 7505.69 38 175 213 31.0
509.5 7514.26 20 133 153 22.2
510.0 7522.82 37 241 278 40.6
510.5 7531.39 71 206 277 22.0
511.0 7539.97 81 115 196 41.8
511.5 7548.55 6 47 53 5.7
512.0 7557.13 8 74 82 26.8
512.5 7565.72 32 126 158 15.2
513.0 7574.31 9 87 96 22.9
513.5 7582.90 8 81 89 25.8
514.0 7591.50 15 64 79 3.8
514.5 7600.10 13 77 90 7.8
171
515.0 7608.71 15 94 109 22.0
515.5 7617.32 7 116 123 9.8
516.0 7625.93 10 83 93 18.3
516.5 7634.55 85 189 274 32.8
517.0 7643.17 14 89 103 13.6
517.5 7651.80 15 52 67 9.0
518.0 7660.43 5 79 84 15.5
518.5 7669.06 23 145 168 25.0
519.0 7677.70 16 77 93 9.7
519.5 7686.35 11 115 126 14.3
520.0 7694.99 23 186 209 36.4
520.5 7703.65 13 107 120 25.0
521.0 7712.30 13 78 91 12.1
521.5 7720.96 70 242 312 61.2
522.0 7729.63 31 208 239 31.0
522.5 7738.30 14 140 154 13.6
523.0 7746.97 15 74 89 10.1
523.5 7755.65 8 75 83 14.5
524.0 7764.34 18 125 143 22.4
524.5 7773.03 45 164 209 21.1
525.0 7781.72 12 116 128 18.8
525.5 7790.42 11 85 96 31.3
526.0 7799.12 9 105 114 21.9
526.5 7807.83 26 96 122 14.8
527.0 7816.54 3 58 61 29.5
527.5 7825.25 13 52 65 18.5
528.0 7833.98 19 143 162 56.8
528.5 7842.70 4 102 106 25.5
529.0 7851.43 16 62 78 21.8
529.5 7860.17 8 51 59 18.6
530.0 7868.91 11 69 80 17.5
530.5 7877.65 21 97 118 23.7
531.0 7886.41 26 114 140 12.9
531.5 7895.16 20 93 113 12.4
532.0 7903.92 12 82 94 12.8
532.5 7912.69 34 237 271 6.3
533.0 7921.46 26 211 237 11.0
533.5 7930.24 26 171 197 28.9
534.0 7939.02 13 72 85 23.5
534.5 7947.80 8 110 118 20.3
172
535.0 7956.60 20 132 152 39.5
535.5 7965.39 11 60 71 16.9
536.0 7974.19 21 107 128 18.0
536.5 7983.00 29 129 158 29.1
537.0 7991.82 15 57 72 12.5
537.5 8000.63 21 68 89 34.8
538.0 8009.46 7 49 56 30.4
538.5 8018.29 23 115 138 20.3
539.0 8027.12 13 43 56 32.1
539.5 8035.96 7 52 59 20.3
540.0 8044.81 21 50 71 19.7
540.5 8053.66 17 58 75 18.7
541.0 8062.52 30 85 115 22.6
541.5 8071.38 26 103 129 24.0
542.0 8080.25 8 101 109 22.9
542.5 8089.12 13 70 83 39.8
543.0 8098.00 21 112 133 29.3
543.5 8106.89 15 109 124 32.3
544.0 8115.78 22 80 102 46.1
544.5 8124.68 40 50 90 42.2
545.0 8133.58 9 90 99 52.5
545.5 8142.49 6 65 71 50.7
546.0 8151.41 7 60 67 29.9
546.5 8160.33 4 36 40 27.5
547.0 8169.25 19 115 134 35.8
547.5 8178.19 12 79 91 23.1
548.0 8187.13 15 97 112 25.0
548.5 8196.07 17 199 216 45.8
549.0 8205.02 51 171 222 14.4
549.5 8213.98 29 218 247 23.1
550.0 8222.95 27 206 233 15.9
550.5 8231.92 31 211 242 13.6
551.0 8240.89 60 211 271 24.7
551.5 8249.88 23 245 268 30.2
552.0 8258.87 8 81 89 20.2
552.5 8267.86 30 103 133 30.8
553.0 8276.86 10 70 80 37.5
553.5 8285.87 10 104 114 25.4
554.0 8294.89 34 100 134 11.2
554.5 8303.91 27 121 148 21.6
173
555.0 8312.94 21 141 162 35.2
555.5 8321.97 57 185 242 22.3
556.0 8331.01 40 180 220 13.2
556.5 8340.06 19 146 165 12.1
557.0 8349.12 18 227 245 5.3
557.5 8358.18 14 296 310 11.9
558.0 8367.25 25 144 169 5.3
558.5 8376.32 15 124 139 9.4
559.0 8385.40 15 100 115 30.4
559.5 8394.49 10 112 122 29.5
560.0 8403.59 3 86 89 38.2
560.5 8412.69 11 46 57 17.5
561.0 8421.80 5 79 84 21.4
561.5 8430.92 5 39 44 13.6
562.0 8440.04 8 94 102 12.7
562.5 8449.17 9 71 80 6.3
563.0 8458.31 5 67 72 8.3
563.5 8467.46 14 195 209 22.0
564.0 8476.61 13 121 134 14.9
564.5 8485.77 12 72 84 13.1
565.0 8494.94 13 120 133 14.3
565.5 8504.11 15 187 202 12.9
566.0 8513.29 13 67 80 16.3
566.5 8522.48 14 122 136 23.5
567.0 8531.68 6 120 126 27.8
567.5 8540.89 6 134 140 36.4
568.0 8550.10 6 56 62 35.5
568.5 8559.32 2 75 77 15.6
569.0 8568.54 36 220 256 9.4
569.5 8577.78 20 103 123 43.9
570.0 8587.02 6 57 63 14.3
570.5 8596.27 22 133 155 41.9
571.0 8605.53 49 233 282 28.4
571.5 8614.79 10 121 131 37.4
572.0 8624.07 0 60 60 21.7
572.5 8633.35 5 71 76 11.8
573.0 8642.64 12 78 90 26.7
573.5 8651.93 35 187 222 65.3
574.0 8661.24 25 197 222 36.9
574.5 8670.55 13 108 121 14.9
174
575.0 8679.87 43 255 298 20.5
575.5 8689.20 44 278 322 16.5
576.0 8698.54 7 69 76 28.9
576.5 8707.88 15 86 101 16.8
577.0 8717.24 5 61 66 15.2
577.5 8726.60 5 34 39 20.5
578.0 8735.97 12 64 76 28.9
578.5 8745.35 10 118 128 21.9
579.0 8754.74 39 189 228 54.4
579.5 8764.13 9 117 126 32.5
580.0 8773.53 4 109 113 34.5
580.5 8782.95 14 143 157 19.7
581.0 8792.37 9 71 80 30.0
581.5 8801.80 6 83 89 43.8
582.0 8811.23 6 39 45 11.1
582.5 8820.68 2 108 110 23.6
583.0 8830.14 15 156 171 28.1
583.5 8839.60 6 99 105 21.0
584.0 8849.07 9 82 91 23.1
584.5 8858.55 12 157 169 19.5
585.0 8868.04 10 96 106 20.8
585.5 8877.54 19 185 204 16.7
586.0 8887.05 14 192 206 44.7
586.5 8896.57 5 123 128 21.1
587.0 8906.09 23 178 201 27.4
587.5 8915.63 13 221 234 27.4
588.0 8925.17 36 228 264 9.5
588.5 8934.73 19 188 207 30.9
589.0 8944.29 33 155 188 6.9
589.5 8953.86 13 137 150 16.0
590.0 8963.44 4 96 100 18.0
590.5 8973.03 15 117 132 29.5
591.0 8982.63 29 144 173 25.4
591.5 8992.24 16 122 138 18.8
592.0 9001.86 17 141 158 17.7
592.5 9011.49 18 179 197 26.4
593.0 9021.12 15 166 181 10.5
593.5 9030.77 15 127 142 14.1
594.0 9040.43 15 137 152 12.5
594.5 9050.09 15 217 232 16.8
175
595.0 9059.77 66 285 351 16.0
595.5 9069.45 16 222 238 13.0
596.0 9079.15 19 162 181 18.8
596.5 9088.85 12 159 171 21.6
597.0 9098.57 26 151 177 22.6
597.5 9108.29 13 180 193 20.2
598.0 9118.03 18 357 375 23.7
598.5 9127.77 20 153 173 11.6
599.0 9137.53 20 222 242 11.6
599.5 9147.29 54 270 324 7.4
600.0 9157.07 31 249 280 18.6
600.5 9166.85 20 320 340 27.4
601.0 9176.65 12 145 157 19.1
601.5 9186.45 19 189 208 21.2
602.0 9196.27 13 93 106 33.0
602.5 9206.09 4 81 85 31.8
603.0 9215.93 14 100 114 22.8
603.5 9225.78 8 61 69 13.0
604.0 9235.63 7 108 115 31.3
604.5 9245.50 9 132 141 18.4
605.0 9255.38 5 128 133 33.8
605.5 9265.27 12 87 99 22.2
606.0 9275.17 25 140 165 10.9
606.5 9285.08 6 93 99 26.3
607.0 9295.00 7 315 322 59.0
607.5 9304.93 24 120 144 12.5
608.0 9314.87 8 99 107 12.1
608.5 9324.82 6 80 86 14.0
609.0 9334.79 6 126 132 10.6
609.5 9344.76 15 108 123 10.6
610.0 9354.75 13 123 136 4.4
610.5 9364.75 13 111 124 4.8
611.0 9374.75 12 132 144 13.9
611.5 9384.77 26 192 218 7.8
612.0 9394.80 13 125 138 5.1
612.5 9404.84 16 137 153 21.6
613.0 9414.90 6 80 86 15.1
613.5 9424.96 14 170 184 10.3
614.0 9435.04 8 66 74 12.2
614.5 9445.12 20 86 106 6.6
176
615.0 9455.22 13 91 104 16.3
615.5 9465.33 15 113 128 11.7
616.0 9475.45 15 109 124 10.5
616.5 9485.58 15 108 123 5.7
617.0 9495.73 8 72 80 6.3
617.5 9505.88 9 103 112 11.6
618.0 9516.05 22 146 168 32.7
618.5 9526.23 90 224 314 15.9
619.0 9536.42 21 111 132 21.2
619.5 9546.63 12 77 89 14.6
620.0 9556.84 5 90 95 2.1
620.5 9567.07 15 140 155 18.1
621.0 9577.31 2 107 109 29.4
621.5 9587.56 3 119 122 8.2
622.0 9597.82 10 71 81 7.4
622.5 9608.09 8 136 144 9.7
623.0 9618.38 16 135 151 37.7
623.5 9628.68 5 121 126 23.8
624.0 9638.99 6 113 119 26.1
624.5 9649.32 6 85 91 12.1
625.0 9659.65 7 99 106 17.9
625.5 9670.00 25 132 157 28.7
626.0 9680.36 38 164 202 29.2
626.5 9690.74 7 98 105 18.1
627.0 9701.12 19 104 123 21.1
627.5 9711.52 5 110 115 22.6
628.0 9721.93 12 66 78 32.1
628.5 9732.36 13 113 126 22.2
629.0 9742.80 14 90 104 46.2
629.5 9753.25 28 66 94 28.7
630.0 9763.71 14 126 140 27.9
630.5 9774.18 23 129 152 9.2
631.0 9784.67 22 88 110 17.3
631.5 9795.17 60 194 254 10.2
632.0 9805.69 18 38 56 17.9
632.5 9816.22 13 98 111 25.2
633.0 9826.76 16 54 70 27.1
633.5 9837.31 4 49 53 32.1
634.0 9847.88 15 60 75 18.7
634.5 9858.46 28 105 133 24.1
177
635.0 9869.05 34 114 148 32.4
635.5 9879.66 8 68 76 28.9
636.0 9890.28 31 121 152 30.9
636.5 9900.91 6 55 61 11.5
637.0 9911.56 38 125 163 46.6
637.5 9922.22 4 57 61 24.6
638.0 9932.90 4 66 70 25.7
638.5 9943.59 33 94 127 14.2
639.0 9954.29 16 77 93 29.0
639.5 9965.00 3 44 47 4.3
640.0 9975.73 7 111 118 20.3
640.5 9986.48 13 86 99 32.3
641.0 9997.24 12 55 67 16.4
641.5 10008.01 5 70 75 21.3
642.0 10018.79 5 56 61 16.4
642.5 10029.59 11 47 58 19.0
643.0 10040.41 6 22 28 3.6
643.5 10051.23 15 88 103 20.4
644.0 10062.08 14 61 75 5.3
644.5 10072.93 11 61 72 23.6
645.0 10083.80 5 73 78 42.3
645.5 10094.69 20 113 133 36.8
646.0 10105.59 3 58 61 37.7
646.5 10116.50 14 89 103 31.1
647.0 10127.43 6 57 63 14.3
647.5 10138.38 12 79 91 23.1
648.0 10149.33 63 176 239 15.5
648.5 10160.31 18 75 93 18.3
649.0 10171.29 9 40 49 8.2
649.5 10182.30 18 128 146 17.8
650.0 10193.31 3 18 21 23.8
650.5 10204.34 9 62 71 12.7
651.0 10215.39 13 93 106 26.4
651.5 10226.45 7 70 77 14.3
652.0 10237.53 6 68 74 31.1
652.5 10248.62 6 89 95 22.1
653.0 10259.73 10 76 86 15.1
653.5 10270.85 13 104 117 5.1
654.0 10281.99 29 193 222 12.2
654.5 10293.14 20 208 228 12.3
178
655.0 10304.31 35 179 214 20.1
655.5 10315.50 11 139 150 22.0
656.0 10326.70 8 96 104 17.3
656.5 10337.91 21 108 129 28.7
657.0 10349.14 13 113 126 17.5
657.5 10360.39 25 117 142 43.7
658.0 10371.65 28 92 120 39.2
658.5 10382.93 19 78 97 42.3
659.0 10394.22 5 58 63 15.9
659.5 10405.53 2 44 46 30.4
660.0 10416.85 7 31 38 18.4
660.5 10428.20 7 35 42 9.5
661.0 10439.55 7 18 25 16.0
661.5 10450.93 9 57 66 10.6
662.0 10462.31 7 26 33 15.2
662.5 10473.72 11 40 51 7.8
663.0 10485.14 23 91 114 14.0
663.5 10496.58 9 61 70 24.3
664.0 10508.03 3 56 59 20.3
664.5 10519.51 9 53 62 21.0
665.0 10530.99 6 58 64 18.8
665.5 10542.50 20 147 167 10.8
666.0 10554.02 6 48 54 1.9
666.5 10565.55 7 26 33 12.1
667.0 10577.11 31 25 56 5.4
667.5 10588.68 9 44 53 7.5
668.0 10600.26 2 25 27 7.4
668.5 10611.87 17 73 90 8.9
669.0 10623.49 14 188 202 10.9
669.5 10635.13 6 45 51 3.9
670.0 10646.78 5 43 48 12.5
670.5 10658.45 6 40 46 10.9
671.0 10670.14 4 43 47 12.8
671.5 10681.85 21 113 134 3.7
672.0 10693.57 8 62 70 4.3
672.5 10705.31 0 7 7 0.0
673.0 10717.07 0 4 4 50.0
673.5 10728.85 7 11 18 0.0
674.0 10740.64 15 69 84 8.3
674.5 10752.45 7 26 33 6.1
179
675.0 10764.28 6 27 33 12.1
675.5 10776.12 4 50 54 13.0
676.0 10787.99 17 79 96 6.3
676.5 10799.87 10 40 50 12.0
677.0 10811.77 4 15 19 36.8
677.5 10823.68 1 3 4 0.0
678.0 10835.62 0 4 4 0.0
678.5 10847.57 1 10 11 0.0
679.0 10859.54 1 5 6 33.3
679.5 10871.53 1 4 5 0.0
680.0 10883.53 4 22 26 19.2
680.5 10895.56 2 12 14 57.1
681.0 10907.60 0 12 12 8.3
681.5 10919.66 6 44 50 4.0
682.0 10931.74 3 47 50 8.0
682.5 10943.84 0 7 7 0.0
683.0 10955.96 0 6 6 0.0
683.5 10968.09 0 13 13 0.0
684.0 10980.25 4 19 23 0.0
684.5 10992.42 5 14 19 0.0
685.0 11004.61 3 20 23 8.7
685.5 11016.82 0 9 9 0.0
686.0 11029.05 1 19 20 5.0
686.5 11041.30 3 17 20 0.0
687.0 11053.56 2 17 19 0.0
687.5 11065.85 0 15 15 13.3
688.0 11078.15 0 6 6 0.0
688.5 11090.48 0 6 6 16.7
689.0 11102.82 0 4 4 25.0
689.5 11115.18 0 7 7 0.0
690.0 11127.56 17 10 27 3.7
690.5 11139.96 2 12 14 0.0
691.0 11152.38 5 15 20 10.0
691.5 11164.82 0 2 2 0.0
692.0 11177.28 1 10 11 0.0
692.5 11189.76 6 25 31 3.2
693.0 11202.26 3 36 39 0.0
693.5 11214.78 4 37 41 7.3
694.0 11227.32 2 17 19 15.8
694.5 11239.87 0 5 5 0.0
180
695.0 11252.45 0 7 7 14.3
695.5 11265.05 6 26 32 3.1
696.0 11277.67 3 18 21 14.3
696.5 11290.31 3 20 23 17.4
697.0 11302.96 0 7 7 14.3
697.5 11315.64 0 4 4 0.0
698.0 11328.34 0 4 4 0.0
698.5 11341.06 2 10 12 0.0
699.0 11353.80 1 3 4 0.0
699.5 11366.56 1 2 3 0.0
700.0 11379.34 3 8 11 0.0
700.5 11392.14 2 4 6 16.7
701.0 11404.96 1 3 4 0.0
701.5 11417.80 0 1 1 0.0
702.0 11430.66 1 3 4 0.0
702.5 11443.55 0 3 3 0.0
703.0 11456.45 0 0 0 0.0
703.5 11469.38 0 0 0 0.0
704.0 11482.32 0 0 0 0.0
704.5 11495.29 0 0 0 0.0
705.0 11508.28 0 0 0 0.0
705.5 11521.29 0 1 1 0.0
706.0 11534.32 0 1 1 0.0
706.5 11547.37 0 1 1 0.0
707.0 11560.44 0 0 0 0.0
707.5 11573.54 0 0 0 0.0
708.0 11586.65 0 0 0 0.0
708.5 11599.79 0 0 0 0.0
709.0 11612.95 0 0 0 0.0
709.5 11626.13 0 0 0 0.0
710.0 11639.33 0 3 3 0.0
710.5 11652.56 1 4 5 0.0
711.0 11665.80 0 2 2 0.0
711.5 11679.07 14 82 96 0.0
712.0 11692.36 37 147 184 1.6
712.5 11705.68 34 115 149 0.0
713.0 11719.01 3 9 12 0.0
713.5 11732.37 6 25 31 0.0
714.0 11745.75 0 0 0 0.0
714.5 11759.15 0 2 2 0.0
181
715.0 11772.57 2 2 4 0.0
715.5 11786.02 1 2 3 0.0
716.0 11799.48 0 3 3 0.0
716.5 11812.98 2 2 4 25.0
717.0 11826.49 0 1 1 0.0
717.5 11840.03 0 0 0 0.0
718.0 11853.58 0 11 11 9.1
718.5 11867.17 0 1 1 0.0
719.0 11880.77 0 5 5 20.0
719.5 11894.40 0 1 1 0.0
720.0 11908.05 0 5 5 0.0
720.5 11921.72 0 9 9 0.0
721.0 11935.42 0 2 2 0.0
721.5 11949.14 0 3 3 33.3
722.0 11962.88 0 3 3 0.0
722.5 11976.65 2 7 9 33.3
723.0 11990.44 0 6 6 0.0
723.5 12004.25 2 8 10 0.0
724.0 12018.09 4 23 27 22.2
724.5 12031.95 3 22 25 16.0
725.0 12045.84 0 5 5 20.0
725.5 12059.74 0 1 1 0.0
726.0 12073.67 4 13 17 5.9
726.5 12087.63 0 4 4 50.0
727.0 12101.61 0 4 4 0.0
727.5 12115.61 1 2 3 0.0
728.0 12129.64 0 6 6 16.7
728.5 12143.69 0 1 1 0.0
729.0 12157.77 0 2 2 0.0
729.5 12171.87 0 1 1 0.0
730.0 12185.99 0 0 0 0.0
730.5 12200.14 0 9 9 0.0
731.0 12214.31 3 16 19 10.5
731.5 12228.51 0 18 18 11.1
732.0 12242.73 2 8 10 10.0
732.5 12256.98 0 4 4 0.0
733.0 12271.25 2 6 8 0.0
733.5 12285.55 0 5 5 0.0
734.0 12299.87 0 5 5 0.0
734.5 12314.22 1 38 39 0.0
182
735.0 12328.59 10 104 114 7.0
735.5 12342.98 1 3 4 0.0
736.0 12357.41 0 4 4 25.0
736.5 12371.85 0 1 1 0.0
737.0 12386.32 0 8 8 0.0
737.5 12400.82 4 40 44 2.3
738.0 12415.34 0 11 11 9.1
738.5 12429.89 3 5 8 0.0
739.0 12444.46 0 4 4 25.0
739.5 12459.06 0 2 2 0.0
740.0 12473.69 1 4 5 0.0
740.5 12488.34 0 9 9 ILl
741.0 12503.01 1 6 7 28.6
741.5 12517.72 0 4 4 0.0
742.0 12532.44 0 2 2 0.0
742.5 12547.20 0 4 4 0.0
743.0 12561.98 0 2 2 0.0
743.5 12576.78 0 2 2 0.0
744.0 12591.62 0 2 2 0.0
744.5 12606.47 1 3 4 0.0
745.0 12621.36 0 2 2 0.0
745.5 12636.27 0 12 12 0.0
746.0 12651.21 0 17 17 0.0
746.5 12666.17 0 21 21 0.0
747.0 12681.16 0 21 21 0.0
747.5 12696.18 3 60 63 4.8
748.0 12711.23 3 60 63 4.8
748.5 12726.30 20 93 113 4.4
749.0 12741.39 20 93 113 4.4
749.5 12756.52 22 290 312 3.8
750.0 12771.67 22 290 312 3.8
750.5 12786.85 0 7 7 0.0
751.0 12802.06 0 7 7 0.0
751.5 12817.29 0 1 1 0.0
752.0 12832.55 0 1 1 0.0
752.5 12847.84 0 0 0 0.0
753.0 12863.15 0 0 0 0.0
753.5 12878.50 2 18 20 0.0
754.0 12893.87 2 18 20 0.0
754.5 12909.27 0 4 4 50.0
183
755.0 12924.69 0 4 4 50.0
755.5 12940.15 0 3 3 33.3
756.0 12955.63 0 3 3 33.3
756.5 12971.14 0 0 0 0.0
757.0 12986.68 0 0 0 0.0
757.5 13002.24 1 12 13 0.0
758.0 13017.84 1 12 13 0.0
758.5 13033.46 3 6 9 0.0
759.0 13049.11 3 6 9 0.0
759.5 13064.79 1 3 4 0.0
760.0 13080.50 0 3 3 0.0
760.5 13096.23 0 1 1 0.0
761.0 13112.00 0 1 1 0.0
761.5 13127.79 0 2 2 0.0
762.0 13143.61 0 5 5 20.0
762.5 13159.46 1 1 2 0.0
763.0 13175.34 0 0 0 0.0
763.5 13191.25 1 2 3 0.0
764.0 13207.19 0 3 3 0.0
764.5 13223.15 0 3 3 0.0
765.0 13239.15 1 5 6 16.7
765.5 13255.17 0 2 2 0.0
766.0 13271.23 0 2 2 0.0
766.5 13287.31 0 1 1 0.0
767.0 13303.42 0 3 3 0.0
767.5 13319.57 0 0 0 0.0
768.0 13335.74 0 0 0 0.0
768.5 13351.94 0 1 1 0.0
769.0 13368.17 0 2 2 0.0
769.5 13384.43 0 0 0 0.0
770.0 13400.73 1 2 3 0.0
770.5 13417.05 1 1 2 0.0
771.0 13433.40 0 0 0 0.0
771.5 13449.78 0 0 0 0.0
772.0 13466.19 0 0 0 0.0
772.5 13482.63 0 1 1 0.0
773.0 13499.11 0 0 0 0.0
773.5 13515.61 0 0 0 0.0
774.0 13532.14 0 0 0 0.0
774.5 13548.70 0 3 3 0.0
184
775.0 13565.30 0 0 0 0.0
775.5 13581.92 0 1 1 0.0
776.0 13598.58 0 0 0 0.0
776.5 13615.27 0 1 1 0.0
777.0 13631.98 0 0 0 0.0
777.5 13648.73 0 1 1 0.0
778.0 13665.51 0 2 2 50.0
778.5 13682.32 0 0 0 0.0
779.0 13699.16 1 0 1 0.0
779.5 13716.04 0 0 0 0.0
780.0 13732.94 0 0 0 0.0
780.5 13749.88 0 0 0 0.0
781.0 13766.85 0 2 2 0.0
781.5 13783.84 0 2 2 0.0
782.0 13800.88 1 0 1 0.0
782.5 13817.94 0 0 0 0.0
783.0 13835.03 0 2 2 0.0
783.5 13852.16 0 6 6 16.7
784.0 13869.32 1 10 11 9.1
784.5 13886.51 1 2 3 0.0
785.0 13903.73 0 6 6 16.7
785.5 13920.99 0 0 0 0.0
786.0 13938.27 2 2 4 0.0
786.5 13955.59 0 0 0 0.0
787.0 13972.94 0 1 1 0.0
787.5 13990.33 0 2 2 0.0
788.0 14007.74 0 1 1 0.0
788.5 14025.19 2 3 5 20.0
789.0 14042.68 0 1 1 0.0
789.5 14060.19 0 0 0 0.0
790.0 14077.74 0 1 1 100.0
790.5 14095.32 0 0 0 0.0
791.0 14112.93 0 0 0 0.0
791.5 14130.58 0 2 2 0.0
792.0 14148.26 0 0 0 0.0
792.5 14165.98 0 1 1 0.0
793.0 14183.72 0 1 1 0.0
793.5 14201.50 0 2 2 0.0
794.0 14219.32 0 1 1 0.0
794.5 14237.16 0 0 0 0.0
795.0
795.5
796.0
14255.05
14272.96
14290.91
o
o
o
2
o
o
2
o
o
0.0
0.0
0.0
185
APPENDIXB
BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG04A MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA
Depth Magnetic susceptibility
(cm) (emu)
o 0.00003556
1 0.00003116
2 0.00011842
3 0.00011456
4 0.00009566
5 0.00007347
6 0.00004974
7 0.00003853
8 0.00002984
9 0.00002735
10 0.00002147
11 0.00002234
12 0.00001816
13 0.00001744
14 0.00001809
15 0.00001536
16 0.00001845
17 0.00001618
18 0.00002274
19 0.00001597
20 0.00001791
21 0.00001743
22 0.00001487
23 0.00001519
24 0.00001344
25 0.00001422
26 0.00001518
27 0.00001453
28 0.00001261
29 0.00001571
30 0.00001196
31 0.00001397
32 0.00001584
186
33 0.00001358
34 0.00001168
35 0.00001109
36 0.0000084
37 0.00000525
38 0.00000621
39 0.00000808
40 0.00001206
41 0.00001062
42 0.00001283
43 0.00001177
44 0.00001142
45 0.0000118
46 0.0000135
47 0.00001274
48 0.00001175
49 0.00001088
50 0.00000993
51 0.00001085
52 0.00000881
53 0.00000869
54 0.00001039
55 0.0000123
56 0.00001548
57 0.00001606
58 0.00002067
59 0.00001784
60 0.00001846
61 0.00001436
62 0.00001319
63 0.00001361
64 0.00001355
65 0.00001302
66 0.00001158
67 0.00000927
68 0.00000781
69 0.00000685
70 0.00000666
71 0.00001143
72 0.00000631
187
73 0.00000651
74 0.00000655
75 0.00000776
76 0.00000677
77 0.00000674
78 0.00000665
79 0.00000705
80 0.00000685
81 0.00000708
82 0.00000751
83 0.00000621
84 0.00000861
85 0.00000732
86 0.00000796
87 0.00000639
88 0.0000064
89 0.00000679
90 0.00000622
91 0.00000579
92 0.0000074
93 0.00000652
94 0.00000639
95 0.00000714
96 0.00000706
97 0.00000699
98 0.00000789
99 0.00000652
100 0.00000784
101 0.00000747
102 0.00000746
103 0.00000773
104 0.00000794
105 0.00000933
106 0.00000744
107 0.0000112
108 0.00000758
109 0.00000798
110 0.00000787
111 0.00000823
112 0.00000852
188
113 0.000007
114 0.00000725
115 0.00001028
116 0.00000474
117 0.00000804
118 0.0000111
119 0.00000773
120 0.00000746
121 0.00000972
122 0.00000829
123 0.00000965
124 0.00000937
125 0.00000953
126 0.00000534
127 0.00000389
128 0.00001099
129 0.00000853
130 0.00000895
131 0.00000797
132 0.00000638
133 0.00000418
137 0.00000538
138 0.00000664
139 0.00000792
140 0.0000094
141 0.00000862
142 0.0000084
143 0.00000965
144 0.00001047
145 Q00000859
146 0.00001551
147 0.00000767
148 0.00001131
149 0.00000898
150 0.00001789
151 0.00000997
152 0.00000918
153 0.00000989
154 0.00001654
155 0.00001584
189
156 0.00000712
157 0.00000805
158 0.00000762
159 0.00000861
160 0.0000077
161 0.0000084
162 0.00000884
163 0.00001253
164 0.00000931
165 0.00000877
166 0.00000924
167 0.00000961
168 0.00001018
169 0.00001014
170 0.00001247
171 0.00001382
172 0.00001711
173 0.00001939
174 0.00002412
175 0.00002662
176 0.00002359
177 0.00001968
178 0.00001629
179 0.00001263
180 0.0000116
181 0.00001205
182 0.00001529
185 0.00001394
186 0.00001232
187 0.00001732
188 0.0000114
189 0.00001353
190 0.00001115
191 0.00001269
192 0.00001053
193 0.00001174
194 0.00001133
195 0.00001156
196 0.00001218
197 0.00001119
190
198 0.00000986
199 0.00001159
200 0.00001325
201 0.00001227
202 0.00001349
203 0.00001287
204 0.00001456
205 0.00001227
206 0.00002027
207 0.00001338
208 0.00001187
209 0.00001401
210 0.0000119
211 0.00001371
212 0.0000092
213 0.00000924
214 0.00001921
215 0.00002192
216 0.00003098
217 0.0000228
218 0.00001814
219 0.00002383
220 0.00003612
221 0.00006485
222 0.00010618
223 0.00012884
224 0.00014062
225 0.00013213
226 0.00010212
227 0.00004721
228 0.00000865
229 0.00002308
230 0.00001485
231 0.00001231
232 0.00001268
233 0.0000097
237 0.00001031
238 0.00000992
239 0.00000986
240 0.00000981
191
241 0.00001664
242 0.00001369
243 0.00001081
244 0.00001052
245 0.0000108
246 0.00001306
247 0.00001168
248 0.00001118
249 0.0000104
250 0.00001092
251 0.00001206
252 0.00001284
253 0.00001268
254 0.00001097
255 0.00001205
256 0.00001115
257 0.00001115
258 0.00001134
259 0.00001394
260 0.0000145
261 0.00001216
262 0.0000128
263 0.0000123
264 0.00001287
265 0.00001421
266 0.00001594
267 0.00002418
268 0.00002621
269 0.00004139
270 0.00007744
271 0.00011895
272 0.00014142
273 0.00015862
274 0.00014299
275 0.00010834
276 0.00006089
276 0.00007365
277 0.00003496
278 0.00002112
279 0.00001513
192
280 0.00001178
281 0.00001163
282 0.00001227
283 0.0000103
286 0.00001296
287 0.00001003
288 0.00000962
289 0.00001119
290 0.00001391
291 0.00001031
292 0.00000974
293 0.00002196
294 0.00000996
295 0.00001065
296 0.00001061
297 0.00001065
298 0.00001124
299 0.00001006
300 0.00001069
301 0.00001056
302 0.00001031
303 0.00001594
304 0.00001064
305 0.00001269
306 0.00001147
307 0.00001322
308 0.00001056
309 0.00000862
310 0.00000834
311 0.00000915
312 0.00000939
313 0.00000961
314 0.0000103
315 0.00001157
316 0.00001044
317 0.00000978
318 0.00001075
319 0.00001182
320 0.00001141
321 0.00001105
193
322 0.00001059
321 0.00001113
323 0.00001112
324 0.00001481
325 0.00000602
326 0.00001188
327 0.00001235
328 0.00001174
329 0.00001344
330 0.00001652
331 0.00001347
332 0.00001334
333 0.00001196
334 0.00001431
335 0.000012
336 0.00001981
337 0.00000868
338 0.00000376
337 0.00000637
339 0.0000053
340 0.00000646
341 0.00000709
342 0.00000723
343 0.00000805
344 0.00000796
345 0.0000079
346 0.00000767
347 0.00000799
348 0.0000087
349 0.00000919
350 0.0000085
351 0.00000867
352 0.00000814
353 0.00000796
354 0.00000733
355 0.00000659
356 0.0000064
357 0.00000636
358 0.00000662
359 0.00000668
194
360 0.00000733
361 0.00000755
362 0.00000862
363 0.00000881
364 0.00001221
365 0.00001005
366 0.00000939
367 0.00001009
368 0.00000855
369 0.00000837
370 0.00000855
371 0.0000083
372 0.00000834
373 0.00000865
374 0.00000881
375 0.00000911
376 0.00000877
377 0.0000098
378 0.00001113
379 0.00001153
380 0.00001284
381 0.00001312
382 0.0000178
383 0.0000131
384 0.00001416
385 0.0000134
386 0.00001384
387 0.00001363
388 0.00001412
389 0.00002189
390 0.00001353
391 0.00001306
392 0.00001359
393 0.0000137
394 0.00001328
395 0.00001273
396 0.00001376
397 0.00001156
398 0.00001102
399 0.00001109
195
400 0.00000997
401 0.0000103
402 0.0000108
403 0.00001078
404 0.00001055
405 0.00001489
406 0.00000897
407 0.0000119
408 0.00001416
409 0.00001485
410 0.00001535
411 0.00001553
412 0.00000076
413 0.0000134
414 0.00001829
415 0.00001434
416 0.00002087
417 0.00001247
418 0.00001426
419 0.00001241
420 0.00001266
421 0.000014
422 0.00001257
423 0.00001325
424 0.00001528
425 0.00001992
426 0.00001171
427 0.0000115
428 0.00001419
429 0.00001224
430 0.00001854
431 0.00001193
432 0.00001395
433 0.00001556
434 0.00001262
435 0.00001257
436 0.00001251
437 0.0000105
442 0.00001431
443 0.00001643
196
444 0.00001741
445 0.00001866
446 0.00002001
447 0.00002036
448 0.00002116
449 0.00002298
450 0.00002276
451 0.00002145
452 0.00002097
453 0.00001916
454 0.00001766
455 0.00001687
456 0.00001742
457 0.00001916
458 0.00002082
459 0.00002308
460 0.00002402
461 0.00002583
462 0.00002542
463 0.00002612
464 0.00002323
465 0.00002058
466 0.00001903
467 0.00001468
468 0.0000181
469 0.00001806
470 0.00001875
471 0.00002245
472 0.00002483
473 0.00001995
474 0.00001994
475 0.00001875
476 0.00001786
477 0.00001888
478 0.00001848
479 0.00002249
480 0.00002133
481 0.00002652
482 0.00002074
483 0.00001988
197
484 0.00001709
485 0.00003088
486 0.0000159
487 0.00001338
488 0.00001296
489 0.00001351
490 0.0000136
491 0.00001428
492 0.00001481
493 0.00001595
494 0.00002224
495 0.00002734
496 0.00001833
497 0.00001902
498 0.00001808
499 0.00001833
500 0.00001838
501 0.00001848
502 0.00001802
503 0.00001761
504 0.00001735
505 0.00001736
506 0.00001974
507 0.00001742
508 0.00001711
509 0.0000181
510 0.00002021
511 0.0000245
512 0.00002717
513 0.0000369
514 0.00005733
515 0.00008674
516 0.00014381
517 0.00020167
518 0.00023424
519 0.00022466
520 0.00017768
521 0.00011889
522 0.00008847
523 0.0000522
198
524 0.00003672
525 0.00003184
526 0.00002916
527 0.0000275
528 0.00002416
529 0.00002319
530 0.00002191
531 0.0000125
532 0.0000125
537 0.0000211
538 0.00002206
539 0.000024
540 0.00002385
541 0.00002394
542 0.00002382
543 0.00011522
544 0.00002385
545 0.00002065
546 0.00002073
547 0.00002111
548 0.00002192
549 0.00002274
550 0.00002584
551 0.00004047
552 0.00002421
553 0.00002479
554 0.00002585
555 0.00002676
556 0.00002789
557 0.00002792
558 0.00002841
559 0.00002795
560 0.00002684
561 0.00002603
562 0.00002444
563 0.00002311
564 0.00002199
565 0.00002158
566 0.00002067
567 0.00002056
199
568 0.00002014
569 0.00002024
570 0.00002024
571 0.00001992
572 0.00001962
573 0.00001915
574 0.0000187
575 0.00001816
576 0.00001789
577 0.00001792
578 0.00001735
579 0.00001727
580 0.00001653
581 0.00001663
582 0.00002628
583 0.00001967
584 0.00002125
585 0.00002396
586 0.00002554
587 0.00002704
588 0.0000282
589 0.00002894
590 0.00002856
591 0.00002767
592 0.0000255
593 0.0000234
594 0.00002109
595 0.00001798
596 0.00001466
597 0.00001088
598 0.00000582
599 0.0000092
600 0.00001387
601 0.00001848
602 0.00002264
603 0.00002611
604 0.0000281
605 0.00003131
606 0.00003276
607 0.0000335
200
608 0.00003319
609 0.00003253
610 0.00003157
611 0.00003047
612 0.00002893
613 0.00002918
614 0.00002805
615 0.00002868
616 0.00002859
617 0.00003031
618 0.00003353
619 0.000037
620 0.00004049
621 0.00003726
622 0.00003804
623 0.00003616
624 0.00003548
625 0.00003831
626 0.00003026
627 0.00002871
628 0.00002581
629 0.00002384
630 0.0000239
631 0.00001866
632 0.00002223
633 0.00002312
634 0.00002445
635 0.00002556
636 0.00002772
637 0.00003898
638 0.00003846
639 0.00003883
640 0.00003875
641 0.00003683
642 0.00003545
643 0.00003427
644 0.00003401
645 0.00003613
646 0.00003992
647 0.00004507
201
648 0.00004875
649 0.00005221
650 0.00004946
651 0.00004343
652 0.00003548
653 0.00002618
654 0.00001617
655 0.00002082
656 0.00002715
657 0.00003238
658 0.0000346
659 0.00003749
660 0.00004178
661 0.00004697
662 0.00005421
663 0.00006054
664 0.00006689
665 0.00007522
666 0.00007973
667 0.00008894
668 0.000098
669 0.00010197
670 0.0001016
671 0.00009418
672 0.00008039
673 0.00006449
674 0.00004999
675 0.0000413
676 0.00003568
677 0.00003125
678 0.00003041
679 0.00003107
680 0.00003278
681 0.00003476
682 0.00003646
683 0.00003846
684 0.00004128
685 0.00004604
686 0.00005352
687 0.00006257
202
688 0.00007331
689 0.00008434
690 0.00009348
691 0.00010033
692 0.00010469
693 0.00010669
694 0.00010681
695 0.00010413
696 0.00009771
697 0.0000868
698 0.00006914
699 0.0000501
698 0.00004802
699 0.00007159
700 0.00008972
701 0.0001186
702 0.00013285
703 0.00013801
704 0.00014766
705 0.00015521
706 0.00016282
707 0.00016682
708 0.00016724
709 0.00016419
710 0.00015888
711 0.00015446
712 0.00015176
713 0.00015267
714 0.00015709
715 0.00016507
716 0.00017524
717 0.00018927
718 0.00020195
719 0.00021082
720 0.00021549
721 0.00021568
722 0.00021385
723 0.00021248
724 0.00021296
725 0.00021539
203
726 0.00021986
727 0.00022695
728 0.00023628
729 0.00024643
730 0.00025291
731 0.0002555
732 0.00025243
733 0.00024706
734 0.00023904
735 0.00022829
736 0.00021672
737 0.00019883
738 0.0001708
739 0.00013859
740 0.00009963
741 0.00013859
742 0.00017491
743 0.00020251
744 0.00021994
745 0.00023253
746 0.00024277
747 0.00025148
748 0.00026056
749 0.00026732
750 0.00027271
751 0.00027749
752 0.00028607
753 0.0002977
754 0.0003096
755 0.00032111
756 0.0003277
757 0.00032308
758 0.00033195
759 0.00033514
760 0.00034081
761 0.00034727
762 0.00035339
763 0.00035834
764 0.00036292
765 0.00036806
204
766 0.00037296
767 0.00037632
768 0.00037835
769 0.00037782
770 0.00037727
771 0.00037902
772 0.00038424
773 0.00039388
774 0.00040775
775 0.00042407
776 0.00044088
777 0.00046083
778 0.00047717
779 0.00049297
780 0.00050682
781 0.00051584
782 0.00052074
783 0.00052351
784 0.0005247
785 0.0005221
786 0.00051633
787 0.00051065
788 0.00050645
789 0.00050067
790 0.00049468
791 0.00048862
792 0.00048366
793 0.00048372
794 0.00048895
795 0.00049571
796 0.00049951
797 0.00049701
798 0.00048521
799 0.00046673
800 0.00044009
801 0.00040461
802 0.00035307
803 0.00029051
804 0.00022059
805 0.00014755
205
APPENDIXC
BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG04A LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA
Depth Bulk density Organic content Carbonate
(cm) (%) (%) content (%)
4.0 75.5 22.4
5.0 64.9 12.8
6.0 69.9 16.3
7.0 77.7 24.1 4.1
8.0 88.1 50.8
9.0 88.2 51.9
10.0 88.5 46.0
11.0 88.8 51.6
12.0 88.7 57.8 3.3
13.0 88.6 54.6
14.0 88.6 54.9
15.0 88.3 54.8
16.0 88.7 54.2
17.0 88.7 53.9 4.4
18.0 88.7 54.0
19.0 88.4 54.0
20.0 88.6 55.0
21.0 88.7 55.1
22.0 88.9 57.7 3.3
23.0 88.9 57.3
24.0 89.2 61.0
25.0 89.0 63.2
26.0 89.2 64.5
27.0 89.4 65.8 1.6
28.0 89.5 65.8
29.0 88.9 62.9
30.0 88.1 56.6
31.0 87.7 57.0
32.0 88.6 59.0 2.8
33.0 88.5 59.2
34.0 88.9 60.5
35.0 88.5 61.6
36.0 88.4 59.9 2.8
206
207
37.0 87.8 55.4
38.0 85.7 54.8
39.0 86.5 57.2
40.0 86.5 56.4
41.0 87.3 56.4 2.7
42.0 86.7 55.6
43.0 88.3 56.1
44.0 87.2 54.5
45.0 87.7 55.8
46.0 87.6 55.7 2.9
47.0 84.3 55.8
48.0 87.9 54.7
49.0 88.0 56.3
50.0 86.2 56.9
51.0 89.3 56.8 2.3
52.0 89.4 57.3
53.0 88.7 58.9
54.0 88.2 56.8
55.0 88.7 56.9
56.0 89.6 57.2
57.0 81.1 30.9 1.5
58.0 87.7 52.7
59.0 88.9 55.6
60.0 86.7 56.9
61.0 87.7 54.5
62.0 88.1 57.2 2.7
63.0 87.6 56.0
64.0 82.2 35.5
65.0 85.2 45.8
66.0 88.8 63.8 3.1
67.0 89.1 64.1
68.0 88.8 64.1
69.0 89.3 62.9
70.0 89.9 62.0
71.0 89.9 59.2 5.9
72.0 89.4 59.2
73.0 89.7 58.4
74.0 89.5 57.2
75.0 89.2 56.7
76.0 89.1 56.4 6.3
208
77.0 88.9 55.5
78.0 88.7 54.7
79.0 88.6 55.2
80.0 88.2 55.2
81.0 88.7 55.4 5.4
82.0 88.2 55.7
83.0 88.7 56.5
84.0 88.4 57.3
85.0 88.3 57.1
86.0 88.0 57.5 4.6
87.0 87.9 59.6
88.0 89.0 62.7
89.0 89.0 64.0
90.0 89.0 65.6
91.0 88.9 64.2 4.8
92.0 88.7 64.3
93.0 89.0 64.5
94.0 89.1 65.1
95.0 89.7 65.2
96.0 89.0 65.3 4.4
97.0 89.4 63.7
98.0 88.9 60.2
99.0 88.4 58.3
100.0 88.7 57.0
101.0 89.2 57.3 3.6
102.0 89.0 58.1
103.0 89.1 57.7
104.0 88.7 56.3
105.0 89.2 56.5
106.0 89.0 55.1 3.8
107.0 87.7 54.2
108.0 87.7 52.6
109.0 87.9 51.8
110.0 87.7 50.4
111.0 87.5 49.6 3.9
112.0 87.3 49.2
113.0 87.9 48.7
114.0 88.3 51.4
115.0 88.1 51.6
116.0 88.3 52.1 4.8
209
117.0 88.2 52.7
118.0 88.3 54.2
119.0 88.1 54.9
120.0 88.5 54.6
121.0 88.3 55.8 4.5
122.0 88.4 55.5
123.0 88.6 55.8
124.0 88.5 55.3
125.0 89.7 64.4
126.0 86.2 44.4 4.1
127.0 87.9 49.2
128.0 87.8 47.6
129.0 87.5 47.7
130.0 87.1 46.4
131.0 85.5 45.4 4.4
132.0 86.5 44.9
133.0 86.8 46.5
134.0 87.7 48.5
135.0 87.7 50.6
136.0 88.2 51.6 4.6
137.0 86.8 54.9
138.0 84.9 51.2
139.0 86.5 50.9
140.0 86.3 52.4
141.0 86.6 52.8 3.9
142.0 87.2 57.8
143.0 87.6 55.9
144.0 88.0 56.8
145.0 87.7 56.3
146.0 88.4 55.9 4.2
147.0 87.0 51.3
148.0 87.7 52.2
149.0 88.2 53.2
150.0 89.0 52.1
151.0 88.9 52.1 4.8
152.0 88.4 50.8
153.0 88.3 51.7
154.0 88.4 51.1
155.0 88.8 50.9
156.0 88.4 50.9 5.1
210
157.0 88.5 52.5
158.0 88.6 53.0
159.0 88.2 53.0
160.0 88.7 54.8
161.0 88.6 57.3 5.8
162.0 88.4 58.3
163.0 88.9 61.5
164.0 88.7 55.6
165.0 89.2 58.4
166.0 88.6 55.3 6.3
167.0 88.6 54.1
168.0 88.7 54.2
169.0 89.2 53.0
170.0 87.2 47.2
171.0 87.3 47.6 5.7
172.0 87.4 48.3
173.0 87.0 46.7
174.0 85.7 43.2
175.0 87.0 47.0
176.0 86.9 46.2
177.0 75.8 22.0 2.4
178.0 88.0 49.6
179.0 87.5 49.5
180.0 87.6 51.1
181.0 87.5 52.0
182.0 87.4 55.7 3.1
183.0 87.8 56.0
184.0 88.6 58.9
185.0 84.4 41.1
186.0 88.1 59.8 2.6
187.0 88.7 62.5
188.0 87.8 57.5
189.0 86.8 52.1
190.0 87.2 52.9
191.0 87.0 52.9 3.2
192.0 86.0 49.7
193.0 86.7 49.5
194.0 86.3 47.8
195.0 86.7 50.7
196.0 87.3 52.7 6.5
211
197.0 87.1 54.8
198.0 87.6 55.8
199.0 87.7 56.6
200.0 87.7 55.1
201.0 87.4 56.5 0.7
202.0 87.8 58.9
203.0 87.3 59.0
204.0 88.1 61.2
205.0 88.1 60.7
206.0 87.9 61.3 1.9
207.0 88.1 59.5
208.0 87.8 58.7
209.0 87.5 56.3
210.0 87.5 56.3
211.0 86.9 58.9 2.6
212.0 88.0 56.7
213.0 87.4 56.3
214.0 87.5 55.2
215.0 87.0 52.3
216.0 82.5 36.7
217.0 77.2 24.9 1.3
218.0 87.6 54.3
219.0 87.9 58.8
220.0 87.8 59.1
221.0 86.7 55.8 1.3
222.0 87.3 52.8
223.0 86.6 55.1
224.0 84.8 43.8
225.0 83.2 36.8
226.0 35.9 3.3 1.8
227.0 75.9 25.2
228.0 82.2 37.1
229.0 84.1 42.8
230.0 86.9 53.3
231.0 86.6 50.9 4.1
232.0 85.9 77.4
233.0 82.7 37.2
234.0 87.1 54.7
235.0 87.0 54.3
238.0 84.2 52.9
212
239.0 86.1 56.3 5.6
240.0 86.9 56.5
241.0 87.0 58.1 1.3
242.0 86.7 58.4
243.0 86.8 56.6
244.0 86.6 55.9
245.0 87.0 56.0
246.0 86.4 56.4 6.2
247.0 86.6 55.8
248.0 87.2 55.7
249.0 86.7 55.5
250.0 85.9 54.3
251.0 86.0 55.6 4.3
252.0 86.1 56.0
253.0 86.3 57.4
254.0 86.8 57.0
255.0 86.9 55.8
256.0 86.7 55.3 4.6
257.0 86.5 56.2
258.0 87.5 59.5
259.0 87.5 59.1
260.0 87.0 57.6
261.0 86.4 55.0 7.1
262.0 85.6 51.6
263.0 86.2 53.0
264.0 85.1 50.7
265.0 84.5 50.8
266.0 86.4 56.8
267.0 84.1 48.3 4.5
268.0 87.1 57.9
269.0 87.0 56.9
270.0 86.9 57.3
271.0 86.3 53.1
273.0 83.9 43.8 3.4
272.0 43.7 5.4
274.0 46.3 6.0
275.0 54.5 8.9
276.0 87.5 62.5
277.0 84.6 54.3 3.5
278.0 82.8 42.8
213
279.0 87.3 57.8
280.0 87.3 57.9
281.0 86.6 55.7 5.1
282.0 86.3 56.8
283.0 85.5 55.1
284.0 84.6 53.8
285.0 85.2 55.0
286.0 84.7 57.5
287.0 86.4 60.4 6.4
288.0 87.2 59.6
289.0 86.1 57.2
290.0 86.1 56.1
291.0 85.5 54.6
292.0 86.4 57.8 2.9
293.0 85.2 54.1
294.0 84.9 55.6
295.0 85.6 53.5
296.0 85.2 54.0
297.0 84.3 54.9 2.2
298.0 86.2 56.1
299.0 86.2 56.0
300.0 86.3 54.3
301.0 85.4 57.3
302.0 87.4 58.6 2.0
303.0 86.7 56.3
304.0 85.8 54.1
305.0 86.4 57.2
306.0 87.1 58.5
307.0 87.7 61.9 2.7
308.0 87.0 58.3
309.0 86.4 59.4
310.0 86.8 56.5
311.0 86.5 57.9 2.5
316.0 86.6 59.4 2.7
321.0 86.1 58.6 3.7
326.0 85.6 58.3 3.5
331.0 84.1 51.3 3.7
335.5 87.9 63.9 4.5
341.0 87.3 58.4 5.1
346.0 86.8 59.7 3.5
214
351.0 86.1 58.1 4.6
356.0 86.8 61.6 3.6
361.0 87.2 63.9 2.3
366.0 86.5 59.9 3.5
371.0 86.2 57.9 3.4
376.0 84.8 54.4 3.5
381.0 85.1 57.2 3.1
386.0 85.9 54.9 3.8
391.0 85.7 58.4 3.2
396.0 83.6 52.1 3.4
401.0 86.3 62.9 3.5
406.0 85.6 58.8 3.7
411.0 85.8 56.8 3.7
416.0 85.0 52.3 3.6
421.0 87.0 58.3 5.4
426.0 86.3 62.1 3.1
431.0 87.4 68.5 3.7
436.0 83.2 52.6 3.8
441.0 74.7 41.8 3.3
446.0 79.7 47.4 3.0
451.0 82.0 51.5 1.2
456.0 81.8 51.0 4.0
461.0 81.5 48.5 1.4
466.0 83.1 53.1 2.8
471.0 83.4 56.3 4.3
476.0 82.9 57.9 5.4
481.0 80.6 53.6 1.8
486.0 79.0 50.1 6.8
491.0 79.2 46.0 3.2
496.0 79.8 49.7 2.2
501.0 79.7 46.7 2.3
506.0 80.7 52.9 3.5
511.0 81.1 55.1 2.1
521.0 79.3 49.5 3.2
526.0 77.7 51.7 3.9
531.0 80.1 51.8 2.5
536.0 77.9 51.5 5.7
541.0 79.3 53.1 0.2
546.0 81.3 59.8 1.2
551.0 81.0 52.6 2.4
215
556.0 74.4 45.6 2.9
561.0 72.0 37.9 3.1
566.0 78.4 52.9 8.2
571.0 77.2 47.0 2.6
576.0 76.4 43.3 7.2
581.0 79.1 55.3 4.4
586.0 75.9 42.0 5.5
591.0 77.0 39.9 2.8
596.0 80.1 49.9 4.1
601.0 77.9 44.7 2.8
606.0 75.4 37.2 5.1
611.0 74.5 41.6 3.8
616.0 73.4 43.8 3.2
621.0 74.2 38.5 5.1
626.0 76.7 42.9 5.6
631.0 76.2 48.6 5.2
636.0 73.4 43.7 3.0
641.0 71.2 41.7 3.4
646.0 74.6 50.8 2.6
651.0 70.9 38.6 3.5
656.0 70.5 43.6 2.1
661.0 67.5 32.2 3.5
666.0 65.4 30.5 3.1
671.0 66.4 32.3 3.1
676.0 70.4 39.4 3.6
681.0 69.6 35.6 3.2
686.0 67.9 28.4 3.0
691.0 60.0 18.2 3.6
696.0 60.6 17.4 3.6
701.0 59.8 17.5 3.3
706.0 59.3 15.8 2.6
711.0 56.1 15.0 2.8
716.0 54.6 14.3 3.0
721.0 59.5 14.0 3.0
726.0 62.4 15.2 2.9
731.0 55.3 13.1 2.7
736.0 59.1 14.9 3.2
741.0 60.2 13.3 3.9
746.0 56.5 13.3 3.4
751.0 53.1 11.5 3.2
216
756.0 56.1 12.1 2.5
761.0 55.0 12.5 3.3
766.0 52.8 10.7 3.1
771.0 51.5 11.7 2.7
776.0 49.7 10.9 2.9
781.0 53.0 10.9 2.9
786.0 52.7 11.1 2.6
791.0 53.9 12.1 3.0
796.0 50.5 11.5 2.9
801.0 51.5 11.2 3.0
217
APPENDIXD
BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG05B CHARCOAL DATA
Depth Age Age Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Herbaceous
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD) Particles Particles concentration Charcoal
>250 J.lrn >125 J.lrn (particles/crn3) (%)
0.0 -55.0 2005.0 0 6 6 16.7
0.5 -50.3 2000.3 2 21 23 52.2
1.0 -45.6 1995.6 1 15 16 6.3
1.5 -40.9 1990.9 1 28 29 6.9
2.0 -36.4 1986.4 2 53 55 9.1
2.5 -32.0 1982.0 4 77 81 7.4
3.0 -27.7 1977.7 8 83 91 7.7
3.5 -23.6 1973.6 6 81 87 2.3
4.0 -19.7 1969.7 8 49 57 1.8
4.5 -15.9 1965.9 6 102 108 3.7
5.0 -12.4 1962.4 8 107 115 1.7
5.5 -9.1 1959.1 12 96 108 0.0
6.0 -5.9 1955.9 6 90 96 2.1
6.5 -2.9 1952.9 7 68 75 0.0
7.0 -0.1 1950.1 4 68 72 1.4
7.5 2.5 1947.5 5 95 100 2.0
8.0 5.1 1944.9 12 95 107 2.8
8.5 7.5 1942.5 5 97 102 3.9
9.0 9.8 1940.2 9 85 94 0.0
9.5 12.1 1937.9 1 77 78 2.6
10.0 14.5 1935.5 3 56 59 0.0
10.5 16.8 1933.2 76 257 333 7.2
11.0 19.3 1930.7 70 304 374 2.4
11.5 21.9 1928.1 34 179 213 2.3
12.0 24.8 1925.2 14 78 92 2.2
12.5 27.9 1922.1 31 207 238 4.2
13.0 31.3 1918.7 105 545 650 4.9
13.5 35.2 1914.8 93 287 380 1.8
14.0 39.5 1910.5 58 220 278 3.2
14.5 44.4 1905.6 46 142 188 6.9
15.0 50.0 1900.0 12 78 90 10.0
15.5 65.1 1884.9 10 57 67 25.4
218
16.0 73.3 1876.7 13 33 46 10.9
16.5 81.5 1868.5 3 19 22 9.1
17.0 89.7 1860.3 3 12 15 13.3
17.5 97.8 1852.2 1 9 10 20.0
18.0 105.8 1844.2 6 18 24 16.7
18.5 113.8 1836.2 6 14 20 15.0
19.0 121.7 1828.3 3 26 29 6.9
19.5 129.6 1820.4 4 48 52 3.8
20.0 137.4 1812.6 6 35 41 2.4
20.5 145.1 1804.9 4 33 37 10.8
21.0 152.8 1797.2 5 25 30 13.3
21.5 160.5 1789.5 8 44 52 5.8
22.0 168.0 1782.0 35 97 132 6.8
22.5 175.5 1774.5 3 37 40 2.5
23.0 183.0 1767.0 2 38 40 5.0
23.5 190.4 1759.6 2 23 25 0.0
24.0 197.7 1752.3 4 20 24 4.2
24.5 205.0 1745.0 27 116 143 16.1
25.0 212.2 1737.8 10 55 65 3.1
25.5 219.4 1730.6 11 47 58 13.8
26.0 226.5 1723.5 7 67 74 9.5
26.5 233.5 1716.5 10 64 74 6.8
27.0 240.5 1709.5 3 30 33 0.0
27.5 247.4 1702.6 12 38 50 4.0
28.0 254.3 1695.7 8 28 36 5.6
28.5 261.1 1688.9 5 28 33 3.0
29.0 267.8 1682.2 4 25 29 6.9
29.5 274.5 1675.5 1 33 34 8.8
30.0 281.2 1668.8 4 32 36 2.8
30.5 287.7 1662.3 6 43 49 14.3
31.0 294.2 1655.8 6 31 37 5.4
31.5 300.7 1649.3 2 32 34 5.9
32.0 307.1 1642.9 6 39 45 4.4
32.5 313.4 1636.6 2 31 33 0.0
33.0 319.7 1630.3 9 36 45 2.2
33.5 325.9 1624.1 1 29 30 3.3
34.0 332.1 1617.9 5 31 36 16.7
34.5 338.2 1611.8 2 37 39 12.8
35.0 344.3 1605.7 1 26 27 14.8
35.5 350.2 1599.8 8 41 49 2.0
219
36.0 356.2 1593.8 2 53 55 5.5
36.5 362.1 1587.9 4 55 59 3.4
37.0 367.9 1582.1 7 35 42 7.1
37.5 373.6 1576.4 6 58 64 12.5
38.0 379.3 1570.7 6 50 56 3.6
38.5 385.0 1565.0 14 61 75 2.7
39.0 390.5 1559.5 8 55 63 7.9
39.5 396.1 1553.9 4 43 47 14.9
40.0 401.5 1548.5 2 46 48 8.3
40.5 406.9 1543.1 0 58 58 5.2
41.0 412.3 1537.7 5 52 57 1.8
41.5 417.5 1532.5 3 45 48 8.3
42.0 422.8 1527.2 3 53 56 7.1
42.5 427.9 1522.1 9 49 58 10.3
43.0 433.1 1516.9 8 54 62 12.9
43.5 438.1 1511.9 8 42 50 4.0
44.0 443.1 1506.9 18 45 63 6.3
44.5 448.0 1502.0 12 50 62 8.1
45.0 452.9 1497.1 10 36 46 6.5
45.5 457.7 1492.3 3 28 31 0.0
46.0 462.5 1487.5 4 49 53 11.3
46.5 467.2 1482.8 7 27 34 0.0
47.0 471.8 1478.2 13 49 62 3.2
47.5 476.4 1473.6 10 32 42 2.4
48.0 480.9 1469.1 22 72 94 11.7
48.5 485.4 1464.6 10 68 78 2.6
49.0 489.8 1460.2 23 92 115 10.4
49.5 494.2 1455.8 5 45 50 12.0
50.0 498.5 1451.5 14 73 87 10.3
50.5 502.7 1447.3 4 53 57 7.0
51.0 506.9 1443.1 14 92 106 14.2
51.5 511.0 1439.0 16 90 106 10.4
52.0 515.0 1435.0 9 114 123 6.5
52.5 519.0 1431.0 7 116 123 6.5
53.0 523.0 1427.0 10 117 127 7.1
53.5 526.9 1423.1 8 68 76 5.3
54.0 530.7 1419.3 11 97 108 1.9
54.5 534.5 1415.5 1 89 90 1.1
55.0 538.2 1411.8 2 54 56 0.0
55.5 541.8 1408.2 1 45 46 2.2
220
56.0 545.4 1404.6 3 67 70 4.3
56.5 548.9 1401.1 8 107 115 2.6
57.0 552.4 1397.6 17 152 169 1.8
57.5 555.8 1394.2 85 356 441 7.5
58.0 559.2 1390.8 64 333 397 8.3
58.5 562.5 1387.5 15 176 191 6.3
59.0 565.7 1384.3 21 200 221 2.7
59.5 568.9 1381.1 19 210 229 1.7
60.0 572.0 1378.0 11 103 114 1.8
60.5 575.1 1374.9 5 87 92 0.0
61.0 578.1 1371.9 5 89 94 2.1
61.5 581.0 1369.0 10 90 100 2.0
62.0 583.9 1366.1 30 140 170 2.9
62.5 586.7 1363.3 73 501 574 4.2
63.0 589.5 1360.5 144 708 852 4.2
63.5 592.2 1357.8 111 591 702 2.3
64.0 594.9 1355.1 112 332 444 2.7
64.5 597.5 1352.5 41 212 253 5.5
65.0 600.0 1350.0 23 120 143 2.1
65.5 602.5 1347.5 11 97 108 1.9
66.0 604.9 1345.1 46 204 250 3.6
66.5 607.3 1342.7 51 224 275 4.0
APPENDIXE
BATTLE GROUND LAKE BG05B POLLEN DATA
Depth Age Age Total Picea Abies Pseudotsuga- Thuja-
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD) Pinus type type
0.25 -55.0 2005.0 2 0 2 59 28
5.25 -12.4 1962.4 1 2 2 25 45
10.25 14.5 1935.5 4 3 5 25 42
15.25 56.7 1893.3 10 1 0 85 69
20.25 137.4 1812.6 3 1 4 49 85
25.25 212.2 1737.8 3 2 5 118 55
30.25 281.2 1668.8 4 2 5 97 40
40.25 401.5 1548.5 3 5 3 100 63
50.25 498.5 1451.5 8 1 3 53 52
55.25 540.0 1410.0 9 2 2 52 25
60.25 572.0 1378.0 5 3 4 64 69
65.25 600.0 1350.0 7 0 4 60 57
221
222
Tsuga Taxus Alnus rubra- Corylus Betula Salix Populus
heterophylla brevifolia type trichocarpa-type
9 0 69 12 0 3 0
4 0 54 9 1 1 0
14 0 41 12 1 3 0
11 0 21 7 0 2 4
2 0 32 12 0 1 2
8 1 21 6 0 3 2
13 0 24 6 0 3 0
6 0 27 6 1 1 0
7 0 67 11 0 3 0
14 0 46 16 0 3 1
11 0 19 12 0 2 1
7 2 30 14 2 5 4
223
Fraxinus Quercus Sambucus Acer Acer Rosaceae Spiraea- Rubus
circinatum macrophyllum type
7 2 1 2 2 3 3 1
5 2 1 0 0 1 3 1
4 0 0 0 0 0 3 0
3 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
6 1 0 0 1 0 3 0
10 0 0 3 4 0 4 0
8 0 0 2 0 0 5 0
4 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
7 2 0 0 1 0 5 0
7 1 0 0 0 0 4 0
3 4 0 0 0 1 4 0
4 0 0 0 1 0 2 0
224
Potentilla Ceanothus Cornus Castanea Poaceae Cyperaceae Artemisia Ambrosia
0 0 0 2 25 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 17 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 5 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 7 2 2 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 4 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0
Other Chenopodiaceae Rumex Galium Plantago- Pteridium Dryopteris-
Tubuliflorae type type
2 0 0 0 0 6 6
0 0 1 0 3 27 2
0 2 5 1 2 49 3
0 1 0 0 0 6 5
0 0 0 0 0 7 4
1 0 0 0 1 11 3
0 1 0 0 0 14 3
1 0 0 0 0 20 1
0 0 0 0 0 26 3
1 0 0 0 0 44 5
2 0 1 1 0 14 8
2 0 0 0 1 28 7
225
226
Polypodiaceae Sparganium- Ruppia Sagittaria Indeterminate Unknown Lycopodium
type tracer
0 0 0 1 13 0 57
1 0 0 0 5 2 36
0 0 0 0 0 1 37
0 0 0 0 0 0 38
0 0 0 0 0 0 28
0 0 0 0 2 0 22
0 0 0 0 3 0 29
0 0 0 0 1 3 20
0 0 0 0 3 1 18
0 0 1 0 1 3 18
0 0 0 0 6 1 13
0 1 0 0 4 0 20
Total AP/(AP+NAP)
260 0.84
217 0.75
230 0.69
231 0.94
224 0.90
266 0.93
232 0.91
250 0.90
258 0.87
241 0.78
236 0.89
247 0.82
227
228
APPENDIXF
BEAVER LAKE BL05B CHARCOAL DATA
Depth Age Woody Herbaceous Lattice Charcoal Sedimentation
(em) (cal yr BP) particles particles particles concentration rate
>125 !Jm >125 !Jm >125!Jm (particles/cm3) (cm/yr)
0.0 -55.00 9 8 0 17.0 0.65
0.5 -54.23 7 6 0 13.0 0.53
1.0 -53.29 6 6 0 12.0 0.39
1.5 -52.00 8 0 0 8.0 0.24
2.0 -49.90 7 3 0 10.0 0.16
2.5 -46.87 7 2 0 9.0 0.14
3.0 -43.22 8 1 0 9.0 0.13
3.5 -39.24 8 2 0 10.0 0.13
4.0 -35.26 7 2 0 9.0 0.14
4.5 -31.59 6 3 0 9.0 0.16
5.0 -28.53 3 2 0 5.0 0.23
5.5 -26.40 10 5 0 15.0 0.34
6.0 -24.93 7 2 0 9.0 0.38
6.5 -23.62 7 10 0 17.0 0.43
7.0 -22.47 6 4 0 10.0 0.48
7.5 -21.43 5 0 0 5.0 0.54
8.0 -20.50 17 11 2 30.0 0.59
8.5 -19.65 18 1 0 19.0 0.63
9.0 -18.86 14 6 0 20.0 0.66
9.5 -18.10 7 5 0 12.0 0.70
10.0 -17.38 9 5 0 14.0 0.77
10.5 -16.73 4 0 0 4.0 0.83
11.0 -16.13 7 2 0 9.0 0.88
11.5 -15.56 5 0 0 5.0 0.92
12.0 -15.01 11 4 0 15.0 0.94
12.5 -14.48 11 1 0 12.0 0.94
13.0 -13.95 5 1 0 6.0 0.91
13.5 -13.40 17 0 0 17.0 0.94
14.0 -12.87 8 0 0 8.0 1.01
14.5 -12.37 8 0 0 8.0 1.06
15.0 -11.90 7 1 0 8.0 1.08
15.5 -11.44 20 0 0 20.0 1.05
16.0 -10.96 8 0 0 8.0 0.99
229
16.5 -10.46 4 0 0 4.0 0.91
17.0 -9.91 15 1 0 16.0 0.82
17.5 -9.29 5 1 0 6.0 0.72
18.0 -8.60 6 1 0 7.0 0.60
18.5 -7.76 9 1 0 10.0 0.49
19.0 -6.75 12 1 0 13.0 0.43
19.5 -5.59 5 0 0 5.0 0.39
20.0 -4.32 3 1 0 4.0 0.37
20.5 -2.98 2 1 0 3.0 0.36
21.0 -1.60 1 0 0 1.0 0.36
21.5 -0.20 6 0 0 6.0 0.34
22.0 1.27 26 1 0 27.0 0.31
22.5 2.86 13 0 0 13.0 0.30
23.0 4.55 11 1 0 12.0 0.29
23.5 6.29 8 0 0 8.0 0.29
24.0 8.04 2 0 0 2.0 0.29
24.5 9.77 2 1 0 3.0 0.30
25.0 11.44 5 1 0 6.0 0.32
25.5 13.00 4 0 0 4.0 0.35
26.0 14.45 4 0 0 4.0 0.37
26.5 15.81 7 0 0 7.0 0.38
27.0 17.11 3 0 0 3.0 0.39
27.5 18.40 11 0 0 11.0 0.38
28.0 19.70 5 0 0 5.0 0.37
28.5 21.04 0 0 0 0.0 0.35
29.0 22.47 1 0 0 1.0 0.33
29.5 24.00 0 0 0 0.0 0.31
30.0 25.63 7 0 0 7.0 0.30
30.5 27.32 1 0 0 1.0 0.28
31.0 29.09 1 0 0 1.0 0.27
31.5 30.94 11 1 0 12.0 0.26
32.0 32.88 4 1 0 5.0 0.25
32.5 34.91 6 0 0 6.0 0.23
33.0 37.05 3 0 0 3.0 0.22
33.5 39.30 3 3 2 8.0 0.21
34.0 41.70 2 0 6 8.0 0.19
34.5 44.29 28 0 141 169.0 0.18
35.0 47.04 3 0 21 24.0 0.17
35.5 49.93 2 0 5 7.0 0.17
36.0 52.95 2 0 353 355.0 0.16
36.5 56.08 3 0 4 7.0 0.16
37.0 59.30 5 0 8 13.0 0.15
230
37.5 62.60 8 0 20 28.0 0.15
38.0 65.87 3 0 11 14.0 0.16
38.5 69.09 4 0 1 5.0 0.15
39.0 72.37 4 0 12 16.0 0.14
39.5 75.83 11 0 33 44.0 0.13
40.0 79.59 13 14 4 31.0 0.12
40.5 83.74 5 0 6 11.0 0.11
41.0 88.41 3 0 19 22.0 0.09
41.5 93.70 10 0 15 25.0 0.09
42.0 99.48 6 0 2 8.0 0.08
42.5 105.53 5 0 33 38.0 0.08
43.0 111.83 6 0 43 49.0 0.08
43.5 118.39 4 0 7 11.0 0.07
44.0 125.20 16 3 1 20.0 0.07
44.5 132.26 10 3 0 13.0 0.07
45.0 139.55 20 3 1 24.0 0.07
45.5 147.07 10 5 3 18.0 0.06
46.0 154.82 92 4 0 96.0 0.06
46.5 162.78 4 5 0 9.0 0.06
47.0 170.97 15 1 0 16.0 0.06
47.5 179.36 16 5 0 21.0 0.06
48.0 187.95 10 1 0 11.0 0.06
48.5 196.75 10 2 4 16.0 0.06
49.0 205.73 7 0 3 10.0 0.05
49.5 214.90 16 1 2 19.0 0.05
50.0 224.25 4 3 0 7.0 0.05
50.5 233.78 29 17 0 46.0 0.05
51.0 243.47 10 1 2 13.0 0.05
51.5 253.33 3 5 3 11.0 0.05
52.0 263.35 7 5 0 12.0 0.05
52.5 273.51 15 3 1 19.0 0.05
53.0 283.83 29 4 1 34.0 0.05
53.5 294.28 23 3 1 27.0 0.05
54.0 304.87 15 0 1 16.0 0.05
54.5 315.59 13 2 1 16.0 0.05
55.0 326.44 19 4 2 25.0 0.05
55.5 337.40 16 0 1 17.0 0.05
56.0 348.47 17 4 1 22.0 0.04
56.5 359.65 21 1 1 23.0 0.04
57.0 370.93 19 5 1 25.0 0.04
57.5 382.30 20 2 0 22.0 0.04
58.0 393.77 26 7 0 33.0 0.04
231
58.5 405.32 19 2 3 24.0 0.04
59.0 416.94 44 1 2 47.0 0.04
59.5 428.64 20 3 4 27.0 0.04
60.0 440.41 27 2 1 30.0 0.04
61.0 464.11 30 3 2 35.0 0.04
62.0 488.02 30 2 3 35.0 0.04
63.0 512.08 18 5 4 27.0 0.04
64.0 536.24 14 5 109 128.0 0.04
65.0 560.47 31 7 12 50.0 0.04
66.0 584.71 11 2 13 26.0 0.04
67.0 608.93 53 1 82 136.0 0.04
68.0 633.07 20 0 20 40.0 0.04
69.0 657.09 14 3 0 17.0 0.04
70.0 680.94 13 5 1 19.0 0.04
71.0 704.58 16 5 1 22.0 0.04
72.0 727.96 55 23 3 81.0 0.04
73.0 751.05 22 19 3 44.0 0.04
74.0 773.78 17 6 3 26.0 0.04
75.0 796.12 28 4 4 36.0 0.05
76.0 818.02 16 4 0 20.0 0.05
77.0 839.43 62 3 0 65.0 0.05
78.0 860.32 13 2 1 16.0 0.05
79.0 880.63 19 3 1 23.0 0.05
80.0 900.32 13 2 2 17.0 0.05
81.0 919.34 25 6 1 32.0 0.05
82.0 937.64 21 1 1 23.0 0.06
83.0 955.20 8 0 2 10.0 0.06
84.0 971.94 36 0 5 41.0 0.06
85.0 987.91 48 9 4 61.0 0.06
86.0 1003.46 16 2 2 20.0 0.07
87.0 1018.69 49 1 3 53.0 0.07
88.0 1033.60 11 6 2 19.0 0.07
89.0 1048.20 12 2 2 16.0 0.07
90.0 1062.51 11 6 2 19.0 0.07
91.0 1076.53 22 3 8 33.0 0.07
92.0 1090.29 15 3 2 20.0 0.07
93.0 1103.80 9 2 0 11.0 0.08
94.0 1117.06 16 5 2 23.0 0.08
95.0 1130.09 15 3 1 19.0 0.08
96.0 1142.91 59 1 0 60.0 0.08
97.0 1155.52 10 2 2 14.0 0.08
98.0 1167.94 16 3 2 21.0 0.08
232
99.0 1180.17 24 3 4 31.0 0.08
100.0 1192.25 14 0 2 16.0 0.08
101.0 1204.16 102 3 6 111.0 0.08
102.0 1215.94 17 2 2 21.0 0.09
103.0 1227.59 32 2 2 36.0 0.09
104.0 1239.12 13 1 1 15.0 0.09
105.0 1250.55 20 4 9 33.0 0.09
106.0 1261.88 86 14 9 109.0 0.09
107.0 1273.14 16 7 0 23.0 0.09
108.0 1284.33 14 2 4 20.0 0.09
109.0 1295.47 8 0 1 9.0 0.09
110.0 1306.57 21 0 1 22.0 0.09
111.0 1317.64 13 0 0 13.0 0.09
112.0 1328.70 10 0 0 10.0 0.09
113.0 1339.75 16 0 5 21.0 0.09
114.0 1350.81 16 5 1 22.0 0.09
115.0 1361.90 17 1 5 23.0 0.09
116.0 1373.02 15 4 1 20.0 0.09
117.0 1384.19 12 0 1 13.0 0.09
118.0 1395.42 14 6 0 20.0 0.09
119.0 1406.72 5 1 0 6.0 0.09
120.0 1418.11 9 2 0 11.0 0.09
121.0 1429.59 4 1 0 5.0 0.09
122.0 1441.19 12 4 1 17.0 0.09
123.0 1452.91 26 3 0 29.0 0.08
124.0 1464.77 11 4 1 16.0 0.08
125.0 1476.78 141 1 1 143.0 0.08
126.0 1488.94 30 5 0 35.0 0.08
127.0 1501.29 23 5 0 28.0 0.08
128.0 1513.82 17 2 2 21.0 0.08
129.0 1526.54 21 4 3 28.0 0.08
130.0 1539.48 20 6 0 26.0 0.08
130.5 1546.04 15 3 2 20.0 0.08
131.0 1552.65 10 2 1 13.0 0.07
131.5 1559.32 12 5 0 17.0 0.07
132.0 1566.05 11 4 0 15.0 0.07
132.5 1572.85 15 6 0 21.0 0.07
133.0 1579.71 22 7 2 31.0 0.07
133.5 1586.63 18 8 1 27.0 0.07
134.0 1593.62 9 8 0 17.0 0.07
134.5 1600.68 9 3 0 12.0 0.07
135.0 1607.81 10 1 0 11.0 0.07
233
135.5 1615.02 23 3 0 26.0 0.07
136.0 1622.29 12 2 0 14.0 0.07
136.5 1629.64 33 8 1 42.0 0.07
137.0 1637.07 15 8 0 23.0 0.07
137.5 1644.58 16 10 0 26.0 0.07
138.0 1652.16 27 17 1 45.0 0.07
138.5 1659.83 15 5 2 22.0 0.06
139.0 1667.58 20 10 4 34.0 0.06
139.5 1675.42 30 8 0 38.0 0.06
140.0 1683.34 29 16 0 45.0 0.06
140.5 1691.35 28 6 0 34.0 0.06
141.0 1699.44 37 5 2 44.0 0.06
141.5 1707.63 11 16 0 27.0 0.06
142.0 1715.92 25 7 1 33.0 0.06
142.5 1724.29 21 4 3 28.0 0.06
143.0 1732.76 15 4 0 19.0 0.06
143.5 1741.33 25 18 0 43.0 0.06
144.0 1750.00 30 18 2 50.0 0.06
144.5 1758.79 17 7 1 25.0 0.06
145.0 1767.72 16 6 0 22.0 0.06
145.5 1776.78 19 1 0 20.0 0.05
146.0 1785.99 11 4 1 16.0 0.05
146.5 1795.33 16 14 1 31.0 0.05
147.0 1804.81 18 5 4 27.0 0.05
147.5 1814.41 30 7 1 38.0 0.05
148.0 1824.15 74 19 1 94.0 0.05
148.5 1834.02 17 5 0 22.0 0.05
149.0 1844.01 39 14 2 55.0 0.05
149.5 1854.13 15 5 1 21.0 0.05
150.0 1864.38 25 5 0 30.0 0.05
150.5 1874.75 22 10 0 32.0 0.05
151.0 1885.24 35 0 3 38.0 0.05
151.5 1895.85 11 8 0 19.0 0.05
152.0 1906.57 29 8 10 47.0 0.05
152.5 1917.42 13 5 0 18.0 0.05
153.0 1928.38 22 10 1 33.0 0.05
153.5 1939.45 12 4 0 16.0 0.04
154.0 1950.63 14 7 0 21.0 0.04
154.5 1961.93 15 4 0 19.0 0.04
155.0 1973.33 14 8 0 22.0 0.04
155.5 1984.84 15 10 0 25.0 0.04
156.0 1996.45 12 12 1 25.0 0.04
234
156.5 2008.17 31 8 0 39.0 0.04
160.0 2092.97 55 5 8 68.0 0.04
160.5 2105.46 38 4 0 42.0 0.04
161.0 2118.04 26 3 0 29.0 0.04
161.5 2130.71 38 6 0 44.0 0.04
162.0 2143.46 32 9 0 41.0 0.04
162.5 2156.30 26 7 0 33.0 0.04
163.0 2169.22 32 5 2 39.0 0.04
163.5 2182.22 30 13 0 43.0 0.04
164.0 2195.30 34 12 1 47.0 0.04
164.5 2208.46 27 17 1 45.0 0.04
165.0 2221.70 23 8 0 31.0 0.04
165.5 2235.01 57 19 0 76.0 0.04
166.0 2248.39 33 12 0 45.0 0.04
166.5 2261.85 31 9 16 56.0 0.04
167.0 2275.37 34 7 1 42.0 0.04
167.5 2288.97 12 4 0 16.0 0.04
168.0 2302.63 30 11 0 41.0 0.04
168.5 2316.36 26 11 0 37.0 0.04
169.0 2330.15 52 17 3 72.0 0.04
169.5 2344.00 34 28 0 62.0 0.04
170.0 2357.91 63 14 2 79.0 0.04
170.5 2371.88 51 11 1 63.0 0.04
171.0 2385.91 10 16 1 27.0 0.04
171.5 2400.00 37 8 2 47.0 0.04
172.0 2414.14 22 17 1 40.0 0.04
172.5 2428.33 25 7 1 33.0 0.04
173.0 2442.57 12 7 0 19.0 0.03
173.5 2456.86 45 11 0 56.0 0.03
174.0 2471.20 13 11 0 24.0 0.03
174.5 2485.59 12 5 1 18.0 0.03
175.0 2500.02 21 17 2 40.0 0.03
175.5 2514.49 27 7 1 35.0 0.03
176.0 2529.00 47 24 1 72.0 0.03
176.5 2543.56 33 12 4 49.0 0.03
177.0 2558.15 20 11 0 31.0 0.03
177.5 2572.78 77 4 0 81.0 0.03
178.0 2587.44 33 5 0 38.0 0.03
178.5 2602.14 58 9 2 69.0 0.03
179.0 2616.87 44 16 2 62.0 0.03
179.5 2631.63 47 7 3 57.0 0.03
180.0 2646.41 45 20 0 65.0 0.03
235
180.5 2661.23 49 13 1 63.0 0.03
181.0 2676.06 72 14 0 86.0 0.03
181.5 2690.93 50 26 0 76.0 0.03
182.0 2705.81 63 9 1 73.0 0.03
182.5 2720.72 50 14 0 64.0 0.03
183.0 2735.64 78 9 0 87.0 0.03
183.5 2750.58 45 22 0 67.0 0.03
184.0 2765.54 43 13 0 56.0 0.03
184.5 2780.51 32 14 0 46.0 0.03
185.0 2795.50 43 16 0 59.0 0.03
185.5 2810.49 43 24 0 67.0 0.03
186.0 2825.49 53 20 0 73.0 0.03
186.5 2840.51 36 18 0 54.0 0.03
187.0 2855.52 39 20 0 59.0 0.03
187.5 2870.55 40 27 0 67.0 0.03
188.0 2885.57 43 10 0 53.0 0.03
188.5 2900.60 35 14 0 49.0 0.03
189.0 2915.62 33 13 0 46.0 0.03
189.5 2930.65 36 8 0 44.0 0.03
190.0 2945.67 40 11 0 51.0 0.03
190.5 2960.68 24 15 2 41.0 0.03
191.0 2975.69 29 15 22 66.0 0.03
191.5 2990.69 51 9 1 61.0 0.03
192.0 3005.68 26 22 0 48.0 0.03
192.5 3020.66 18 16 0 34.0 0.03
193.0 3035.63 18 11 0 29.0 0.03
193.5 3050.58 32 19 0 51.0 0.03
194.0 3065.52 20 8 16 44.0 0.03
194.5 3080.43 29 20 1 50.0 0.03
195.0 3095.33 14 18 1 33.0 0.03
195.5 3110.21 42 23 0 65.0 0.03
196.0 3125.06 15 4 0 19.0 0.03
196.5 3139.89 28 12 0 40.0 0.03
197.0 3154.70 25 9 0 34.0 0.03
197.5 3169.47 35 13 0 48.0 0.03
198.0 3184.22 32 15 1 48.0 0.03
198.5 3198.94 31 23 0 54.0 0.03
199.0 3213.62 37 19 0 56.0 0.03
199.5 3228.27 37 7 0 44.0 0.03
200.0 3242.88 12 4 0 16.0 0.03
200.5 3257.46 58 15 1 74.0 0.03
201.0 3272.00 19 6 1 26.0 0.03
236
201.5 3286.50 17 10 0 27.0 0.03
202.0 3300.96 25 12 2 39.0 0.03
202.5 3315.37 14 16 0 30.0 0.03
203.0 3329.74 20 23 0 43.0 0.03
203.5 3344.06 28 15 1 44.0 0.04
204.0 3358.33 19 13 1 33.0 0.04
204.5 3372.56 22 15 0 37.0 0.04
205.0 3386.73 31 19 7 57.0 0.04
205.5 3400.85 24 13 0 37.0 0.04
206.0 3414.91 24 10 0 34.0 0.04
206.5 3428.92 19 8 1 28.0 0.04
207.0 3442.87 26 6 0 32.0 0.04
207.5 3456.76 32 2 0 34.0 0.04
208.0 3470.59 14 3 0 17.0 0.04
208.5 3484.35 15 20 1 36.0 0.04
209.0 3498.06 17 2 1 20.0 0.04
209.5 3511.69 18 11 0 29.0 0.04
210.0 3525.26 12 2 1 15.0 0.04
210.5 3538.76 33 17 0 50.0 0.04
211.0 3552.19 30 8 0 38.0 0.04
211.5 3565-;-55 15 8 0 23.0 0.04
212.0 3578.83 21 12 1 34.0 0.04
212.5 3592.04 4 0 2 6.0 0.04
213.0 3605.17 10 4 0 14.0 0.04
213.5 3618.22 15 4 1 20.0 0.04
214.0 3631.19 24 6 0 30.0 0.04
214.5 3644.08 15 14 1 30.0 0.04
215.0 3656.89 19 3 0 22.0 0.04
215.5 3669.61 6 0 1 7.0 0.04
216.0 3682.24 1 1 0 2.0 0.04
216.5 3694.79 15 4 1 20.0 0.04
217.0 3707.24 18 3 4 25.0 0.04
217.5 3719.61 16 3 7 26.0 0.04
218.0 3731.88 8 3 4 15.0 0.04
218.5 3744.05 10 2 2 14.0 0.04
219.0 3756.13 12 0 3 15.0 0.04
219.5 3768.12 17 0 0 17.0 0.04
220.0 3780.00 23 2 11 36.0 0.04
220.5 3791.82 15 6 4 25.0 0.04
221.0 3803.61 19 3 4 26.0 0.04
221.5 3815.38 10 1 4 15.0 0.04
222.0 3827.13 19 3 2 24.0 0.04
237
222.5 3838.85 6 0 2 8.0 0.04
223.0 3850.54 17 5 5 27.0 0.04
223.5 3862.21 15 3 1 19.0 0.04
224.0 3873.85 14 1 4 19.0 0.04
224.5 3885.47 39 2 2 43.0 0.04
225.0 3897.07 37 5 5 47.0 0.04
225.5 3908.64 24 6 4 34.0 0.04
226.0 3920.19 46 2 4 52.0 0.04
226.5 3931.72 16 3 5 24.0 0.04
227.0 3943.22 21 8 5 34.0 0.04
227.5 3954.70 26 3 13 42.0 0.04
228.0 3966.16 21 3 8 32.0 0.04
228.5 3977.59 23 2 0 25.0 0.04
229.0 3989.01 71 2 2 75.0 0.04
229.5 4000.40 15 1 3 19.0 0.04
230.0 4011.77 17 1 7 25.0 0.04
230.5 4023.11 21 0 2 23.0 0.04
231.0 4034.44 12 0 8 20.0 0.04
231.5 4045.74 11 1 0 12.0 0.04
232.0 4057.03 14 3 3 20.0 0.04
232.5 4068.29 21 4 10 35.0 0.04
233.0 4079.53 14 9 5 28.0 0.04
233.5 4090.75 17 2 13 32.0 0.04
234.0 4101.95 11 2 3 16.0 0.04
234.5 4113.13 16 17 4 37.0 0.04
235.0 4124.29 27 11 1 39.0 0.04
235.5 4135.43 12 4 1 17.0 0.04
236.0 4146.56 14 3 3 20.0 0.05
236.5 4157.66 7 1 1 9.0 0.05
237.0 4168.74 14 11 1 26.0 0.05
237.5 4179.81 7 6 2 15.0 0.05
238.0 4190.85 12 1 3 16.0 0.05
238.5 4201.88 19 5 6 30.0 0.05
239.0 4212.89 18 2 3 23.0 0.05
239.5 4223.88 11 1 10 22.0 0.05
240.0 4234.86 16 2 6 24.0 0.05
240.5 4245.81 8 0 7 15.0 0.05
241.0 4256.75 29 1 4 34.0 0.05
241.5 4267.68 12 0 8 20.0 0.05
242.0 4278.58 20 2 2 24.0 0.05
242.5 4289.47 12 1 17 30.0 0.05
243.0 4300.34 18 2 6 26.0 0.05
238
243.5 4311.20 18 0 2 20.0 0.05
244.0 4322.03 10 0 2 12.0 0.05
244.5 4332.86 23 0 7 30.0 0.05
245.0 4343.67 41 10 3 54.0 0.05
245.5 4354.46 22 2 2 26.0 0.05
246.0 4365.23 15 2 14 31.0 0.05
246.5 4376.00 9 0 8 17.0 0.05
247.0 4386.74 30 1 13 44.0 0.05
247.5 4397.48 35 2 13 50.0 0.05
248.0 4408.19 41 7 7 55.0 0.05
248.5 4418.90 13 1 8 22.0 0.05
249.0 4429.59 18 6 7 31.0 0.05
249.5 4440.26 29 1 28 58.0 0.05
250.0 4450.92 25 1 7 33.0 0.05
250.5 4461.57 23 1 2 26.0 0.05
251.0 4472.21 23 1 14 38.0 0.05
251.5 4482.83 13 1 8 22.0 0.05
252.0 4493.44 15 0 4 19.0 0.05
252.5 4504.04 21 3 3 27.0 0.05
253.0 4514.62 13 4 6 23.0 0.05
253.5 4525.19 16 1 1 18.0 0.05
254.0 4535.75 25 6 4 35.0 0.05
254.5 4546.30 20 5 6 31.0 0.05
255.0 4556.84 19 1 4 24.0 0.05
255.5 4567.36 11 2 4 17.0 0.05
256.0 4577.88 22 1 12 35.0 0.05
256.5 4588.38 28 3 6 37.0 0.05
257.0 4598.87 20 5 4 29.0 0.05
257.5 4609.35 7 4 3 14.0 0.05
258.0 4619.83 9 1 1 11.0 0.05
258.5 4630.29 18 4 2 24.0 0.05
260.0 4661.61 19 7 19 45.0 0.05
261.0 4682.45 42 6 3 51.0 0.05
262.0 4703.25 23 10 8 41.0 0.05
263.0 4724.02 42 5 7 54.0 0.05
264.0 4744.75 29 3 4 36.0 0.05
265.0 4765.46 14 5 10 29.0 0.05
266.0 4786.13 11 6 12 29.0 0.05
267.0 4806.78 21 7 9 37.0 0.05
268.0 4827.40 14 12 6 32.0 0.05
269.0 4848.00 6 6 8 20.0 0.05
270.0 4868.57 21 4 2 27.0 0.05
239
271.0 4889.13 32 6 10 48.0 0.05
272.0 4909.66 25 6 4 35.0 0.05
273.0 4930.18 23 4 4 31.0 0.05
274.0 4950.68 28 8 2 38.0 0.05
275.0 4971.17 23 18 7 48.0 0.05
276.0 4991.65 23 14 3 40.0 0.05
277.0 5012.11 48 17 1 66.0 0.05
278.0 5032.57 27 10 0 37.0 0.05
279.0 5053.01 40 20 0 60.0 0.05
280.0 5073.46 55 24 0 79.0 0.05
281.0 5093.89 80 54 0 134.0 0.05
282.0 5114.33 34 19 0 53.0 0.05
283.0 5134.76 38 26 0 64.0 0.05
284.0 5155.20 44 23 0 67.0 0.05
285.0 5175.63 36 14 1 51.0 0.05
286.0 5196.07 78 91 1 170.0 0.05
287.0 5216.52 45 13 2 60.0 0.05
288.0 5236.97 47 22 0 69.0 0.05
289.0 5257.44 35 28 1 64.0 0.05
290.0 5277.91 24 14 3 41.0 0.05
291.0 5298.39 29 5 5 39.0 0.05
292.0 5318.89 18 12 3 33.0 0.05
293.0 5339.41 21 9 5 35.0 0.05
294.0 5359.94 19 8 2 29.0 0.05
295.0 5380.49 34 12 4 50.0 0.05
296.0 5401.06 28 14 7 49.0 0.05
297.0 5421.65 22 11 0 33.0 0.05
298.0 5442.27 20 10 3 33.0 0.05
299.0 5462.91 15 6 3 24.0 0.05
300.0 5483.58 33 8 3 44.0 0.05
301.0 5504.28 26 10 4 40.0 0.05
302.0 5525.01 12 5 2 19.0 0.05
303.0 5545.77 8 7 4 19.0 0.05
304.0 5566.56 20 8 5 33.0 0.05
305.0 5587.39 26 5 2 33.0 0.05
306.0 5608.26 122 16 0 138.0 0.05
307.0 5629.16 14 0 4 18.0 0.05
308.0 5650.11 13 2 1 16.0 0.05
309.0 5671.10 8 8 2 18.0 0.05
310.0 5692.13 29 7 2 38.0 0.05
311.0 5713.20 8 5 1 14.0 0.05
312.0 5734.32 5 6 0 11.0 0.05
240
313.0 5755.50 27 6 1 34.0 0.05
314.0 5776.72 9 3 3 15.0 0.05
315.0 5797.99 13 1 0 14.0 0.05
316.0 5819.32 9 5 1 15.0 0.05
317.0 5840.68 17 0 3 20.0 0.05
318.0 5861.96 13 4 0 17.0 0.05
319.0 5883.14 6 2 0 8.0 0.05
320.0 5904.22 10 2 0 12.0 0.05
321.0 5925.21 24 0 1 25.0 0.05
322.0 5946.12 22 2 2 26.0 0.05
323.0 5966.94 14 2 2 18.0 0.05
324.0 5987.69 15 2 1 18.0 0.05
325.0 6008.35 15 3 2 20.0 0.05
326.0 6028.95 34 6 1 41.0 0.05
327.0 6049.48 25 7 0 32.0 0.05
328.0 6069.94 14 7 3 24.0 0.05
329.0 6090.35 14 1 0 15.0 0.05
330.0 6110.70 27 5 3 35.0 0.05
331.0 6130.99 19 4 5 28.0 0.05
332.0 6151.24 27 1 0 28.0 0.05
333.0 6171.44 41 20 9 70.0 0.05
334.0 6191.60 16 8 6 30.0 0.05
335.0 6211.73 41 5 9 55.0 0.05
336.0 6231.82 25 1 2 28.0 0.05
337.0 6251.88 26 7 6 39.0 0.05
338.0 6271.92 22 5 2 29.0 0.05
339.0 6291.94 42 15 6 63.0 0.05
340.0 6311.94 40 21 7 68.0 0.05
341.0 6331.92 36 19 1 56.0 0.05
342.0 6351.90 35 36 0 71.0 0.05
343.0 6371.87 28 19 0 47.0 0.05
344.0 6391.84 44 23 52 119.0 0.05
345.0 6411.81 8 4 0 12.0 0.05
346.0 6431.79 15 2 0 17.0 0.05
347.0 6451.77 10 3 0 13.0 0.05
348.0 6471.77 13 4 3 20.0 0.05
349.0 6491.79 20 5 2 27.0 0.05
350.0 6511.83 27 10 4 41.0 0.05
351.0 6531.90 16 10 6 32.0 0.05
352.0 6551.99 18 6 3 27.0 0.05
353.0 6572.12 30 4 0 34.0 0.05
354.0 6592.28 28 15 0 43.0 0.05
241
355.0 6612.49 15 5 3 23.0 0.05
356.0 6632.74 15 1 3 19.0 0.05
357.0 6653.04 28 6 2 36.0 0.05
360.0 6714.26 16 4 2 22.0 0.05
361.0 6734.79 26 9 2 37.0 0.05
362.0 6755.39 17 13 1 31.0 0.05
363.0 6776.07 18 31 1 50.0 0.05
364.0 6796.81 18 10 1 29.0 0.05
365.0 6817.64 19 9 1 29.0 0.05
366.0 6838.55 51 39 0 90.0 0.05
367.0 6859.55 16 12 0 28.0 0.05
368.0 6880.64 24 4 0 28.0 0.05
369.0 6901.83 8 1 0 9.0 0.05
370.0 6923.11 31 36 1 68.0 0.05
371.0 6944.50 28 9 0 37.0 0.05
372.0 6965.99 22 11 0 33.0 0.05
373.0 6987.60 22 7 0 29.0 0.05
374.0 7009.32 19 6 1 26.0 0.05
375.0 7031.15 14 6 1 21.0 0.05
376.0 7053.11 25 8 4 37.0 0.05
377.0 7075.20 22 6 2 30.0 0.05
378.0 7097.42 19 1 1 21.0 0.04
379.0 7119.77 18 11 3 32.0 0.04
380.0 7142.26 55 15 0 70.0 0.04
381.0 7164.89 35 35 1 71.0 0.04
382.0 7187.67 49 35 0 84.0 0.04
383.0 7210.59 33 12 0 45.0 0.04
384.0 7233.67 18 10 1 29.0 0.04
385.0 7256.91 18 6 1 25.0 0.04
386.0 7280.31 19 2 5 26.0 0.04
387.0 7303.87 23 11 2 36.0 0.04
388.0 7327.61 18 8 0 26.0 0.04
389.0 7351.51 17 6 2 25.0 0.04
390.0 7375.60 12 6 1 19.0 0.04
391.0 7399.86 19 4 1 24.0 0.04
392.0 7424.31 22 8 1 31.0 0.04
393.0 7448.94 41 19 0 60.0 0.04
394.0 7473.77 19 22 0 41.0 0.04
395.0 7498.80 17 5 0 22.0 0.04
396.0 7524.02 10 4 1 15.0 0.04
397.0 7549.45 15 3 0 18.0 0.04
398.0 7575.09 15 3 2 20.0 0.04
242
399,0 7600,94 21 4 2 27,0 0,04
400,0 7627,00 19 3 2 24,0 0.04
401.0 7653.91 11 6 0 17.0 0.04
402.0 7682.24 48 8 3 59.0 0,03
403,0 7711.93 27 3 1 31.0 0,03
404.0 7742,90 14 6 3 23,0 0.03
405.0 7775.07 18 8 0 26.0 0.03
406,0 7808.39 14 5 0 19.0 0.03
407,0 7842,77 14 4 0 18,0 0.03
408.0 7878.15 17 11 4 32,0 0,03
409.0 7914.46 47 18 0 65,0 0,03
410.0 7951.62 5 4 0 9,0 0.03
411.0 7989.56 4 0 1 5,0 0.03
412.0 8028,21 6 0 0 6,0 0.03
413.0 8067.50 10 1 0 11.0 0.03
414,0 8107.36 2 2 0 4.0 0,02
415,0 8147.72 6 1 0 7,0 0,02
416.0 8188,50 4 0 0 4.0 0.02
417.0 8229.63 11 13 1 25.0 0.02
418,0 8271.05 0 1 4 5.0 0.02
419,0 8312.69 4 1 0 5.0 0.02
420.0 8354.46 14 11 3 28.0 0,02
421.0 8396,30 5 4 0 9,0 0,02
422.0 8438.14 6 0 0 6.0 0.02
423.0 8479.90 6 1 0 7.0 0.02
424.0 8521.52 6 4 0 10,0 0.02
425.0 8562,93 5 2 1 8.0 0.02
426.0 8604,05 5 0 1 6,0 0.02
427,0 8644.80 6 5 0 11.0 0.02
428.0 8685.13 4 0 1 5.0 0.03
429.0 8724,96 19 9 0 28.0 0.03
430.0 8764.22 58 9 0 67,0 0.03
431.0 8802.83 59 17 0 76.0 0,03
432.0 8840.72 41 14 0 55.0 0.03
433.0 8877,83 16 17 0 33.0 0.03
434.0 8914.08 5 7 0 12.0 0.03
435.0 8949.40 3 1 1 5.0 0,03
436.0 8983.72 12 1 2 15,0 0,03
437.0 9016,97 11 9 0 20.0 0.03
438.0 9049.08 17 14 0 31.0 0.03
439,0 9079.97 20 6 4 30.0 0.03
440.0 9109.58 14 9 0 23,0 0,04
243
441.0 9137.83 17 17 0 34.0 0.04
442.0 9164.65 20 15 0 35.0 0.04
443.0 9189.97 0 10 0 10.0 0.04
444.0 9213.72 2 16 0 18.0 0.05
445.0 9235.83 2 22 0 24.0 0.05
446.0 9256.23 4 30 0 34.0 0.05
447.0 9274.84 1 18 0 19.0 0.06
448.0 9291.59 5 54 0 59.0 0.07
449.0 9306.42 1 12 0 13.0 0.08
450.0 9319.24 2 27 0 29.0 0.09
451.0 9330.00 0 16 0 16.0 0.10
452.0 9339.65 2 40 0 42.0 0.10
453.0 9349.19 1 11 0 12.0 0.11
454.0 9358.63 14 5 0 19.0 0.11
455.0 9367.97 13 3 0 16.0 0.11
456.0 9377.21 13 5 0 18.0 0.11
457.0 9386.35 5 1 0 6.0 0.11
458.0 9395.39 9 6 0 15.0 0.11
460.0 9413.18 15 5 0 20.0 0.11
460.5 9417.56 13 7 0 20.0 0.11
461.0 9421.92 11 3 0 14.0 0.12
461.5 9426.26 22 23 0 45.0 0.12
462.0 9430.57 18 16 0 34.0 0.12
462.5 9434.86 30 36 0 66.0 0.12
463.0 9439.13 6 10 0 16.0 0.12
463.5 9443.37 8 6 0 14.0 0.12
464.0 9447.59 16 16 0 32.0 0.12
464.5 9451.78 17 8 0 25.0 0.12
465.0 9455.95 14 9 0 23.0 0.12
465.5 9460.10 68 0 0 68.0 0.12
466.0 9464.23 50 88 0 138.0 0.12
466.5 9468.33 63 5 0 68.0 0.12
467.0 9472.41 14 1 0 15.0 0.12
467.5 9476.47 17 5 0 22.0 0.12
468.0 9480.50 14 3 0 17.0 0.12
468.5 9484.51 8 4 0 12.0 0.13
469.0 9488.50 13 1 0 14.0 0.13
469.5 9492.46 7 0 0 7.0 0.13
470.0 9496.41 8 1 0 9.0 0.13
470.5 9500.33 6 0 0 6.0 0.13
471.0 9504.23 2 1 0 3.0 0.13
471.5 9508.10 2 3 0 5.0 0.13
244
472.0 9511.96 2 11 0 13.0 0.13
472.5 9515.79 5 2 0 7.0 0.13
473.0 9519.60 4 3 0 7.0 0.13
473.5 9523.39 8 2 0 10.0 0.13
474.0 9527.16 4 0 0 4.0 0.13
474.5 9530.90 4 1 0 5.0 0.13
475.0 9534.62 5 1 0 6.0 0.14
475.5 9538.33 8 0 0 8.0 0.14
476.0 9542.01 10 1 0 11.0 0.14
476.5 9545.67 6 0 0 6.0 0.14
477.0 9549.31 1 1 0 2.0 0.14
477.5 9552.93 2 0 0 2.0 0.14
478.0 9556.52 15 2 0 17.0 0.14
478.5 9560.10 5 0 0 5.0 0.14
479.0 9563.66 6 0 0 6.0 0.14
479.5 9567.19 7 2 0 9.0 0.14
480.0 9570.70 15 3 0 18.0 0.14
480.5 9574.20 10 6 0 16.0 0.14
481.0 9577.67 12 3 0 15.0 0.14
481.5 9581.13 13 1 0 14.0 0.15
482.0 9584.56 23 10 0 33.0 0.15
482.5 9587.97 5 3 0 8.0 0.15
483.0 9591.37 9 0 0 9.0 0.15
483.5 9594.74 14 1 0 15.0 0.15
484.0 9598.09 4 1 0 5.0 0.15
484.5 9601.43 3 1 0 4.0 0.15
485.0 9604.74 8 1 0 9.0 0.15
485.5 9608.04 10 3 0 13.0 0.15
486.0 9611.31 6 4 0 10.0 0.15
486.5 9614.57 4 0 0 4.0 0.15
487.0 9617.81 2 0 0 2.0 0.16
487.5 9621.02 19 22 0 41.0 0.16
488.0 9624.22 14 3 0 17.0 0.16
488.5 9627.40 8 4 0 12.0 0.16
489.0 9630.56 10 3 0 13.0 0.16
489.5 9633.71 7 2 0 9.0 0.16
490.0 9636.83 0 0 0 0.0 0.16
490.5 9639.94 6 1 0 7.0 0.16
491.0 9643.02 12 6 0 18.0 0.16
491.5 9646.09 9 2 0 11.0 0.16
492.0 9649.14 4 1 0 5.0 0.16
492.5 9652.17 6 0 0 6.0 0.17
245
493.0 9655.19 6 1 0 7.0 0.17
493.5 9658.18 13 3 0 16.0 0.17
494.0 9661.16 9 3 0 12.0 0.17
494.5 9664.12 16 4 0 20.0 0.17
495.0 9667.07 12 10 0 22.0 0.17
495.5 9669.99 6 1 0 7.0 0.17
496.0 9672.90 13 1 0 14.0 0.17
496.5 9675.79 16 3 0 19.0 0.17
497.0 9678.66 11 1 0 12.0 0.18
497.5 9681.52 9 3 0 12.0 0.18
498.0 9684.36 4 5 0 9.0 0.18
498.5 9687.18 16 1 0 17.0 0.18
499.0 9689.99 11 1 0 12.0 0.18
499.5 9692.77 10 2 2 14.0 0.18
500.0 9695.54 6 0 0 6.0 0.18
500.5 9698.30 12 0 0 12.0 0.18
501.0 9701.04 8 0 0 8.0 0.18
501.5 9703.76 4 0 1 5.0 0.18
502.0 9706.47 5 0 0 5.0 0.19
502.5 9709.15 4 0 0 4.0 0.19
503.0 9711.83 0 1 0 1.0 0.19
503.5 9714.48 3 2 0 5.0 0.19
504.0 9717.13 0 0 0 0.0 0.19
504.5 9719.75 1 0 0 1.0 0.19
505.0 9722.36 8 1 0 9.0 0.19
505.5 9724.95 20 0 0 20.0 0.19
506.0 9727.53 9 3 0 12.0 0.20
506.5 9730.10 9 8 0 17.0 0.20
507.0 9732.64 6 4 0 10.0 0.20
507.5 9735.17 14 2 0 16.0 0.20
508.0 9737.69 9 3 0 12.0 0.20
508.5 9740.19 22 8 0 30.0 0.20
509.0 9742.68 41 11 0 52.0 0.20
509.5 9745.15 21 4 0 25.0 0.20
510.0 9747.61 13 5 0 18.0 0.20
510.5 9750.05 34 37 0 71.0 0.21
511.0 9752.48 8 2 0 10.0 0.21
511.5 9754.89 20 7 0 27.0 0.21
512.0 9757.29 22 6 0 28.0 0.21
512.5 9759.67 7 3 0 10.0 0.21
513.0 9762.04 18 1 0 19.0 0.21
513.5 9764.40 14 4 0 18.0 0.21
246
514.0 9766.74 14 11 0 25.0 0.21
514.5 9769.07 13 5 0 18.0 0.22
515.0 9771.38 19 1 0 20.0 0.22
515.5 9773.68 10 3 1 14.0 0.22
516.0 9775.97 17 13 3 33.0 0.22
516.5 9778.24 17 8 2 27.0 0.22
517.0 9780.50 18 0 0 18.0 0.22
517.5 9782.75 28 7 0 35.0 0.22
518.0 9784.98 28 2 0 30.0 0.23
518.5 9787.20 13 4 0 17.0 0.23
519.0 9789.41 22 8 1 31.0 0.23
519.5 9791.60 24 5 0 29.0 0.23
520.0 9793.78 4 0 0 4.0 0.23
520.5 9795.95 16 14 0 30.0 0.23
521.0 9798.11 15 4 0 19.0 0.23
521.5 9800.25 8 8 0 16.0 0.23
522.0 9802.38 17 0 0 17.0 0.24
522.5 9804.50 2 4 0 6.0 0.24
523.0 9806.60 11 5 0 16.0 0.24
523.5 9808.69 38 0 0 38.0 0.24
524.0 9810.77 7 3 0 10.0 0.24
524.5 9812.84 6 4 0 10.0 0.24
525.0 9814.90 12 1 0 13.0 0.24
525.5 9816.94 23 2 0 25.0 0.25
526.0 9818.98 15 8 1 24.0 0.25
526.5 9821.00 7 0 0 7.0 0.25
527.0 9823.01 3 2 0 5.0 0.25
527.5 9825.01 2 0 0 2.0 0.25
528.0 9826.99 7 1 0 8.0 0.25
528.5 9828.97 4 1 0 5.0 0.25
529.0 9830.93 5 0 0 5.0 0.26
529.5 9832.89 10 6 0 16.0 0.26
530.0 9834.83 7 11 4 22.0 0.26
530.5 9836.76 26 29 0 55.0 0.26
531.0 9838.68 19 24 1 44.0 0.26
531.5 9840.59 18 11 2 31.0 0.26
532.0 9842.49 12 15 0 27.0 0.26
532.5 9844.38 23 8 1 32.0 0.27
533.0 9846.26 11 3 0 14.0 0.27
533.5 9848.12 18 4 0 22.0 0.27
534.0 9849.98 10 8 1 19.0 0.27
534.5 9851.83 31 36 0 67.0 0.27
247
535.0 9853.67 38 32 0 70.0 0.27
535.5 9855.49 65 53 2 120.0 0.28
536.0 9857.31 53 37 0 90.0 0.28
536.5 9859.12 28 12 0 40.0 0.28
537.0 9860.92 52 37 2 91.0 0.28
537.5 9862.71 41 11 0 52.0 0.28
538.0 9864.48 19 3 0 22.0 0.28
538.5 9866.25 22 10 0 32.0 0.28
539.0 9868.01 9 4 1 14.0 0.29
539.5 9869.77 35 10 1 46.0 0.29
540.0 9871.51 31 4 0 35.0 0.29
540.5 9873.24 19 15 0 34.0 0.29
541.0 9874.96 24 7 0 31.0 0.29
541.5 9876.68 20 9 3 32.0 0.29
542.0 9878.39 36 82 3 121.0 0.29
542.5 9880.08 31 9 0 40.0 0.30
543.0 9881.77 27 0 0 27.0 0.30
543.5 9883.45 20 5 0 25.0 0.30
544.0 9885.13 8 2 0 10.0 0.30
544.5 9886.79 19 8 0 27.0 0.30
545.0 9888.45 16 9 0 25.0 0.30
545.5 9890.09 15 7 0 22.0 0.30
546.0 9891.73 15 2 0 17.0 0.31
546.5 9893.37 8 3 0 11.0 0.31
547.0 9894.99 13 5 0 18.0 0.31
547.5 9896.61 16 13 1 30.0 0.31
548.0 9898.22 16 4 0 20.0 0.31
548.5 9899.82 43 17 0 60.0 0.31
549.0 9901.41 21 3 0 24.0 0.32
549.5 9903.00 9 13 0 22.0 0.32
550.0 9904.58 20 14 0 34.0 0.32
550.5 9906.15 20 8 1 29.0 0.32
551.0 9907.72 26 7 0 33.0 0.32
551.5 9909.28 14 1 1 16.0 0.32
552.0 9910.83 27 7 0 34.0 0.32
552.5 9912.37 25 8 0 33.0 0.33
553.0 9913.91 24 5 0 29.0 0.33
553.5 9915.44 24 6 0 30.0 0.33
554.0 9916.97 99 21 0 120.0 0.33
554.5 9918.49 34 10 0 44.0 0.33
555.0 9920.00 27 33 0 60.0 0.33
555.5 9921.50 19 4 0 23.0 0.34
248
556.0 9922.99 9 1 0 10.0 0.34
556.5 9924.46 13 4 0 17.0 0.34
560.0 9934.34 35 30 0 65.0 0.37
560.5 9935.69 39 20 0 59.0 0.37
561.0 9937.03 36 16 0 52.0 0.38
561.5 9938.36 29 24 0 53.0 0.38
562.0 9939.67 29 5 0 34.0 0.38
562.5 9940.97 25 10 0 35.0 0.39
563.0 9942.26 40 16 0 56.0 0.39
563.5 9943.53 53 5 1 59.0 0.40
564.0 9944.79 25 9 0 34.0 0.40
564.5 9946.04 29 7 0 36.0 0.40
565.0 9947.28 13 7 0 20.0 0.41
565.5 9948.50 23 6 0 29.0 0.41
566.0 9949.72 13 8 0 21.0 0.42
566.5 9950.92 12 8 0 20.0 0.42
567.0 9952.10 59 70 0 129.0 0.42
567.5 9953.28 35 27 0 62.0 0.43
568.0 9954.45 11 9 0 20.0 0.43
568.5 9955.60 10 11 1 22.0 0.44
569.0 9956.74 13 11 2 26.0 0.44
569.5 9957.88 12 12 0 24.0 0.45
570.0 9959.00 19 2 0 21.0 0.45
570.5 9960.11 36 20 1 57.0 0.45
571.0 9961.21 37 20 0 57.0 0.46
571.5 9962.30 73 25 2 100.0 0.46
572.0 9963.38 46 10 0 56.0 0.47
572.5 9964.45 47 18 0 65.0 0.47
573.0 9965.51 49 72 0 121.0 0.48
573.5 9966.57 30 17 0 47.0 0.48
574.0 9967.61 73 36 0 109.0 0.48
574.5 9968.64 29 13 0 42.0 0.49
575.0 9969.67 77 19 0 96.0 0.49
575.5 9970.68 84 27 6 117.0 0.50
576.0 9971.69 54 52 0 106.0 0.50
576.5 9972.69 58 18 3 79.0 0.50
577.0 9973.68 49 25 0 74.0 0.51
577.5 9974.66 87 21 0 108.0 0.51
578.0 9975.64 62 20 0 82.0 0.52
578.5 9976.61 36 10 0 46.0 0.52
579.0 9977.57 28 13 0 41.0 0.52
579.5 9978.52 36 9 0 45.0 0.53
249
580.0 9979.47 23 17 0 40.0 0.53
580.5 9980.40 24 19 0 43.0 0.54
581.0 9981.34 26 14 0 40.0 0.54
581.5 9982.26 11 4 0 15.0 0.54
582.0 9983.18 12 11 0 23.0 0.55
582.5 9984.09 7 1 0 8.0 0.55
583.0 9985.00 7 7 0 14.0 0.56
583.5 9985.90 20 13 0 33.0 0.56
584.0 9986.79 11 10 0 21.0 0.56
584.5 9987.68 20 10 0 30.0 0.57
585.0 9988.57 17 2 0 19.0 0.57
585.5 9989.45 25 5 0 30.0 0.57
586.0 9990.32 52 25 0 77.0 0.58
586.5 9991.19 44 18 0 62.0 0.58
587.0 9992.05 12 8 0 20.0 0.58
587.5 9992.91 14 5 0 19.0 0.58
588.0 9993.77 10 5 0 15.0 0.59
588.5 9994.62 27 40 0 67.0 0.59
589.0 9995.47 17 17 0 34.0 0.59
589.5 9996.31 29 25 0 54.0 0.60
590.0 9997.15 20 5 0 25.0 0.60
590.5 9997.98 27 48 0 75.0 0.60
591.0 9998.82 13 11 0 24.0 0.60
591.5 9999.65 26 10 0 36.0 0.60
592.0 10000.47 13 13 0 26.0 0.61
592.5 10001.30 14 12 0 26.0 0.61
593.0 10002.12 15 10 0 25.0 0.61
593.5 10002.94 13 17 0 30.0 0.61
594.0 10003.76 19 31 0 50.0 0.61
594.5 10004.57 26 17 0 43.0 0.61
595.0 10005.38 24 25 0 49.0 0.62
595.5 10006.20 13 9 0 22.0 0.62
596.0 10007.01 13 3 0 16.0 0.62
596.5 10007.81 20 8 0 28.0 0.62
597.0 10008.62 21 10 0 31.0 0.62
597.5 10009.43 75 27 0 102.0 0.62
598.0 10010.23 33 29 0 62.0 0.62
598.5 10011.04 51 7 0 58.0 0.62
599.0 10011.84 27 10 0 37.0 0.62
599.5 10012.65 40 10 0 50.0 0.62
600.0 10013.45 49 10 0 59.0 0.62
600.5 10014.26 24 11 0 35.0 0.62
250
601.0 10015.06 26 10 0 36.0 0.62
601.5 10015.87 20 5 1 26.0 0.62
602.0 10016.67 28 6 0 34.0 0.62
602.5 10017.48 54 5 0 59.0 0.62
603.0 10018.28 15 8 0 23.0 0.62
603.5 10019.09 21 2 0 23.0 0.62
604.0 10019.90 23 5 0 28.0 0.62
604.5 10020.71 20 2 0 22.0 0.62
605.0 10021.53 17 5 0 22.0 0.61
605.5 10022.34 12 0 0 12.0 0.61
606.0 10023.16 31 9 0 40.0 0.61
606.5 10023.97 12 3 0 15.0 0.61
607.0 10024.80 8 0 0 8.0 0.61
607.5 10025.62 12 7 0 19.0 0.61
608.0 10026.45 28 8 0 36.0 0.60
608.5 10027.27 19 11 0 30.0 0.60
609.0 10028.11 25 7 0 32.0 0.60
609.5 10028.94 24 8 0 32.0 0.60
610.0 10029.78 19 2 0 21.0 0.59
610.5 10030.62 20 7 0 27.0 0.59
612.0 10033.17 22 4 0 26.0 0.58
612.5 10034.03 24 1 0 25.0 0.58
613.0 10034.89 32 3 0 35.0 0.58
613.5 10035.76 17 2 0 19.0 0.57
614.0 10036.63 14 2 0 16.0 0.57
614.5 10037.51 19 6 0 25.0 0.57
615.0 10038.39 16 0 0 16.0 0.56
615.5 10039.28 32 2 2 36.0 0.56
616.0 10040.17 25 0 0 25.0 0.56
616.5 10041.07 26 4 0 30.0 0.55
617.0 10041.98 15 5 0 20.0 0.55
617.5 10042.89 46 18 0 64.0 0.55
618.0 10043.81 42 6 0 48.0 0.54
618.5 10044.73 24 6 0 30.0 0.54
619.0 10045.66 38 3 0 41.0 0.53
619.5 10046.59 16 5 0 21.0 0.53
620.0 10047.54 26 8 0 34.0 0.53
620.5 10048.49 39 13 0 52.0 0.52
621.0 10049.45 30 3 0 33.0 0.52
621.5 10050.41 47 3 0 50.0 0.51
622.0 10051.39 22 6 0 28.0 0.51
622.5 10052.37 24 3 0 27.0 0.51
251
623.0 10053.35 17 5 0 22.0 0.50
623.5 10054.35 12 5 0 17.0 0.50
624.0 10055.36 31 7 0 38.0 0.49
624.5 10056.37 32 5 0 37.0 0.49
625.0 10057.39 28 4 0 32.0 0.48
625.5 10058.42 28 3 0 31.0 0.48
626.0 10059.46 29 5 0 34.0 0.48
626.5 10060.51 35 2 0 37.0 0.47
627.0 10061.57 32 9 0 41.0 0.47
627.5 10062.64 25 1 0 26.0 0.46
628.0 10063.n 18 6 0 24.0 0.46
628.5 10064.81 23 7 0 30.0 0.46
629.0 10065.90 31 12 0 43.0 0.45
629.5 10067.01 21 2 0 23.0 0.45
630.0 10068.13 20 3 0 23.0 0.44
630.5 10069.26 19 2 0 21.0 0.44
631.0 10070.40 12 2 0 14.0 0.43
631.5 10071.55 16 6 0 22.0 0.43
632.0 100n.71 17 2 0 19.0 0.43
632.5 10073.89 14 14 0 28.0 0.42
633.0 10075.07 17 5 0 22.0 0.42
633.5 10076.27 17 5 0 22.0 0.41
634.0 10077.48 15 12 0 27.0 0.41
634.5 10078.70 43 n 0 115.0 0.41
635.0 10079.93 40 31 0 71.0 0.40
635.5 10081.18 34 25 0 59.0 0.40
636.0 10082.43 14 14 0 28.0 0.39
636.5 10083.70 19 10 0 29.0 0.39
637.0 10084.99 31 11 0 42.0 0.39
637.5 10086.28 39 8 0 47.0 0.38
638.0 10087.59 48 38 0 86.0 0.38
638.5 10088.91 48 22 0 70.0 0.37
639.0 10090.25 117 59 0 176.0 0.37
639.5 10091.60 79 34 0 113.0 0.37
640.0 10092.96 79 29 0 108.0 0.36
640.5 10094.34 89 21 0 110.0 0.36
641.0 10095.74 61 23 0 84.0 0.36
641.5 10097.14 71 50 0 121.0 0.35
642.0 10098.56 46 16 0 62.0 0.35
642.5 10100.00 66 21 0 87:0 0.35
643.0 10101.45 42 11 0 53.0 0.34
643.5 10102.90 53 30 0 83.0 0.34
252
644.0 10104.36 28 6 0 34.0 0.34
644.5 10105.83 47 35 0 82.0 0.34
645.0 10107.31 70 12 0 82.0 0.34
645.5 10108.79 68 30 0 98.0 0.34
646.0 10110.28 45 13 0 58.0 0.33
646.5 10111.78 35 11 0 46.0 0.33
647.0 10113.28 29 19 0 48.0 0.33
647.5 10114.79 11 16 0 27.0 0.33
648.0 10116.31 24 27 0 51.0 0.33
648.5 10117.83 33 23 0 56.0 0.33
649.0 10119.36 30 19 0 49.0 0.33
649.5 10120.90 23 8 0 31.0 0.32
650.0 10122.45 24 12 0 36.0 0.32
650.5 10124.00 54 16 1 71.0 0.32
651.0 10125.56 28 28 0 56.0 0.32
651.5 10127.12 11 11 1 23.0 0.32
652.0 10128.69 40 10 0 50.0 0.32
652.5 10130.27 45 6 0 51.0 0.32
653.0 10131.86 43 7 0 50.0 0.31
653.5 10133.45 42 4 0 46.0 0.31
654.0 10135.05 35 10 0 45.0 0.31
654.5 10136.66 36 6 0 42.0 0.31
655.0 10138.27 45 18 0 63.0 0.31
655.5 10139.89 42 17 0 59.0 0.31
656.0 10141.51 33 6 0 39.0 0.31
656.5 10143.15 21 10 0 31.0 0.31
657.0 10144.79 40 12 0 52.0 0.30
657.5 10146.43 36 7 0 43.0 0.30
658.0 10148.08 23 13 0 36.0 0.30
658.5 10149.74 32 4 4 40.0 0.30
659.0 10151.41 20 11 0 31.0 0.30
659.5 10153.08 33 13 1 47.0 0.30
660.0 10154.76 10 9 0 19.0 0.30
660.5 10156.44 20 8 1 29.0 0.30
661.0 10158.14 23 9 1 33.0 0.29
661.5 10159.83 17 16 0 33.0 0.29
662.0 10161.54 18 12 0 30.0 0.29
662.5 10163.25 23 9 0 32.0 0.29
663.0 10164.97 21 12 0 33.0 0.29
663.5 10166.69 27 11 0 38.0 0.29
664.0 10168.42 27 13 0 40.0 0.29
664.5 10170.16 13 8 0 21.0 0.29
._---------------- -
253
665.0 10171.90 19 8 0 27.0 0.29
665.5 10173.65 30 13 1 44.0 0.28
666.0 10175.40 28 6 1 35.0 0.28
666.5 10177.17 20 6 0 26.0 0.28
667.0 10178.93 30 4 1 35.0 0.28
667.5 10180.71 38 21 0 59.0 0.28
668.0 10182.49 12 4 0 16.0 0.28
668.5 10184.28 17 4 0 21.0 0.28
669.0 10186.07 6 6 0 12.0 0.28
669.5 10187.87 27 14 0 41.0 0.28
670.0 10189.67 19 13 0 32.0 0.28
670.5 10191.48 20 4 0 24.0 0.28
671.0 10193.30 9 2 0 11.0 0.27
671.5 10195.12 6 5 0 11.0 0.27
672.0 10196.95 16 11 0 27.0 0.27
672.5 10198.79 46 13 0 59.0 0.27
673.0 10200.63 19 12 0 31.0 0.27
673.5 10202.48 32 21 0 53.0 0.27
674.0 10204.33 13 6 0 19.0 0.27
674.5 10206.19 32 21 0 53.0 0.27
675.0 10208.06 50 8 0 58.0 0.27
675.5 10209.93 26 5 0 31.0 0.27
679.0 10223.20 45 7 0 52.0 0.26
679.5 10225.12 17 2 0 19.0 0.26
680.0 10227.05 11 4 0 15.0 0.26
680.5 10228.98 15 2 0 17.0 0.26
681.0 10230.91 21 12 0 33.0 0.26
681.5 10232.86 9 0 0 9.0 0.26
682.0 10234.81 9 2 0 11.0 0.26
682.5 10236.76 9 3 0 12.0 0.26
683.0 10238.72 12 3 0 15.0 0.25
683.5 10240.68 7 1 0 8.0 0.25
684.0 10242.66 15 6 0 21.0 0.25
684.5 10244.63 10 2 0 12.0 0.25
685.0 10246.61 15 6 0 21.0 0.25
685.5 10248.60 9 3 0 12.0 0.25
686.0 10250.60 10 6 0 16.0 0.25
686.5 10252.60 20 9 0 29.0 0.25
687.0 10254.60 61 37 0 98.0 0.25
687.5 10256.61 10 7 0 17.0 0.25
688.0 10258.63 6 2 0 8.0 0.25
688.5 10260.65 33 14 0 47.0 0.25
254
689.0 10262.68 22 10 0 32.0 0.25
689.5 10264.71 15 4 0 19.0 0.25
690.0 10266.75 39 11 0 50.0 0.24
690.5 10268.79 13 7 0 20.0 0.24
691.0 10270.84 13 7 0 20.0 0.24
691.5 10272.89 62 19 0 81.0 0.24
692.0 10274.95 23 19 0 42.0 0.24
692.5 10277.02 21 10 0 31.0 0.24
693.0 10279.09 19 2 0 21.0 0.24
693.5 10281.16 13 10 0 23.0 0.24
694.0 10283.25 26 5 0 31.0 0.24
694.5 10285.33 19 9 0 28.0 0.24
695.0 10287.42 14 8 0 22.0 0.24
695.5 10289.52 8 4 0 12.0 0.24
696.0 10291.62 45 21 0 66.0 0.24
696.5 10293.73 32 20 0 52.0 0.24
697.0 10295.84 59 8 0 67.0 0.24
697.5 10297.96 19 11 0 30.0 0.24
698.0 10300.09 14 8 0 22.0 0.23
698.5 10302.22 7 2 0 9.0 0.23
699.0 10304.35 16 9 0 25.0 0.23
699.5 10306.49 15 2 0 17.0 0.23
700.0 10308.63 15 1 0 16.0 0.23
700.5 10310.78 25 8 0 33.0 0.23
701.0 10312.94 6 1 0 7.0 0.23
701.5 10315.10 10 8 0 18.0 0.23
702.0 10317.26 10 3 0 13.0 0.23
702.5 10319.43 4 9 0 13.0 0.23
703.0 10321.60 11 4 0 15.0 0.23
703.5 10323.78 8 2 0 10.0 0.23
704.0 10325.97 15 11 0 26.0 0.23
704.5 10328.16 29 8 0 37.0 0.23
705.0 10330.35 20 5 0 25.0 0.23
705.5 10332.55 27 7 0 34.0 0.23
706.0 10334.76 30 14 0 44.0 0.23
706.5 10336.97 36 5 0 41.0 0.23
707.0 10339.18 10 4 0 14.0 0.23
707.5 10341.40 4 2 0 6.0 0.22
708.0 10343.62 34 25 0 59.0 0.22
708.5 10345.85 23 4 0 27.0 0.22
709.0 10348.09 19 13 0 32.0 0.22
709.5 10350.32 24 41 0 65.0 0.22
255
710.0 10352.57 10 3 0 13.0 0.22
710.5 10354.82 11 4 0 15.0 0.22
711.0 10357.07 9 5 0 14.0 0.22
711.5 10359.33 22 5 0 27.0 0.22
712.0 10361.59 29 3 0 32.0 0.22
712.5 10363.86 32 6 0 38.0 0.22
713.0 10366.13 34 2 0 36.0 0.22
713.5 10368.40 9 3 0 12.0 0.22
714.0 10370.68 20 12 0 32.0 0.22
714.5 10372.97 58 24 0 82.0 0.22
715.0 10375.26 15 13 0 28.0 0.22
715.5 10377.56 12 1 0 13.0 0.22
716.0 10379.86 20 2 0 22.0 0.22
716.5 10382.16 23 8 0 31.0 0.22
717.0 10384.47 46 12 0 58.0 0.22
717.5 10386.78 30 2 0 32.0 0.22
718.0 10389.10 51 5 0 56.0 0.22
718.5 10391.42 37 3 0 40.0 0.21
719.0 10393.75 42 3 0 45.0 0.21
719.5 10396.08 22 5 0 27.0 0.21
720.0 10398.41 20 2 0 22.0 0.21
720.5 10400.75 12 6 0 18.0 0.21
721.0 10403.10 33 5 0 38.0 0.21
721.5 10405.45 34 16 0 50.0 0.21
722.0 10407.80 49 17 0 66.0 0.21
722.5 10410.16 36 21 0 57.0 0.21
723.0 10412.52 43 15 0 58.0 0.21
723.5 10414.89 45 12 0 57.0 0.21
724.0 10417.26 20 7 0 27.0 0.21
724.5 10419.63 5 4 0 9.0 0.21
725.0 10422.01 12 7 0 19.0 0.21
725.5 10424.40 12 11 0 23.0 0.21
726.0 10426.78 18 13 0 31.0 0.21
726.5 10429.18 18 7 0 25.0 0.21
727.0 10431.57 15 5 0 20.0 0.21
727.5 10433.97 20 7 0 27.0 0.21
728.0 10436.38 17 10 0 27.0 0.21
728.5 10438.79 22 3 0 25.0 0.21
729.0 10441.20 28 4 0 32.0 0.21
729.5 10443.61 10 6 0 16.0 0.21
730.0 10446.04 8 1 0 9.0 0.21
730.5 10448.46 8 3 0 11.0 0.21
256
731.0 10450.89 30 7 0 37.0 0.21
731.5 10453.32 4 10 0 14.0 0.21
732.0 10455.76 11 15 0 26.0 0.20
732.5 10458.20 9 10 0 19.0 0.20
733.0 10460.65 5 2 0 7.0 0.20
733.5 10463.1 0 13 9 0 22.0 0.20
734.0 10465.55 11 9 0 20.0 0.20
734.5 10468.01 9 4 0 13.0 0.20
735.0 10470.47 5 4 0 9.0 0.20
735.5 10472.93 7 10 0 17.0 0.20
736.0 10475.40 13 27 0 ·40.0 0.20
736.5 10477.88 15 5 0 20.0 0.20
737.0 10480.35 13 3 0 16.0 0.20
737.5 10482.83 4 5 0 9.0 0.20
738.0 10485.32 20 5 0 25.0 0.20
738.5 10487.81 14 15 0 29.0 0.20
739.0 10490.30 13 6 0 19.0 0.20
739.5 10492.79 6 6 0 12.0 0.20
740.0 10495.29 2 9 0 11.0 0.20
740.5 10497.80 35 16 0 51.0 0.20
741.0 10500.30 6 1 0 7.0 0.20
741.5 10502.82 8 7 0 15.0 0.20
742.0 10505.33 6 14 0 20.0 0.20
742.5 10507.85 18 21 0 39.0 0.20
743.0 10510.37 11 5 0 16.0 0.20
743.5 10512.90 14 9 0 23.0 0.20
744.0 10515.42 11 12 0 23.0 0.20
744.5 10517.96 17 1 0 18.0 0.20
745.0 10520.49 16 1 0 17.0 0.20
745.5 10523.03 27 14 0 41.0 0.20
746.0 10525.58 10 2 0 12.0 0.20
746.5 10528.12 8 3 0 11.0 0.20
747.0 10530.67 4 5 0 9.0 0.20
747.5 10533.23 25 2 0 27.0 0.20
748.0 10535.79 7 21 0 28.0 0.20
748.5 10538.35 16 22 0 38.0 0.19
749.0 10540.91 34 55 0 89.0 0.19
749.5 10543.48 7 12 0 19.0 0.19
750.0 10546.05 3 12 0 15.0 0.19
750.5 10548.63 8 5 0 13.0 0.19
751.0 10551.20 8 9 0 17.0 0.19
751.5 10553.79 6 14 0 20.0 0.19
257
752.0 10556.37 11 13 0 24.0 0.19
752.5 10558.96 19 23 0 42.0 0.19
753.0 10561.55 9 6 0 15.0 0.19
753.5 10564.15 2 7 0 9.0 0.19
754.0 10566.74 14 8 0 22.0 0.19
754.5 10569.34 10 4 0 14.0 0.19
755.0 10571.95 5 4 0 9.0 0.19
755.5 10574.56 9 3 0 12.0 0.19
756.0 10577.17 13 15 0 28.0 0.19
756.5 10579.78 23 1 0 24.0 0.19
757.0 10582.40 2 2 0 4.0 0.19
757.5 10585.02 6 2 0 8.0 0.19
758.0 10587.64 9 5 0 14.0 0.19
758.5 10590.27 4 3 0 7.0 0.19
759.0 10592.90 1 4 0 5.0 0.19
759.5 10595.53 10 5 0 15.0 0.19
760.0 10598.17 3 4 0 7.0 0.19
760.5 10600.81 4 0 0 4.0 0.19
761.0 10603.45 6 2 0 8.0 0.19
761.5 10606.10 2 4 0 6.0 0.19
762.0 10608.75 7 7 0 14.0 0.19
762.5 10611.40 5 5 0 10.0 0.19
763.0 10614.05 9 5 0 14.0 0.19
763.5 10616.71 27 6 0 33.0 0.19
764.0 10619.37 7 1 0 8.0 0.19
764.5 10622.03 17 2 0 19.0 0.19
765.0 10624.70 7 0 0 7.0 0.19
765.5 10627.37 8 2 0 10.0 0.19
766.0 10630.04 5 4 0 9.0 0.19
766.5 10632.71 6 9 0 15.0 0.19
767.0 10635.39 2 6 0 8.0 0.19
767.5 10638.07 3 4 0 7.0 0.19
768.0 10640.75 5 2 0 7.0 0.19
768.5 10643.44 5 6 0 11.0 0.19
769.0 10646.13 7 4 0 11.0 0.19
769.5 10648.82 6 13 0 19.0 0.19
770.0 10651.51 2 3 0 5.0 0.19
770.5 10654.21 6 9 0 15.0 0.19
771.0 10656.91 6 5 0 11.0 0.19
771.5 10659.61 5 2 0 7.0 0.18
772.0 10662.32 5 6 0 11.0 0.18
772.5 10665.02 5 4 0 9.0 0.18
258
773.0 10667.73 4 1 0 5.0 0.18
773.5 10670.45 1 2 0 3.0 0.18
774.0 10673.16 7 15 0 22.0 0.18
774.5 10675.88 8 4 0 12.0 0.18
775.0 10678.60 5 7 0 12.0 0.18
775.5 10681.32 1 10 0 11.0 0.18
776.0 10684.05 4 9 0 13.0 0.18
776.5 10686.78 2 3 0 5.0 0.18
777.0 10689.51 10 9 0 19.0 0.18
777.5 10692.24 3 5 0 8.0 0.18
778.0 10694.98 1 0 0 1.0 0.18
778.5 10697.71 6 2 0 8.0 0.18
779.0 10700.45 8 9 0 17.0 0.18
779.5 10703.20 11 4 0 15.0 0.18
780.0 10705.94 4 5 0 9.0 0.18
780.5 10708.69 4 11 0 15.0 0.18
781.0 10711.44 2 3 0 5.0 0.18
781.5 10714.19 3 2 0 5.0 0.18
782.0 10716.95 2 4 0 6.0 0.18
782.5 10719.70 5 11 0 16.0 0.18
783.0 10722.46 3 3 0 6.0 0.18
783.5 10725.22 17 10 0 27.0 0.18
784.0 10727.99 2 0 0 2.0 0.18
784.5 10730.75 5 7 0 12.0 0.18
785 10733.52 4 17 0 21 0.18
785.5 10736.29 6 11 0 17 0.18
786 10739.06 5 4 0 9 0.18
786.5 10741.84 4 6 0 10 0.18
787.0 10744.62 6 7 0 13 0.18
787.5 10747.40 2 4 0 6 0.18
788.0 10750.18 9 9 0 18 0.18
788.5 10752.96 10 21 0 31 0.18
789.0 10755.74 0 3 0 3 0.18
789.5 10758.53 1 4 0 5 0.18
790.0 10761.32 5 7 0 12 0.18
790.5 10764.11 3 9 0 12 0.18
791.0 10766.91 3 4 0 7 0.18
791.5 10769.70 5 11 0 16 0.18
792.0 10772.50 4 7 0 11 0.18
792.5 10775.30 2 1 0 3 0.18
793.0 10778.10 6 8 0 14 0.18
793.5 10780.90 8 13 0 21 0.18
259
794.0 10783.71 4 3 0 7 0.18
794.5 10786.51 7 2 0 9 0.18
795.0 10789.32 13 11 0 24 0.18
795.5 10792.13 4 2 0 6 0.18
796.0 10794.95 1 7 0 8 0.18
796.5 10797.76 3 8 0 11 0.18
797.0 10800.58 0 2 0 2 0.18
797.5 10803.40 4 2 0 6 0.18
798.0 10806.22 2 5 0 7 0.18
798.5 10809.04 5 1 0 6 0.18
799.0 10811.86 12 28 0 40 0.18
799.5 10814.68 5 3 0 8 0.18
800.0 10817.51 11 4 0 15 0.18
800.5 10820.34 3 0 0 3 0.18
801.0 10823.17 8 1 0 9 0.18
801.5 10826.00 4 0 0 4 0.18
802.0 10828.83 4 3 0 7 0.18
802.5 10831.67 4 2 0 6 0.18
803.0 10834.51 5 0 0 5 0.18
803.5 10837.34 3 1 0 4 0.18
804.0 10840.18 1 0 0 1 0.18
804.5 10843.03 3 2 0 5 0.18
805.0 10845.87 4 11 0 15 0.18
805.5 10848.71 3 0 0 3 0.18
806.0 10851.56 0 1 0 1 0.18
806.5 10854.41 5 5 0 10 0.18
807.0 10857.25 1 3 0 4 0.18
807.5 10860.1 3 3 0 6 0.18
808.0 10862.96 1 4 0 5 0.18
808.5 10865.81 0 2 0 2 0.18
809.0 10868.66 4 2 0 6 0.18
809.5 10871.52 5 4 0 9 0.18
810.0 10874.38 5 17 0 22 0.17
810.5 10877.23 3 0 0 3 0.17
811.0 10880.09 1 1 0 2 0.17
811.5 10882.95 2 1 0 3 0.17
812.0 10885.82 0 1 0 1 0.17
812.5 10888.68 6 1 0 7 0.17
813.0 10891.55 3 3 0 6 0.17
813.5 10894.41 6 0 0 6 0.17
814.0 10897.28 1 0 0 1 0.17
814.5 10900.15 1 0 0 1 0.17
260
815.0 10903.02 2 4 0 6 0.17
815.5 10905.89 1 1 0 2 0.17
816.0 10908.76 2 2 0 4 0.17
816.5 10911.63 2 0 0 2 0.17
817.0 10914.51 2 1 0 3 0.17
817.5 10917.38 6 2 0 8 0.17
818.0 10920.26 3 0 0 3 0.17
818.5 10923.14 1 0 0 1 0.17
819.0 10926.02 0 1 0 1 0.17
819.5 10928.90 5 1 0 6 0.17
820.0 10931.78 1 0 0 1 0.17
820.5 10934.66 1 2 0 3 0.17
821.0 10937.54 2 0 0 2 0.17
821.5 10940.42 5 0 0 5 0.17
822.0 10943.31 4 3 0 7 0.17
822.5 10946.19 11 4 0 15 0.17
823.0 10949.08 0 1 0 1 0.17
823.5 10951.97 2 0 0 2 0.17
824.0 10954.86 0 1 0 1 0.17
824.5 10957.74 3 1 0 4 0.17
825.0 10960.63 3 1 0 4 0.17
825.5 10963.52 4 0 0 4 0.17
826.0 10966.42 3 1 0 4 0.17
826.5 10969.31 2 2 0 4 0.17
827.0 10972.20 9 0 0 9 0.17
827.5 10975.10 4 0 0 4 0.17
828.0 10977.99 4 0 0 4 0.17
828.5 10980.89 9 0 0 9 0.17
829.0 10983.78 4 0 0 4 0.17
829.5 10986.68 5 1 0 6 0.17
830.0 10989.58 3 2 0 5 0.17
830.5 10992.47 3 1 0 4 0.17
831.0 10995.37 3 0 0 3 0.17
831.5 10998.27 3 1 0 4 0.17
832.0 11001.17 1 1 0 2 0.17
832.5 11004.07 4 0 0 4 0.17
833.0 11006.97 1 0 0 1 0.17
833.5 11009.87 3 0 0 3 0.17
834.0 11012.78 3 0 0 3 0.17
834.5 11015.68 4 1 0 5 0.17
835.0 11018.58 7 0 0 7 0.17
835.5 11021.48 5 0 0 5 0.17
261
836.0 11024.39 2 0 0 2 0.17
836.5 11027.29 5 0 0 5 0.17
837.0 11030.20 6 1 0 7 0.17
837.5 11033.10 8 0 0 8 0.17
838.0 11036.01 10 3 0 13 0.17
838.5 11038.92 5 0 0 5 0.17
839.0 11041.82 10 0 0 10 0.17
839.5 11044.73 86 1 0 87 0.17
840.0 11047.64 17 3 0 20 0.17
840.5 11050.54 39 0 0 39 0.17
841.0 11053.45 4 0 0 4 0.17
841.5 11056.36 11 0 0 11 0.17
842.0 11059.27 7 0 0 7 0.17
842.5 11062.18 13 1 0 14 0.17
843.0 11065.08 12 0 0 12 0.17
843.5 11067.99 7 0 0 7 0.17
844.0 11070.90 10 0 0 10 0.17
844.5 11073.81 13 1 0 14 0.17
845.0 11076.72 12 1 0 13 0.17
845.5 11079.63 13 0 0 13 0.17
846.0 11082.54 5 1 0 6 0.17
846.5 11085.45 13 1 0 14 0.17
847.0 11088.36 15 0 0 15 0.17
847.5 11091.27 20 1 0 21 0.17
848.0 11094.18 7 0 0 7 0.17
848.5 11097.09 8 2 0 10 0.17
849.0 11100.00 12 1 0 13 0.21
849.5 11102.42 7 0 0 7 0.21
850.0 11104.84 0 1 0 1 0.21
850.5 11107.26 0 0 0 0 0.21
851.0 11109.69 1 0 0 1 0.21
851.5 11112.11 1 0 0 1 0.21
852.0 11114.53 11 0 0 11 0.21
852.5 11116.95 11 2 0 13 0.21
853.0 11119.37 4 1 0 5 0.21
853.5 11121.79 2 1 0 3 0.21
854.0 11124.21 5 0 0 5 0.21
854.5 11126.63 5 0 0 5 0.21
855.0 11129.06 1 0 0 1 0.21
855.5 11131.48 1 0 0 1 0.21
856.0 11133.9 3 0 0 3 0.21
856.5 11136.32 4 2 0 6 0.21
262
857.0 11138.74 9 0 0 9 0.21
857.5 11141.16 12 1 0 13 0.21
858.0 11143.58 5 0 0 5 0.21
858.5 11146.00 5 0 0 5 0.21
859.0 11148.43 5 1 0 6 0.21
859.5 11150.85 3 1 0 4 0.21
860.0 11153.27 6 1 0 7 0.21
860.5 11155.69 9 0 0 9 0.21
861.0 11158.11 10 0 0 10 0.21
861.5 11160.53 12 1 0 13 0.21
862.0 11162.95 10 0 0 10 0.21
862.5 11165.38 12 0 0 12 0.21
863.0 11167.80 5 0 0 5 0.21
863.5 11170.22 5 0 0 5 0.21
864.0 11172.64 9 0 0 9 0.21
864.5 11175.06 1 0 0 1 0.21
865.0 11177.48 8 0 0 8 0.21
865.5 11179.90 2 0 0 2 0.21
866.0 11182.32 0 0 0 0 0.21
866.5 11184.75 0 0 0 0 0.21
867.0 11187.17 4 0 0 4 0.21
APPENDIXG
BEAVER LAKE BL05B MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA
Depth Magnetic susceptibility
(cm) (emu)
o 0.00000745
1 0.00000865
2 0.00000919
3 0.00000937
4 0.00000916
5 0.00000948
6 0.00000953
7 0.00001016
8 0.00000878
9 0.00001122
10 0.00001049
11 0.00000853
12 0.00000874
13 0.00000885
14 0.00000895
15 0.00000908
16 0.00000852
17 0.00000845
18 0.00000877
19 0.00000914
20 0.00000980
21 0.00000815
22 0.00000837
23 0.00001193
24 0.00000889
25 0.00000878
26 0.00000839
27 0.00000855
28 0.00000789
29 0.00000743
30 0.00000732
31 0.00000675
263
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
0.00000688
0.00000665
0.00000646
0.00000709
0.00000576
0.00000534
0.00000523
0.00000534
0.00000541
0.00000533
0.00000534
0.00000550
0.00000491
0.00000496
0.00000478
0.00000474
0.00000471
0.00000491
0.00000400
0.00000488
0.00000596
0.00000710
0.00000657
0.00000737
0.00000621
0.00000592
0.00000656
0.00000632
0.00000615
0.00000644
0.00000656
0.00000694
0.00000667
0.00000677
0.00000707
0.00000713
0.00000716
0.00000723
264
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
0.00000968
0.00000800
0.00000808
0.00000835
0.00000876
0.00000874
0.00000854
0.00000874
0.00000753
0.00001044
0.00000890
0.00000871
0.00000887
0.00000883
0.00000893
0.00000894
0.00000854
0.00000821
0.00000795
0.00000745
0.00000868
0.00000743
0.00000694
0.00000715
0.00000702
0.00000731
0.00000757
0.00000769
0.00000749
0.00000766
0.00000815
0.00000825
0.00000900
0.00000876
0.00000845
0.00000843
0.00000796
0.00000755
265
----------------
266
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
0.00000708
0.00000658
0.00000758
0.00000585
0.00000451
0.00000805
0.00000461
0.00000427
0.00000449
0.00000459
0.00000481
0.00000505
0.00000457
0.00000458
0.00000460
0.00000566
0.00000450
0.00000458
0.00000428
0.00000493
0.00000508
0.00000469
0.00000551
0.00000442
0.00000433
0.00000439
0.00000416
0.00000428
0.00000414
0.00000419
0.00000401
0.00000400
0.00000420
0.00000419
0.00000406
0.00000408
0.00000405
0.00000375
146
147
148
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
0.00000334
0.00000290
0.00000217
0.00000893
0.00000830
0.00000928
0.00000886
0.00000639
0.00000577
0.00000546
0.00000523
0.00000559
0.00000475
0.00000491
0.00000583
0.00000613
0.00000562
0.00000511
0.00000530
0.00000536
0.00000555
0.00000560
0.00000540
0.00000838
0.00000539
0.00000577
0.00000489
0.00000476
0.00000458
0.00000453
0.00000534
0.00000450
0.00000526
0.00000459
0.00000382
0.00000567
0.00000505
0.00000502
267
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
0.00000492
0.00000457
0.00000471
0.00000494
0.00000463
0.00000620
0.00000537
0.00000499
0.00000514
0.00000566
0.00000655
0.00000717
0.00000822
0.00000893
0.00000998
0.00001135
0.00001267
0.00001338
0.00001433
0.00001450
0.00001498
0.00001490
0.00001433
0.00001453
0.00001541
0.00001529
0.00001606
0.00001549
0.00001566
0.00001566
0.00001627
0.00001663
0.00001649
0.00001746
0.00001762
0.00001803
0.00001843
0.00001807
268
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
0.00001740
0.00001732
0.00001718
0.00001740
0.00001806
0.00001852
0.00001874
0.00001980
0.00001096
0.00001527
0.00001799
0.00001714
0.00001635
0.00001519
0.00001473
0.00001427
0.00001428
0.00001472
0.00001547
0.00001566
0.00001543
0.00001447
0.00001360
0.00001211
0.00001047
0.00000850
0.00000558
0.00001114
0.00001262
0.00001526
0.00001622
0.00001619
0.00001568
0.00001538
0.00001490
0.00001427
0.00001399
0.00001313
269
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
0.00001249
0.00001210
0.00001135
0.00001092
0.00001066
0.00000691
0.00001177
0.00000926
0.00001035
0.00001095
0.00001137
0.00001175
0.00000912
0.00000624
0.00001073
0.00001010
0.00001050
0.00001070
0.00001146
0.00001196
0.00001247
0.00001316
0.00001378
0.00001396
0.00001480
0.00001479
0.00001520
0.00001551
0.00001481
0.00001678
0.00001865
0.00001663
0.00001874
0.00002075
0.00002383
0.00002734
0.00003180
0.00003555
270
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
0.00003897
0.00004229
0.00004620
0.00005076
0.00005496
0.00005961
0.00006461
0.00006892
0.00007071
0.00007077
0.00006869
0.00006639
0.00006429
0.00006361
0.00005625
0.00005085
0.00004211
0.00003487
0.00003017
0.00002768
0.00002547
0.00002447
0.00002413
0.00002311
0.00002000
0.00001682
0.00001495
0.00001372
0.00001256
0.00001217
0.00001262
0.00001419
0.00001875
0.00002040
0.00002834
0.00003571
0.00004910
0.00006178
271
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
0.00007168
0.00007515
0.00007468
0.00007149
0.00006737
0.00006461
0.00006125
0.00005756
0.00005110
0.00004159
0.00003224
0.00003491
0.00005127
0.00007154
0.00007777
0.00009682
0.00010697
0.00011382
0.00011261
0.00010976
0.00010648
0.00010424
0.00010427
0.00010733
0.00011076
0.00011945
0.00012628
0.00013002
0.00013008
0.00012994
0.00012974
0.00012943
0.00013062
0.00013661
0.00014157
0.00014686
0.00015002
0.00015136
272
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
0.00015192
0.00015201
0.00015184
0.00015527
0.00015518
0.00016152
0.00017215
0.00018497
0.00019614
0.00020406
0.00020437
0.00020018
0.00019387
0.00018906
0.00018480
0.00018485
0.00018859
0.00019739
0.00020967
0.00022871
0.00025104
0.00027465
0.00029360
0.00031248
0.00032408
0.00033084
0.00033546
0.00033394
0.00032493
0.00031522
0.00030575
0.00030132
0.00030170
0.00029878
0.00028913
0.00027381
0.00025148
0.00020737
273
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
450
451
452
453
0.00020462
0.00018597
0.00016988
0.00016319
0.00016330
0.00017222
0.00019084
0.00021270
0.00023200
0.00024743
0.00025328
0.00024687
0.00023163
0.00021622
0.00021016
0.00021347
0.00022810
0.00024510
0.00025628
0.00026079
0.00025853
0.00025106
0.00023957
0.00022685
0.00021599
0.00021087
0.00021625
0.00023476
0.00025544
0.00027792
0.00028557
0.00026906
0.00022154
0.00016262
0.00008743
0.00011849
0.00014635
0.00017134
274
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
0.00019053
0.00021861
0.00025101
0.00028635
0.00032355
0.00034943
0.00035822
0.00035326
0.00034156
0.00033267
0.00032791
0.00032823
0.00032998
0.00033254
0.00033556
0.00033953
0.00034651
0.00034647
0.00034671
0.00034484
0.00034191
0.00033706
0.00033262
0.00032622
0.00031946
0.00031437
0.00031008
0.00030844
0.00030718
0.00030388
0.00029998
0.00029447
0.00029098
0.00029020
0.00029135
0.00029406
0.00029989
0.00030238
275
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
0.00030563
0.00030628
0.00029805
0.00028363
0.00026351
0.00023750
0.00021923
0.00020012
0.00018659
0.00017531
0.00016425
0.00015512
0.00014552
0.00014052
0.00013783
0.00013691
0.00013718
0.00013808
0.00014140
0.00014384
0.00014785
0.00015162
0.00015266
0.00015044
0.00014946
0.00015134
0.00015760
0.00016418
0.00016757
0.00016483
0.00015602
0.00014620
0.00013560
0.00012544
0.00011734
0.00011110
0.00010664
0.00010356
276
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
0.00010379
0.00010412
0.00010799
0.00011323
0.00011704
0.00011906
0.00011943
0.00012178
0.00012747
0.00013481
0.00014266
0.00014339
0.00013703
0.00012535
0.00010866
0.00009494
0.00007384
0.00005178
0.00009627
0.00014281
0.00019029
0.00022413
0.00024530
0.00024791
0.00023308
0.00020868
0.00018829
0.00017250
0.00015964
0.00015347
0.00014738
0.00014336
0.00014109
0.00014399
0.00015070
0.00016106
0.00017981
0.00020103
277
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
0.00022511
0.00024293
0.00025593
0.00025800
0.00024349
0.00021843
0.00018818
0.00016161
0.00014062
0.00012970
0.00012214
0.00011594
0.00011182
0.00010888
0.00010665
0.00010419
0.00010142
0.00010063
0.00010291
0.00010855
0.00011725
0.00013340
0.00015177
0.00016899
0.00018047
0.00018367
0.00017916
0.00016533
0.00014510
0.00012104
0.00008971
0.00012186
0.00017149
0.00020717
0.00022568
0.00022905
0.00022221
0.00021032
278
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
0.00019332
0.00017910
0.00016567
0.00015493
0.00014782
0.00014534
0.00014375
0.00014416
0.00014799
0.00014705
0.00014790
0.00014890
0.00014957
0.00015344
0.00015686
0.00015700
0.00015240
0.00014355
0.00013378
0.00012643
0.00011994
0.00011596
0.00011209
0.00010904
0.00010691
0.00010733
0.00010918
0.00011275
0.00011812
0.00012224
0.00012894
0.00013702
0.00014604
0.00015366
0.00016119
0.00017032
0.00018223
0.00019425
279
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
0.00019821
0.00019410
0.00018255
0.00017167
0.00016419
0.00016006
0.00015938
0.00016106
0.00016166
0.00015891
0.00015207
0.00014331
0.00013393
0.00012791
0.00012627
0.00012440
0.00012153
0.00011021
0.00008634
0.00006550
0.00006979
0.00010487
0.00014351
0.00017927
0.00020282
0.00021436
0.00021278
0.00020249
0.00018364
0.00016780
0.00014976
0.00013798
0.00012963
0.00012466
0.00012172
0.00011939
0.00011688
0.00011679
280
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
0.00011987
0.00012896
0.00014395
0.00015453
0.00016952
0.00018055
0.00018535
0.00018556
0.00018487
0.00018570
0.00018752
0.00018971
0.00019342
0.00019018
0.00018943
0.00018802
0.00018398
0.00018183
0.00018172
0.00018522
0.00019160
0.00019763
0.00020449
0.00020419
0.00020310
0.00019879
0.00019498
0.00018953
0.00018611
0.00018598
0.00018904
0.00019510
0.00019963
0.00020291
0.00020340
0.00019665
0.00018457
0.00016344
281
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
0.00014617
0.00012714
0.00010945
0.00009930
0.00008978
0.00008547
0.00008353
0.00008219
0.00008160
0.00008093
0.00008040
0.00008107
0.00008476
0.00009177
0.00010157
0.00009167
0.00010019
0.00010984
0.00011560
0.00011738
0.00011560
0.00011067
0.00010452
0.00009972
0.00009937
0.00010459
0.00011875
0.00013389
0.00015072
0.00016753
0.00017931
0.00019368
0.00020837
0.00022206
0.00024033
0.00025572
0.00027535
0.00029376
282
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
0.00030740
0.00031578
0.00031966
0.00031677
0.00030258
0.00026827
0.00020762
0.00016639
0.00022077
0.00026341
0.00029725
0.00031616
0.00032591
0.00033601
0.00034175
0.00034656
0.00035292
0.00036321
0.00038200
0.00039218
0.00041016
0.00042381
0.00043858
0.00042382
0.00045719
0.00048350
0.00050925
0.00053697
0.00055708
0.00057383
0.00058536
0.00059975
0.00061539
0.00062994
0.00064539
0.00065846
0.00067306
0.00069031
283
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
0.00071223
0.00074140
0.00077977
0.00081808
0.00084861
0.00087801
0.00090086
0.00092203
0.00093399
0.00094979
0.00095325
0.00096354
0.00097322
0.00098409
0.00099917
0.00101680
0.00103603
0.00105192
0.00106031
0.00106104
0.00106209
0.00106709
0.00107793
0.00109091
0.00109986
0.00110126
0.00109792
0.00110089
0.00111281
0.00112992
0.00115625
0.00116412
0.00115887
0.00114117
0.00111572
0.00109179
0.00108562
0.00109029
284
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
0.00110277
0.00112709
0.00114608
0.00115625
0.00115855
0.00115360
0.00114720
0.00113448
0.00111240
0.00109361
0.00107087
0.00105289
0.00105350
0.00106061
0.00107700
0.00107818
0.00103807
0.00096298
0.00086783
0.00070509
0.00053854
0.00039224
0.00025975
285
----------------
APPENDIXH
BEAVER LAKE BL05B LOSS-aN-IGNITION DATA
286
Depth
(cm)
0.5
5.5
10.5
15.5
20.5
25.5
30.5
35.5
40.5
45.5
50.5
55.0
60.0
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
85.0
90.0
95.0
100.0
105.0
110.0
115.0
120.0
125.0
130.0
135.0
140.0
145.0
151.5
156.5
161.5
Bulk density
(%)
75.5
63.3
63.5
52.8
54.2
56.6
60.2
68.5
78.3
81.8
74.8
80.3
80.9
78.3
78.4
74.2
72.9
76.2
77.2
80.3
74.6
72.2
79.0
83.4
84.4
82.0
83.3
84.3
84.9
84.2
64.0
84.5
84.8
Organic content
(%)
33.9
29.3
27.1
25.1
25.3
27.8
23.3
33.3
45.2
41.7
31.0
56.8
53.5
40.8
40.4
35.5
33.7
36.9
38.5
46.2
36.4
31.1
40.4
55.4
50.4
45.6
41.3
45.1
40.0
45.4
31.3
43.1
43.0
Carbonate
content (%)
6.3
6.4
5.5
4.2
3.8
4.1
4.1
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.1
2.3
2.2
3.1
3.1
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.0
2.7
3.7
3.2
3.1
2.4
3.6
3.7
4.1
4.2
5.1
4.6
2.7
3.3
4.9
287
166.5 84.6 44.7 1.9
171.5 84.9 41.7 2.4
176.5 85.5 41.1 2.3
181.5 84.8 39.8 4.7
189.0 85.2 37.9 5.1
194.0 83.5 35.7 2.0
199.0 77.2 22.6 2.4
204.0 62.8 12.9 2.6
209.0 69.2 20.8 2.4
214.0 68.2 24.2 2.6
219.0 69.4 26.3 2.4
224.0 72.1 29.1 2.4
229.0 65.1 20.8 2.6
234.0 69.7 29.0 0.5
239.0 53.0 14.1 1.3
244.0 63.0 20.5 3.4
254.0 72.3 27.4 3.6
259.0 76.1 30.1 3.9
264.0 74.7 28.6 4.2
269.0 73.8 19.4 4.3
274.0 76.0 20.3 5.8
279.0 75.6 22.5 4.8
284.0 69.1 20.4 4.2
289.0 74.3 29.2 4.8
294.0 73.5 26.2 4.9
299.0 69.3 22.4 4.2
304.0 65.1 18.3 3.9
309.0 67.5 20.0 3.3
314.0 69.6 21.1 3.6
319.0 80.2 32.6 4.3
324.0 79.3 36.0 4.0
329.0 79.9 35.9 4.3
334.0 75.9 20.1 5.5
339.0 67.0 19.2 2.9
344.0 69.1 20.0 3.3
348.0 69.4 20.6 3.3
354.0 69.4 16.1 3.2
359.0 65.3 14.1 2.8
364.0 67.3 16.4 2.9
369.0 62.6 13.4 2.7
288
375.0 65.0 15.5 3.2
379.0 63.2 12.5 3.1
384.0 68.6 13.4 3.8
389.0 59.6 12.3 2.8
394.0 59.5 12.5 3.3
399.0 60.1 10.6 3.8
404.0 50.2 8.7 2.3
409.0 52.0 9.3 2.4
414.0 56.3 10.7 2.3
419.0 59.1 10.6 2.7
424.0 55.0 9.3 2.3
429.0 64.0 11.8 2.7
434.0 56.7 10.9 2.2
439.0 59.7 10.2 2.5
444.0 57.2 8.8 2.7
449.0 52.9 10.3 2.2
453.5 60.0 11.1 3.8
458.5 46.1 7.4 3.1
463.5 51.2 8.1 3.6
471.0 46.9 8.4 2.7
476.0 47.5 8.1 2.6
481.0 51.2 8.9 2.9
488.0 48.9 8.2 2.9
493.0 48.8 8.4 3.0
498.0 63.3 15.9 2.9
506.0 62.0 16.1 3.3
511.0 65.5 19.1 2.9
516.0 59.4 14.5 3.3
523.5 59.3 11.4 4.9
528.5 68.2 18.5 4.7
533.5 68.8 15.5 5.5
541.0 57.1 13.1 4.6
546.0 59.3 12.0 5.1
551.0 69.7 20.1 4.0
556.0 54.2 10.1 3.2
561.0 63.2 14.8 3.9
566.0 67.1 15.7 4.1
571.0 55.2 10.6 3.3
576.0 67.8 16.2 3.9
581.0 70.2 14.5 4.9
289
586.0 68.0 13.9 5.3
591.0 70.4 14.1 6.6
596.0 56.7 9.2 5.6
600.5 62.3 11.4 4.9
606.0 58.4 12.8 2.0
611.0 68.7 18.8 2.3
616.0 66.8 17.7 2.3
621.0 64.2 16.9 2.3
626.0 61.1 12.0 2.5
631.0 68.3 16.5 2.5
636.0 69.7 16.9 2.9
641.0 71.8 20.5 2.8
646.0 64.0 15.3 2.9
651.0 65.7 14.5 2.7
656.0 61.7 14.5 2.9
661.0 63.2 12.9 3.4
666.0 60.6 15.4 2.9
671.0 64.0 15.8 3.1
676.0 52.3 8.9 2.9
681.0 69.7 12.9 4.9
686.0 72.2 15.7 4.3
691.0 58.8 10.5 3.2
696.0 59.7 10.9 3.5
701.0 60.0 10.0 3.2
706.0 64.3 14.5 3.2
711.0 60.4 11.3 4.9
716.0 63.6 13.1 3.1
721.0 61.3 11.6 3.2
726.0 68.7 16.1 3.8
731.0 69.0 16.5 4.1
736.0 72.2 21.8 4.1
741.0 65.4 12.5 4.0
746.0 69.6 17.0 4.4
751.0 62.5 15.4 1.6
756.0 60.8 12.6 1.7
761.0 58.0 9.4 1.5
766.0 57.5 9.7 1.6
771.0 59.1 9.9 1.7
776.0 56.0 9.3 1.6
781.0 53.7 8.9 1.5
290
786.0 54.1 8.8 1.7
791.0 48.1 6.4 1.7
796.0 46.2 6.0 1.5
801.0 45.5 5.6 1.7
806.0 39.5 4.7 2.2
811.0 38.3 4.8 1.8
816.0 35.0 3.8 2.1
821.0 33.7 4.1 1.9
826.0 32.1 3.8 1.7
831.0 29.1 3.6 1.7
836.0 32.5 3.9 1.9
841.0 25.2 3.2 1.9
846.0 27.6 3.1 2.0
851.0 30.3 3.6 2.2
856.0 23.1 3.1 2.3
858.0 25.2 3.9 2.8
APPENDIX I
BEAVER LAKE BL05B POLLEN DATA
Depth Age Age Total Picea Abies Pseudotsuga- Thuja-
(cm) (cal yr BP) (AD) Pinus type type
2.5 -46.9 1996.9 5 0 6 12 12
7.5 -21.4 1971.4 4 0 4 14 8
17.5 -9.3 1959.3 5 0 5 8 9
22.5 2.9 1947.1 3 0 5 8 9
27.5 18.4 1931.6 4 2 12 15 19
32.5 34.9 1915.1 2 0 1 6 12
37.5 62.6 1887.4 4 0 9 14 5
42.5 105.5 1844.5 3 0 10 15 9
47.5 179.4 1770.6 7 0 7 9 12
52.5 273.5 1676.5 4 3 15 4 18
57.5 382.3 1567.7 5 1 11 12 10
62.5 500.0 1450.0 9 1 9 8 15
291
Tsuga Taxus Alnus rubra- Corylus Betula Salix Populus
heterophylla brevifolia type trichocarpa-type
6 0 20 7 1 52 14
5 1 22 3 1 81 8
9 0 16 78 0 147 5
6 0 9 22 0 142 9
7 0 13 9 0 150 6
1 1 6 2 0 277 2
9 0 5 5 0 157 4
6 1 4 3 0 157 3
7 1 20 4 1 140 4
9 1 15 4 0 153 4
7 0 5 1 0 150 2
4 1 22 4 1 143 3
292
Fraxinus Quercus Sambucus Acer Acer Rosaceae Spiraea-
circinatum macrophyllum type
32 6 0 1 2 0 0
25 4 1 1 1 3 2
15 4 0 0 0 1 2
11 4 0 0 0 0 2
24 4 2 0 0 2 1
12 2 0 0 0 2 4
10 13 0 0 1 3 12
22 11 0 0 0 3 4
32 14 0 1 0 3 8
22 3 1 0 0 3 6
31 12 0 0 0 0 6
27 11 0 0 0 2 3
293
Ceanothus Comus Cantanea Rhus Jug/ans Other trees Poaceae
and shrubs
0 1 1 3 1 1 173
0 0 0 1 3 1 181
0 0 2 0 0 1 78
0 0 5 0 0 1 83
0 0 3 0 0 3 39
0 0 5 0 0 0 11
0 0 4 0 0 0 17
0 0 0 0 0 0 19
0 1 1 0 0 0 12
0 0 5 0 0 1 19
0 0 1 0 0 1 35
1 0 0 0 0 1 35
294
Cyperaceae Artemisia Iva xanthifolia- Helianthus- Agoseris- Other
type type type Tubu1iflorae
24 0 0 2 0 0
34 0 0 4 0 0
26 0 0 4 0 0
53 0 0 1 4 0
93 1 0 1 25 0
41 0 0 2 0 0
32 1 1 2 0 0
32 0 0 2 0 0
35 0 0 1 0 0
25 0 0 2 0 2
32 0 1 0 0
22 0 0 3 0 0
295
Chenopodiaceae Salsola- Umbelliferae Brassicaceae Caryophyllaceae Polygonum
type
0 0 1 11 0 1
0 1 2 5 0 2
0 0 4 3 0 1
0 2 4 0 0 0
1 0 5 1 0 0
0 0 7 0 0 0
0 0 14 0 1 0
0 0 6 0 0 0
0 0 7 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 3 0 0 0
0 0 3 0 0 1
296
Galium Saxifragaceae Plantago- Pteridium Dryopteris- Other Equisetum
type type herbs
0 0 3 16 9 1 1
0 0 2 20 4 0 0
0 0 1 17 4 0 20
1 0 3 35 4 2 4
1 0 0 16 7 0 24
0 0 0 23 2 0 3
0 0 2 16 6 0 17
0 0 0 5 3 0 25
0 0 0 6 7 0 3
0 0 0 9 7 0 5
0 1 0 12 11 0 0
1 0 0 16 8 1 4
297
298
Botrychium- Selaginella- Polypodiaceae Typha Sparganium- Potamogeton
type type latifolia-type type
0 0 0 3 5 50
0 0 0 9 0 43
0 0 6 8 0 6
0 0 4 4 0 0
0 0 12 2 0 14
0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 7 17 0 4
0 1 5 3 0 4
2 0 0 11 0 4
0 0 4 16 1 7
1 0 0 7 2 3
0 0 0 9 1 9
Myriophyllum Sagittaria Nuphar Brasenia Isoetes Other Indeterminate
aquatics
2 1 2 0 0 1 13
0 0 1 1 0 0 10
1 1 8 1 0 1 20
0 1 1 0 0 1 13
1 1 4 1 0 1 5
0 0 2 0 0 18 2
0 1 9 7 0 5 6
1 0 4 5 1 4 4
1 1 9 0 0 0 2
1 1 4 1 0 0 1
0 1 2 4 0 3 3
1 1 7 10 0 0 6
299
Unknown Lycopodium Total AP/(AP+NAP)
tracer
0 28 502 0.43
2 22 514 0.43
0 31 517 0.66
0 30 456 0.55
0 34 531 0.56
0 22 448 0.79
1 44 422 0.70
0 67 375 0.73
0 62 373 0.79
0 71 378 0.79
1 66 377 0.73
1 93 404 0.74
300
APPENDIXJ
LAKE OSWEGO L005A CHARCOAL DATA
Depth Age Years Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Herbaceous
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD) particles particles concentration charcoal
>250 pm >125 pm (partic1es/cm3) (%)
0.0 -55.0 2005.0 0 1 1 0.0
0.5 -54.4 2004.4 0 0 0 0.0
1.0 -53.8 2003.8 0 1 1 0.0
1.5 -53.2 2003.2 0 0 0 0.0
2.0 -52.5 2002.5 0 0 0 0.0
2.5 -51.7 2001.7 1 0 1 0.0
3.0 -50.9 2000.9 0 0 0 0.0
3.5 -50.1 2000.1 0 2 2 0.0
4.0 -49.3 1999.3 2 2 4 25.0
4.5 -48.5 1998.5 2 0 2 0.0
5.0 -47.8 1997.8 0 1 1 0.0
5.5 -47.0 1997.0 0 1 1 0.0
6.0 -46.3 1996.3 0 0 0 0.0
6.5 -45.6 1995.6 0 0 0 0.0
7.0 -44.8 1994.8 0 1 1 0.0
7.5 -44.2 1994.2 0 0 0 0.0
8.0 -43.5 1993.5 0 0 0 0.0
8.5 -42.9 1992.9 0 0 0 0.0
9.0 -42.3 1992.3 0 1 1 0.0
9.5 -41.6 1991.6 0 3 3 33.3
10.0 -40.9 1990.9 0 4 4 0.0
10.5 -40.0 1990.0 0 1 1 0.0
11.0 -39.2 1989.2 1 1 2 50.0
11.5 -38.7 1988.7 1 0 1 0.0
12.0 -38.3 1988.3 0 0 0 0.0
12.5 -37.9 1987.9 0 2 2 0.0
13.0 -37.5 1987.5 0 1 1 0.0
13.5 -37.1 1987.1 0 1 1 0.0
14.0 -36.6 1986.6 1 4 5 0.0
14.5 -35.9 1985.9 0 1 1 100.0
15.0 -34.9 1984.9 0 1 1 0.0
15.5 -33.5 1983.5 1 4 5 0.0
301
------_ .._------------
302
16.0 -31.8 1981.8 0 2 2 50.0
16.5 -30.0 1980.0 0 2 2 0.0
17.0 -28.2 1978.2 0 4 4 0.0
17.5 -26.3 1976.3 0 3 3 0.0
18.0 -24.3 1974.3 0 4 4 0.0
18.5 -22.2 1972.2 1 4 5 0.0
19.0 -20.2 1970.2 0 2 2 0.0
19.5 -18.5 1968.5 0 0 0 0.0
20.0 -17.2 1967.2 0 2 2 100.0
20.5 -16.1 1966.1 2 3 5 0.0
21.0 -15.0 1965.0 0 2 2 50.0
21.5 -13.8 1963.8 0 3 3 0.0
22.0 -12.3 1962.3 0 4 4 50.0
22.5 -10.5 1960.5 0 2 2 0.0
23.0 -8.4 1958.4 0 5 5 20.0
23.5 -6.0 1956.0 0 0 0 0.0
24.0 -3.1 1953.1 0 0 0 0.0
24.5 0.4 1949.6 0 1 1 0.0
25.0 5.4 1944.6 0 3 3 33.3
25.5 12.4 1937.6 0 4 4 50.0
26.0 20.3 1929.7 1 7 8 0.0
26.5 28.2 1921.8 0 4 4 0.0
27.0 34.8 1915.2 0 4 4 50.0
27.5 40.6 1909.4 0 0 0 0.0
28.0 46.4 1903.6 0 0 0 0.0
28.5 52.1 1897.9 0 3 3 100.0
29.0 57.8 1892.2 0 1 1 0.0
29.5 63.6 1886.4 0 6 6 33.3
30.0 69.3 1880.7 1 3 4 25.0
30.5 75.0 1875.0 0 5 5 0.0
31.0 80.7 1869.3 0 2 2 0.0
31.5 86.3 1863.7 0 1 1 0.0
32.0 92.0 1858.0 1 0 1 100.0
32.5 97.7 1852.3 1 1 2 0.0
33.0 103.3 1846.7 0 2 2 50.0
33.5 109.0 1841.0 0 2 2 50.0
34.0 114.6 1835.4 0 2 2 0.0
34.5 120.2 1829.8 0 2 2 0.0
35.0 125.8 1824.2 1 2 3 0.0
35.5 131.4 1818.6 2 4 6 0.0
303
36.0 137.0 1813.0 0 0 0 0.0
36.5 142.5 1807.5 0 2 2 0.0
37.0 148.1 1801.9 0 0 0 0.0
37.5 153.7 1796.3 0 3 3 0.0
38.0 159.2 1790.8 0 4 4 0.0
38.5 164.7 1785.3 0 2 2 0.0
39.0 170.2 1779.8 0 1 1 0.0
39.5 175.7 1774.3 0 2 2 0.0
40.0 181.2 1768.8 0 1 1 0.0
40.5 186.7 1763.3 0 0 0 0.0
41.0 192.1 1757.9 0 4 4 0.0
41.5 197.6 1752.4 0 1 1 0.0
42.0 203.0 1747.0 0 2 2 0.0
42.5 208.5 1741.5 0 0 0 0.0
43.0 213.9 1736.1 0 2 2 0.0
43.5 219.3 1730.7 0 1 1 0.0
44.0 224.7 1725.3 0 1 1 0.0
44.5 230.1 1719.9 1 5 6 16.7
45.0 235.4 1714.6 1 2 3 0.0
45.5 240.8 1709.2 0 2 2 0.0
46.0 246.1 1703.9 0 1 1 0.0
46.5 251.4 1698.6 0 1 1 0.0
47.0 256.8 1693.2 2 5 7 0.0
47.5 262.1 1687.9 0 3 3 0.0
48.0 267.3 1682.7 0 5 5 40.0
48.5 272.6 1677.4 0 10 10 10.0
49.0 277.9 1672.1 2 12 14 21.4
49.5 283.1 1666.9 0 4 4 25.0
50.0 288.4 1661.6 2 6 8 12.5
50.5 293.6 1656.4 0 2 2 50.0
51.0 298.8 1651.2 0 10 10 10.0
51.5 304.0 1646.0 3 8 11 0.0
52.0 309.2 1640.8 0 7 7 0.0
52.5 314.3 1635.7 0 10 10 10.0
53.0 319.5 1630.5 1 21 22 9.1
53.5 324.6 1625.4 1 20 21 0.0
54.0 329.8 1620.2 2 12 14 7.1
54.5 334.9 1615.1 0 9 9 0.0
55.0 340.0 1610.0 0 21 21 19.0
55.5 345.1 1604.9 0 26 26 11.5
304
56.0 350.1 1599.9 1 7 8 0.0
56.5 355.2 1594.8 2 25 27 3.7
57.0 360.2 1589.8 0 33 33 0.0
57.5 365.3 1584.7 4 20 24 0.0
58.0 370.3 1579.7 3 28 31 3.2
58.5 375.3 1574.7 4 30 34 5.9
59.0 380.3 1569.7 3 32 35 2.9
59.5 385.2 1564.8 2 19 21 4.8
60.0 390.2 1559.8 2 28 30 6.7
60.5 395.1 1554.9 3 34 37 2.7
61.0 400.0 1550.0 4 18 22 4.5
61.5 405.0 1545.0 4 24 28 0.0
62.0 409.8 1540.2 1 33 34 11.8
62.5 414.7 1535.3 2 40 42 4.8
63.0 419.6 1530.4 3 47 50 2.0
63.5 424.4 1525.6 3 35 38 2.6
64.0 429.3 1520.7 3 32 35 0.0
64.5 434.1 1515.9 2 24 26 0.0
65.0 438.9 1511.1 2 32 34 0.0
65.5 443.7 1506.3 8 14 22 4.5
66.0 448.5 1501.5 16 42 58 0.0
66.5 453.2 1496.8 3 28 31 6.5
67.0 458.0 1492.0 6 33 39 0.0
67.5 462.7 1487.3 4 46 50 0.0
68.0 467.4 1482.6 3 51 54 3.7
68.5 472.1 1477.9 6 49 55 0.0
69.0 476.8 1473.2 3 42 45 6.7
69.5 481.4 1468.6 4 35 39 0.0
70.0 486.1 1463.9 1 40 41 0.0
70.5 490.7 1459.3 1 41 42 0.0
71.0 495.3 1454.7 2 34 36 0.0
71.5 499.9 1450.1 2 48 50 0.0
72.0 504.5 1445.5 2 42 44 0.0
72.5 509.1 1440.9 1 35 36 0.0
73.0 513.6 1436.4 12 64 76 1.3
73.5 518.1 1431.9 4 76 80 3.8
74.0 522.7 1427.3 11 61 72 0.0
74.5 527.2 1422.8 10 75 85 1.2
75.0 531.6 1418.4 2 60 62 0.0
75.5 536.1 1413.9 4 67 71 4.2
305
76.0 540.5 1409.5 7 55 62 0.0
76.5 545.0 1405.0 4 51 55 0.0
77.0 549.4 1400.6 10 60 70 1.4
77.5 553.8 1396.2 3 45 48 0.0
78.0 558.2 1391.8 2 42 44 0.0
78.5 562.5 1387.5 3 27 30 0.0
79.0 566.9 1383.1 5 48 53 0.0
79.5 571.2 1378.8 9 43 52 0.0
80.0 575.5 1374.5 8 35 43 0.0
80.5 579.8 1370.2 10 65 75 0.0
81.0 584.1 1365.9 15 62 77 0.0
81.5 588.3 1361.7 7 62 69 0.0
82.0 592.6 1357.4 5 62 67 1.5
82.5 596.8 1353.2 0 77 77 2.6
83.0 601.0 1349.0 5 49 54 0.0
83.5 605.2 1344.8 9 47 56 0.0
84.0 609.3 1340.7 9 57 66 0.0
84.5 613.5 1336.5 4 70 74 1.4
85.0 617.6 1332.4 4 57 61 4.9
85.5 621.7 1328.3 6 37 43 0.0
86.0 625.8 1324.2 3 36 39 0.0
86.5 629.9 1320.1 9 68 77 0.0
87.0 634.0 1316.0 5 45 50 0.0
87.5 638.0 1312.0 7 76 83 1.2
88.0 642.0 1308.0 4 49 53 1.9
88.5 646.0 1304.0 16 93 109 0.0
89.0 650.0 1300.0 7 57 64 0.0
89.5 654.0 1296.0 7 47 54 1.9
90.0 657.9 1292.1 6 52 58 3.4
91.0 665.6 1284.4 6 39 45 4.4
92.0 673.2 1276.8 4 40 44 4.5
93.0 680.6 1269.4 9 53 62 4.8
94.0 688.0 1262.0 2 53 55 0.0
95.0 695.1 1254.9 10 61 71 1.4
96.0 702.2 1247.8 5 52 57 1.8
97.0 709.2 1240.8 12 47 59 0.0
98.0 716.0 1234.0 6 51 57 0.0
99.0 722.7 1227.3 13 84 97 2.1
100.0 729.3 1220.7 13 87 100 3.0
101.0 735.9 1214.1 15 43 58 3.4
306
102.0 742.3 1207.7 19 57 76 3.9
103.0 748.6 1201.4 8 32 40 2.5
104.0 754.8 1195.2 9 49 58 0.0
105.0 761.0 1189.0 9 48 57 5.3
106.0 767.1 1182.9 5 52 57 1.8
107.0 773.1 1176.9 8 78 86 3.5
108.0 779.0 1171.0 9 8 17 0.0
109.0 784.9 1165.1 9 52 61 1.6
110.0 790.7 1159.3 14 69 83 4.8
111.0 796.4 1153.6 14 56 70 11.4
112.0 802.1 1147.9 11 53 64 10.9
113.0 807.7 1142.3 8 54 62 3.2
114.0 813.3 1136.7 6 50 56 7.1
115.0 818.9 1131.1 7 56 63 12.7
116.0 824.4 1125.6 15 65 80 10.0
117.0 829.9 1120.1 5 51 56 3.6
118.0 835.4 1114.6 14 66 80 3.8
119.0 840.8 1109.2 19 56 75 5.3
120.0 846.2 1103.8 13 56 69 2.9
121.0 851.6 1098.4 6 30 36 0.0
122.0 857.0 1093.0 11 53 64 4.7
123.0 862.4 1087.6 13 38 51 11.8
124.0 867.8 1082.2 6 30 36 27.8
125.0 873.2 1076.8 5 36 41 17.1
126.0 878.6 1071.4 1 19 20 0.0
127.0 884.0 1066.0 5 17 22 0.0
128.0 889.5 1060.5 5 25 30 10.0
129.0 894.9 1055.1 2 32 34 2.9
130.0 900.4 1049.6 3 35 38 0.0
131.0 905.9 1044.1 6 46 52 3.8
132.0 911.4 1038.6 2 28 30 0.0
133.0 917.0 1033.0 2 28 30 0.0
134.0 922.6 1027.4 2 28 30 6.7
135.0 928.3 1021.7 3 38 41 2.4
136.0 934.0 1016.0 9 41 50 4.0
137.0 939.8 1010.2 10 60 70 5.7
138.0 945.6 1004.4 6 47 53 3.8
139.0 951.5 998.5 7 33 40 10.0
140.0 957.5 992.5 2 25 27 7.4
141.0 963.5 986.5 9 50 59 13.6
307
142.0 969.7 980.3 6 34 40 2.5
143.0 975.9 974.1 4 36 40 15.0
144.0 982.1 967.9 7 28 35 5.7
145.0 988.5 961.5 4 39 43 14.0
146.0 995.0 955.0 8 36 44 13.6
147.0 1001.6 948.4 11 64 75 12.0
148.0 1008.2 941.8 6 45 51 15.7
149.0 1015.0 935.0 9 62 71 9.9
150.0 1021.9 928.1 2 47 49 16.3
151.0 1028.9 921.1 5 49 54 7.4
152.0 1036.0 914.0 12 52 64 20.3
153.0 1043.3 906.7 6 77 83 9.6
154.0 1050.7 899.3 8 80 88 4.5
155.0 1058.2 891.8 3 84 87 8.0
156.0 1065.9 884.1 3 37 40 10.0
157.0 1073.7 876.3 14 63 77 9.1
158.0 1081.6 868.4 15 70 85 11.8
159.0 1089.7 860.3 16 55 71 4.2
160.0 1098.0 852.0 4 47 51 17.6
161.0 1106.4 843.6 5 42 47 8.5
162.0 1115.0 835.0 8 24 32 3.1
163.0 1123.7 826.3 6 46 52 9.6
164.0 1132.6 817.4 4 45 49 8.2
165.0 1141.7 808.3 2 60 62 8.1
166.0 1151.0 799.0 19 47 66 1.5
APPENDIXK
LAKE OSWEGO L005A MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA
Depth Magnetic susceptibility
(ern) (emu)
12 0.00001138
13 0.00001752
14 0.00002336
15 0.00003031
16 0.00003468
17 0.00003959
18 0.00004551
19 0.00005093
20 0.00005843
21 0.00006499
22 0.00006924
23 0.00007308
24 0.00007630
25 0.00007742
26 0.00007512
27 0.00007317
28 0.00006575
29 0.00006011
30 0.00005419
31 0.00005272
32 0.00005334
33 0.00005567
34 0.00005579
35 0.00005643
36 0.00005711
37 0.00005597
38 0.00005765
39 0.00006083
40 0.00006621
41 0.00007132
42 0.00007754
43 0.00008053
44 0.00008365
308
45 0.00008521
46 0.00008679
47 0.00008845
48 0.00009053
49 0.00009224
50 0.00009389
51 0.00009580
52 0.00009802
53 0.00010013
54 0.00010373
55 0.00010520
56 0.00010417
57 0.00010369
58 0.00010373
59 0.00010437
60 0.00010614
61 0.00010896
62 0.00011275
63 0.00011598
64 0.00012036
65 0.00012446
66 0.00012792
67 0.000130M
68 0.00013319
69 0.00013340
70 0.00013151
71 0.00012857
72 0.00012432
73 0.00012041
74 0.00011537
75 0.00010281
76 0.00008726
77 0.00006395
78 0.00004275
79 0.00006050
80 0.00007755
81 0.00009332
82 0.00010878
83 0.00011947
84 0.00012100
309
85 0.00012691
86 0.00013430
87 0.00013951
88 0.00014273
89 0.00014491
90 0.00014050
91 0.00014714
92 0.00014041
93 0.00013681
94 0.00012873
95 0.00012044
96 0.00010817
97 0.00009854
98 0.00008963
99 0.00008098
100 0.00007298
101 0.00006594
102 0.00005952
103 0.00005211
104 0.00004642
105 0.00004238
106 0.00003670
107 0.00003396
108 0.00003085
109 0.00002929
110 0.00002987
111 0.00002681
112 0.00002715
113 0.00002775
114 0.00002787
115 0.00002783
116 0.00002818
117 0.00002612
118 0.00002568
119 0.00002535
120 0.00003123
121 0.00002894
122 0.00002735
123 0.00002926
124 0.00002738
310
125 0.00002763
126 0.00002681
127. 0.00002612
128 0.00002806
129 0.00002771
130 0.00002355
131 0.00002099
132 0.00002104
133 0.00002124
134 0.00001936
135 0.00001906
136 0.00001958
137 0.00001921
138 0.00001971
139 0.00002075
140 0.00002021
141 0.00001791
142 0.00001859
143 0.00001699
144 0.00001614
145 0.00001722
146 0.00001669
147 0.00001688
148 0.00001818
149 0.00001975
150 0.00002221
151 0.00002065
152 0.00002122
153 0.00002245
154 0.00002122
155 0.00002027
156 0.00001945
157 0.00001904
158 0.00002098
159 0.00001741
160 0.00001826
161 0.00001652
162 0.00001580
163 0.00001760
164 0.00001711
311
165 0.00001723
166 0.00001682
312
APPENDIXL
LAKE OSWEGO L005A LOSS-ON-IGNITION DATA
313
Depth
(cm)
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
47.5
50.0
52.5
55.0
57.5
60.0
62.5
65.0
67.5
70.0
72.5
75.0
77.5
80.0
82.5
Bulk density
(%)
95.8
93.2
91.4
87.7
84.7
75.7
77.4
75.7
79.0
76.8
75.4
74.2
74.8
77.6
74.4
69.3
68.1
71.2
68.9
68.7
69.3
67.1
68.5
67.9
66.5
65.0
65.1
64.7
74.8
61.9
63.5
60.7
Organic
content (%)
24.7
22.1
15.7
12.4
12.5
11.8
12.3
11.8
11.7
13.6
12.4
13.0
13.1
13.8
11.9
11.7
11.2
11.5
11.4
11.5
11.3
10.8
10.5
10.5
10.2
10.3
10.2
10.5
10.5
10.1
10.2
9.7
Carbonate
content (%)
9.5
7.6
9.2
8.6
7.9
6.1
6.1
6.4
7.2
6.4
5.9
3.5
4.3
4.9
4.0
3.6
3.1
4.0
3.6
4.0
4.4
4.6
5.0
6.0
6.3
5.7
5.9
6.0
5.8
5.4
5.7
5.9
314
85.0 62.4 10.0 5.9
87.5 60.9 10.8 4.2
90.0 60.2 10.6 5.7
92.0 64.8 13.1 2.5
97.0 65.8 13.3 2.1
102.0 73.9 17.1 2.7
107.0 78.9 21.4 2.7
112.0 81.2 23.3 3.3
117.0 81.4 23.8 3.6
122.0 81.1 21.9 4.1
127.0 80.6 21.3 3.9
132.0 80.7 19.0 4.2
137.0 79.7 18.2 4.2
142.0 79.5 17.3 4.6
147.0 78.8 16.9 6.5
152.0 78.9 18.9 6.1
157.0 79.1 18.8 6.0
162.0 79.4 19.3 6.1
167.0 78.7 18.6 6.1
172.0 78.9 17.6 6.5
177.0 78.6 18.9 6.5
187.0 78.1 18.4 2.4
192.0 78.3 17.8 3.1
197.0 78.4 18.0 3.1
202.0 79.3 18.4 2.9
207.0 81.0 21.0 3.3
212.0 81.2 22.0 3.3
217.0 80.8 21.6 3.0
222.0 80.8 20.7 3.0
227.0 81.0 20.3 3.5
232.0 80.5 19.6 3.4
237.0 80.6 19.4 3.3
242.0 80.2 18.9 2.9
247.0 81.0 17.5 5.1
252.0 80.1 18.3 4.7
257.0 79.3 19.2 4.5
262.0 78.7 19.2 4.4
267.0 77.2 18.8 3.9
272.0 79.4 20.5 5.1
277.0 79.5 19.7 4.9
282.0 67.2 10.8 4.0
315
APPENDIXM
LAKE OSWEGO L005A POLLEN DATA
Depth Age Age Total Pinus Picea Abies Pseudotsuga-type
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD)
1.25 -53.5 2003.5 19 5 3 40
4.25 -48.9 1998.9 21 1 4 63
6.25 -45.9 1995.9 26 2 10 44
11.25 -39.0 1989.0 16 0 2 63
16.25 -30.9 1980.9 12 0 3 39
21.25 -14.4 1964.4 21 2 6 57
26.25 24.3 1925.7 4 0 3 27
31.25 83.5 1866.5 3 1 2 66
36.25 139.8 1810.2 2 1 2 33
41.25 194.9 1755.1 6 0 5 18
46.25 248.8 1701.2 3 0 3 20
51.25 301.4 1648.6 2 0 4 20
56.25 352.7 1597.3 3 0 1 23
61.25 402.5 1547.5 4 0 2 28
66.25 450.8 1499.2 1 1 8 14
71.25 497.6 1452.4 1 0 4 18
76.25 542.8 1407.2 3 0 2 12
81.25 586.2 1363.8 2 0 4 31
86.25 627.9 1322.1 3 0 4 20
89.75 655.9 1294.1 2 0 7 21
94.5 691.6 1258.4 7 0 0 34
104.5 757.9 1192.1 11 0 10 102
115.5 821.7 1128.3 9 1 12 117
134.5 925.5 1024.5 7 0 8 127
164.5 1137.1 812.9 10 1 8 79
316
317
Thuja- Tsuga Taxus Myrica Ericaceae Alnus Corylus Betula
type heterophylla brevifolia rubra-type
43 5 1 1 0 73 3 9
53 8 4 6 1 82 8 7
44 6 6 13 0 83 7 12
48 15 0 8 0 86 4 19
46 7 7 4 0 99 10 11
32 5 2 3 0 111 8 20
73 6 4 14 0 130 5 6
56 3 1 10 0 146 6 1
76 3 2 11 0 115 1 4
28 5 2 10 1 115 3 8
22 7 0 36 0 112 3 4
27 5 5 11 0 115 2 3
15 7 1 16 0 144 1 1
18 8 2 14 0 179 1 1
13 5 2 20 0 157 1 1
18 4 3 14 0 178 7 1
10 2 2 11 0 127 0 0
11 7 2 9 0 102 1 0
10 8 0 12 0 105 0 0
13 12 0 8 0 87 0 0
26 8 1 6 0 46 0 0
28 28 1 9 0 57 1 1
34 19 2 5 0 79 2 0
29 23 1 13 0 87 2 0
41 17 2 16 0 93 3 0
Salix Populus Fraxinus Quercus Sambucus Acer Acer
trichocarpa-type circinatum macrophyllum
4 8 15 6 1 0 6
4 5 22 11 0 0 6
2 5 23 17 0 0 8
3 3 24 9 1 0 6
7 6 28 9 1 0 3
5 8 39 15 0 2 3
4 5 40 8 1 0 3
5 7 30 13 1 1 9
3 5 27 7 2 0 4
7 2 40 9 4 0 1
6 5 48 12 0 1 4
5 2 44 7 1 0 2
8 5 55 9 1 2 2
7 4 49 6 2 0 2
7 3 49 7 2 0 0
10 6 56 8 1 0 1
9 4 31 4 0 0 0
13 3 22 3 2 0 1
5 6 29 8 0 0 0
13 6 17 3 3 0 2
6 3 23 5 1 0 1
2 1 20 9 0 0 0
0 1 17 8 0 0 1
3 2 16 5 1 0 2
5 2 22 6 0 0 1
318
Rosaceae Prunus Spiraea- Rubus Ceanothus Comus Castanea Rhus
type
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 2 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 4 1 0
0 0 4 0 0 1 1 0
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 4 2 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 3 0 0
2 0 3 0 3 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 3 3 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 3 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 2 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 2 1 0 1
1 0 0 4 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
3 0 0 0 2 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
319
Juglandaceae Other trees Poaceae Cyperaceae Helianthus- Agoseris- Salsola-
and shrubs type type type
5 2 48 0 2 0 0
1 1 31 0 1 0 1
3 1 40 0 1 1 1
3 0 28 0 2 0 1
3 1 47 0 1 2 0
4 0 47 0 0 0 0
1 1 41 0 0 0 5
4 0 41 1 0 0 1
1 4. 45 0 1 3 1
0 0 61 1 0 2 3
2 0 63 2 0 2 0
0 0 63 1 0 2 2
1 1 50 0 2 2 2
0 2 47 0 1 2 4
1 0 44 0 0 2 1
2 1 45 2 0 1 2
0 0 43 1 0 1 1
0 0 29 2 2 1 1
0 1 32 1 0 3 1
1 1 29 0 4 2 1
0 0 14 2 0 0 0
0 0 1 5 0 0 1
0 0 5 4 0 0 0
0 0 4 0 1 0 0
0 0 9 1 1 0 0
320
Ranunculus Umbelliferae Brassicaceae Caryophyllaceae Polygonum Rumex
0 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 3 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 2 0 0 0 3
0 3 0 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 0 2
0 0 1 0 1 2
0 1 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 1 0 0 2
0 0 1 1 0 3
0 1 0 0 0 9
0 1 0 0 0 11
0 3 0 0 0 8
0 2 0 0 0 4
0 1 0 0 0 2
0 2 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
321
Scrophulariaceae Saxifragaceae Legumaceae Plantago- Pteridium Dryopteris- Other
type type herbs
0 0 0 0 1 10 0
0 0 0 0 2 4 0
0 0 0 0 10 11 0
0 0 0 0 5 10 0
0 0 0 2 12 14 0
0 0 1 1 6 14 0
0 1 0 0 9 10 0
0 0 0 5 8 13 0
0 0 0 2 11 10 2
0 1 0 1 24 12 2
0 1 0 3 31 24 2
0 0 0 6 33 13 2
0 1 0 11 38 19 4
0 0 0 6 50 21 1
0 0 0 9 70 33 1
0 0 0 12 61 43 0
0 0 0 11 103 34 0
0 0 0 3 95 27 1
2 0 0 12 108 19 1
0 0 0 9 129 34 0
0 0 0 0 124 37 1
0 0 0 0 54 38 0
0 0 0 0 53 25 1
0 0 0 0 26 22 0
0 0 0 0 55 24 1
322
Equisetum Selaginella Polypodiaceae Typha lati/olia- Potamogeton Myriophyllum
type
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 9 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 3 0 4 0
0 0 0 0 12 1
0 1 0 0 5 0
2 0 0 1 1 0
9 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 5 1
0 0 0 1 2 0
16 0 0 0 2 1
1 0 0 1 4 0
0 0 0 1 2 0
1 0 0 2 0 0
1 0 0 4 2 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 2 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 2 1 0
0 0 0 1 7 1
2 0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 6 0
0 0 0 1 2 0
0 0 0 1 8 0
0 0 0 0 9 0
323
Sagittaria Nuphar Brasenia Other Indeterminate Unknown Lycopodium
aquatics tracer
1 0 0 1 2 0 623
0 0 0 0 4 0 468
0 0 2 0 11 0 339
2 0 0 0 11 0 235
1 0 0 0 5 1 176
0 0 0 0 6 0 120
2 0 0 0 9 1 106
1 0 0 0 2 1 123
0 0 1 0 3 4 104
4 0 0 0 9 2 164
3 0 0 0 4 4 147
4 0 0 0 1 2 150
3 0 0 1 5 5 145
2 0 0 1 3 2 102
2 0 1 2 4 4 84
1 0 0 1 3 1 53
6 0 0 0 10 0 62
3 0 1 0 7 2 83
3 0 2 0 0 2 77
5 0 1 1 4 2 76
3 1 2 0 2 2 83
3 0 1 0 2 2 69
1 0 0 0 2 1 103
0 0 0 1 1 1 111
4 0 1 0 1 1 112
324
Total AP/(AP+NAP)
319 0.80
363 0.89
397 0.83
377 0.87
399 0.79
430 0.83
426 0.83
456 0.82
399 0.80
402 0.71
456 0.66
402 0.68
454 0.70
477 0.71
481 0.65
512 0.67
441 0.53
404 0.56
419 0.53
441 0.48
372 0.48
397 0.73
410 0.77
392 0.86
416 0.77
325
APPENDIXN
PORTER LAKE PL05C CHARCOAL DATA
Depth Age Years Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Herbaceous
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD) particles particles concentration charcoal
>250 pm >125 pm (particles/cm3) (%)
0.0 -55.0 2005.0 0 2 2 100.0
0.5 -53.6 2003.6 2 4 6 50.0
1.0 -52.2 2002.2 1 8 9 44.4
1.5 -50.8 2000.8 0 6 6 50.0
2.0 -49.3 1999.3 1 4 5 20.0
2.5 -47.9 1997.9 0 7 7 28.6
3.0 -46.5 1996.5 0 5 5 60.0
3.5 -45.1 1995.1 0 3 3 33.3
4.0 -43.7 1993.7 2 9 11 36.4
4.5 -42.3 1992.3 0 12 12 33.3
5.0 -40.8 1990.8 0 5 5 80.0
5.5 -39.4 1989.4 0 7 7 0.0
6.0 -38.0 1988.0 0 4 4 50.0
6.5 -36.6 1986.6 0 8 8 62.5
7.0 -35.2 1985.2 1 8 9 44.4
7.5 -33.8 1983.8 0 4 4 25.0
8.0 -32.3 1982.3 0 1 1 0.0
8.5 -30.9 1980.9 0 7 7 57.1
9.0 -29.5 1979.5 1 8 9 33.3
9.5 -28.1 1978.1 0 13 13 7.7
10.0 -26.7 1976.7 0 10 10 20.0
11.0 -23.9 1973.9 0 7 7 28.6
12.0 -21.0 1971.0 3 15 18 44.4
13.0 -18.2 1968.2 2 21 23 34.8
14.0 -15.4 1965.4 0 14 14 57.1
15.0 -12.5 1962.5 2 18 20 5.0
16.0 -9.7 1959.7 2 18 20 20.0
17.0 -6.9 1956.9 4 24 28 28.6
18.0 -4.0 1954.0 4 29 33 27.3
19.0 -1.2 1951.2 4 20 24 8.3
20.0 1.6 1948.4 0 20 20 20.0
21.0 4.5 1945.5 0 28 28 28.6
22.0 7.3 1942.7 4 25 29 41.4
326
327
23.0 10.1 1939.9 1 15 16 6.3
24.0 13.0 1937.0 1 15 16 31.3
25.0 15.8 1934.2 6 19 25 16.0
26.0 18.6 1931.4 1 30 31 19.4
27.0 21.4 1928.6 0 34 34 35.3
28.0 24.3 1925.7 1 24 25 28.0
29.0 27.1 1922.9 3 41 44 11.4
30.0 29.9 1920.1 1 35 36 11.1
31.0 32.8 1917.2 2 34 36 8.3
32.0 35.6 1914.4 7 39 46 19.6
33.0 38.4 1911.6 0 48 48 14.6
34.0 41.3 1908.7 3 54 57 28.1
35.0 44.1 1905.9 6 56 62 19.4
36.0 46.9 1903.1 6 48 54 16.7
37.0 49.8 1900.2 7 46 53 11.3
38.0 52.6 1897.4 10 43 53 35.8
39.0 55.4 1894.6 6 52 58 13.8
40.0 58.3 1891.7 12 58 70 14.3
41.0 61.1 1888.9 16 98 114 20.2
42.0 63.9 1886.1 16 97 113 18.6
43.0 66.7 1883.3 9 79 88 21.6
44.0 69.6 1880.4 19 89 108 15.7
45.0 72.4 1877.6 24 133 157 11.5
46.0 75.2 1874.8 12 115 127 7.1
47.0 78.1 1871.9 18 122 140 17.1
48.0 80.9 1869.1 20 150 170 20.6
49.0 83.7 1866.3 18 128 146 17.1
50.0 86.6 1863.4 14 96 110 20.9
51.0 89.4 1860.6 5 38 43 34.9
52.0 92.2 1857.8 4 29 33 21.2
53.0 95.1 1854.9 2 22 24 62.5
54.0 97.9 1852.1 2 10 12 50.0
55.0 100.7 1849.3 1 17 18 66.7
56.0 103.6 1846.4 2 17 19 47.4
57.0 106.4 1843.6 4 17 21 57.1
58.0 109.2 1840.8 0 16 16 56.3
59.0 112.0 1838.0 1 12 13 53.8
60.0 114.9 1835.1 2 40 42 78.6
61.0 117.7 1832.3 2 13 15 66.7
62.0 120.5 1829.5 0 10 10 70.0
63.0 123.4 1826.6 0 9 9 33.3
64.0 126.2 1823.8 0 1 1 0.0
328
65.0 129.0 1821.0 0 4 4 100.0
66.0 131.9 1818.1 0 6 6 50.0
67.0 134.7 1815.3 2 10 12 50.0
68.0 137.5 1812.5 2 12 14 71.4
69.0 140.4 1809.6 0 16 16 50.0
70.0 143.2 1806.8 5 8 13 46.2
71.0 146.0 1804.0 2 18 20 70.0
72.0 148.9 1801.1 4 10 14 85.7
73.0 151.7 1798.3 0 13 13 46.2
74.0 154.5 1795.5 2 24 26 73.1
75.0 157.3 1792.7 0 3 3 100.0
76.0 160.2 1789.8 3 15 18 55.6
77.0 163.0 1787.0 4 10 14 92.9
78.0 165.8 1784.2 0 3 3 66.7
79.0 168.7 1781.3 3 14 17 76.5
80.0 171.5 1778.5 3 20 23 65.2
81.0 174.3 1775.7 0 17 17 52.9
82.0 177.2 1772.8 0 12 12 58.3
83.0 180.0 1770.0 1 19 20 50.0
84.0 182.8 1767.2 8 16 24 54.2
85.0 185.7 1764.3 2 11 13 38.5
86.0 188.5 1761.5 3 7 10 20.0
87.0 191.3 1758.7 2 14 16 31.3
88.0 194.2 1755.8 4 15 19 78.9
89.0 197.0 1753.0 3 9 12 25.0
90.0 199.8 1750.2 3 15 18 77.8
91.0 202.6 1747.4 3 3 6 50.0
92.0 205.5 1744.5 1 4 5 60.0
93.0 208.3 1741.7 0 10 10 30.0
94.0 211.1 1738.9 0 4 4 25.0
95.0 214.0 1736.0 2 7 9 55.6
96.0 216.8 1733.2 1 15 16 18.8
97.0 219.6 1730.4 0 9 9 55.6
APPENDIX a
PORTER LAKE PL05C LOSS-aN-IGNITION DATA
329
Depth
(cm)
3
8
13
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
77
82
87
92
97
Bulk
density (%)
21.6
29.7
36.6
38.2
34.4
37.1
37.8
37.9
38.6
41.3
37.3
40.5
38.7
42.2
42.1
43.2
40.9
42.1
42.4
45.7
Organic
content (%)
13.6
12.6
12.2
12.9
13.5
12.2
11.9
12.6
12.1
11.6
11.7
11.3
11.4
10.9
11.3
11.6
12.2
12.3
12.4
11.1
Carbonate
content (%)
2.7
2.8
3.0
2.9
3.0
2.6
2.6
3.2
2.9
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.6
3.8
3.8
4.1
3.7
APPENDIXP
PORTER LAKE PL05C POLLEN DATA
Depth Age Age Total Picea Abies Pseudotsuga- Thuja-
(cm) (cal yr BP) (AD) Pinus type type
0.5 -54.3 2004.3 5 0 3 19 5
2.86 -15.4 1965.4 3 0 0 4 6
2.96 13.0 1937.0 3 0 0 5 6
3.06 41.3 1908.7 6 0 3 6 10
3.16 69.6 1880.4 13 0 3 6 13
3.26 97.9 1852.1 6 1 2 7 8
3.36 126.2 1823.8 11 0 2 8 9
3.46 154.5 1795.5 11 0 4 0 12
3.56 182.8 1767.2 6 0 2 10 11
3.68 216.8 1733.2 16 0 1 15 10
330
Tsuga Myrica Alnus Corylus Betula Salix Populus
heterophylla rubra-type trichocarpa-type
1 1 29 4 1 23 9
1 1 20 0 0 39 7
2 3 25 2 1 50 8
5 6 36 1 0 61 28
5 0 34 0 0 43 23
4 1 25 4 2 58 23
4 0 34 2 0 46 27
5 0 29 1 0 47 29
4 2 49 3 0 62 26
8 1 42 8 0 48 18
331
332
Fraxinus Quercus Sambucus Acer Acer Rosaceae Prunus Spiraea-
circinatum macrophyllum type
161 5 3 2 1 0 0 3
167 2 1 3 0 1 1 6
210 5 1 2 0 0 0 5
207 11 0 1 0 1 0 4
164 12 0 0 0 1 0 3
125 31 0 0 5 2 0 5
132 19 3 0 0 0 0 3
121 19 0 0 0 1 0 1
191 14 1 0 2 0 0 2
149 20 1 0 0 1 0 1
Rubus Ceanothus Cornus Castanea Rhus Juglans Other trees Poaceae
and shrubs
2 3 0 1 0 1 77
1 4 2 4 0 2 1 92
2 2 0 6 1 1 1 82
1 3 0 3 2 1 0 67
0 0 3 2 0 1 0 101
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 87
0 2 1 2 1 0 0 89
0 3 0 2 0 0 0 62
0 4 0 1 2 0 1 85
0 2 0 1 0 0 0 72
333
Cyperaceae Artemisia Helianthus- Agoseris- Salsola- Ranunculus Umbelliferae
type type type
4 0 3 1 3 1 1
2 0 1 1 3 0 1
3 0 1 0 2 0 2
2 1 3 1 3 1 2
5 0 2 1 4 1 1
16 0 3 1 0 3 4
4 0 3 3 1 2 2
8 1 5 2 1 1 2
2 0 3 2 2 0 0
2 0 4 0 0 0 1
334
335
Brassicaceae Polygonum Polygonum Rumex Onagraceae Galium Lamiaceae
bistortoides- californicum-
type type
1 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1
2 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
336
Saxifragaceae Plantago- Pteridium Dryopteris- Other Equisetum Polypodiaceae
type type herbs
2 0 2 2 0 9 0
0 1 10 3 0 3 2
0 2 4 3 3 1 1
0 3 8 3 2 7 0
0 3 17 5 0 7 0
0 2 12 2 0 2 0
0 2 25 1 1 1 8
1 5 26 2 0 2 11
1 5 15 3 0 0 9
2 12 12 3 1 1 2
------- --------------_. ---
337
Typha Sparganium- Potamogeton Myriophyllum Sagittaria Nuphar Brasenia
latifolia-type type
1 0 6 0 11 11 2
1 0 7 1 12 4 0
5 0 4 1 4 2 0
3 0 10 0 6 2
0 0 5 0 4 1 1
0 0 7 0 5 0
0 2 4 0 6 2 0
0 5 7 0 14 0
0 4 5 0 1 2 1
0 3 2 0 6 1 0
Other Indetenninate Unknown Lycopodium Total AP/(AP+NAP)
aquatics tracer
0 6 3 168 431 0.72
0 4 5 41 431 0.70
0 7 2 65 472 0.76
0 7 0 111 531 0.79
0 3 2 76 491 0.69
2 2 0 70 460 0.70
2 6 2 77 473 0.69
0 5 2 87 447 0.71
1 6 2 81 543 0.77
0 0 2 59 469 0.75
338
APPENDIXQ
WARNER LAKE WL04A CHARCOAL DATA
Depth Age Age Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Herbaceous
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD) particles particles concentration charcoal
>250j.lm >125 j.lm (particles/cm3) (%)
0.0 -56.3 2006.3 2 4 23 21.7
0.5 -54.3 2004.3 1 5 25 24.0
1.0 -52.3 2002.3 2 10 36 30.6
1.5 -50.3 2000.3 12 24 59 54.2
2.0 -48.2 1998.2 11 22 56 53.6
2.5 -46.1 1996.1 9 24 52 55.8
3.0 -44.1 1994.1 8 13 42 35.7
3.5 -42.1 1992.1 4 9 25 48.0
4.0 -40.1 1990.1 8 10 30 50.0
4.5 -38.2 1988.2 35 66 132 71.2
5.0 -36.3 1986.3 1 5 22 27.3
5.5 -34.4 1984.4 5 16 43 41.9
6.0 -32.6 1982.6 13 14 41 61.0
6.5 -30.7 1980.7 6 33 53 69.8
7.0 -28.9 1978.9 9 21 44 56.8
7.5 -27.2 1977.2 14 20 72 34.7
8.0 -25.6 1975.6 16 33 66 66.7
8.5 -24.2 1974.2 5 15 35 51.4
9.0 -22.9 1972.9 9 13 33 45.5
9.5 -21.6 1971.6 11 9 38 31.6
10.0 -20.5 1970.5 17 19 46 65.2
10.5 -19.4 1969.4 18 37 71 69.0
11.0 -18.3 1968.3 14 11 40 45.0
11.5 -17.3 1967.3 10 24 50 58.0
12.0 -16.2 1966.2 23 40 97 52.6
12.5 -15.1 1965.1 9 23 76 35.5
13.0 -14.0 1964.0 12 13 51 35.3
13.5 -12.8 1962.8 10 27 76 46.1
14.0 -11.4 1961.4 18 57 96 71.9
14.5 -10.1 1960.1 7 62 92 75.0
15.0 -8.7 1958.7 4 6 17 41.2
15.5 -7.2 1957.2 3 3 12 50.0
16.0 -5.8 1955.8 6 2 18 16.7
339
340
16.5 -4.3 1954.3 2 8 24 33.3
17.0 -2.9 1952.9 1 4 18 27.8
17.5 -1.6 1951.6 1 0 4 0.0
18.0 -0.2 1950.2 2 0 4 0.0
18.5 1.1 1948.9 0 0 4 0.0
19.0 2.5 1947.5 0 1 8 12.5
19.5 4.0 1946.0 0 0 10 0.0
20.0 5.5 1944.5 2 1 17 5.9
20.5 7.1 1942.9 5 1 14 14.3
21.0 8.8 1941.2 5 1 20 5.0
21.5 10.7 1939.3 2 3 22 13.6
22.0 12.8 1937.2 5 1 33 3.0
22.5 14.8 1935.2 5 1 14 7.1
23.0 16.9 1933.1 7 1 21 4.8
23.5 18.9 1931.1 2 1 20 5.0
24.0 20.8 1929.2 4 1 20 5.0
24.5 22.6 1927.4 1 0 16 0.0
25.0 24.2 1925.8 6 0 23 0.0
25.5 25.7 1924.3 1 0 7 0.0
26.0 27.2 1922.8 1 0 7 0.0
26.5 28.7 1921.3 1 0 5 20.0
27.0 30.1 1919.9 3 0 5 0.0
27.5 31.3 1918.7 0 0 3 0.0
28.0 32.5 1917.5 1 0 3 0.0
28.5 33.5 1916.5 2 0 3 0.0
29.0 34.5 1915.5 0 0 0 0.0
29.5 35.3 1914.7 1 0 2 0.0
30.0 36.0 1914.0 1 0 2 0.0
30.5 36.6 1913.4 4 0 6 0.0
31.0 37.2 1912.8 5 0 15 0.0
31.5 37.8 1912.2 3 0 8 0.0
32.0 38.4 1911.6 0 0 1 0.0
32.5 39.1 1910.9 0 0 4 0.0
33.0 39.8 1910.2 2 0 3 0.0
33.5 40.6 1909.4 2 0 5 0.0
34.0 41.5 1908.5 1 0 5 0.0
34.5 42.5 1907.5 1 0 2 0.0
35.0 44.0 1906.0 0 0 0 0.0
35.5 46.0 1904.0 0 0 2 0.0
36.0 48.4 1901.6 2 0 6 0.0
36.5 50.9 1899.1 0 0 4 0.0
37.0 53.4 1896.6 2 0 8 0.0
-----------~-----
341
37.5 55.6 1894.4 18 0 53 0.0
38.0 57.6 1892.4 26 0 148 0.0
38.5 59.4 1890.6 60 0 263 0.0
39.0 61.2 1888.8 3 4 16 25.0
39.5 63.1 1886.9 3 0 13 0.0
40.0 65.2 1884.8 2 0 29 0.0
40.5 67.7 1882.3 4 1 20 5.0
41.0 70.9 1879.1 2 0 18 0.0
41.5 74.9 1875.1 0 0 1 0.0
42.0 79.4 1870.6 0 0 6 0.0
42.5 84.1 1865.9 0 0 11 0.0
43.0 88.8 1861.2 1 0 6 0.0
43.5 93.3 1856.7 0 0 4 0.0
44.0 97.6 1852.4 0 0 5 0.0
44.5 102.0 1848.0 4 3 19 15.8
45.0 106.3 1843.7 1 3 13 23.1
45.5 110.8 1839.2 10 1 20 10.0
46.0 115.3 1834.7 3 0 11 0.0
46.5 119.8 1830.2 14 0 60 0.0
47.0 124.3 1825.7 5 0 28 0.0
47.5 128.9 1821.1 1 1 16 6.3
48.0 133.5 1816.5 1 2 7 28.6
48.5 138.2 1811.8 0 0 0 0.0
49.0 142.9 1807.1 0 0 1 0.0
49.5 147.6 1802.4 0 2 5 40.0
50.0 152.3 1797.7 4 1 11 9.1
50.5 157.0 1793.0 204 0 808 0.0
51.0 161.7 1788.3 26 3 65 4.6
51.5 166.4 1783.6 70 13 168 14.9
52.0 171.2 1778.8 14 3 35 11.4
52.5 175.9 1774.1 3 3 16 25.0
53.0 180.6 1769.4 19 6 70 8.6
53.5 185.4 1764.6 206 7 319 2.5
54.0 190.1 1759.9 18 7 35 22.9
54.5 194.8 1755.2 49 19 97 29.9
55.0 199.5 1750.5 9 6 21 57.1
55.5 204.1 1745.9 45 16 101 33.7
56.0 208.8 1741.2 11 5 42 14.3
56.5 213.4 1736.6 4 7 22 40.9
57.0 218.0 1732.0 0 2 3 66.7
57.5 222.5 1727.5 2 1 11 9.1
58.0 227.0 1723.0 24 5 43 18.6
342
58.5 231.5 1718.5 13 13 45 44.4
59.0 235.9 1714.1 25 15 68 45.6
59.5 240.3 1709.7 18 6 78 9.0
60.0 244.6 1705.4 44 60 176 55.1
60.5 248.9 1701.1 6 9 27 37.0
61.0 253.1 1696.9 14 22 53 58.5
61.5 257.3 1692.7 5 4 32 15.6
62.0 261.3 1688.7 12 7 33 24.2
62.5 265.4 1684.6 33 22 138 20.3
63.0 269.3 1680.7 18 12 96 13.5
63.5 273.2 1676.8 6 10 35 37.1
64.0 277.0 1673.0 16 8 44 38.6
64.5 280.7 1669.3 9 7 59 15.3
65.0 284.4 1665.6 13 8 80 15.0
65.5 287.9 1662.1 3 2 31 6.5
66.0 291.4 1658.6 16 4 93 4.3
66.5 294.7 1655.3 24 52 161 39.1
67.0 298.0 1652.0 19 8 57 28.1
67.5 301.1 1648.9 1 0 15 0.0
68.0 304.2 1645.8 14 50 93 64.5
68.5 307.2 1642.8 8 12 44 29.5
69.0 310.0 1640.0 53 31 151 31.8
69.5 312.8 1637.2 91 74 258 46.1
70.0 315.5 1634.5 62 65 205 45.9
70.5 318.3 1631.7 18 30 77 50.6
71.0 321.1 1628.9 18 48 99 59.6
71.5 323.8 1626.2 8 17 47 44.7
72.0 326.5 1623.5 5 18 36 55.6
72.5 329.2 1620.8 7 2 17 11.8
73.0 331.9 1618.1 10 2 22 27.3
73.5 334.6 1615.4 2 2 13 23.1
74.0 337.3 1612.7 9 7 35 25.7
74.5 340.0 1610.0 1 3 10 30.0
75.0 342.6 1607.4 7 15 50 34.0
75.5 345.3 1604.7 14 11 58 24.1
76.0 347.9 1602.1 33 19 70 61.4
76.5 350.6 1599.4 9 7 34 32.4
77.0 353.2 1596.8 7 32 65 55.4
77.5 355.8 1594.2 4 17 40 45.0
78.0 358.4 1591.6 15 14 66 21.2
78.5 361.0 1589.0 12 16 55 40.0
79.0 363.6 1586.4 18 8 52 28.8
343
79.5 366.2 1583.8 52 28 111 53.2
80.0 368.7 1581.3 8 2 46 6.5
80.5 371.3 1578.7 11 12 56 25.0
81.0 373.8 1576.2 24 33 76 57.9
81.5 376.4 1573.6 51 46 132 54.5
82.0 378.9 1571.1 6 13 28 53.6
82.5 381.4 1568.6 15 7 37 35.1
83.0 383.9 1566.1 4 11 29 44.8
83.5 386.4 1563.6 7 10 31 35.5
84.0 388.9 1561.1 9 5 35 17.1
84.5 391.4 1558.6 12 7 50 18.0
85.0 393.9 1556.1 11 8 62 12.9
85.5 396.3 1553.7 6 5 25 28.0
86.0 398.8 1551.2 14 2 63 11.1
86.5 401.2 1548.8 40 16 84 39.3
87.0 403.7 1546.3 23 15 46 58.7
87.5 406.1 1543.9 5 12 27 48.1
88.0 408.5 1541.5 11 27 54 63.0
88.5 410.9 1539.1 1 4 15 26.7
89.0 413.3 1536.7 9 6 24 45.8
89.5 415.7 1534.3 12 6 32 28.1
90.0 418.1 1531.9 3 2 13 15.4
90.5 420.5 1529.5 6 5 13 76.9
91.0 422.8 1527.2 7 12 28 53.6
91.5 425.2 1524.8 13 18 43 62.8
92.0 427.5 1522.5 10 12 42 35.7
92.5 429.9 1520.1 4 5 19 31.6
93.0 432.2 1517.8 6 7 23 30.4
93.5 434.5 1515.5 6 10 26 57.7
94.0 436.8 1513.2 21 62 101 74.3
94.5 439.1 1510.9 15 10 51 25.5
95.0 441.4 1508.6 8 11 32 34.4
95.5 443.7 1506.3 48 30 176 26.1
96.0 446.0 1504.0 7 4 22 27.3
96.5 448.3 1501.7 11 19 51 45.1
97.0 450.6 1499.4 16 8 35 42.9
97.5 452.8 1497.2 16 3 52 9.6
98.0 455.1 1494.9 10 3 29 17.2
98.5 457.3 1492.7 8 10 48 25.0
99.0 459.6 1490.4 22 21 106 23.6
99.5 461.8 1488.2 24 33 85 51.8
100.0 464.0 1486.0 34 13 78 26.9
344
100.5 466.2 1483.8 11 9 56 17.9
101.0 468.4 1481.6 9 7 37 21.6
101.5 470.6 1479.4 7 8 35 34.3
102.0 472.8 1477.2 15 8 40 40.0
102.5 475.0 1475.0 35 91 252 41.3
103.0 477.2 1472.8 3 6 31 22.6
103.5 479.4 1470.6 2 8 19 42.1
104.0 481.5 1468.5 2 2 9 22.2
104.5 483.7 1466.3 15 9 31 54.8
105.0 485.8 1464.2 8 7 21 42.9
105.5 488.0 1462.0 3 1 6 50.0
106.0 490.1 1459.9 0 0 5 0.0
106.5 492.3 1457.7 1 1 2 50.0
107.0 494.4 1455.6 9 0 56 0.0
107.5 496.5 1453.5 9 3 104 2.9
108.0 498.6 1451.4 25 0 136 0.0
108.5 500.7 1449.3 20 5 146 3.4
109.0 502.8 1447.2 22 3 161 1.9
109.5 504.9 1445.1 37 46 207 29.0
110.0 507.0 1443.0 21 9 159 6.9
110.5 509.1 1440.9 6 2 52 3.8
111.0 511.1 1438.9 19 10 121 8.3
111.5 513.2 1436.8 49 31 203 16.7
112.0 515.3 1434.7 8 9 44 25.0
112.5 517.3 1432.7 8 14 39 43.6
113.0 519.4 1430.6 5 1 13 23.1
113.5 521.4 1428.6 0 0 5 0.0
114.0 523.4 1426.6 7 2 16 18.8
114.5 525.5 1424.5 4 9 22 45.5
115.0 527.5 1422.5 1 9 12 75.0
115.5 529.5 1420.5 8 2 35 8.6
116.0 531.5 1418.5 7 0 20 5.0
116.5 533.5 1416.5 2 2 9 33.3
117.0 535.5 1414.5 2 1 6 16.7
117.5 537.5 1412.5 0 0 4 0.0
118.0 539.5 1410.5 1 0 9 0.0
118.5 541.5 1408.5 9 9 64 15.6
119.0 543.5 1406.5 2 0 9 0.0
119.5 545.4 1404.6 4 1 13 7.7
120.0 547.4 1402.6 0 0 3 0.0
120.5 549.4 1400.6 0 1 16 6.3
121.0 551.3 1398.7 9 3 56 5.4
345
121.5 553.3 1396.7 3 0 7 0.0
122.0 555.2 1394.8 1 1 4 25.0
122.5 557.2 1392.8 1 0 18 0.0
123.0 559.1 1390.9 6 1 59 3.4
123.5 561.0 1389.0 13 9 47 23.4
124.0 563.0 1387.0 10 24 66 40.9
124.5 564.9 1385.1 40 2 148 4.1
125.0 566.8 1383.2 11 3 34 8.8
125.5 568.7 1381.3 24 8 49 20.4
126.0 570.6 1379.4 3 6 15 46.7
126.5 572.5 1377.5 5 8 36 22.2
127.0 574.4 1375.6 10 12 42 42.9
127.5 576.3 1373.7 8 16 48 37.5
128.0 578.2 1371.8 29 16 83 25.3
128.5 580.1 1369.9 3 2 16 12.5
129.0 582.0 1368.0 0 2 7 28.6
129.5 583.9 1366.1 5 1 11 36.4
130.0 585.7 1364.3 4 4 19 21.1
130.5 587.6 1362.4 4 8 23 43.5
131.0 589.5 1360.5 7 8 31 29.0
131.5 591.3 1358.7 7 10 31 35.5
132.0 593.2 1356.8 1 2 9 22.2
132.5 595.1 1354.9 3 5 14 50.0
133.0 596.9 1353.1 0 7 21 33.3
133.5 598.8 1351.2 0 17 23 78.3
134.0 600.6 1349.4 5 2 12 33.3
134.5 602.4 1347.6 3 1 7 14.3
135.0 604.3 1345.7 1 3 6 50.0
135.5 606.1 1343.9 0 1 1 0.0
136.0 607.9 1342.1 1 3 6 66.7
136.5 609.7 1340.3 2 0 10 0.0
137.0 611.6 1338.4 7 1 20 5.0
137.5 613.4 1336.6 7 9 25 36.0
138.0 615.2 1334.8 2 11 34 35.3
138.5 617.0 1333.0 4 9 27 37.0
145.0 640.3 1309.7 3 5 20 25.0
145.5 642.0 1308.0 3 7 32 28.1
146.0 643.8 1306.2 13 16 56 35.7
146.5 645.6 1304.4 19 23 95 30.5
147.0 647.3 1302.7 7 13 35 48.6
147.5 649.1 1300.9 4 6 28 25.0
148.0 650.9 1299.1 10 7 31 35.5
346
148.5 652.6 1297.4 2 13 32 43.8
149.0 654.4 1295.6 6 9 32 28.1
149.5 656.1 1293.9 4 9 21 52.4
150.0 657.9 1292.1 2 7 28 32.1
150.5 659.6 1290.4 3 6 23 26.1
151.0 661.4 1288.6 4 7 24 37.5
151.5 663.1 1286.9 4 8 31 25.8
152.0 664.9 1285.1 2 5 27 22.2
152.5 666.6 1283.4 12 22 63 39.7
153.0 668.3 1281.7 1 14 44 34.1
153.5 670.1 1279.9 0 6 22 27.3
154.0 671.8 1278.2 15 14 49 42.9
154.5 673.5 1276.5 7 19 40 55.0
155.0 675.3 1274.7 3 14 28 57.1
155.5 677.0 1273.0 3 7 21 38.1
156.0 678.7 1271.3 3 10 32 31.3
156.5 680.5 1269.5 9 14 43 41.9
157.0 682.2 1267.8 2 5 16 37.5
157.5 683.9 1266.1 2 16 52 30.8
158.0 685.6 1264.4 5 8 33 33.3
158.5 687.4 1262.6 6 12 35 42.9
159.0 689.1 1260.9 2 15 37 43.2
159.5 690.8 1259.2 1 7 14 50.0
160.0 692.5 1257.5 1 2 14 14.3
160.5 694.3 1255.7 5 9 28 39.3
161.0 696.0 1254.0 9 11 38 42.1
161.5 697.7 1252.3 1 5 9 66.7
162.0 699.4 1250.6 4 2 11 36.4
162.5 701.1 1248.9 1 2 12 16.7
163.0 702.9 1247.1 2 3 12 25.0
163.5 704.6 1245.4 7 4 18 33.3
164.0 706.3 1243.7 3 0 7 0.0
164.5 708.0 1242.0 2 5 26 23.1
165.0 709.7 1240.3 3 7 23 39.1
165.5 711.4 1238.6 4 10 42 28.6
166.0 713.1 1236.9 4 5 48 10.4
166.5 714.9 1235.1 6 4 39 15.4
167.0 716.6 1233.4 3 8 42 19.0
167.5 718.3 1231.7 13 2 105 1.9
168.0 720.0 1230.0 39 0 128 0.0
168.5 722.1 1227.9 36 0 108 0.0
169.0 724.1 1225.9 10 10 91 12.1
347
169.5 726.2 1223.8 10 7 42 19.0
170.0 728.3 1221.7 10 9 34 29.4
170.5 730.4 1219.6 2 3 22 13.6
171.0 732.4 1217.6 4 3 15 26.7
171.5 734.5 1215.5 5 21 49 46.9
172.0 736.6 1213.4 5 23 52 46.2
172.5 738.6 1211.4 2 6 29 24.1
173.0 740.7 1209.3 14 13 61 24.6
173.5 742.8 1207.2 5 12 42 28.6
174.0 744.8 1205.2 6 10 32 37.5
174.5 746.9 1203.1 5 4 35 11.4
175.0 749.0 1201.0 27 5 71 11.3
175.5 751.1 1198.9 18 9 74 17.6
176.0 753.1 1196.9 17 6 71 12.7
176.5 755.2 1194.8 38 9 108 12.0
177.0 757.3 1192.7 13 11 89 13.5
177.5 759.3 1190.7 17 4 65 9.2
178.0 761.4 1188.6 13 9 43 23.3
178.5 763.5 1186.5 13 16 59 32.2
179.0 765.6 1184.4 12 9 49 24.5
179.5 767.6 1182.4 4 3 29 10.3
180.0 769.7 1180.3 1 5 18 27.8
180.5 771.8 1178.2 3 15 38 42.1
181.0 773.8 1176.2 4 13 38 36.8
181.5 775.9 1174.1 10 12 42 38.1
182.0 778.0 1172.0 2 4 20 20.0
182.5 780.1 1169.9 1 4 27 14.8
. 183.0 782.1 1167.9 2 5 28 17.9
183.5 784.2 1165.8 0 7 29 24.1
184.0 786.3 1163.7 18 13 59 28.8
184.5 788.3 1161.7 16 2 39 10.3
185.0 790.4 1159.6 5 9 27 33.3
185.5 792.5 1157.5 9 15 39 48.7
186.0 794.5 1155.5 1 9 32 28.1
186.5 796.6 1153.4 15 10 42 28.6
187.0 798.7 1151.3 6 8 29 31.0
187.5 800.8 1149.2 4 27 64 43.8
188.0 802.8 1147.2 3 6 34 20.6
188.5 804.9 1145.1 27 2 45 20.0
189.0 807.0 1143.0 16 9 39 30.8
189.5 809.0 1141.0 12 7 45 17.8
190.0 811.1 1138.9 9 3 34 20.6
348
190.5 813.2 1136.8 7 17 56 33.9
191.0 815.3 1134.7 11 6 41 24.4
191.5 817.3 1132.7 3 8 31 25.8
192.0 819.4 1130.6 12 7 41 24.4
192.5 821.5 1128.5 5 1 24 4.2
193.0 823.5 1126.5 8 1 29 6.9
193.5 825.6 1124.4 2 6 27 25.9
194.0 827.7 1122.3 8 7 33 24.2
194.5 829.7 1120.3 15 7 37 29.7
195.0 831.8 1118.2 7 10 29 44.8
195.5 833.9 1116.1 7 9 39 25.6
196.0 836.0 1114.0 25 6 49 36.7
196.5 838.0 1112.0 7 2 33 6.1
197.0 840.1 1109.9 25 8 61 19.7
197.5 842.2 1107.8 12 13 48 35.4
198.0 844.2 1105.8 7 6 33 24.2
198.5 846.3 1103.7 4 3 24 16.7
199.0 848.4 1101.6 2 2 27 7.4
199.5 850.5 1099.5 7 4 30 16.7
200.0 852.5 1097.5 12 7 57 17.5
200.5 854.6 1095.4 4 5 26 19.2
201.0 856.7 1093.3 9 5 40 15.0
201.5 858.7 1091.3 3 6 31 19.4
202.0 860.8 1089.2 7 8 37 24.3
202.5 862.9 1087.1 3 6 23 26.1
203.0 864.9 1085.1 10 5 49 14.3
203.5 867.0 1083.0 7 4 46 8.7
204.0 869.1 1080.9 29 12 164 10.4
204.5 871.2 1078.8 10 6 64 14.1
205.0 873.2 1076.8 31 11 90 18.9
205.5 875.3 1074.7 21 1 80 1.3
APPENDIXR
WARNER LAKE WL04A MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY DATA
349
Core depth
(cm)
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Magnetic susceptibility
(emu)
0.0000606
0.0000878
0.0001010
0.0000996
0.0001103
0.0000391
0.0000901
0.0001336
0.0001487
0.0001575
0.0001686
0.0001771
0.0001940
0.0002019
0.0002411
0.0002530
0.0002698
0.0003042
0.0003366
0.0003838
0.0004083
0.0004053
0.0003580
0.0002813
0.0002279
0.0001879
0.0001725
0.0001689
0.0001930
0.0002066
0.0002288
0.0002418
0.0002678
0.0002930
34 0.0003132
35 0.0003334
36 0.0003616
37 0.0003830
38 0.0003846
39 0.0003559
40 0.0002891
41 0.0002178
42 0.0001226
43 0.0000199
46 0.0000712
47 0.0001119
48 0.0001894
49 0.0002780
50 0.0003059
51 0.0002825
52 0.0002157
53 0.0001492
54 0.0000805
55 0.0000602
56 0.0000528
57 0.0000486
58 0.0000561
59 0.0000606
60 0.0000631
61 0.0000629
62 0.0000546
63 0.0000474
64 0.0000430
65 0.0000396
66 0.0000401
67 0.0000116
68 0.0000268
69 0.0000338
70 0.0000294
71 0.0000268
72 0.0000260
73 0.0000264
74 0.0000287
75 0.0000323
76 0.0000357
77 0.0000353
350
------------------ ----
78 0.0000357
79 0.0000352
80 0.0000343
81 0.0000331
82 0.0000320
83 0.0000305
84 0.0000304
85 0.0000290
86 0.0000291
87 0.0000297
88 0.0000303
89 0.0000323
90 0.0000345
91 0.0000380
92 0.0000378
93 0.0000402
94 0.0000428
95 0.0000477
96 0.0000505
97 0.0000546
98 0.0000602
99 0.0000658
100 0.0000729
101 0.0000911
102 0.0001105
103 0.0001571
104 0.0002154
105 0.0003096
106 0.0004106
107 0.0005031
108 0.0005536
109 0.0005546
110 0.0005193
111 0.0004494
112 0.0003843
113 0.0003212
114 0.0002867
115 0.0002802
116 0.0002958
117 0.0003435
118 0.0003900
119 0.0004168
351
120 0.0004177
121 0.0003993
122 0.0003502
123 0.0003040
124 0.0002344
125 0.0001936
126 0.0001492
127 0.0001140
128 0.0000977
129 0.0000899
130 0.0000868
131 0.0000905
132 0.0001038
133 0.0001158
134 0.0001188
135 0.0001123
136 0.0000860
146 0.0000476
147 0.0000563
148 0.0000599
149 0.0000628
150 0.0000623
151 0.0000628
152 0.0000644
153 0.0000643
154 0.0000649
155 0.0000661
156 0.0000664
157 0.0000675
158 0.0000688
159 0.0000706
160 0.0000723
161 0.0000776
162 0.0000798
163 0.0000871
164 0.0000973
165 0.0001147
166 0.0001435
167 0.0001680
168 0.0001865
169 0.0001862
170 0.0001707
352
171 0.0001423
172 0.0001174
173 0.0001030
174 0.0000976
175 0.0000985
176 0.0001032
177 0.0001074
178 0.0001199
179 0.0001408
180 0.0001689
181 0.0002028
182 0.0002312
183 0.0002454
184 0.0002384
185 0.0002115
186 0.0001768
187 0.0001458
188 0.0001199
189 0.0001067
190 0.0000986
191 0.0000953
192 0.0000922
193 0.0000908
194 0.0000925
195 0.0000942
196 0.0000980
197 0.0000950
198 0.0000954
199 0.0000938
200 0.0000928
201 0.0000915
202 0.0000885
203 0.0000826
204 0.0000661
205 0.0000568
353
APPENDIXS
WARNER LAKE WL04A LOSS-aN-IGNITION DATA
Depth Bulk Organic Carbonate
(cm) density content content
(%) (%) (%)
0.0 76.9 10.9
2.5 89.4 24.5 3.5
7.5 90.6 21.3 3.4
10.0 80.3 19.9
12.5 92.3 19.5 4.2
15.0 77.9 15.3
17.5 78.7 17.8 4.0
22.5 72.2 45.9 4.5
25.0 76.4 10.8
27.5 78.4 11.6 3.8
30.0 75.2 11.2
32.5 77.9 11.8 3.6
35.0 73.8 11.0
37.5 80.7 32.8 5.4
40.0 79.6 28.1
42.5 79.8 30.0 5.5
45.0 76.2 17.8
47.5 85.0 24.8 5.2
50.0 79.0 55.3
52.5 81.2 25.4 5.2
57.5 82.4 16.7 4.0
62.5 84.0 22.5 4.9
65.0 79.1 23.0
67.5 81.9 22.4 5.3
70.0 75.5 26.6
72.5 77.9 30.4 5.5
75.0 78.8 24.0 0.0
77.5 81.3 34.8 4.5
80.0 78.5 22.9
82.5 80.6 27.2 6.2
85.0 79.9 25.2
87.5 79.4 23.0 5.9
354
355
90.0 80.3 21.4
92.5 96.1 27.1 5.3
97.5 85.6 18.2 6.0
100.0 79.3 39.2
102.5 96.7 24.6 5.8
105.0 77.0 10.2
107.5 76.4 11.3 4.8
110.0 72.9 12.1
112.5 80.2 11.0 6.0
115.0 75.7 11.8
117.5 83.1 11.3 6.0
120.0 74.3 10.4
122.5 79.3 11.4 3.9
125.0 76.1 17.1
127.5 82.8 22.4 4.9
130.0 79.0 23.4
132.5 83.2 24.0 4.3
135.0 78.3 15.0
137.5 80.6 18.7 4.3
145.0 77.2 22.9
147.5 79.4 19.4 4.1
150.0 78.8 29.8
152.5 80.3 32.2 4.1
155.0 78.2 27.2
157.5 95.8 28.1 5.7
162.5 78.9 27.2 4.1
165.0 77.7 22.7
167.5 75.6 19.8 4.1
170.0 86.7 25.3
172.5 79.1 27.0 5.8
175.0 86.0 23.3
177.5 78.1 26.8 3.8
180.0 84.3 21.6
182.5 76.8 20.7 3.3
185.0 85.7 22.1
187.5 75.4 28.4 3.7
190.0 86.0 24.3
192.5 77.3 27.5 4.1
195.0 78.4 21.2
197.5 77.9 24.7 5.8
200.0
202.5
205.0
76.9
76.2
73.6
18.9
24.9
16.5
7.3
356
357
APPENDIXT
WARNER LAKE WL04A POLLEN DATA
Depth Age Age Total Picea Abies Pseudotsuga- Cupressaceae
(em) (cal yr BP) (AD) Pinus type
0.5 -54.3 2004.3 5 0 1 31 44
5.5 -34.4 1984.4 0 0 1 10 20
9.5 -21.6 1971.6 6 1 0 18 31
14.5 -10.1 1960.1 3 0 2 8 28
19.5 4.0 1946.0 7 2 0 22 35
24.5 22.6 1927.4 3 0 1 35 65
29.5 35.3 1914.7 0 1 0 1 4
39.5 63.1 1886.9 9 0 3 53 202
45.5 110.8 1839.2 3 0 3 24 76
49.5 147.6 1802.4 1 1 3 29 139
54.5 194.8 1755.2 2 0 3 46 235
59.5 240.3 1709.7 3 1 1 26 250
64.5 280.7 1669.3 5 2 3 37 344
69.5 312.8 1637.2 9 0 1 45 238
74.5 340.0 1610.0 7 0 1 55 326
---------------------------------------------------------
----------------------- ------_._-----------------
79.5 366.2 1583.8 4 4 2 51 218
84.5 391.4 1558.6 6 0 1 23 254
89.5 415.7 1534.3 5 0 1 33 289
94.5 439.1 1510.9 6 0 5 37 110
99.5 461.8 1488.2 8 0 4 50 149
104.5 483.7 1466.3 5 0 3 11 73
109.5 504.9 1445.1 4 0 1 28 41
114.5 525.5 1424.5 6 0 5 18 61
119.5 545.4 1404.6 4 1 0 47 205
124.5 564.9 1385.1 4 0 2 14 82
129.5 583.9 1366.1 8 0 0 52 197
134.5 602.4 1347.6 3 1 1 30 80
149.5 656.1 1293.9 10 0 0 59 153
159.5 690.8 1259.2 7 0 1 48 80
169.5 726.2 1223.8 15 1 4 67 65
179.5 767.6 1182.4 10 2 2 34 113
189.5 809.0 1141.0 11 3 1 60 96
199.5 850.5 1099.5 6 0 2 41 107
204.5 871.2 1078.8 6 0 0 31 42
Tsuga Taxus Myrica Alnus Corylus Betula Salix Populus
heterophylla brevifolia rubra-type
7 3 1 194 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 192 0 1 1 0
2 0 0 217 2 0 2 1
1 0 0 107 5 1 1 1
1 0 0 116 3 0 9 0
3 1 0 40 7 0 0 0
0 0 0 24 0 0 0 1
4 0 2 173 3 0 2 3
6 2 0 147 12 0 1 0
5 0 1 188 5 0 1 3
7 1 0 184 7 0 2 1
6 7 0 85 4 0 1 1
5 4 2 69 2 0 3 2
5 1 0 127 0 0 1 3
2 13 1 123 2 0 1 0
10 0 0 25 2 0 2 7
3 2 0 94 1 0 6 0
4 0 0 32 1 0 1 3
2 5 0 165 7 0 2 2
9 0 1 56 5 0 1 3
3 6 0 199 6 0 4 4
1 0 0 25 9 0 4 1
2 3 1 93 13 0 11 0
20 0 0 21 9 0 0 0
5 2 1 147 7 0 2 0
15 0 0 30 7 0 2 1
2 3 0 145 1 0 9 2
3 0 3 116 5 0 5 0
6 0 4 95 2 0 2 0
3 0 3 157 7 0 3 0
3 0 4 94 8 0 3 0
1 0 8 98 5 0 3 0
5 0 2 163 1 0 1 0
5 0 0 181 6 0 2 1
358
359
Fraxinus Quercus Sambucus Acer Acer Rosaceae Prunus Spiraea-
circinatum macrophyllum type
5 3 0 0 4 2 0 0
5 4 0 1 2 2 0 2
14 2 1 0 1 1 0 3
10 5 1 0 1 4 0 9
7 4 0 1 1 0 0 7
11 4 0 0 0 1 0 1
3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
13 3 1 0 3 0 0 2
8 2 0 0 1 1 0 0
7 4 3 0 1 0 0 2
11 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 3 0 0 0 6 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 4 0 1
7 0 0 0 1 0 0 2
3 6 1 0 3 0 0 2
5 2 0 1 3 0 0 0
4 5 0 1 3 1 0 0
8 2 0 1 5 1 0 0
8 9 0 2 4 0 0 2
2 6 0 2 7 0 0 1
7 5 0 0 2 2 0 0
7 16 1 1 4 0 0 0
6 15 0 0 1 4 0 3
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 6 0 0 0 1 0 1
7 5 0 0 2 1 0 1
20 7 2 2 1 1 0 2
5 7 0 2 0 0 0 0
4 5 0 2 1 0 0 0
8 13 0 0 2 1 0 0
11 7 0 1 2 1 0 0
16 12 1 1 3 0 0 0
30 8 0 0 1 0 0 0
18 8 1 0 0 4 0 2
360
Ceanothus Cornus Castanea Rhus Juglans Other trees Poaceae Cyperaceae
and shrubs
0 0 0 0 0 0 53 1
2 0 0 0 0 0 70 8
0 0 4 0 0 1 113 2
3 0 1 0 0 1 113 10
3 0 5 0 0 0 67 2
0 1 0 0 1 2 47 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 25 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 16 8
1 0 1 0 0 0 10 1
3 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 17 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 7 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0
2 1 0 0 0 0 7 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5
0 0 0 0 1 0 11 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 9 14
1 0 0 0 0 2 10 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 17 13
2 1 2 0 0 0 21 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 11 7
0 0 2 1 0 0 31 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 9 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 15 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 9 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 17 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 12 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 13 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2
Artemisia Ambrosia Helianthus- Agoseris- Other Liguliflorae Salsola-
type type Tubuliflorae type
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 2 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 4 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
361
Other Umbelliferae Brassicaceae Other Rumex Onagraceae
Ranunculaceae Polygonaceae
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 2 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 3 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 4 0
0 0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
2 0 2 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 2 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
362
363
Scrophulariaceae Saxifragaceae Plantago- Urtica- Pteridium Dryopteris- . Other herbs
type type type
0 0 2 0 4 47 1
0 0 0 0 4 32 0
2 0 3 0 1 36 1
0 0 7 0 8 43 0
0 0 2 0 21 42 2
0 0 7 0 56 36 0
0 0 5 0 6 4 0
0 0 9 0 5 14 0
0 0 0 0 12 16 0
0 1 2 0 11 15 5
0 0 0 0 3 11 1
0 0 0 0 22 29 0
0 0 0 0 27 21 0
0 0 0 0 4 16 1
0 0 0 1 3 8 0
0 0 0 1 11 19 0
0 0 0 0 6 39 0
0 0 0 0 3 21 0
0 0 0 0 4 41 0
0 0 0 0 27 35 0
0 0 0 0 12 41 0
0 0 0 0 17 56 0
0 0 0 0 20 63 0
0 1 0 0 6 41 0
0 0 0 0 8 43 0
0 1 0 0 11 36 0
0 0 0 0 4 49 0
0 0 0 0 11 28 1
0 0 0 0 29 47 3
0 0 0 0 28 77 0
0 0 0 0 45 46 0
0 0 0 0 43 48 1
0 0 0 0 39 47 1
0 0 0 0 22 48 0
Equisetum Botrychium- Polypodiaceae Typha Sparganium- Potamogeton
type latifolia-type type
23 0 2 1 0 6
0 0 1 0 0 2
22 0 0 0 0 16
1 0 1 0 0 2
8 0 0 0 0 33
0 1 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 9
1 0 0 0 0 2
1 0 1 0 0 9
1 0 0 0 0 12
1 0 0 0 0 10
3 0 0 0 0 18
5 0 0 0 0 10
10 0 1 0 0 4
4 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 2
4 0 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 4 0 4
1 0 1 2 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 10
2 0 0 0 1 0
3 0 1 0 0 6
0 0 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 11
2 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 12
0 0 0 2 0 7
0 0 0 0 0 11
1 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 1 0 15
0 0 0 0 0 18
3 0 0 0 0 3
364
Myriophyllum Sagittaria Nuphar Brasenia Lemna Isoetes Other aquatics
36 0 8 0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
18 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 6 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 1 0 0 5
3 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 1 5 0 0 8
2 0 0 4 0 0 14
1 0 0 8 0 0 9
0 2 0 6 0 0 12
2 5 0 1 0 0 8
1 5 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 6 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 3 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 20 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 16 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 14 0 0
365
Indeterminate Unknown Lycopodium tracer Total AP/(AP+NAP)
3 0 66 491 0.70
4 1 29 369 0.68
4 4 72 534 0.63
5 0 49 389 0.50
7 4 175 425 0.60
6 0 124 340 0.53
0 2 413 63 0.62
1 2 43 564 0.89
5 0 33 352 0.84
0 3 96 475 0.89
0 2 82 559 0.96
3 0 74 505 0.85
1 0 74 594 0.89
2 0 63 505 0.92
0 3 56 597 0.95
1 1 54 384 0.88
4 1 36 471 0.88
3 2 45 446 0.88
3 0 46 449 0.86
3 0 96 404 0.76
6 1 111 441 0.80
7 1 335 247 0.60
4 1 192 382 0.67
0 1 660 370 0.85
6 1 87 379 0.83
1 0 124 399 0.85
9 0 58 417 0.80
1 2 46 434 0.88
3 0 83 368 0.73
4 1 93 485 0.74
3 0 45 414 0.74
0 0 50 441 0.75
1 1 65 492 0.78
3 2 40 409 0.79
366
367
REFERENCES
Agee, J.K, 1989. A history of fire and slash burning in western Oregon and Washington.
In: Hanley, D.P. (Ed.), The Burning Decision: Regional Perspectives on Slash. University
of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 3-20.
Agee, J.K, 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. Island Press, Washington,
D.C.
Aikens, M.C., 1993. Archaeology of Oregon. US Department of the Interior Bureau of
Land Management, Portland, OR.
Allen, J. E., Bums, M., Sargent, S.c., 1986. Cataclysms on the Columbia: a Layman's
Guide to the Features Produced by the Catastrophic Bretz Floods in the Pacific
Northwest. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Allison, LS., 1978. Late Pleistocene sediments and floods in the Willamette Valley. The
Ore Bin 40, 177-191 and 192-202.
Alley, R.B., 2000. The Younger Dryas cold interval as viewed from central Greenland.
Quaternary Science Reviews 19,213-226.
Allworth, L.M., 1976. Battle Ground... In and Around. Taylor Publishing Company,
Dallas.
Aikens, M.C., 1993. Archaeology of Oregon. US Department of the Interior Bureau of
Land Management, Portland.
Ames, KM., 1994. The northwest coast: complex hunter-gatherers, ecology, and social
evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 23,209-229.
Ames, KM., 2003. The Northwest Coast. Evolutionary Anthropology 12, 19-33.
Ames, KM., 2004. Political and historical ecologies. In: Biolsi, T. (Ed.), A Comparison
to the Anthropology of American Indians. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp. 7-23.
Balster, C.A., Parsons, R.B., 1968. Geomorphology and Soils, Willamette Valley,
Oregon. Special Report 265. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Oregon State University
Agricultural Experimental Station, Corvallis, OR.
368
Barnosky, C.W., 1981. A record oflate Quaternary vegetation from Davis Lake, southern
Puget Lowland, Washington. Quaternary Research 16,221-239.
Barnosky, C.W., 1985. Late Quaternary vegetation near Battle Ground Lake, southern
Puget Trough, Washington. Geological Society of America Bulletin 96,263-271.
Bart1ein, P. J., Anderson, K H., Anderson, P. M., Edwards, M. E., Mock, C. J.,
Thompson, R. S., Webb III, T., Whitlock, c., 1998. Paleoclimatic simulations for North
America over the past 21,000 years: features of the simulated climate and comparisons
with paleoenvironmental data. Quaternary Science Reviews 17, 549-585.
Bartlein, PJ., Hostetler, S.W., Shafer, S.L., Holman, J.O., Solomon, A.M., 2008.
Temporal and spatial structure in a daily wildfire-start data set from the western United
States (1986-1996). International Journal of Wildland Fire 17,8-17.
Beckham, S.D., 1990. History if western Oregon since 1846. In: Suttles, W.P. (Ed.),
Handbook ofNorth American Indians Volume 7, Northwest Coast. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., pp. 180-188.
Beckham, S.D., Minor, R., Toepel, KA., 1981. Prehistory and history ofBLM lands in
west-central Oregon: a cultural resource overview. University of Oregon Anthropological
Papers 25, Eugene.
Berger, A., Loutre, M.F., 1991. Insolation values for the last 10 million years. Quaternary
Science Reviews 10,297-317.
Bowden, B., 1995. A new look at Late Archaic settlement patterns in the upper
Willamette Valley. University of Oregon Occasional Anthropological Paper, Eugene.
Bowen, W.A., 1978. The Willamette Valley: Migration and Settlement on the Oregon
Frontier. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Boyd, R.T., 1985. The Introduction of Infectious Diseases among the Indians of the
Pacific Northwest, 1774-1874. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle.
Boyd, R.T., 1986. Strategies of Indian burning in the Willamette Valley. Canadian
Journal of Anthropology 5,67-86.
Boyd, R.T., 1990. Demographic history, 1774-1874. In: Suttles, W.P. (Ed.), Handbook of
North American Indians, Volume 7, Northwest Coast. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C., pp. 135-147.
369
Boyd, R.T., 1999. Strategies ofIndian burning in the Willamette Valley. In: Boyd, R.T.
(Ed.), Indians, Fire, and the Land in the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University
Press, Corvallis, pp. 94-138.
Boyd, R.T., Hajda, Y.P., 1984. Seasonal population movement along the lower Columbia
River: the social and ecological context. American Ethnologist 14,309-326.
Brown, K.J., Hebda, R.J., 2002a. Origin, development, and dynamics of coastal
temperate conifer rainforests of southern Vancouver Island, Washington. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research 32, 353-372.
Brown, K.J., Hebda, RJ., 2002b. Ancient fires on southern Vancouver Island, British
Columbia, Canada: a change in causal mechanisms at about 2000 ybp. Environmental
Archaeology 7, 1-12.
Brown, K.J., Hebda, R.J., 2003. Coastal rainforest connections disclosed through a Late
Quaternary vegetation, climate, and fire history investigation from the Mountain
Hemlock Zone on southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Review of
Palaeobotany and Palynology 123,247-269.
Brunelle, A., Whitlock, c., 2003. Postglacial fire, vegetation, and climate history in the
Clearwater Range, Northern Idaho, USA. Quaternary Research 60, 307-318.
Burnett, R.M., 1995. Obsidian hydration analysis of artifacts from site 35CL96, a
Cascade phase camp on the lower Willamette River. Current Archaeological Happenings
in Oregon 20,3-7.
Campbell, S.K., 1990. Post-Columbian Culture History in the Northern Columbia
Plateau. Garland Publishing, New York.
Carcaillet, C., Almquist, H., Asnong, H., Bradshaw, R.H.W., Carrion, J.S., Gaillard, M.-
J., Gajewski, K., Haas, J.N., Haberle, S.G., Hadorn, P., Miiller, S.D., Richard, P.J.H.,
Richoz, I., Rosch, M., Sanchez Gofii, M.F., von Stedingk, H., Stevenson, A.C., Talon, B.,
Tardy, C., Tinner, W., Tryterud, E., Wick, L., Willis, K.J., 2002. Holocene biomass
burning and global dynamics of the carbon cycle. Chemosphere 49,845-863.
Cheatham, R.D., 1984. The Fern Ridge Lake archaeology project, Lane County, Oregon,
1982-1984. Report to the Portland District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Department of
Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene.
Cheatham, R.D., 1988. Late Archaic settlement pattern in the Long Tom sub-basin,
Upper Willamette Valley, Oregon. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers 39,
Eugene.
370
Christy, J.A., 2004. Native freshwater wetland plant associations of northwestern Oregon.
Oregon Natural Heritage Infonnation Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis.
Christy, J.A., Alverson, E.R., 1994. Saving the Valley's wet prairie. The Nature
Conservancy Oregon Chapter Newsletter, Portland, OR, USA.
Christy, J., Alverson, E.R., Daugherty, M.P., Kolar, S.C., 1997. Presettlement vegetation
ofthe Willamette Valley, Oregon, version 1. Oregon Natural Heritage Program, The
Nature Conservancy of Oregon, Portland.
Cissel, J.H., Swanson, F.J., Grant, G.E., Olson, D.H., Gregor, S.V., Gannan, S.L.,
Ashkenas, L.R., Hunter, M.G., Kertis, .LA., Mayo, J.R., McSwain, M.D., Swetland, S.G.,
Swindle, KA., Wallin, D.O., 1998. A landscape plan based on historical fire regimes for
a managed forest ecosystem: the Augusta Creek Study. PNW-GTR-422. USDA Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
City of Lake Oswego, 1989. Cultural resources inventory field fonn 1988-1989.
Available at http://www.ci.oswego.or.us/Plan/Historic%20Resources%20Advisory%
20Board/Landmarks/CollardHouse/CollardHouse.pdf
City of Lake Oswego, 2007. A brief history. Available at http://www.ci.oswego.or.us/
ABOUT-LO/HISTORY.HTM
Clark, D.L., Wilson, M.V., 2001. Fire, mowing, and hand-removal of woody species in
restoring a native wetland prairie in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. Wetlands 21, 135-
144.
Cole, D., 1977. Ecosystem dynamics in the coniferous forest of the Willamette Valley,
Oregon, U.S.A. Journal of Biogeography 4, 181-192.
Connolly, T.J., in press. Archaeology of the Willamette Valley, Oregon. In:
McManamon, F.P. (Ed.), Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood
Publishing, Westport, Connecticut.
Connolly, T.J., Hodges, C.M., Tasa, G.L., O'Neill, RL., 1997. Cultural chronology and
environmental history in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. Paper presented at the 50th
Annual Northwest Anthropological Conference, Ellensburg, Washington.
Cook, E.R., Woodhouse, C.A., Eakin, C.M., Meko, D.M., Stahle, D.W., 2004. Long-tenn
aridity changes in the western United States. Science 306, 1015-1018.
Crandall, D.R., Miller, R.D., 1974. Quaternary stratigraphy and extent of glaciation in the
Mount Rainier region, Washington. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 450-D.
371
Cronon, W., 1995. The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature. In:
Cronon, W. (Ed.),Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature. W. W. Norton, New
York, pp. 69-90.
Cwynar, L.C., 1987. Fire and the forest history ofthe north Cascade Range. Ecology 68,
791-802.
Day, J.W., 2005. Historical savanna structure and succession at Jim's Creek, Willamette
National Forest, Oregon. M.S. thesis, University of Oregon, Eugene.
Dean, Jr., W.E., 1974. Determination of carbonate and organic matter in calcareous
sediments by loss on ignition comparison with other methods. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 44, 242-248.
De1court, H.R, Delcourt, P.A., 1997. Pre-Columbian Native American use of fire on
southern Appalachian landscapes. Conservation Biology 11, 1010-1014.
Denevan, W.M., 1992. The pristine myth: the landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals
ofthe Association of American Geographers 82, 369-385.
Dobyns, H.F., 1983. Their Number Become Thinned. University of Tennessee Press,
Knoxville.
Douglas, D., 1959. Journal Kept by David Douglas during his Travels in North America
1823-1827. Antiquarian Press Ltd., New York.
Dunwiddie, P., Alverson, E., Stanley, A, Gilbert, R, Pearson, S., Hays, D., Arnett, J.,
Delvin, E., Grosboll, D., Marschner, C., 2006. The vascular plant flora of the south Puget
Sound prairies, Washington, USA Davidsonia 14, 51-69.
Dykaar, B.B., Wigington, Jr., PJ., 2000. Floodplain formation and cottonwood
colonization patterns on the Willamette River, Oregon, USA. Environmental
Management 25, 87-104.
Faegri, K., Kaland, P.E., Krzywinski, K., 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.
Foster, D.R, Hall, B., Barry, S., Clayden, S., Parshall, T., 2002. Cultural, environmental,
and historical controls of vegetation patterns and the modem conservation setting on the
island of Martha's Vineyard, USA Journal of Biogeography 29, 1381-1400.
Fowler, c., Konopik, E., 2007. The history of fire in the southern United States. Human
Ecology Review 14, 165-176.
372
Franklin, J.F., and Dyrness, C.T., 1988. Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Frenkel, R.E., Heinitz, Lt., E.F., 1987. Composition and structure of Oregon Ash
(Fraxinus latifolia) forest in William L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon.
Northwest Science 61, 203-212.
Gannett, M.W., Caldwell, R.R., 1998. Geologic Framework of the Willamette Lowland
Aquifer System, Oregon and Washington: Regional Aquifer-System Analysis-Puget-
Willamette Lowland. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1424-A. U.S.
Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO.
Gardner, J.1., Whitlock, C., 2001. Charcoal accumulation following a recent fire in the
Cascade Range, northwestern USA, and its relevance for fire-history studies. The
Holocene 11,541-549.
Gavin, D.G., McLachlan, J.S., Brubaker, L.R, Young, K.A, 2001. Postglacial history of
subalpine forests, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, USA The Holocene 11, 177-188.
Gavin, D.G., Hu, F.S., Lertzman, K., Corbett, P., 2006. Weak climatic control of stand-
scale fire history during the late Holocene. Ecology 87, 1722-1732.
Gedalof, Z., Peterson, D.L., Mantua, N.L., 2005. Atmospheric, climatic, and ecological
controls on extreme wildfire years in the northwestern United States. Ecological
Applications 15, 154-174.
Gedye, S. J., Jones, R. T., Tinner, W., Ammann, R, Oldfield, F., 2000. The use of
mineral magnetism in the reconstruction of fire history: A case study from Lago di
Origlio, Swiss Alps. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 164, 101-110.
Graumlich, L.1., 1987. Precipitation variation in the Pacific Northwest (1675-1975) as
reconstructed from tree rings. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77,
19-29.
Graumlich, L.J., 1993. A 1000-year record of temperature and precipitation in the Sierra
Nevada. Quaternary Research 39, 249-255.
Graumlich, L.J., Brubaker, L.B., 1986. Reconstruction of annual temperature (1590-
1979) for Longmire, Washington, derived from tree rings. Quaternary Research 25, 223-
234.
Gray, A, 1990. Forest Structure on the Siouxon Bum, Southern Washington Cascades:
Comparison of Single and Multiple burns. M.S. thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.
373
Greenwald, D.N, Brubaker, L.B., 2001. A 5000-year record of disturbance and vegetation
change in riparian forests of the Queets River, Washington, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research 31, 1375-1385.
Grigg, L.D., Whitlock, C., 1998. Late-glacial vegetation and climate change in western
Oregon. Quaternary Research 49,287-298.
Grigg, L.D., Whitlock, C., 2002. Patterns and causes of millennial-scale climate change
in the Pacific Northwest during Marine Isotope Stages 2 and 3. Quaternary Science
Reviews 21, 2067-2083.
Grove, A.T., 2001. The "Little Ice Age" and its geomorphological consequences in
Mediterranean Europe. Climatic Change 48, 121-136.
Habeck, J.R., 1961. The original vegetation of the mid-Willamette Valley, Oregon.
Northwest Science 35, 65-77.
Hallett, D.J., Lepofsky, D.S., Mathewes, R.W., Lertzman, K.P., 2003. 11,000 years of
fire history and climate in the mountain hemlock rain forests of southwestern British
Columbia based on sedimentary charcoal. Canadian Journal ofForest Research 33, 292-
312.
Hansen, H.P., 1947. Postglacial forest succession, climate, and chronology in the Pacific
Northwest. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 37, 1-126.
Hardy, C.C., Schmidt, K.M., Menakis, J.P., Sampson, R.N., 2001. Spatial data for
national fire planning and fuel management. International Journal ofWildland Fire 10,
353-372.
Hebda, R.J., 1995. British Columbia vegetation and climate history with a focus on 6 ka
bp. Geographie Physique et Quaternaire 49,55-79.
Heinrichs, M.L., Hebda, RJ., Walker, LR., 2001. Holocene vegetation and natural
disturbance in the Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir biogeoclimatic zone at Mount
Kobau, British Columbia. Canadian Journal ofForest Research 31,2183-2199.
Heusser, C.J., 1983. Vegetational history of the northwestern United States including
Alaska. In: Porter, S.C. (Ed.), Late Quaternary Environments of the United States:
Volume 1. University ofMinnesota Press, Minneapolis.
Heusser, C.J., Heusser, L.E., 1980. Sequence ofpumicious tephra layers and late
Quaternary environmental record near Mount St. Helens. Science 210, 1007-1009.
374
Heusser, C.J., Heusser, L.E., Peteet, D.M., 1985. Late-Quaternary climatic change on the
American North Pacific Coast. Nature 315, 485-487.
Hibbert, D.M., 1979. Pollen Analysis of Late-Quaternary Sediments from Two Lakes in
the Southern Puget Lowland, Washington. M.S. thesis, University of Washington,
Seattle.
Hibbs, D.E., Wilson, M.V., Bower, AL., 2002. Ponderosa pine of the Willamette Valley,
Western Oregon. Northwest Science 76,80-84.
Higuera, P.E., Sprugel; D.G., Brubaker, L.B., 2005. Reconstructing fire regimes with
charcoal from small-hollow sediments: a calibration with tree-ring records of fire. The
Holocene 15,238-251.
Higuera, P.E., Peters, M.E., Brubaker, L.A, Gavin, D.G., 2007. Understanding the origin
and analysis of sediment-charcoal records with a simulation model. Quaternary Science
Reviews 26, 1790-1809.
Higuera, P.E., Brubaker, L.B., Anderson, P.M., Brown, T.A, Kennedy, AT., Hu, F.S.,
2008. Frequent fires in ancient shrub tundra: implications of paleorecords for arctic
environmental change. PLoS One 3, e0001744.
Hitchcock, C.L, Cronquist, A, 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. University of
Washington Press, Seattle.
Hulse, D., Gregory, S., Baker, J., 2002. Willamette River Basin Planning Atlas:
Trajectories of Environmental and Ecological Change. Oregon State University Press,
Corvallis.
Hulse, D., Branscomb, A., Duclos, J.G., Gregory, S., Payne, S., Richey, D., Dearborn, H.,
Ashkenas, L., Minear, P., Christy, J., Alverson, E., Diethelm, D., Richmond, M., 1998.
Willamette River Basin; a planning atlas. Ver 1.0. Seattle: University of Washington
Press, Seattle.
Impara, P.C., 1997. Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Fire in the Forests of the Central
Oregon Coast Range. Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis.
Jensen, K., Lynch, E.A, Calcote, R., Hotchkiss, S.C., 2007. Interpretation of charcoal
morphotypes in sediments from Ferry Lake, Wisconsin, USA: do different plant fuel
sources produce distinctive charcoal morphotypes? The Holocene 17, 907-915.
Johannessen, C. L., Davenport, W. A, Millet, A., McWilliams, S., 1971. The vegetation
of the Willamette Valley. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61, 286-
302.
375
Johnson, D.M., Petersen, R.R., Lycan, D.R., Sweet, J.W., Neuhaus, M.E., 1985. Atlas of
Oregon Lakes. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.
Jones, P.D., Osborn, T.J., Briffa, K.R., 2001. The evolution ofclimate over the last
millennium. Science 292, 662-667.
Juvigne, E.H., 1986. Late-Quaternary sediments at Battle Ground Lake, southern Puget
Trough, Washington. Northwest Science 60, 210-217.
Kaufinan, D.S., Porter, S.c., Gillespie, AR., 2004. Quaternary alpine glaciation in
Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, Sierra Nevada, and Hawaii. In: Gillespie, AR., Porter,
S.C., Atwater, B.F. (Eds.), The Quaternary Period in the United States. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp. 77-104.
Kay, C.E., 2007. Are lightning fires unnatural? A comparison of aboriginal and lightning
ignition rates in the United States. In: Masters, R.E., Galley, K:E.M. (Eds.), Proceedings
of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland
Ecosystems. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, pp. 16-28.
Knox, M.A, 2000. Ecological Change in the Willamette Valley at the Time ofEuro-
American Contact c. 1800-1850. M.S. thesis, University of Oregon, Eugene.
Kohnen, P., 2008. The first people of Clackamas County. Available at
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/or/county/clackamas/indians.html
Kutzbach, J. E., Guetter, P. J., Behling, P. J., Selin, R., 1993. Simulated climatic changes:
results of the COHMAP climate-model experiments. In: Wright, Jr., H.E., Kutzbach, J.E.,
Ruddiman, W.F., Street-Perrott, F.A, Webb, III, T., Bartlein, P.J. (Eds,), Global Climates
Since the Last Glacial Maximum. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 24-93
Lacourse, T., 2005. Late Quaternary dynamics of forest vegetation on northern
Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews 24, 105-121.
Leavitt, S.W., 1994. Major wet interval in White Mountains Medieval Warm Period
evidenced in Ol3C of bristlecone pine tree rings. Climatic Change 26, 299-307.
Leopold, E.B., Boyd, R.T., 1999. An ecological history of old prairie areas in
southwestern Washington. In: Boyd, R.T. (Ed.), Indians, Fire, and the Land in the Pacific
Northwest, Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, pp. 94-138.
Leopold, E.B., Nickmann, R., Hedges, J.I., Ertel, J.R., 1982. Pollen and lignen records of
late Quaternary vegetation, Lake Washington. Science 218, 1305-1307.
376
Lepofsky, D., Heyerdahl, E.K, Lertzman, K, Schaepe, D., Mierendorf, R, 2003.
Historical meadow dynamics in southwest British Columbia: a multidisciplinary analysis.
Conservation Ecology 7, online at http://www.consecol.org/voI7/iss3/art5.
Long, C.J., Whitlock, C., 2002. Fire and vegetation history from the coastal rain forest of
the western Oregon Coast Range. Quaternary Research 58, 215-225.
Long, C.J., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., Millspaugh, S.H., 1998. A 9000-year fire history
from the Oregon Coast Range, based on a high-resolution charcoal study. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research 28, 774-782.
Long, C.J., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., 2007. Holocene vegetation and fire history of the
Coast Range, western Oregon, USA. The Holocene 17, 917-926.
Loope, W.L., Anderton, J.B., 1998. Human vs. lightning ignition of presettlement surface
fires in coastal pine forests of the upper Great Lakes. The American Midland Naturalist
140,206-218.
Luckman, B.H., 1995. Calendar-dated, early "Little Ice Age" glacier advance at Robson
Glacier, British Columbia, Canada. The Holocene 5, 149-159.
Mann, M.E., 2002. Medieval Climatic Optimum. In: MacCracken, M.C., Perry J.S.
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, Volume 1, The Earth System:
Physical and Chemical Dimensions of Global Environmental Change. John Wiley and
Sons, Chichester, pp. 514-516.
Maret, M.P., Wilson, M.V., 2005. Fire and litter effects on seedling establishment in
western Oregon upland prairies. Restoration Ecology 13, 562-568.
Marino, C., 1990. History of western Washington. In: Suttles, W.P. (Ed.), Handbook of
North American Indians, Volume 7, Northwest Coast. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C., pp. 169-179.
Marlon, J., Bartlein, P.J., Whitlock, C., 2006. Fire-fuel-climate linkages in the
northwestern USA during the Holocene. The Holocene 16, 1059-1071.
Marlon, J.R., Bartlein, P.J., Walsh, M.K, Harrison, S.P., Brown, K.J., Edwards, M.E.,
Higuera, P.E., Power, M.J., Anderson, R.S., Briles, C., Brunelle, A., Carcaillet, C.,
Daniels, M., Hu, F.S., Lavoie, M., Long, C., Minckley, T., Richard, P.J.H., Shafer, D.S.,
Tinner, W., Umbanhowar, Jr., C.E., Whitlock, c., in press. Wildfire responses to abrupt
climate change in North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Mathewes, R.W., 1993. Evidence for Younger Dryas-age cooling on the north Pacific
coast of America. Quaternary Science Reviews 12,321-331.
377
McKenzie, D., Gedalof, Z., Peterson, D.L., Mote, P., 2004. Climatic change, wildfire,
and conservation. Conservation Biology 18, 890-902.
McLachlan, J.S., Brubaker, L.B., 1995. Local and regional vegetation change on the
northeastern Olympic Peninsula during the Holocene. Canadian Journal of Forest
Research 73, 1618-1627.
Millspaugh, S.H., Whitlock, c., 1995. A 750-year fire history based on lake sediment
records in central Yellowstone National Park, USA. The Holocene 5, 283-292.
Minckley, T.A., Whitlock, C., 2000. Spatial variation of modern pollen in Oregon and
southern Washington. Review ofPalaeobotany and Palynology 112,97-123.
Minor, R., Kuo, S., 2008. Oswego iron furnace (35CL297). Society for Historical
Archaeology Newsletter 40.
Minore, D., 1979. Comparative autoecological characteristics of northwestern tree
species: a literature review. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-87. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland.
Mitchell, V.L., 1976. The regionalization of climate in the western United States. Journal
of Applied Meteorology 15,920-927.
Mock, c.J., 1996. Climatic controls and spatial variations of precipitation in the western
United States. Journal of Climate 9, 1111-1125.
Mohr, J.A., Whitlock, C., Skinner, c.J., 2000. Postglacial vegetation and fire history,
eastern Klamath Mountains, California. The Holocene 10,587-601.
Morris, W.G., 1934. Forest fires in western Oregon and western Washington. Oregon
Historical Quarterly 35,313-339.
Morrison, P.H., Swanson, F.J., 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range
landscape. PNW-GTR-254. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Portland, OR.
Mullineaux, D.R., 1986. Summary ofpre-1980 tephra-fall deposits erupted from Mount
St. Helens, Washington State, USA. Bulletin of Volcanology 48, 17-26.
New, M., Lister, D., Hulme, M., Makin, I., 2002. A high-resolution data set of surface
climate over global land areas. Climate Research 21, 1-25.
O'Connor, P., 2006. Oregon's hazelnut harvest. Oregon Labor Market Information
System, available at www.qualityinfo.org/olmisj/ArticleReader?itemid=00005l42.
378
O'Neill, B.L., 1987. Archaeological reconnaissance and testing in the Noti-Veneta
section of the Florence-Eugene Highway, Lane County, Oregon. Oregon State Museum
ofAnthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene.
O'Neill, RL., Connolly, T.J., Freidel, D. E., McDowell, P.F., Prouty, G.L., 2004. A
Holocene Geoarchaeological Record for the Upper Willamette Valley, Oregon: the Long
Tom and Chalker Sites. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers 61, Eugene.
Orr, E.L., Orr W.N., 1999. Geology ofOregon. Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
Parsons, R.B., Balster, c.A., Ness, A.O., 1970. Soil development and geomorphic
surfaces, Willamette Valley, Oregon. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 34,
485-491.
Patterson, W.A., III, Edwards, K.J., Maguire, D.J., 1987. Microscopic charcoal as a fossil
indicator of fire. Quaternary Science Reviews 6, 3-23.
Pearl, C.A., 1999. Holocene Environmental History of the Willamette Valley, Oregon:
Insights from an 11 ,000-Year Record from Beaver Lake. M.S. thesis, University of
Oregon, Eugene.
Pellatt, MJ., Mathewes, R.W., 1997. Holocene tree line and climate change on the Queen
Charlotte Islands, Canada. Quaternary Research 48,88-99.
Pellatt, MJ., Mathewes, R.W., Clague, J.J., 2001. Implications of a late-glacial pollen
record for the glacial and climatic history of the Fraser Lowland, British Columbia.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 180, 147-157.
Pellatt, M.G., Smith, M.J., Mathewes, R.W., Walker, LR., 1998. Paleoecology of
postglacial treeline shifts in the northern Cascade Mountains, Canada. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 141, 123-138.
Pendergrass, K.L., Miller, P.M., Kauffman, J.B., 1998. Prescribed fire and the response
of woody species in Willamette Valley wetland prairies. Restoration Ecology 6, 303-311.
Pettigrew, R.M., 1990. Prehistory of the Lower Columbia and Willamette Valley. In:
Suttles, W.P. (Ed.), Handbook ofNorth American Indians Volume 7, Northwest Coast.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., pp. 518-529.
Prentiss, W.C., Chatters, J.C., 2003. Cultural diversification and decimation in the
prehistoric record. Current Anthropology 44,33-58.
Ruby, R.H., Brown, J.A., 1992. A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest.
University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
379
Sea, D.S., Whitlock, C., 1995. Postglacial vegetation and climate of the Cascade Range,
central Oregon. Quaternary Research 43,370-381.
Sedell, J.R., Froggatt, J.L., 1984. Importance of streamside forests to large rivers: the
isolation of the Willamette River, Oregon, USA, from its floodplain by snagging and
streamside forest removal. Verhand1ungen der Internationa1e Vereinigung fur
Theoretische und Angewandte Limno10gie 22, 1828-1834.
Sharp, J., Mass, C.F., 2004. Columbia Gorge gap winds: their climatological influence
and synoptic evolution. Weather and Forecasting 19,970-992.
Singer, D.K., Jackson, S.T., Madsen, RJ., Wilcox, D.A., Differentiating climatic and
successional influences on long-term development of a marsh. Ecology 77, 1765-1778.
Sprague, Hansen, 1946. Forest succession in the McDonald Forest, Willamette Valley,
Oregon. Northwest Science 20, 89-98.
Stine, S., 1994. Extreme and persistent drought in California and Patagonia during
medieval time. Nature 369,546-549.
Streatfield, R., Frenkel, R.E., 1997. Ecological survey and interpretation of the
Willamette Floodplain Research Natural Area, W. L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge,
Oregon, USA. Natural Areas Journa117, 346-354.
Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., 2005. CALIB Radiocarbon Calibration version 5.0.2 html.
Available at http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/.
Sugimura, W.Y., Spruge1, D.G., Brubaker, L.R, Higuera, P.E., 2008. Millennia1-sca1e
changes in local vegetation and fire regimes on Mount Constitution, Orcas Island,
Washington, USA, using small hollow sediments. Canadian Journal of Forest Research
38, 539-552.
Teensma, P.D.A., Rienstra, J.T., Yeiter, M.A., 1991. Preliminary reconstruction and
analysis of change in forest stand age classes of the Oregon Coast Range from 1850 to
1940. Technical Note OR-9. USDI, BLM, Oregon State Office, Portland.
Thi1enius, J.F., 1968. The Quercus garryana forests of the Willamette Valley, Oregon.
Ecology 49, 1124-1133.
Thompson, R., Oldfield, F, 1986. Environmental Magnetism. Allen and Unwin, London.
380
Thompson, R.S., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., Harrison, S.P., Spaulding, W.G., 1993.
Climate changes in the western United States since 18,000 yr BP. In: Wright Jr., H.E.,
Kutzbach, J.E., Webb III, T., Ruddiman, W.F., Street-Perrott, F.A., Bartlein, P.J. (Eds.),
Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum. University ofMinnesota Press,
Minneapolis, pp. 468-513.
Towle, J.C., 1982. Changing geography ofWillamette Valley woodlands. Oregon
Historical Quarterly 83,66-87.
Tsukada, M., Sugita, S., Hibbert, D.M., 1981. Paleoecology in the Pacific Northwest 1.
Late Quaternary vegetation and climate. Proceedings - International Association of
Theoretical and Applied Limnology 21, 730-737.
Turner, N.J., Kuhnlein, H.V., 1983. Camas (Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria
spp.): two liliaceous "root" foods of the Northwest Coast Indians. Ecology ofFood and
Nutrition 13, 199-219.
Vacco, D.A., Clark, P.D., Mix, A.C., Cheng, H., Lawrence Edwards, R., 2005. A
speleothem record of Younger Dryas cooling, Klamath Mountains, Oregon, USA.
Quaternary Research 64, 249-256.
Vale, T.R., 2002. The pre-European landscape in the United States: pristine or
humanized? In: Vale, T.R. (Ed.), Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural Landscape. Island
Press, Washington, DC., pp. 1-40.
Waitt, Jr., R.B., 1985. Case for periodic colossal jokulhlaups from Pleistocene glacial
Lake Missoula. Geological Society of America Bulletin 96, 1271-1286.
Walsh, M.K., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., 2008. A l4,300-year-long record of fire-
vegetation-climate linkages at Battle Ground Lake, southwestern Washington.
Quaternary Research 70, 251-264.
Waters, M.R., Stafford, Jr., T.W., 2007. Redefining the age of Clovis: implications for
the peopling of the Americas. Science 315, 1122-1126.
Weisberg, P.J., 1997. Fire history and fire regimes of the Bear-Marten watershed.
Unpublished report to the BLM, Eugene District, Eugene.
Weisberg, P.J., 1998. Fire History, Fire Regimes, and Development of Forest Structure in
the Central Western Oregon Cascades. Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State University,
Corvallis.
Weisberg, P.J., Swanson, FJ., 2003. Regional synchroneity in fire regimes of the western
Cascades, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 172, 17-28.
381
Western Regional Climate Center, 2007. Available at http://www.wrcc.dri.edu.
Whitlock, C., 1992. Vegetational and climatic history of the Pacific Northwest during the
last 20,000 years: implications for understanding present-day biodiversity. Northwest
Environmental Journal 8, 5-28.
Whitlock, C., Bartlein, PJ., 2004. Holocene fire activity as a record ofpast
environmental change. In: Gillespie, A.R., Porter, S.C., Atwater, B.F. (Eds.), The
Quaternary Period in the United States. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 479-490.
Whitlock, C., Knox, M.A., 2002. Prehistoric burning in the Pacific Northwest: human
versus climatic influences. In: Vale, T.R. (Ed.), Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural
Landscape. Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 95-231.
Whitlock, C., Larsen, C.P.S., 2001. Charcoal as a fire proxy. In: Smol, J.P., Birks, H.J.B.,
Last, W.M. (Eds.), Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments: Biological
Techniques and Indicators Volume 2. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 75-
97.
Whitlock, C., Millspaugh, S.H., 1996. Testing the assumptions of fire-history studies: an
examination of modem charcoal accumulation in Yellowstone National Park, USA. The
Holocene 6, 7-15.
Whitlock, C., Shafer, S.L., Marlon, J., 2003. The role of climate and vegetation change in
shaping past and future fire regimes in the northwestern US and the implications for
ecosystem management. Forest Ecology and Management 178, 5-21.
Whitlock, C., Bianchi, M.M., Bartlein, P.J., Markgraf, V., Marlon, J., Walsh, M., McCoy,
N., 2006. Postglacial vegetation, climate, and fire history along the east side of the Andes
(lat 41-42.5°S), Argentina. Quaternary Research 66, 187-201.
Whitlock, C., Marlon, J., Briles, C., Brunelle, A., Long, C., Bartlein, P., 2008. Long-term
relations among fire, fuel, and climate in the north-western US based on lake-sediment
studies. International Journal ofWildland Fire 17, 72-83.
Wiles, G.C., Barclay, D.J., Calkin, P.E., 1999. Tree-ring-dated "Little Ice Age" histories
ofmaritime glaciers from western Prince William Sound, Alaska. The Holocene 9, 163-
173.
Wilkes, C., 1926. Diary ofWilkes in the Northwest. Meany, B.S. (Ed.). University of
Washington Press, Seattle.
Wilkes, C., 1845. The Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition. Lea and
Blanchard, Philadelphia.
382
Wood, c.A., Kienle, J., 1990. Volcanoes of North America: United States and Canada:
Cambridge University Press, England.
Worona, M.A., Whitlock, c., 1995. Late Quaternary vegetation and climate history near
Little Lake, central Coast Range, Oregon. GSA Bulletin 107, 867-876.
Wright, Jr., H.E., Mann, D.H., Glaser, P.H., 1983. Piston cores from peat and lake
sediments. Ecology 65,657-659.
Zdanowicz, C.M., Zielinski, G.A., Germani, M.S., 1999. Mount Mazama eruption:
calendrical age verified and atmospheric impact assessed. Geology 27,621-624.
Zenk, H.B., 1990. Kalapuyans. In: Suttles, W.P (Ed.), Handbook of North American
Indians, Volume 7, Northwest Coast. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., pp.
547-553.
Zobel, D.B., Antos, J.A., 1997. A decade of recovery of understory vegetation buried by
volcanic tephra from Mount St. Helens. Ecological Monographs 67, 317-344.
Zybach, B., 1999. Using Oral Histories to Document Changing Forest Cover Patterns:
Soap Creek Valley, Oregon, 1500-1999.