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Beyond Genre:  
Classifying Virtual Reality Experiences 
Maxwell Foxman, David Beyea, Alex P. Leith, Rabindra A. Ratan, Vivian Hsueh Hua Chen, and Brian Klebig 
Abstract—Because virtual reality (VR) shares common features these features in their VR categorization but generally rely on 
with video games, consumer content is usually classified according an irregular set of genres to classify content.  This circumstance 
to traditional game genres and standards. However, VR offers makes it often problematic to distinguish what makes 
different experiences based on the medium’s unique affordances. 
To account for this disparity, the paper presents a comparative experiences unique from each other and their flatscreen 
analysis of titles from the Steam digital store across three platform counterparts, especially when the types are derived from other 
types: VR only, VR supported, and non-VR. We analyzed data media formats.  
from a subset of the most popular applications within each Thus, our paper draws upon user, developer, and 
category (N=141, 93, and 1217, respectively). The three research/academic-based data to categorize VR experiences 
classification types we analyzed were academic game genres, from the Steam digital store and investigate how they relate to 
developer defined categories, and user-denoted tags. Results 
identify the most common content classifications (e.g., Action and ratings and popularity. Because Steam also offers experiences 
Shooter within VR only applications), the relative availability of that apply across VR and traditional screens, we examined how 
each between platforms (e.g., Casual is more common in VR only platform type (e.g., VR only, VR supported, non-VR) relates to 
than VR supported or non-VR), general platform popularity (e.g., content and user assessment.  
VR only received less positive ratings than VR supported and non-
VR), and which content types are associated with higher user II. VR CONTENT CLASSIFICATION 
ratings across platforms (e.g., Action and Music/Rhythm are most 
positively rated in VR only). Our findings ultimately provide a Challenges to consistent classification stem in part because 
foundational framework for future theoretical constructions of VR is a "centrally situated medium, in that VR is capable… of 
classification systems based on content, market, interactivity, absorbing aspects of other mediums at will" [16]. Research 
sociality, and service dependencies, which underlay how consumer tends to center on phenomenal affordances of room-scale head-
VR is currently categorized. 
 mounted displays (HMDs) [4, 8] instead of style. Academic 
Index Terms—Digital communication, Entertainment industry, analyses emphasize attributes such as presence [25], immersion 
Virtual enterprises, Virtual reality [7], embodiment [4, 5, 32], transportation [22] and perspective-
 taking [31]; comparisons between games and VR focus on 
characteristics like levels of immersion, flow [38, 46, 47] and 
I. INTRODUCTION presence [41], rather than commercial content. Developers and 
VI DEO game genres are systems devised by academics, researchers alike struggle to situate their work through easy-to-media makers, and industry to classify styles or types [26] identify benchmarks. Not only is there a surfeit of content 
of content and user experiences. Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al. argue which falls under the “VR” heading (e.g., films, games, tools), 
that "scholars and journalists find it hugely useful to establish but understanding what makes a meaningful VR experience is 
systems of categorizing games" [14], adding that genre difficult because it depends on convincing users that virtual 
conventions create expectations, especially for consumers, events are real, which can be augmented by multisensory 
about what they will find in their next purchase [14]. Despite additions such as haptics or even olfactory simulations [36]. 
this, as we argued in previous work, genres systems, derived Such add-ons do not neatly fit into most content-based 
from a complex mix of industry norms, mechanics, content, and classification systems. And this discrepancy can affect public 
tradition, are inconsistent [19]. Because Virtual Reality's (VR) perception; for instance, Epp et al. 's investigation of consumer 
commercial success is linked to games such as Half-Life: Alyx VR complaints highlights that most experiences did not live up 
[49] and Beat Saber [6] that dominate the marketplace, titles to expectations regarding content [15]. Opinions may shift with 
tend to be identified by game genre. However, VR renders new more comprehensive classification systems and standards. 
types of engagement and control. Furthermore, content is  To muddle the situation further, VR does share fundamental 
shaped by practical considerations such as motion sickness, characteristics of video game play including narrativity, 
locomotion, user interactions, and cognitive load. VR simulation, interactivity, and intelligence [42]. Content is 
applications are even called "experiences" (as opposed to intertwined with "how game mechanics work" [20]. However, 
games) by the popular press because of the unique features video game genres themselves are not simple to articulate. They 
afforded by the medium, such as presence, or a sense of "being stem from variables different from other forms of entertainment 
there" [4], immersion in computer-generated surroundings [5], (such as interactivity) [1] and are intimately tied to the 
and embodiment of beings [4, 5]—all of which complement evolution of technology, gameplay, and production of the 
richer, open-world environments [10]. Popular digital medium [3]. Confusion stems from the tension between genre 
distribution platforms such as Steam or Oculus not only eschew conventions, interactive metaphors, game pace, and controller 
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types, all of which influence player experience [51] but are "not consumers and even academics collectively employ them to 
clearly or consistently defined" [26]. Consequently, new define their experiences.  
offerings are simply likened to old ones: for instance, the As a first, exploratory step in a larger research initiative, we 
"Roguelike" genre references signature patterns from the compare titles from one distribution store (i.e., Steam): 
classic title Rogue. Even though genres lack neat categorization experiences made only for VR use ("VR only"), those supported 
[2], researchers use them to gauge player personality/choices on both flatscreens and VR ("VR supported"), and content only 
[29, 40], predict addiction [13], and creative and cognitive on flatscreens ("non-VR"). We undertake an overarching 
enhancements [11]. Similarly, "[v]ideo game genres provide a research objective: What is the relationship between traditional 
design lens through which developers can analyze gameplay content classification availability and user ratings in Steam VR-
preferences and player experiences" [33]. Genres also drive related experiences based on VR only, VR supported, and non-
innovation because they define "new area[s] of possibility" for VR modes?  
future titles [3]. Games’ styles and content build on past To this end, we pose the following targeted research 
aesthetics and technology [3]. Studies similarly found that new questions:  
titles succeeded by building on (rather than deviating from) RQ1: What content classifications are most common in 
previous genres [48]. Like games, how VR is classified can Steam-provided VR experiences based on hardware support? 
directly shape future content.  RQ2: How do content classifications (academic game genres, 
Instead of having standardized classifications, commercially developer categories, and user tags) differ across hardware-
available VR experiences are defined by industry whims and support platforms (VR only, VR supported, and non-VR)?  
the peculiarities of distribution hubs, which create issues of RQ3: How do user ratings differ across hardware-support 
validity and reliability for researchers and consumers. A platforms (VR only, VR supported, and non-VR)? 
typology is further constrained by varying perspectives between RQ4: Which content classifications (academic game genre, 
customers, academics, developers, and industry. Popular shops, developer categories, and user tags) are associated with higher 
such as Steam [51] and the Oculus Rift Store [37], user ratings across hardware-support platforms (VR only, VR 
inconsistently demarcate categories, including everything from supported, and non-VR)? 
user-generated tags to economic models (e.g., "Free to Play") In general, the research expands upon existing conventions 
and studio formats (e.g., "Indie"). The absence of a coherent and interests to establish a framework of categories associated 
system affects producers who draw on and utilize existing game with the medium. This framework lays the foundation for future 
genres and formats in their creative strategies. Developers must novel classifications based on differences between VR and non-
maneuver and label their content based on these haphazard VR discovered in the data. 
criteria. The plethora of categorization models in both industry 
and academia underscores the need for lucidity among styles, III. METHODS 
features, and experiences of games generally and VR To address these questions, we performed a content analysis 
specifically.  comparing titles on the Steam digital store, in part because of 
To reiterate, games do not represent the entire ambit of its prominence as a distributor of VR content. A preliminary 
immersive content, which covers a gamut from journalism [39] study between non-VR and VR-only titles was performed 
to healthcare [43], education [35], training, and enterprise [27]. looking solely at academic genres [19]. The investigation acted 
Clearly, there are differences between the medium’s potential, as a means to establish methodological best practices, but was 
what is on the market, and how users find/consume VR expanded upon to include VR supported work and further 
applications (based on classification). For instance, social uses categories articulated below.  
of the medium have been classified independently [30] and 
promoted as the future of the technology by companies like A. Data Collection and Measures 
Facebook [12]. However, since games make up a major portion Steam has become the central hub for PC games, especially 
of the VR landscape, scholars and critics ponder how hardcore VR [17, 49, 50]. Though other clients are rapidly developing 
gamer culture and aesthetics affect VR [21, 23, 24] instead of collections (e.g., Epic Games), Steam still has the largest library 
experimentation with the medium’s singular affordances or and actively pursues a range of accessible VR/AR headsets. 
potential styles. Practical considerations compound this Steam also provides a robust API that allows users to pull 
concern: developers tactically deploy traditional industry information on titles they hold. 
conventions to engage a gaming audience and for The first stage of data collection was to identify the top titles. 
merchandising reasons, utilizing existing platforms, controller To find these, we first assembled a full list of relevant 
norms, and code bases to accelerate content distribution [18]. applications using Steam tools that produced "VR only" 
Recognizing the inconsistencies of genre classification (playable through an HMD) and "VR supported" (playable with 
systems, our goal is to build a more inclusive framework that and without an HMD) titles, as well as non-VR titles (in most 
encompasses affordances, mechanics, and key features of the cases traditional video games). We then ran these titles through 
medium. Practically, such arrangements designate the the SteamSpy API to receive the estimated range of ownership. 
parameters for distributing and tagging content. However, from The popularity threshold for VR only and VR supported 
a theoretical point of view, categorizing common genres can be experiences was 50,000-100,000 estimated ownership (N=141 
pivotal in forging VR’s next generation as developers, & 93 respectively; approximately 3.25% & 10.3% of all VR 
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only and supported experiences). Because non-VR titles due to the highly skewed nature of the data.  
include traditional games with a much larger player base, the 
threshold for all non-VR titles was 500,000-1,000,000 IV. RESULTS 
estimated ownership (N=1217; approximately 3.31% of all A. What content classifications are most common in Steam-
applications). Additional information was pulled using both provided VR experiences based on hardware support? 
Steam and SteamSpy API, including developer categories, user 
tags, and user ratings. Developer categories and user tags were The five most commonly featured genres in VR only were 
included in the analysis only if the tag appeared more than once Action (45%), Shooter (30%), Simulation (22%), Adventure 
within the dataset. User ratings were recorded for each (13%), and Puzzle (12%). The median number of genres was 1 
application based on the count of positive ("thumbs-up") ratings for VR only experiences (in contrast to 4 for non-VR and 2 for 
posted on Steam. For the analysis, we created a "ratings'' VR supported games). 
variable by dividing the number of positive ratings by the total The most common featured developer categories in VR 
number of days the title had been published to control for only were Indie (53%), Action (42%), Adventure (35%), 
differences in availability. Simulation (35%), and Free To Play (32%). The median number of categories was 3 for VR only experiences (in 
B. Content Analysis Coding Procedure  contrast to 2 for non-VR games and 3 for VR supported 
Coding was performed through data-pulling scripts and games). 
human coders who were trained to recognize attributes of The most common featured user tags in VR only were Single 
programs the scrapers missed. Both developer categories and Player (89%), Steam Achievements (25%), Multiplayer (23%), 
user tags consisted of a few words. Descriptors included more VR supported (21%), and PvP (19%). The median number of 
traditional game genres, but each was developed from different categories was 2 for VR only experiences (in contrast to 6 for 
stakeholders on Steam. Developer categories, which are non-VR games and 7 for VR supported Games). Results across 
showcased on the front of the Steam Store page, are set by classifications can be found in Fig. 1.  
publishers and confirmed by company representatives as titles B. How do content classifications (academic game genres, 
are posted. While genres are included, many of these developer developer categories, and user tags) differ across hardware 
categories are also based on other types of information, such as support platforms (VR only, VR supported, and non-VR)? 
the economics surrounding titles (e.g., "Free to Play" and A series of chi-squared tests of independence were 
"Indie"). Steam contains a wizard to help developers assign performed to examine the relative availability of different 
categories, which can be based on "Genres," "Visual academic game genres, developer categories, and user tags in 
properties," "Themes & Moods," and "Features" [45]. User VR only, VR supported, and non-VR platforms. Each test 
tags—presumably assigned by users with experience of the examined an individual genre, category, or tag to see if it 
application—are meant to increase the visibility of titles within existed equally within all three platforms, or if one modality had 
the store for consumers. Neither developer categories nor user a higher representation of the classification in question. The full 
tags neatly explain the genre of games and applications on results are in Table 1, followed by explanations of notable 
Steam. trends. 
To make up for this discrepancy, human coders utilized a set 
of academic genres derived from the Lucas and Sherry system C. Academic Genres 
[34], with minor modifications: Action, Adventure, Classic The genres that occurred less frequently in VR only and VR 
Board Games, Dice, Fighter, Flight, Music/Rhythm, Puzzle, supported than in non-VR were Action, Adventure, and 
Quiz/Trivia, Racing/Speed, Role-Playing Game (RPG), Shooter. The genres that occurred less frequently in VR than 
Shooter, Simulation, Sports, Strategy, and Turn-Based non-VR experiences, with VR supported experiences not 
Strategy. We chose to rely on human coders as a first step having enough cases for statistical analysis, were Fighter and 
because they are better able to categorize games systematically RPG. The genres that occurred more frequently in VR only 
and consistently. Three independent coders, who were not the and VR supported than in non-VR experiences were 
authors, were trained on the coding protocols for identifying Simulation and Flight. The Racing/Speed genre occurred more 
content (see Appendix for full descriptions). For VR only and frequently in VR supported titles, with not enough instances of 
VR supported, two coders were assigned for each title. For non- VR only experiences for analysis. The remaining genres had either non-significant chi-squared results or lacked the 
VR, only one coder was assigned per title to avoid fatigue given necessary number of cases for any analysis. However, for 
the large number of applications. Researchers also spot- these cases, the frequencies suggest extremely few Turn-
checked 5% of the codes for irregularities and found none. Based Strategy (0 in VR supported and VR only) and Strategy 
Multiple genres could be assigned to each experience. These titles (1 in VR supported), with slightly more frequent Classic 
methods follow conventions to answer the research questions. Board Games (5 in VR only and VR supported) and Puzzle 
Additionally, a minimal acceptable threshold of α=0.7 was (19 in VR supported and VR only). Given their rarity overall, 
established, which all variables met or exceeded. The data also this suggests they occur more frequently in non-VR content.  
met regression assumptions for homogeneity of variance,  
linearity, and homoscedasticity. Cohen’s Kappa was not used 
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Fig. 1. Percentages of classifications included in analysis across type and platform. Pink represents VR Only, green represents 
Non-VR, and purple represents VR Supported. The grey line represents the difference between VR Only and Non-VR. 
 
 
D. Developer Categories and non-VR than VR only were Multi-player, Co-op, Steam Achievements, Full Controller Support, Partial Controller 
The developer categories that occurred more frequently in Support, and Steam Trading Cards. The tags that occurred more 
VR only than VR supported and non-VR were Indie and Free frequently in VR supported than VR only and non-VR were 
to Play. The category that occurred more frequently in non-VR Online PvP and PvP. The tag that occurred more frequently in 
than VR only and VR supported was Action. The categories that non-VR than VR only and VR supported was Steam Cloud. The 
occurred more frequently in VR only and VR supported than tag that occurred more frequently in VR only and VR supported 
non-VR were Simulation, Casual, Sports, and Racing. In cases than non-VR was VR Support (i.e., the "VR Support'' user tag). 
where VR supported did not have enough categories for In cases where VR only did not have enough tags for analysis, 
analysis the categories that occurred more in VR only compared tags that occurred more frequently in VR supported than non-
to non-VR are Utilities, Early Access, and Violent. When it VR were Shared/Split Screen and Workshop. In cases where 
comes to non-VR compared to VR, the category that appeared VR supported did not have enough tags for analysis, the tag that 
more frequently was Strategy. Adventure and Massively occurred more frequently in VR only than non-VR was Steam 
Multiplayer returned non-significant results. VR Collectibles. 
E. User Tags  
The user tags that occurred more frequently in VR supported   
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TABLE I 
Relative availability of each classification compared among the three platforms. Top five χ2 bolded.  
 
     Adj. Residuals for Item Presence 
Genre df N χ2 p VR Only VR Supported Non-VR 
Action 2 1377 71.321*** <.001 -7.5 -3.4 8.4 
Adventure 2 1377 206.16*** <.001 -12.9 -5.5 14.3 
Fighter 1 1336 67.488*** <.001 -8.2 x 8.2 
Flight 2 1377 40.516*** <.001 1.4 6.1 -4.3 
Music/Rhythm 1 1336 9.467** 0.002 3.1 x -3.1 
Puzzle 1 1336 3.802 0.051 1.9 x -1.9 
Racing/Speed 1 1238 95.402*** <.001 x 9.8 -9.8 
RPG 1 1336 81.815*** <.001 -9 x 9 
Shooter 2 1377 53.876*** <.001 -6.3 -3.3 7.3 
Simulation 2 1377 15.063*** <.001 3.9 0.1 -3.5 
Categories df N χ2 p VR Only VR Supported Non-VR 
Action 2 1377 21.852*** <.001 -3.8 -2.5 4.7 
Adventure 2 1377 1.375 0.503 1.2 -0.2 -0.9 
Casual 2 1377 39.637*** <.001 6.3 0.1 -5.7 
Early Access 1 1238 20.219*** <.001 4.5 x -4.5 
Free to Play 2 1377 8.296* 0.016 2.9 -0.5 -2.3 
Indie 2 1377 11.755** 0.003 3.3 -1.1 -2.4 
Massively Multiplayer 1 1238 0.002 0.962 x 0 0 
Racing 2 1377 115.64*** <.001 0 10.7 -5.4 
RPG 2 1377 22.365*** <.001 -4.3 -1.6 4.7 
Simulation 2 1377 52.127*** <.001 4.4 5.4 -6.7 
Sports 2 1377 48.188*** <.001 1.4 6.7 -4.6 
Strategy 1 1238 18.331*** <.001 -4.3 x 4.3 
Utilities 1 1238 20.366*** <.001 4.5 x -4.5 
Violent 1 1238 12.696*** <.001 3.6 x -3.6 
Tags df N χ2 p VR Only VR Supported Non-VR 
Co-op 2 1377 13.382*** <.001 -3.5 1.3 2.5 
Full controller Support 2 1377 30.923*** <.001 -5.5 1.4 4.2 
In-App Purchases 1 1336 0.03 0.863 x -0.2 0.2 
Level Editor 1 1336 2.178 0.14 x 1.5 -1.5 
Multi-player 2 1377 64.956*** <.001 -7.7 2.8 5.5 
Online Co-Op 2 1377 1.396 0.498 -0.6 1 0.1 
Online PvP 2 1377 12.29*** <.001 -1 3.4 -0.8 
Partial Controller Support 2 1377 39.072*** <.001 -4.5 4.6 1.8 
Platform Multiplayer 2 1377 5.203 0.074 -1.8 1.5 0.9 
PvP 2 1377 19.614*** <.001 -1.1 4.4 -1.2 
Remote Play on TV 1 1336 0.012 0.912 x -0.1 0.1 
Remote Play Together 1 1336 1.54 0.215 x 1.2 -1.2 
Shared/Split Screen 1 1336 3.938* 0.047 x 2 -2 
Single-Player 2 1376 2.736 0.255 1.3 1 -1.6 
Stats 1 1336 3.597 0.058 -1.9 x 1.9 
Steam Achievements 2 1377 71.178*** <.001 -8.4 0.4 7.3 
Steam Cloud 2 1377 66.793*** <.001 -8.1 -0.5 7.5 
Steam Leaderboards 2 1377 3.616 0.164 -1.2 1.5 0.3 
Steam Trading Cards 2 1377 99.46*** <.001 -10 0 8.9 
Steam VR Collectibles 1 1336 99.055*** <.001 10 x -10 
VR Support 2 1377 162.45*** <.001 10.9 6 -12.7 
Workshop 1 1336 5.247* 0.022 x 2.3 -2.3 
Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001; x: indicates less than 5 occurrences of item; Chi-Squared test of independence 
assumption not met. Cases with greater VR Only and VR Supported representation than non-VR are bolded.  
  
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F. Unanalyzed Variables of a model containing all the academic game genres, and two 
We did not run chi-squared tests on various conditions within for the final model). Stepwise linear regressions were also 
our data due to a failure to meet a required assumption; a chi- calculated to predict the effects of developer categories and user 
squared test of independence requires a minimum of five cases tags on the positive rating variable. A significant regression 
in each category to be included in the analysis [44]. For the model was not found for either set of variables. 
academic genres, Classic Board Games, Dice, Music/Rhythm, With VR supported games, a significant regression equation 
Quiz/Trivia, Sports, Strategy, and Turn-Based Strategy were of academic genre on user rating was found, F(2, 38)=90.63, 
not run. For the genres of Fighter, Puzzle, Racing/Speed and p<0.001. The Fighter and Strategy genres were more likely to 
Shooter, the chi-squared test was run using only two hardware have positive ratings. Further, a significant regression equation 
support platforms, as each had one platform with fewer than of developer category on user rating was found, F(1, 39)=4.44, 
five cases (See Table 1). p<0.05, with Action more likely to be rated positively. Lastly, 
The Utilities, Early Access, Violent, Strategy, and Massively a significant regression equation of user tags on user rating was 
Multiplayer developer categories were reduced to two found, F(2, 38)=5.70, p=0.01, with Co-op more likely to be 
groupings to meet the assumption (See Table 1). The Stats, rated positively and PvP more likely to be rated negatively.  
Steam VR Collectibles, In-App Purchases, Shared/Split Screen,  
Workshop, Level Editor, Remote Play Together, and Remote TABLE II 
Play on TV user tags were similarly reduced to two groupings Regressions on positive ratings by days across the hardware-
to meet the assumption (See Table 1). support platforms 
While a chi-squared test of independence could not  
statistically analyze these variables, an examination of the Hardware-Support Platform t p β 
frequency tables can identify cases where a given category is VR Only    Genres    
likely to occur more in a specific hardware-support platform. Action 2.37 0.02 0.18 
For example, the Turn-Based Strategy genre has 80 cases in Music/Rhythm 4.78 <.001 0.37 
non-VR, and zero cases in both the VR supported and VR only VR Supported    
platforms. This suggests a clear platform preference for Turn- Genres    
Based Strategy. While similar observations can be made with Fighter 5.96 <.001 0.40 
other non-analyzed classifications, any such assumption is Strategy 12.22 <.001 0.83 Categories    
suspect. Future research should attempt to collect a large Action 2.11 0.04 0.32 
enough data pool to subject these observations to statistical Tags    
analysis. Co-op 2.73 0.01 0.39 
PvP -2.34 0.03 -0.34 
G. How do user ratings differ across hardware-support All Apps    
platforms (VR-only, VR-support, and non-VR)? Genres    
A linear regression was performed to examine differences in Shooter 2.35 0.02 0.07 
ratings between VR only, VR supported, and non-VR titles Strategy 3.21 0.00 0.09 
using the same ratings metric derived to answer RQ . There was Sports 2.82 0.01 0.08 2 Categories    
a significant effect (F(2,1374)=5.438, p=0.004), such that VR Early Access 4.29 <.001 0.12 
supported (M=0.03, SD=0.17) and non-VR (M=0.87, SD=0.34) Action 2.66 0.01 0.08 
titles were more likely to attain positive ratings than VR only Tags    
(M=0.10, SD=0.30). Steam Workshop 3.76 <.001 0.11 
In-App Purchases 3.91 <.001 0.12 
H. Which content classifications (academic game genre, Remote Play on TV 4.88 <.001 0.15 
developer categories, and user tags) are associated with Valve Anti-Cheat Enabled 2.14 0.03 0.06 
higher user ratings across hardware-support platforms Steam Leaderboards -4.37 0.00 -0.13 
(VR only, VR supported, and non-VR)? Stats 3.76 <.001 0.11 
Remote Play Together -3.70 <.001 -0.12 
We conducted a series of stepwise linear regressions for each Multi-player 2.99 0.00 0.10 
hardware support platform, the full results of which are in Table MMO -3.02 0.00 -0.09 
2. For VR only academic genres, a significant regression Online Co-OP 2.00 0.05 0.06 
equation was found (F(2, 136)=15.57, p<0.001) such that Note. VR Only: Genres [F(2, 136)=15.57***, p<.001, R2=0.19], 
experiences with Action and Music/Rhythm genres increased Categories & Tags: No significant models were found; VR 
the likelihood of positive ratings for the application. Classic Supported: Genres [F (2, 38)=90.63***, p<.001, R2=0.83], 
Board Games, Dice, RPG, Quiz/Trivia, Racing/Speed, Sports, Categories [F (1, 39) =4.44*, p = .04, R2=0.10], Tags [F(2, 
Strategy, and Turn-Based Strategy were dropped from the 38)=5.70**, p = .01, R2=0.23]; Non-VR: Genres [F(3, 
*** 2
regression analysis due to a lack of significance or too few cases 1193)=8.10 , p<.001, R =0.02], Categories (F(2, 
*** 2 ***
in a given condition. Linear regression requires the number of 1194)=12.61 , p<.001, R =0.02], Tags (F(10, 186)=12.82 , 2
cases in a condition to be greater than the total number of p <.001, R =0.10]. ** ***
conditions being regressed (varying between 16, in an analysis *p < .05, p < .01, p < .001 
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Within non-VR, a significant regression equation of A. Content 
academic genre on user rating was found (F(3, 1993)=8.09, Content refers to prevalent styles embedded within VR 
p<0.001). Strategy, Sports, and Shooter games were more likely experiences. Many academic game genres fall into this group, 
to have positive ratings. These results contrast with earlier as do some overlapping developer categories. VR and non-VR 
findings that within VR only titles, Action and Music/Rhythm have some shared content: Action, Adventure, and Shooter are 
were most likely to receive positive ratings. Further, a top genres and categories across all titles. Similarly, Puzzle and 
significant regression equation of developer category on user Racing appear in the top applications of VR, even while 
rating was found, F(2, 1194)=12.61, p<0.001, with Early access relatively more available in non-VR, indicating their prevalence 
and Action more likely to be rated positively. Lastly, a among both media. The difference may reflect the popularity of 
significant regression equation of user tags on user rating was certain types of content on Steam itself regardless of the 
found, F(10, 1186)=12.82, p<0.001, with Steam Workshop, In- medium. However, given Steam’s dominance in distributing 
App Purchases, Remote Play on TV, Valve Anti-Cheat VR, their prominence should not be dismissed, but rather 
Enabled, Stats, Multi-player, and Online Co-Op more likely to underscores how the store determines the type of accessible 
be rated positively and Steam Leaderboards, Remote Play content for consumption. 
Together, and MMO more likely to be rated negatively.   Certain types of content were more widespread for VR. Particularly, Flight, Simulations and Sports had a larger number 
V. D  of applications and relative availability, while Music/Rhythm ISCUSSION and Utilities had high relative availability. The success of these 
These results offer researchers and developers a snapshot of types of content makes intuitive sense, because VR’s depth of 
the types of experiences both available and highly regarded by immersion caters not only to obvious titles like Shooter, but 
consumers. At the same time, the findings spotlight the enhances other genres like Flight and Racing. Some of the 
discrepancies in formulating a coherent classification system trendier titles featured in widely viewed Let's Play tutorial 
for commercial VR, especially compared to video games. There videos [28] come from longstanding series such as DiRT and 
is little overlap between academic genres, developer categories, Project CARS that already use ancillary components like 
and user tags. For instance, the developer category Action steering wheels for play and where headsets accentuate the 
exhibits dissimilar frequencies to the academic genre of the lifelike experience. By contrast, certain genres like RPG and 
same name. Given how data was collected, a lack of uniformity Strategy (both of which make heavy use of the third-person 
may be expected. Each classification type also serves a different perspective) were more popular for non-VR content. 
purpose: academic game genres focus more on style; developer The findings display the need for a typology of VR content 
categories cater to marketing games; and user tags are explicitly beyond traditional academic game genres. The higher relative 
generated to identify specific features important to the availability of categories like Simulation and Utility means that 
community. The result, however, is often contradictory. Titles some of the most downloaded VR titles on Steam are not games 
like Fruit Ninja VR or Adventure Climb VR are categorized by and include apps like VRCapture that allow for filming experiences in VR, DeoVR Video Player, Google Earth VR 
developers as "Sports'' possibly to appeal to a wider consumer (which provides a navigable three-dimensional map), and 
base, while not containing any content that features athletics, casual near-cinematic experiences, like theBlu. In other words, 
sporting events, or teams, which make up the academic the findings show not only that VR content tends toward certain 
definition of the genre from Lucas and Sherry [34]. In fact, they existing genres, but current experiences serve a broad range of 
may more closely resemble "exergames" [17] given the purposes beyond gaming, whether with applications like 
physical activity required, but this option is not included in the Google Earth or even a computer-generated opera (Senza 
academic system, nor was it chosen by game makers or users. Peso). 
At very least, inconsistency may speak to external validity 
issues that should be taken into account when researchers look B. Market 
at commercial genres more broadly. Market refers to categories and tags related to the production 
Our exploratory research also provides a means to discern and monetization of VR experiences. It precludes most 
VR’s predominant aspects. Along with recognizing the academic genres, which tend to concentrate on content. Some 
diversity of components represented by genres, categories and service specific market tags were excluded from this category, 
tags, the start of a classification system for VR emerges that can to be explained further below. Across VR and non-VR 
immediately be used by designers and researchers to identify experiences, several market classifications dominated. "Indie," referring to the size of studios, was in the top five categories for 
qualities that make experiences exceptional. We grouped both media. Its ubiquity makes sense because Steam's business 
together five main themes that encompass the most notable model is based on appealing to and distributing independent and 
tags, genres and categories: content, market, interactivity, AAA (major studio) developers. However, Indie experiences 
sociality, and service dependencies. We explain each theme were also relatively more available for VR, along with Casual, 
below, and discuss how VR (both VR only and VR supported) Early Access and Free to Play. This implies that, unlike 2D 
and non-VR share certain commonalities and differences, as counterparts, VR makers are not necessarily relying on the 
illustrated in Fig. 2. Additionally, after discussing implications traditional economics of the AAA industry. To some degree, 
and limitations based on these findings, we consider next steps producers may be experimenting with a variety of relatively 
for classifying VR content. novel modes of monetization. The preponderance of the Indie 
category also underscores that VR experiences are
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Fig 2. A diagram identifying prevalent and shared classifications based on VR (both VR only and VR supported) and non-VR. 
Each are grouped based around common themes of content, market, interactivity, sociality, and service dependencies. 
 
not necessarily developed by mainstream publishers. Instead, indicate that there is less nomenclature for experiences created 
some of the most successful experiences, like Beat Saber, by the community. After all, traditional games are associated 
originate from startups with limited products. By contrast, VR with many conventions in terms of user control and interface 
supported experiences are appended to existing franchises, that are difficult to translate into VR.  
either making the game compatible with an HMD (as was the Some of these conventions pertain to gameplay: buttons on 
case with No Man's Sky) or an add-on that uses the headset (as gamepads and keyboards facilitate a particular form of 
with Rise of the Tomb Raider). interaction. A player who could, on a gaming console, press a 
The prevalence of such market labels defied our expectation button and nimbly perform a bicycle kick would find the same 
that traditional game genres and economics dominated VR move difficult (and dangerous) to execute in VR. Modes like 
titles, especially given the gamer-oriented vision promulgated "split screen" are also uncomfortable in a HMD. This may begin 
by early adherents [21, 23]. Instead, the frequency of categories to explain discrepancies in genre as well: Music/Rhythm and 
like Casual (and Utilities mentioned above) hint at the fact that certain Sports (e.g., frisbee or tennis) make the most of a user's 
VR may offer more relaxed and accessible experiences to users. gesticulations and allow lifelike actions, while Strategy games 
Even Steam’s most popular VR only title, Beat Saber, is a are relatively less available because they rely on traditional 
music and rhythm game, as opposed to a more "hardcore" genre modes of gaming interactivity (e.g., a mouse, keyboard, and 
like Shooter or Strategy. VR may demand new articulations and screen). VR, therefore, may provide naturalistic, intuitive 
categorizations for how it is produced and even monetized as modes of engagement, which may be difficult to classify but are 
its economic and cultural trajectory diverges from traditional potentially more accessible than traditional games to a wider 
games. array of novice users—assuming they can afford the headset—
C. Interactivity who have not mastered game controllers and associated maneuvers.  
When it comes to how users interact with VR content, a few Differences in interactivity and genre between VR and non-
stark differences surface. There are numerous ways to identify VR also manifest in the length of experiences. RPGs and 
interactivity, or engagement with content, but developers and Strategy games require less physical activity, which can allow 
users classified it primarily based on controller and hardware for long periods of play on flat screens, while prolonged use of 
support. Regarding relative availability, no major interactive HMDs may cause discomfort from heat, eye strain, physical 
categories overlapped and only one interactivity-based fatigue, and simulator sickness [9]. Additionally, being 
criterion, "VR Supported," was (understandably) more "disconnected" from reality for long periods of time may cause 
relatively available for VR experiences. By contrast, a surfeit of apprehension. In traditional video games, players hear and see 
tags existed for non-VR content: full and partial controller their normal surroundings; by contrast, VR suspends users from 
support, level editors, various kinds of remote play and even the natural environment and real-world information, which is 
shared/split screen play.  often disturbing. These potential hindrances merit future studies 
These findings underscore that there is a robust language of interactivity and engagement in virtual environments.  
generated by users for game control and interactivity that is 
absent for VR, possibly because Steam provides separate D. Sociality 
information on headset compatibility (e.g., Oculus Rift, Valve Categories and tags surrounding sociality, or in what ways (if 
Index), controllers and play space (e.g., seated, standing) for any) one plays with others, were also grouped haphazardly 
each VR title. However, the dearth of user tags may also between VR and non-VR. Certain versions of sociality, like 
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Massively Multiplayer, are incorporated into the design and service dependencies were excluded because of their reliance 
monetization of games and experiences. However, users also on Steam. Although not an exhaustive list, it begins to 
tagged an assortment of social interplay. Single Player and illuminate new standards by which consumers and developers 
Multiplayer frequently occurred in VR and non-VR can judge content, as well as direct researchers in devising new 
applications. By contrast PvP (player-versus-player) happened modes of classification, which we aim to do in future research. 
frequently in VR experiences but was relatively more available Our study represents a first phase in assessing commercial 
in non-VR. Given how foundational these modes of socializing VR experiences, for which large scale analysis and 
are on Steam overall, it is unsurprising that many titles were classifications are rare. The findings provide valuable 
labeled as such. measurements that will aid developers to determine what types 
However, VR experiences were categorized as Single Player of VR products will do well in the market, which we aim to 
at a much higher rate than non-VR. The implication is that most confirm in future interview and survey work. We argued from 
available VR titles lean toward being more solitary in their the onset that traditional genres offer a limited perceptual filter 
gameplay. Like interactivity, users developed a significant on how titles differ, something that was borne out in the 
number of tags to describe forms of co-op (cooperative) play research. Our goal is to combine these discoveries with other 
for non-VR games. The imbalance suggests the need for new factors, including the categories set forth in the previous 
modes of social classifications for VR, particularly as spaces section, to expand this foundational framework and ultimately 
like VR Chat defy traditional categories. share and test it with publishers in future research and 
E. Service Dependencies development.  
Finally, both VR and non-VR contained titles that had user G. Low Ratings for an Emerging Medium 
tags explicitly associated with Steam, which we called "service While this study was able to reveal potential classifications, 
dependencies" because they were mostly ancillary to in-game it is less obvious why VR only titles received fewer positive 
play and required recognition by Steam in one way or another. reviews compared to non-VR and VR supported titles in the 
Steam Achievements appeared as one of the most common tags dataset. A few anecdotal reasons may explain this, including the 
for both VR and non-VR. However, once again, there was a possibility of less refined "Indie" titles, or users comparing VR 
diversity of tags for non-VR content that were relatively more experiences to games rather than evaluating them 
available: for instance, Steam Cloud, Leaderboards, and independently. Additionally, there are human factors, like 
Trading Cards. The only relatively more available tag for VR perception, cognition, and ergonomics that are unrepresented in 
was "Steam VR Collectibles," which were made by the this system, but given previous research likely affect user 
company for VR experiences. Clearly, this difference reinforces experience [36]. These conjectures deserve future 
the notion that there is a robust ecosystem within Steam for consideration, and only support the need to classify VR 
game content, but not for VR. The medium is still very much in consumer content with different criteria beyond traditional 
a formative and experimental phase, defying the norms of the gaming. 
service on which it is distributed. H. Limitations 
F. Rethinking Classifications Genre systems’ general lack of uniformity impacts any 
In total, these criteria signal that VR in many instances defies study’s methodology because different classifications might 
or narrows the set of genres found in traditional games. Not only yield other results regarding popularity, although our findings 
are certain types of content more available, such as Simulation were statistically reliable. Further, this was not an experimental 
and Flight, but the future trajectory of the medium revolves study, with no control over classifications given to developer 
around other factors, which may not be neatly or cleanly categories and user tags. Especially because of the fluid 
classified yet (such as sociality and interactivity). Also, interpretation of genre among researchers, developers, and 
distribution service and production shape how content is made consumers alike, a mixed-method and qualitative approach, 
(as seen through the market) and are key to how VR content is such as thematic analysis of user comments, as well as 
perceived. Because of their reliance on distribution channels comparing human coding to the data-scraped tags, seems 
like Steam or Oculus, developers and consumers must work necessary to advance this initial work. Our results should 
within (somewhat limited) classification systems to create certainly be considered a starting—rather than ending—point 
content that conforms to narrow parameters. Our findings for an exploration of VR classification. Certain titles may be 
highlight trends for the medium within such circumstances, hard to classify according to this framework (particularly those 
where VR is dominated by solitary (in terms of sociality), active that are not games or forms of entertainment). Therefore, future 
and physical (in terms of interactivity) casual and indie games, research should expand beyond our taxonomy to account for the 
even while there is the potential to have much more diverse unique affordances of virtual reality. Further, the Steam store’s 
content. limited set of categories is informed by its longstanding 
The data magnifies the need for a new taxonomy for VR relationship to games. By contrast, alternative services for 
beyond traditional genres. Based on our grounded approach, we accessing VR experiences, such as the Oculus store, do not 
believe content, market, interactivity, and sociality provide necessarily have this history. However, since VR and digital 
potential avenues for further refinement and categorization— game makers do not regularly allow access to data, nor publish 
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TCIAIG-2020-0113 10 
 
sales figures, SteamSpy offers one of the better avenues for board game.  
gaining this information [50].  ● Fighter: Game focuses on martial arts or hand-to-
hand combat. 
VI. CONCLUSIONS ● Flight: Player flies around the digital environment 
Our findings begin to bridge the gaps between academic, (e.g., in aircraft, spacecraft, bird).  
consumer, and industry perceptions of VR by comparing ● Music/Rhythm: Game involves playing instruments 
features from each. It is also the first step in building new and/or challenges sense of rhythm.  
frameworks to specify qualities that differentiate commercial ● Puzzle: Game involves a puzzle that can be solved, 
VR titles from games. While affiliated with games and gaming, with low if any element of chance.  
VR is maturing into a medium with distinct features and styles ● Quiz/Trivia: Game tests the player’s knowledge.  
as well as novel approaches to familiar genres. We analyzed ● Racing/Speed: Player in competition to move (on 
how users respond to the medium by first reviewing the foot/vehicle) faster/better than others.  
complicated relationship between genre, games, and VR and ● Role-Playing Game: Game lets the player assume a 
then by empirically assessing the frequency and rating of character role (e.g., create a persona, add a background 
academic genres, developer categories, and user tags currently story, interact with other characters/NPCs to create a 
available to users across VR only, VR supported, and non-VR story).  
experiences on Steam. Results identify the most common ● Shooter: Game involves shooting others or non-
content types (e.g., Action and Shooter within VR only player characters (NPCs).  
applications), the relative availability of each between ● Simulation: Game closely simulates real world 
platforms (e.g., Casual is more common in VR only than VR activities (e.g., flying, driving, working in factory). 
supported or non-VR), general platform popularity (e.g., VR ● Sports: Game focuses on athletic teams and/or 
only received less positive ratings than VR supported and non- sporting events.  
VR), and which content classifications are associated with ● Strategy: Game focuses on strategic planning skills; 
higher user ratings across hardware-support platforms (e.g., not turn-based (e.g., speed-based). 
Action and Music/Rhythm are most positively rated in VR ● Turn-Based Strategy: Game focuses on strategic 
only). Additionally, distinct differences were found between planning skills and is turn-based. 
non-VR games and VR experiences regarding content, market, 
interactivity, sociality, and service dependencies. Ultimately, ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
the study serves as an important steppingstone for We thank Ann Desrochers, Lindsey Murrell, and Matthew 
distinguishing the types of VR experiences users gravitate Klein for their research assistance. Also, we thank the AT&T 
toward that can benefit designers, industry, online reviewers endowment to the Media and Information Department at MSU 
and influencers (who warrant a study in their own right), and for supporting Dr. Ratan’s AT&T Scholar position. 
players alike in future production. It also lays the foundation for 
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