TRANSPORTATION-
MARKINGS
FOUNDATIONS
TRANSPORTAT!ON-MARKINGS
A STUDY IN COMMUNICATION
MONOGRAPH SERIES
Alternate Series Title: An Inter-modal Study of Safety Aids
Alternate T-M Titles: Transport ration] Mark [ing]s
Transport Marks
Waymarks
T-M Foundations, 4th edition, 2005 (Part A, Volume I,
First Studies in T-M) (2nd ed, 1991; 3rd ed 1999)
A First Study in T-M: The US, 2nd ed, 1993 (Part B, Vol I)
International Marine Aids to Navigation, 2nd ed, 1988
(Parts C & D, Vol I)
[Unified 1st Edition of Parts A-D, 1981, University Press of
America]
International Traffic Control Devices, 2nd ed, 2004 (Part
E, Vol II, Further Studies in T-M) (lst ed, 1984)
International Railway Signals, 1991 (Part F, Vol II)
International Aero Navigation, 1994 (Part G, Vol II)
T-M General Classification, 2nd ed, 2003 (Part H, Vol II)
(1st ed, 1995)
Transportaiion-Markings Database:
Marine, 1st ed, [997 (Part Ii, Vol Ill, Additional Studies
in T-M)
TCD, 1st ed, 1998 (Part Iii, Vol I!!)
Railway, 1st ed, 2000 (Part liii, Vol III)
Aero, 1st ed, 200 I (Part Iiv)
(2nd ed of Database, Projected)
Transportation-ivfarkings: A Historical Survey, 1750-2000,
2002 (Part J, Vol IV, Final Studies in T-M)
A Truly Integrative Transportation-Markings [Alternate
Title: Transportation Markings as an Information System]
(Part K, Vol IV, Projected)
CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
Transportation-Markings General Table ofContents
with Index, 4th ed, 2005 (1st ed, 2002; 2nd edition, 2003;
3rd ed. 2004)
TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS
FOUNDATIONS
Part A, 4th Edition
VolUlne I, First Studies
Brian Cleannan
Mount Angel Abbey
2005
Dedication is that of Volume I (Parts A-D, 1st edition, 1981):
To My Parents:
Dad (1909-1980) Mom (1910-1973)
My Step-Mother Jennie (1911-1977)
My Step-Mother Mary (1912-2001)
Copyright (c) 2005 by Mt Angel Abbey. All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
2illl,dllEdlnttnlDiilll:
Clearman, Brian.
First studies in transportation-markings / Brian
Clearman. --2nd ed. , rev. and en!.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: pt. A. Foundations
ISBN 0-918941-02-4 (pt. A) : $15.95 (149 pages)
1. Transportation-Markings. 1. Title. II. Series:
Clearman, Brian. Transportation-Markings: v, 1.
TA 1245. C56 1981 vol. 1. 1991
629.04'2 s--dc 20 [629.04'2] 91-46071 CIP
)Irdl JEdlnttnl()lilll:
0-918941-14-8. $15.95 1999 149 pages
4tUhl JEdlnttlll()lilll:
0-918941-22-9 $19.95 2005 192 pages
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PROLEGOMENA
Prolegomena: The Original Revisited
a) T-M Studies
b) T-M: A Discipline?
c) T-M: Why Not a Discipline Before Now?
d) T-M: Approaches & Forms
e) Underpinings ofT-M
Prolegomena: Addenda
T-M in Proceedings
11 Building Construction: An Analogy for T-M Studies
111 Practical Symbol Practitioners
CHAPTER ONE
THE STUDY OF T-M IN A MULTI-FACETED
FRAMEWORK: SEMIOTICS, COMMUNICATIONS,
CLASSIFICATION, & HOLARCHY
A Semiotics
1 Introduction to Chapter 1
2 Basic Semiotic Concepts
3 Foundations of Messages
B The Physical Dimension of the T-M
1 The Communication Model
2 Semiotics of the Object
C Taxonomy & Holarchy: Expression of Singulars &
Wholes & T-M
1 Introduction
2 Nomenclature
3 Holarchy
Notes on Sources
5
9
14
16
18
19
21
26
28
32
33
35
38
40
42
44
47
49
._- -------
CHAPTER TWO
LIGHT & COLOR PROCESSES &
VISUAL T-M
A Primer on Light & Color
1 Light: A Brief Review
2 Introduction to Color
3 Light Sources
B Color & T-M
1 Historical Development of Color Use in T-M
2 Summary ofColo(Usage in T-M
C Historical Development of Color Messages
1 Development of Messages Before 1900
a) Before 1850
b) 1850-1900
2 The Development of Messages Since 1900
a) 1900-1925
b) Developments Since 1925
CHAPTER THREE
ELECTROMAGNETIC PROCESSES &
ELECTRONIC T-M FORMS
A Primer on Electromagnetic Processes
1 Electromagnetic Radiations & Waves
2 Electromagnetic Waves: Generation,
Propagation, & Reception
B Electronic T-M Forms: Signal Configurations
& Receivers
1 Introduction
2 Electronic Signal Configurations &
Receivers: Multi-Station at One
6
53
57
61
64
68
72
76
81
85
89
91
94
Location with Single Message 95
3 Electronics Signal Configurations &
Receivers: Multiple-Stations at One
Location with Multiple-Messages 100
4 Electronic Signal Configurations &
Receivers: Single Station - Single &
Multiple Messages 104
CHAPTER FOUR
ACOUSTICAL PROCESSES &
ACOUSTICAL T-M FORMS
A Primer on Acoustical Processes
1 Introduction & Terminology 105
2 Acoustical Processes 106
B Acoustical SignaL Processes & Messages
1 Types of Vibrating Instruments &
Generating Sources 109
Note on Terminology 114
2 Messages & Impediments 115
CHAPTER FIVE
TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS & DESIGN
A Design, Culture & T-M
1 Introduction 118
2 Primer on Design
a) Terminology 119
b) Elements & Principle of Design 124
c) T-M, Design & Culture 126
3 CapsuLe History of Design: Victorian Era to the Present
a) Introduction and the Victorian Era 127
b) Late 19th Century & Earlier Twentieth Century 130
7
a) T-M Studies
9
PROLEGOMENA
Prolegomena: The Original Revisited
For a time it had seemed reasonable to think that the first
monograph, American Transportation Markings: A Study in
The original Humboldt County Prolegomenafor Part A
has been great expanded. The original form is now one of
four segments. An older (and perhaps idiosyncratic) memo
on how Transportation-Markings studies developed has been
added as well as a briefessay on Practical Symbol Practit-
ioners. A previously published essayfor Proceedings (of the
Chartered Institute ofTransport UK) is also included in the
Prolegomena. The original idea for a Prolegomena comes
from Myrna Oakley, a writing instructor, at Marylhurst
College (now University) in Oregon. She suggested some
personal background materialfor a monograph on Railway
Signals. The suggestion was worked on but never included in
that monograph. However, the idea took hold and during a
sabbatical in 1991 the idea took the form ofa Prolegomena
for the second edition ofthe Foundations monograph. The
original part ofthe Prolegomena has undergone revision and
expansionfor the third and now for this fourth edition of
Foundations.
The original volume was a cornucopia if not of delights
then of variety and breadth. It was an amalgamation of three
previous written but unpublished monographs. The original
monographs could be seen as a single body of writings rather
than independent entities yet they maintained a distinct
identity. The writer, after many misadventures, decided to
bring them together and publish them as one unit.
138
139
141
145
146
149
158
160
163
181
187
190
General
Names
Individual Names
11 Group, Political & Geographical Names
8
c) Design Since World War II
B External Factors Affecting T-M Design
1 Introduction for 5B & 5C
2 The Historical Process
3 Science & Technology's Impact on T-M
Materials & Design
C T-M & Design
1 Interaction of T-M & Infrastructures with Design
a) The Impact of Transportation Routeway on the
Design ofT-M Forms
b) Influence ofT-Ms International Requirements
on Design
c) Summary of Factors Affecting the Creating of
T-M Characteristics & Design
2 T-M as a Reflection of Culture
a) Historical Backdrop 151
b) T-M: A Reflection of its Times 154
3 Message Systems & Design: T-M as Communications
a) Introduction & Terminology 157
b) Graphic, Geometric & Alphanumeric
Symbols Designs
c) Visual, Acoustical & Electronic Message
Configurations
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEXES
Communication, (found primarily in the first two chapters of
Part A, and in Part B) would be published without further
additions. However, the publisher for that first volume
(which was part of a series in Semiotics) went bankrupt and
the work went unpublished. During that time a second mono-
graph was written. And during the time both monographs
were sitting unpublished, the first portion of third mono-
graph was completed. Eventually all of these studies came
together as Volume I (Parts A-D, University Press of
America, 1981).
Three of the studies have been listed by the pre-binding
year rather than by the year of the binding. This was the case
with Part B, Part F, Part H (lst ed). Each was completed save
for binding in December of the respective year and bound in
January of the following year. All three should have been
listed in the latter year.
The second edition of Part A contained a number of new
and altered elements. The Prolegomena retained materials, or
at least themes, from the 1st ed. Preface. The opening chapter
was a revision, enlargement, and reformulation of the first
two chapters of the old Part A. The former third and fourth
chapters became a single chapter though augmented by a
discussion of light. The next chapter, acoustical signals, was
a new chapter and reviewed concepts in acoustics as well as
examining acoustical signals. Electronic signal processes was
also a new chapter. That chapter followed the format of the
acoustic signals chapter. The final chapter, also new,
examined core ideas of design. These include graphic,
geometric and alphanumeric signals as exercises in design
processes and the influence of design throughout the T-M
spectrum.
The second edition of Part A was a reconstituted version
10
of the original study. It was more of a new monograph than a
revised edition since much of it was either new material or a
major reworking of first edition materials. Nonetheless, the
direction and themes of both editions are similar even with
divergent content.
A third edition of Part A was published in 1999. That
edition added a segment on holarchy and an expansion and
revision of the Prolegomena. The two chapters on lights and
colors were combined into one chapter. And the primer
sections of the visual, electronic and acoustical chapters were
brought into closer alignment with one another. Some more
limited work on the design chapter was undertaken. The new
4th edition of Part A includes a much more extensive chapter
on design. A primer including terms and concepts relating to
design is the latest area of change. Reworking of the Prole-
gomena and updating of several chapters is also included.
The contents of this 4th edition cover 35 years: 1969 to
2004. Differences in time periods, perspectives, topics,
research materials and handling of materials are reflected in
this current study which results in a work displaying both
coherence and a multi-faceted diversity.
A second edition of Part B, A First Study in T-M: The
US was published in 1993 (though listed as 1992 since the
pre-binding completion date had been employed). The
second edition is a markedly different production from the 1st
ed with a reduction of some materials, a variety of additions,
as well as revisions retained materials. A review of the
variety of classifications, explanatory notes and
reconfigurations of materials are included in the study
The second edition of International Marine Aids to
Navigation (Parts C & D) was published in 1988. The vol-
ume is made up of an introductory chapter followed by chap-
11
tel'S on floating aids to navigation: a historical survey of
buoys and buoyage systems, classifications, descriptions of
buoy types, and message systems. Fixed aids to navigation
include chapters on methodology, lights, daybeacons, elec-
tronic aids and fog signals. Classifications, descriptions of
types and message systems are subsumed within the relevant
chapters. The monographs also includes appendices.
Two parts were originally assigned to Marine AlNs
since floating aids were viewed as significantly different
from land-based forms. In retrospect, one part divided into
two sub-parts would have been a better approach. But the
two-part approach has become fixed after more than 20
years. Originally T-M studies were centered on a large chart
of safety aids grouped by modes of transportation and
intersected by the nature ofT-M forms. That chart necessi-
tated the two-part approach or so it seemed. A new issue has
arisen with satellite-based aids. Either a third segment will be
needed or a reconfiguration of aids into land-based and
water/space-based (or non-land based) forms is required.
The first edition of International Traffic Control
Devices, Part E was first published in 1984. That first edition
focussed on TCD systems with a historical undergirding. A
second edition in 2004 focussed on T-M forms rather than on
systems; history and systems have a more secondary role.
The approach of the 2nd ed. more closely follows the modal
approach of the other monographs with international T-M
themes than did the 1st. ed.
International Railway Signals, Part F (1992) begins
with a survey of semiotics, physical properties and history.
While most of the monographs have not explicitly included
semiotics, a need to return to fundamentals shaped this study.
The railway signalling study includes chapters on classifi-
12
cations, colors and their meanings. Other chapters examine
the types of signals, signs, markings as well as messages in
more specific terms. The monograph ends with a glossary of
terms and two appendices.
International Aeronautical Navigations Aids, Part G
(1994), begins with an initial chapter dealing with termi-
nology, methodology, and early history of aero aids. A
second chapter takes up several forms of classification.
Several chapters examine fully-lighted, partially and unlight-
ed aids, and electronic aids including physical equipment and
messages. The study ends with an appendix.
General Classification ofInternational Transportation-
Markings, Part H, has had two editions. The first in 1995
(but listed as 1994 as previously noted because of former
practice of dating by pre-binding process)and a second in
2003. Part H is a brief work that brings together the various
classifications throughout the previous works. Two primary
chapters take up classifications within the contexts of
transportation modes and message energy forms. A third
chapter surveys variant classifications as well as an US T-M
classification. An appendix encompasses several topics
including nomenclature and an index of classifications in the
several monographs. The first edition was divided into
chapters but not sub-chapters; section numerations instead
were employed (e.g., i, ii). The 2nd edition reverts to sub-
chapters and sections.
The Transportation-Markings Database was envisioned
as a single study though completed in increments. The
extensive work needed for the Database required the
incremental approach that generated quasi-autonomous
studies. For at least an interim period of time the Database
will be in four segments: Marine AlNs (1997), Traffic
13
Control Devices (1998), Railway Signals (2000), and Aero
Nav Aids (2001). The Database consists of individual T-M
~
forms listed by dual-indexes and descriptive entries. When
necessary treatments of messages and special categories have
been included.
Transportation-Markings: A Historical Survey, 1750-
2000 (Part J) constitutes a near-final study in the Series. An
introductory chapter includes a survey of early T-M forms as
well as a survey of the Industrial Revolution(s). A chrono-
logical review of visual aids requires two chapters divided
into two uneven periods of time. A single chapter suffices for
sound signals; one chapter is also sufficient for radio aids.
The intended final study, A Truly Integrative T-M [A It:
T-M as an Information System}, Part K, is projected as a
fully integrated study. Core and holistic dimensions of T-M
would be the concern rather than a focus on T-M forms as
was the case in the mode studies. It is possible that a mode-
related dimension can be entirely omitted.
b) T-M: A Discipline?
This book is about "Transportation-Markings" (here-
after T-M). A T-M can be defined as "any device which aids
a mode of transportation (ship, plane, auto, train) by giving
guidance, by expressing regulations, or by giving warnings."
That includes the whole field ofT-M forms (also termed
safety aids): lighthouses, taxiway lights, traffic signs, railway
semaphore signals, radio beacons, buoys, traffic beacons,
global positioning systems, fog signals, targets, obstruction
beacons, daybeacons, and hundreds of other T-M forms.
There is no recognized discipline ofT-M. It began as a
notion of this writer and -- perhaps unfortunately -- it re-
14
mains that. Neither the term or the underylying concept have
met with general acceptance or even restricted acceptance.
The whole enterprise remains unknown even in specialized
environments where such a study might possibly generate
interest. While there are some researchers and writers who
have promoted parts of what might be termed T-M they have
not included the entire spectrum and scope. The Library of
Congress system of subject headings affords a measure of
acceptance ofT-M yet only limited use of the term has
resulted. One m~or transportation library has misused the
term thereby negating what little headway toward acceptance
might have been achieved.
Why promote something so unusual, so seemingly un-
tenable? Because these diverse objects -- with their com-
munication dimension -- are, in fact, a single subject. They
belong together since they perform the same tasks, refer to
parallel modes of transportation and, on occasion, share the
same technology. There is, therefore, a need to say that they
belong together as a discipline.
To say they belong together requires demonstrating the
relatedness of all types of T-M entities. It is not enough to
simply construct a work encompassing T-M forms. It is also
necessary to stress the commonality of the aids along with
the simultaneous independence of the forms and their unique
characteristics. This theme of commonality can be demon-
strated in a variety of ways. The theme can be explicit when
dealing with semiotic and communication concepts, taxon-
omy, and holography.
Commonality is also present in less obstrusive ways
which acually may be more pervasive. For example, the
classifications highlight the individuality ofT-M yet at the
same time taxononomy ties T-M forms together by indicating
15
shared characteristics. Vignettes of history and descriptive of
T-M forms more than hint at shared backgrounds and parallel ..
developments. The over-all development of the monographs
hopefully illuminates T-M forms to be a single phenomena
with multifaceted and multifoliated dimensions rather than
disparate elements with little in common.
c) T-M: Why Not a Discipline Before Now?
This section was substantially written in 1991 which is
long before the World Wide Web became a household word.
Despite the difference that the WWW has made, what was
written in 1991 has more than a lillie truth to it. The Web is
clogged with references to T-M but most (?fthem run counter
to the correct meaning ofthe term and the meaning ofTrans-
portation-Marking in the Library ofCongress. There are
also many sources for individual forms ofsafety aids and to
transportation modes on the Web. But these are frequently
fragmented and widely separated. The new Transportation
Library Catalog (spring, 2004) may jJossiblyhelp to bring
resources together yet the incorrect use (dT -M may con-
ceivably continue its pernicious ways.
But ifT-M forms belong together why are they not
already together? If a broad-scope, semiotic and communica-
tion undergirded and holographic support non-technical
study ofT-M does not already exist why start now? One can
point to the lack of integrative writings about safety aids and
say they ought to exist but why don't they already exist to-
gether? Much of the answer is found in the nature of existing
T-M materials: they do exist but only in specialized, frag- .
mented portions; even the fragments -- which may exist for a
specialized audience -- are largely unknown to a larger
world. For example, publications of the International Hydro-
graphic Bureau, a key source in the past for buoyage ma-
16
terials, are found only a few libraries; even a variety of mari-
ners may not be conversant with that literature. Nor are the
publications of the International Association of Lighthouse
Authoritaries (IALA) readily available to a large reading
public; even libraries with technical collections may lack
IALA's publications. Various railways, traffic control and
aero publications are found only in specialized collections
and unknown by few non-specialists. And most entries on the
Web for Transportation-Markings point to surface markings.
It is not very likely that even a moderately well-stocked
library possesses even some 0 f the more essential works on
T-M. And, therefore, it is unlikely that very many individuals
would have knowledge of even some specialized publica-
tions let alone many of them. This suggests that even partial
awareness of the nature and form ofT-M would be possess-
ed by few people. Readers with wide transportation interests
may be acquainted with a few publications (as well as using
some forms ofT-M). Only the most general works -- which
are usually of a technical nature -- will include even a men-
tion of all forms ofT-M forms. More specialized works often
include a single area ofT-M forms and perhaps only parts of
a single area. And many, if not most, entries on the Web
point to surface markings and related topics.
Further, specialists are generally concerned only with
their discipline. They are rarely concerned with adjoining
disciplines. Mariners, for example, many not see a need for a
knowledge of railway signals, nor would auto motorists see a
need to know about aero lights. This would be true of
operators in other modes of transportation. Though an unde-
rstanding of other forms ofT-M and resulting inter-
connections would be an aid to operators in a single mode.
A sense of unity ofT-M can hardly be conveyed:
17
L-If few libraries have publications in all areas ofT-M
-If few broader-scope works touch on the full spectrum r
of safety aids.
-If few people have more than a slight awareness ofT-M
as constituting an integrative discipline.
-If the key term is misused on a massive scale on the
internet. And if connections between the components ofT-M
are not in evidence on the internet because of the misuse of
the key term blocks the finding of linkages.
Yet an integrative, wholistic approach to all T-M forms
can be achieved. T-M can be a reality.
d) T-M: Approaches & Forms
The approach of this studies could take an abstract
direction. However, the writer has chosen a more concrete
approach and one centering on the international character of
T-M forms. For some T-M systems there have been many
effolis at building common systems of aids through inter-
national bodies; other markings have achieved less global
convergence. Nonetheless, an attempt has been made to draw
together the many marking types from around the world. And
this includes those forms whose source materials have been
tailor-made, and those whose sources had to be woven to-
gether from many fragmented strands of materials.
The approach of this study could have incorporated one
of several forms: a technological one centering on how the
mechanical, electronic and other devices are designed,
constructed and operated. Or a semiotic form with a focus on
sign processes at work in objects standing in for other objects
(accompanied by the resulting disposition to act that this
disposition creates in the receiver). Or a communication form
centering on physical signal processes (semiotics does not
18
involve the physical signal dimension to a notable degree).
Or a study giving significant attention to holons and holarchy
with each element simultaneously pati of another entity and
yet having autonomy in itself.
While T-M studies do not ignore the technological
dimension they do not focus on it either.T-M studies
primarily follows an approach that is holistic and integrative
and centers on cOlmnunication theory, semiotic perspective
and, more recently, holography concepts.
e) Underpinnings of T-M
The underpinnings of the several studies of this Mono-
graph Series on Transportation-Marking as Communication
dates back several decades. They are founded on a childhood
familiarity with a diverse range ofT-M forms.
- Traditional lighthouses from Tillamook Rock on the
Oregon Coast, Cape Disappointment and North Head adja-
cent to the Columbia River estuary, to Alki Point in Seattle.
- River and Harbor Lights of the Columbia River; often
superficially similar objects made up of small houses, boxes,
platforms and skeleton towers and marked off by stripes,
bands, letters and numbers; further differentiated through
unique flashing, occulting or fixed characteristics. The
singular quality of river and harbor lights is conjured up by
memories of specific lights: the fixed green glow of
Garibaldi Light on a misty afternoon in Tillamook Bay; the
staccato flashes of Stella Range Rear Light on the Columbia
(flashes created by a railway searchlight lantern), the black
and white banded daymark of Columbia River Entrance
Range Front Light, larger than some traditional lighthouses.
19
- Buoys of several shapes and sizes and displaying red or
black hues. Buoys with bells, gongs, or whistles sounding a
message sometimes clamorous, sometimes eerie in storm or
fog. The special quality of sound buoys is reflected by the
cacaphony of buoys in the Columbia Estuary heard from atop
Cape Disappointment; the almost ghostly sound of the Cape
Kiwandi Whistle Buoy heard from the moist forest of Cape
Lookout in Tillamook County.
- Aeronautical lights from the simple runway edge and end
lights of the Kelso airport to the complex approach lights of
Sea-Tac; prosaic fixed or flashing red lamps atop electrical
or communication transmission towers. Such lights are high-
lighted by an engrained memory of the loom of the Rocky
Point Airway Beacon guarding the flanks of the Kelso
airport.
- Railway signals from more modern color light signals of
the Northern Pacific at Kelso to more colorful semaphores: a
sentinel with square-ended blade in red and white in the
Chehalis lowlands and a signal with pointed-end blade yel-
low and black near Vader. And interspersed with the signals
were little noticed targets, whistles, mileage posts, and
station signs.
The panorama of marine, aero, rail signals and beacons
of the northern Pacific coast, the River of the West, and the
Puget-Cowlitz lowland, was framed within a matrix of the
ubiquitous traffic signal, sign and pavement marking.
Objects so common that they may fail to register in the con-
sciousness since they conceivably became embedded in the
subconsiousness of many users. A utilitarian object occasion-
ally made singular by an ancient traffic sign coated with
raised glass beads or an unitary signal with peaked roof or a
traffic beacon displaying the embossed word "Go."
20
Despite the specificity and restricted geographical
milieu of these diverse markings they formed the basis of an
interest that went far beyond them, and far beyond the
concrete object to a global interest concerned with symbols
and their meaning.
Brian Clearman
Humboldt County on California's North Coast
(McKinleyville/Clam Beach!Arcata/Eurka)
January-September 1991
Revised & Enlarged at Neskowin, Mt Angel &
Neskowin again 1998
Revised Yet Again, Mt Angel & the Milk Ranch
2004
Prolegomena: Addenda
i Transportation-Markings in Proceedings
(Chartered Institute of Transport in the UK, June 1997)
Professor John Hibbs (University ofCentral England),
editor of Proceedings, invited submission ofa briefessay
for that Journal. The Chartered Institute ofTransport dates
back to the early decades ofthe 20th century and has
membership in many English-speaking nations. This journal
primarily reflects British interests. However, Professor
Hibbs thought I was "on to something" with this approach to
safety aids and kindly provided thisforumfor T-M
Transportation-Markings (T-M) is an integrative and
wholistic study of all forms of safety aids in the realm of
21
transport. T-M can be defined as any device (external to a
mode of transport) that aids a means of transport by giving
information, providing regulations, or expressing warnings.
"Safety aids" provides an alternative term though less spe-
cific. T-M views safety aids as possessing a shared common-
ality transcending the boundaries of transport modes. Tra-
ditionally safety aids are associated with a mode of transport
far more than with other T-M forms. Railway signals, for
example, are attached to trains and tracks, not to marine aids
to navigation, traffic control devices, or aero navigation aids.
To be sure, it is reasonable to view these aids in the tradition-
al perspective. From the perspective of a railway engineer or
other mode-specific specialist it may well seem odd to view
safety aids in any perspective other than that of the mode.
Yet an exclusively mode-specific approach to safety
aids can have shortcomings. T-M forms are ultimately a form
of communication and even of human communication. T-M
can be said to be less a component of transport science than
of human communication: the emission of symbols with
agreed-upon meanings aiding the movement of people and
goods. Because they are part of communication they share a
common basis and execution, no matter their form or loca-
tion. In all fairness, it must be admitted that the traditional
mode viewpoint remains a vital and necessary dimension
of safety aids. However, the integrative approach can com-
plement the traditional approach by seeing T-M forms first as
a component of communication and closely related to all
other such forms, and only then as mode-related.
T-M offers a perspective on safety aids through an inte-
grated system of signs (signs in a semiotic sense) forming a
single discipline. Within that discipline various forms of
energy and symbolic behavior are manifested, yet the sub-
structure of common purpose remains intact. T-M provides
22
an additional perspective on safety aids rather than deny the
traditional mode-related nature of conventional studies.
T-M can be regarded as a technical subject, yet an inte-
grative and wholistic approach may find fruitful insights in
semiotics. There are many definitions of semiotics; the
simple one of Pierre Guiraud (1975,1) will suffice here:
"Semiology [or semiotics] is the science which studies sign
systems." Guiraud gives substantial treatment to the various
kinds of codes. Codes (or culture codes) are defined by AA
Berger (1984, 156-157) as "(1) directives in our culture
which we do not recognize (generally) but (2) which have a
highly articulated structure and which are very specific".
Guiraud divides codes into several categories of which
"logical codes" is especially vital for T-M. Logical codes, in
turn, can be further subdivided; the subdivision of "practical
codes: signals and programmes" includes T-M. This category
"coordinate[s] action by means of injunctions, instructions,
notice or warnings". (Guiraud 1975, 45, 51).
Another important perspective for T-M is that of the
communication model (Noth 1990, 174ft). Communication
models focus on the material signal clemcnt (thc physical
aspect) while semiotics is more concerned with signs (the
mental process). An important model is that of Shannon &
Weaver (1949, 7), who outline a linear communication chain
in which a signal moves from a transmitter through a channel
to the receiver. Both the semiotic dimension and physical
communication need to be present for T-M.
Nearly as important as semiotics and communications
for T-M is the study of taxonomy. Dana's System of Min-
era1010gy (C. Palache, ed., 1944, Vol. 1, 7th ed), has served
as a foundation for a general classification of T-M forms.
The classification not only lists and numbers T-M phcnom-
23
ena but also clearly illustrates the commonality and inter-
connections ofT-M safety aids. A variety oflibrary classifi-
ations also indicates shared elements among T-M forms.
A final perspective is that of the holon, developed and
described by Arthur Koestler (1967,1978 and 1981). Holons
manifest a double nature: holons are simultaenously semi-
independent wholes and an integrated part of larger wholes.
Each holon contains other holons and, in turn, is contained in
other holons. Koestler describes holons as a vast hierarchy
(more correctly termed a "holarchy") with each holon as
"Janus- faced". "The face turned upward, toward the higher
levels, is that of a dependent part; the face turned downward,
towards its own constituent, is that of a whole of remarkable
self- sufficiency". (Koestler 1978,27). T-M very much
resembles a holarchy with each T-M (attached to a mode)
making up a holon while containing other sub-forms or
additional holons. Each mode-related T-M holon is a
component of the holon ofT-M in its totality, and that
totality is also a constituent of communication and semiotic
forms.
The technical element is not lacking in this integrative
approach to safety aids. Rather, the technical is interwoven
with social science and communications concepts, resulting
in a discipline ofT-M phenomena which not only encom-
passes the full spectrum of phenomena but creates a single
study.
Many of the monographs admittedly take up a mode-
specific approach (Parts C/D, E, F, G) as it is difficult to con-
sider the whole subject in detail in a single integrated trea-
ise. That approach is, however, kept within at least an in-
formal semiotic framework and it is firmly grounded in
taxonomy. The foundation monograph (Part A, 1991, 1999,
24
and this new edition) offers a primer on energy forms as well
as an exposition of semiotic, taxonomic and design factors.
The US study (Part B, 1992) does take up the spectrum ofT-
M, though confined to one nation. The general classification
(Part H, 1994, 2003), provides a perspective that draws .
together all of the elements ofT-M.. Tl~e data~ase.(P~r~s h-Iv,
1997-2001) provides succinct descnptlons of the mdlvldual
markings. It too, however, remains anchored in the overall
concept.
There has been some confusion over the meaning of
T-M. Some users have interpreted the term as constituting a
synonym for pavement markings. This is not the case. T-M
is a general, overarching term for all forms of T-~..I~ order
to reduce confusion a hyphen has been added conJOll11ng
"transportation" and "marking". This results in an image of
T-M as a single and unified concept, thereby reducing
misunderstanding over the meaning of the term and
especially of mistaking T-M with one of its constitutent
elements. The end result is a term that encompasses all forms
of safety aids including forms that incorporate "mark",
"markers," or "marking" in their names.
References:
A.A. Berger. 1984. Signs in Contemporary Culture:
An Introduction to Semiotics. New York: Longman.
Gaines, Richard, et. al. 1997. Dana's New Mineral-
ology. 8th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Pierre Guiraud. 1975. Semiology. Boston: Routledge &
& Kegan Paul.
Arthur Koestler. 1978. Janus. New York: Random
House.
. 1980. Bricks to Babel: A Selection From 50
Years. New York: Random House, 1980.
. 1967. Ghost in the Machine. New York:
25
Macmillan.
Winfried Noth. 1990. Handbook ofSemiotics.
Bloomington, (IN): Indiana University Press.
Charles Palache, et. al. 1944, The System of
Mineralogy of J.D. & E.s. Dana. Volume I. 7th ed.
New York: Wiley & Sons.
[Subsequent to this essay are two other titles that have
significance: Wendy Leeds-Hurvitz's Semiotics &
Communications: Signs, Codes, Cultures (Hillsdale
(NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers,
1993). And Kim Kyong Liong's Caged in Our Own
Signs: A Book About Semiotics (Norwood (NJ):
Ablex Publishing, 1996).J
11 Building Construction: An Analogy for T-M Studies
The original draft ofthis segment is undated but was
probably composed in the early 1980s. It was later retyped
with minor changes. This draft has been only slightly revised.
While perhaps idionsyncratic it offers a view on how the
notion ofT-M through the various studies came about. It
refers to construction as is the case with Addenda iii.
I suppose that a study of almost anything ought to
proceed on rational, orderly, logical, systematic foundations.
A study of something heretofore unstudied would assuredly
follow that pattern even more studiously. And yet in the
study of Transportation-Markings, in the preparation of
writings on T-M, and even in the assembling of those
materials for publishing, I seem to have followed a different
pattern. A pattern keynoted by a scurrying and even frantic
rushing about, of throwing together systems, classifications,
arrangements without much -- in many instances -- reflective
mulling over of the various components of the study. I think
26
that this can be best explained by an analogy from the
construction trade.
It would appear that I have, to some degree and in some
sense, prepared the blue prints or at least rough sketches of
the edifice ofT-M. I drew out the outer limits, the sub-divid-
ing lines, even some of the details on paper. Then the paper
concepts were laid out on the ground with string and stakes.
Ifthere was a slowness and even some measure of reflection
in the early stages it vanished as the project lengthened and
grew. More and more speed and less and less ruminating
occurred as the days, weeks, months went by. The framing
for the structure at times seemed reasonable and rational. The
various foundations were set up and poured, the framing was
begun. As the framework stretched out in all directions it
may have had something of an impressive appearance about
it. The studings marched off into the wings and exuding
something of a symmetrical appearance.
But things began to happen. Some wings were not
needed or so it seemed. Then other yet unbuilt wings were
needed. While yet other wings needed to be shortened or
lengthened. Foundations were thrown together for the
extensions. Unneeded foundations were torn out or simply
abandoned. Weeds, vines and other vegetations appeared
with almost indecent haste and soon enveloped the aban-
doned wings. The new wings and framings were often out of
kilter with what had gone before. The beginnings of topsy-
turvy began to appear.
Some building materials had to be imported: woods
from far countries, and stone, and even some of the metal
pieces. As these materials arrived there was no time to
carefully and slow prepare them: no time to trim and burnish
and finish them for their intended function. Instead as they
27
arrived they were swiftly bundled off to the right location
and wheeled into position and tacked down in some fashion--
or other. And hardly was that accomplished before yet other
materials arrived. Older existing materials also had to be
installed. More and more of a frantic pace was observed.
Shoveling and wheeling, nailing and stapling. Paint brushes
and hammers and nails and paint mixed together and scatter-
ed far and wide. Whole wings out of kilter, windows miss-
ing, door frames without doors, walls without paint, floors
without flooring. As yet new wings were started it became
necessary to throw together new parts with whatever was at
hand. Some wings were constructed of green wood that had
never seen a kiln, nails that had never experienced galvan-
izing dip. Warped and rusting these wings testified to haste if
to little else. Yet other wings ended in mid-air without outer
walls or any demarcations at all. Some sections were toler-
ably finished though mortar was missing or mortar was
slapped clumsily on bricks.
And yet, more and more a vast edifice was rising above
the plain. The perfectionist would be appalled, the slow of
step would probably end in disaster walking in the unfinished
galleys, on the unfinished floors, up and down the missing
stairs. Architects might faint away, craftspersons would
collapse on the spot. But a very few might see something in
the turmoil and chaos: a vast outline with order in the asym-
metry; a vast edifice that was more vision than concrete. The
wings that failed to materialize were dead-ends that had to
end that way; the unfinished wings were those that had life
but not the wherewithal for reaching a definitive state. Open-
ings and gaps and loose ends were segments that had a form
and a purpose and a definition but lacked some unit or
several components.
11l Practical Symbol Practitioners
28
This essay has existed mentally for quite sometime but it
is only now prepared in a written form. It too is eccentric in
tone but it does offer an explanation ofthe undergirdings of
T-M And it too refers to construction.
It seems unlikely that Longview, Washington (and the
adjoining town of Kelso) has qualities that would generate
such an entity as T-M. That is, qualities which are unique to
Longview. There are other mill and port towns. There are
other towns with river lights and fog signals, aero beacons
and airport lighting, railroad signals, traffic signs, signals,
traffic markings. There are other towns not far removed from
a coast with traditional lighthouses, from major urban areas
with international airports, the full panopoly ofT-M systems
marked by both an intense and sophisticated character.
The character of the town can therefore be only part of
the generating force. Much of the generating force for T-M is
the family. A family where a craft, in this case carpentry, has
been long practised and with considerable skill. It may be of
little consequence that not all members of the family had the
skill. A certain basic attitude, mindset permeated the family
and this stemmed from carpentry. It could have stemmed
from other crafts as well.
The basic attitude is that of symbolic behavior: creating,
reading, acting on symbols. It may be true that this is not a
family where abstract thought dominated. It was a family
where the concrete, the practical was the order of the day.
Yet symbols and their use were at the core of the craft of
carpentry and that greatly affected the family. That world of
symbols is found in blueprints. Yes: Blueprints; sheets of
paper with white lines, graphic symbols on blue paper. What
is a blueprint but a mass of interrelated symbols? Each line,
each mark is a symbol: each stands for something else:
29
symbols for door openings, walls, foundations, electrical and
plumbing systems. One can focus on the skill of a carpenter:
walls that are square, nails and screws neatly installed, wood-
work that is artistic. But more basic is the ability to know
what each symbol means and to create it in the concrete: a
symbol becomes a door, a window, a roof beam. Symbols
and what they represent and creating what they represent in
the concrete is deeply embedded in the family.
A professor of theology or of philosophy is very much
caught up in symbols. But those symbols are often not
empirically based. Such a person could speak at great length
about symbolic behavior and be very wrong-headed (though,
to be sure, they may often use symbols correctly). And it
may not be readily evident when such a person is wrong-
headed in using and explaining symbols.
But a crafts person can't misuse symbols without that
misuse of symbols becoming quickly obvious. Misread
symbols on a blueprint and comic if not lethal consequences
quickly ensue.
--Misread the symbol for a bathroom windown and instead
install the garage door in its place. When the happy home
owner is drying off from a shower and a neighbor activates
their garage door opener and the whole wall of the bathroom
opens up the happy homeowner may say, "that craftsperson
cannot read symbols correctly."
--If the plumber can't read symbols well and thereby
connects the toliet drain to the shower head the happy home-
owner may say, "that craftsperson cannot read symbols
either."
--If the electrician installs the 220 volt line for the kitchen
30
range to the outlet for the toaster or microwave, the happy
homeowner may not be available for comment.
T-M was borne of Longview and its character, a largely
solitary childhood, and a special world in which one thing
stood for another thing and those things were interrelated.
Gradually an interest first in lighthouses but increasingly
with more and more kinds of safety aids became more than
an interest in picturesque structures but in what they do:
represent dangers, give guidance, convey regulations by
something else: that something else being a symbol in light,
flashes, colors, sounds. And that symbolic behavior led to a
notion that the various kinds of transportation equipment
(ships, planes, trains, cars) were essentially a single entity:
practical objects creating and projecting symbolic messages
that were essentially the same since they did the same thing.
The shared world of symbols and messages over-
shadowed the more conventional idea that the various kinds
of safety aids were separate worlds. The world of carpentry
and its use of symbols became transferred to safety aids and
eventually the concept of T-M came about first in classifi-
cation then in descriptive accounts then in semiotics and
holarchy.
"We communicate and navigate with a code of
logos, symbols, emblems, and signs."
Susan Yelavich, Design/or Life: Our
Daily Lives, the Spaces we Shape, and
the ways we communicate, as Seen
Through the Collections o/Cooper-Hewitt,
National Design Museum. 1997.
31
L -
CHAPTER ONE
THE STUDY OF TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS
IN A MULTI-FACETED FRAMEWORK:
SEMIOTICS, COMMUNICATIOI\JS,
CLASSIFICATION & HOLARCHY
1A Semiotics
1A1 Introduction to Chapter One
There are several basic tools and perspectives at the
core of the foundations of this study which can help to under-
standard the workings ofT-M. These include semiotics,
communications, holarchy, and taxonomy.
Semiotics provides a basic perspective for any form of
communication with an emphasis on the mental processes of
communication. Chapter IA will examine semiotic concepts,
foundations of messages of T-M and a survey of semiotics
literature.
Semiotics, though important, does not provide a com-
plete system for the understanding of a sign system (at least
not for the requirements of this study). Specifically, it gives
only scant attention to communication in its physical dimen-
sions. Chapter 1B considers the more physical communica-
tion aspect ofT-M. This consideration of the physical pro-
cess can be seen through two prisms. The first is that of
communication theory (more precisely, a mathematical
model of communication). The other prism -- and perhaps
surprizingly -- is a form of semiotics but one that studies
objects not specifically a means of communications. This
form of semiotics is pursued by several semiotic practition-
ers in the field including Roland Barthes who is the major
32
author on that topic for this study (Barthes 1988; see also
Noth 1990).
Chapter 1C takes up a review oftaxonomy. Taxonomy
is a basic element for any form of study. It establishes basic
rules of procedures and process. It creates an essential foun-
dation for this study. It also provides linkage between trans-
portation modes and constituent markings with the result that
the hidden commonality of markings becomes visible. There
are some forms of taxonomy in IA that relate to messages
rather than types ofT-M forms.
Chapter 1D is a new addition to the study. It examines
the role ofholarchy in T-M. Holarchy has been developed by
Arthur Koestler and while a late-comer to T-M it has become
a major factor.
The topics of Chapter 1 are not fully compartmental-
ized. To some degree the topics intermingle and merge to-
gether. For example, the foundations of messages in 1Care
not only a primary adjunct of semiotics but they also pro-
vide linkage between semiotics, communication, holarchy,
and classification. And the semiotics of the object of Barthes
is linked to "regular" semiotics and also to taxonomy and
technology though technology is not a primary focus of this
study.
1A2 Basic Semiotic Concepts
Semiotics is not a tightly organized and highly inte-
grated discipline keynoted by a high level of consensus
among its practitioners. Nevertheless, it is possible to make
some general comments about semiotics adequate for this
study.
33
Semiotics can be defined as "the doctrine, science or
theory of signs" (Sebeok in Blonsky 1985, 466). It has also
been defined simply as the study of signs. Others, including
Guiraud, speak of it as the "the science which studies sign
systems ...." (Guiraud 1975, 1); a definition that fits well
with a complex study such as that ofT-M. Sebeok, in the
above named study, notes further that semiotics is concerned
with the "exchange of messages" and "of the sign systems
that underlie them."(Sebeok in Blonsky 1985,466). Sign
systems include various types of codes and that is a pivotal
term for T-M (Guiraud 1975,51).
Within the semiotics matrix one of the essential terms is
that of semiosis or sign process. Semiosis can include from
three to as many as six components. Frequently there are
three core factors: the sign, the object it refers to and the
interpretant (Sebeok in Blonsky and other sources). Morris, a
pivotal figure in the development of semiotics, varied the
number of components in his works (Morris corpus; see also
Hervey 1982,47-48). Four elements plus signification appear
to be a common to all of his formulations. Signfiication is a
core element of semiosis for Morris though for Sebeok it is
outside of semiosis though remaining an important element.
The sign (and by this is meant a mental process rather
than a physical signal; Noth 1990, 174) stands for something
else (the object), (SIess 1986, 9) and this leads to an interpre-
tant. The interpretant creates a disposition to act in a given
way. Signification is the meaning of the sign or message. For
example, a red nun buoy stands for the starboard or right side
of a channel. The buoy (its redness and nun-shape more than
the physical buoy) is the sign; it stands for the side of the
channel and the interpretant is that disposition to keep the
edge of the channel to the right of the vessel. The significa-
tion of meaning is: keep that buoy to your right. A second
34
example would be a railway signal with three-aspects (each
aspect representing a color and each aspect constituting a
sign in semiotic terms). The green aspect, a sign, stands for a
clear segment of track and it creates a disposition for a train
crew to proceed through that section of track at the agreed
upon maximum speed. The signification of green is that the
track is free of obstructions.
One other important element in semiotics is that of
codes. Guiraud has made a major contribution to this idea
and A.A. Berger (Berger 1984, Chs 21-22) has commented
on, and expanded the coverage of Guiraud. Noth also write at
some length on codes (Noth 1990, 206ft). Leeds-Hurwitz
contributes to the study of codes in her 1993 book on semi-
otics. Codes constitute a major sign system, and codes con-
stitute many forms. The codes of interest for this study are
what Guiraud terms logical codes and -- within that category
-- the sub-category of practical codes. According to Guiraud
"[t]he function of signals and programmes is to co-ordinate
action by means of injunctions, instructions, notices or
warnings." (Guiraud 1975, 51-53). Ship whistle codes, fire
alarms, military signals, are also in the category of practical
codes. An examination of codes centers on message systems
rather on the physical signal.
Semiotics (including the dimension of semiosis, signifi-
cation, and the sign system of codes) is a vital tool for under-
standing T-M even if it is not a complete procedure for view-
ing and understanding markings.
1A3 Foundations of Messages
To speak of foundations of messages suggests a simple
continuation of semiotics and T-M, a linking of principles to
practices. Yet messages are more than that; in fact founda-
35
tions of messages constitutes a bridge linking semiotics, the
physical signal, and the transportation mode together.
While it is appropriate to place the foundations of
messages in the same sub-chapter as that of semiotics, this
material also touches on all aspects of the study including
that of taxonomy since the classification of messages is
related to the classification ofT-M forms in lC.
Transportation-Marking messages can be reduced to
four major forms:
1. Multiple capability that permits Changing Message/
Multiple Message (C3M).
2. Message capability that permits only Changing
Message/Single Message (CMSM).
3. Message capability that includes an Unchanging
Message but with Multiple Messages (U3M).
4. Message capability that is restricted to Unchanging
Message & Single Message (UMSM).
Marking messages have a dialectical character about
them: unchanging or changing; multiple message or a single
message. All of the possibilities are combinations of one
member of each of the two sets of the dialectic.
The most frequent type of changing message/multiple
messages (C3M) are those of road and rail lighted signals. In
these instances the message has several phases or sub-mes-
sages which change according to pre-programming, transpor-
tation mode-initiated change, or central control. The basic
signal for rail and road contains three lenses displaying red,
green, and yellow hues. The meanings of multiple-messages
refers to distinctly different messages at various times from a
single marking. Changing refer to the situation in which the
messages alternate or change according to some established
36
pattern. A marine light may have a complex message but,
nonetheless, it is a single sequence or period which means
one message. There are few examples of C3M outside of
road and rail signals. Other varieties of railway signals
(search-light, position, color-position) follow the C3M
pattern though the manner of executing the message varies
from one signal type to the next.
The changing message/single mesage (CMSM) type
suggests a contradiction since change and a single message
sequence are in one message formulation. A reasonable
explanation is possible: some markings contain one message
but that message is not continuous. For example, a road sig-
nal at a signal at a school may only operate during school
hours, or a drawbridge signal may function only when the lift
span is raised. The signal, when inoperative, creates a differ-
ent pattern of traffic than when on.
An apparently contradictory nature may also seem
present in the changing message/multiple message form
(U3M). This category refers to situations where at least two
distinct messages are found within a single marking. For
example, the device known as a "traffic beacon" has an
unchanging message yet two messages are displayed: one a
flashing yellow indication denoting caution, the other, a
flashing red indication denoting stop and then proceed only
when the intersection is clear. A second example is the
marine light known as a directional signal. It emits messages
for two or three zones within a channel simultaneously.
Unchanging message/single message (UMSM) is self-
explanatory. It includes the greater part of marine and aero
markings as well as many unlighted and partially-lighted
road and rail markings. The UMSM type has one sequence
which is unvarying in all cases. In the 1984 (2nd ed, 2004)
37
monograph on traffic control devices it became apparent that
some very different forms of markings were merged together
in the UMSM category. The changes made in that category
carried forward to further studies in the Series.
The members ofUMSM exhibit one of two message
characteristics: they either produce one message at a time
(though other messages could be programmed for the
mechanism) or they produce a single message and are incap-
able of any other message. The former sub-category can be
term "Programmable Transportation-Markings" while the
remainder of forms can be denoted "Unitary Markings."
The unitary group can be further subdivided into: a some
markings have a single form and admit no variation; these
are termed "Variant A"; b) an intermediate group allows for
one of several predictable variations and these are subsumed
under "Variant B"; c) these include markings about which
few, if any, predictions can be made and are labelled
"Variant c." A stop sign clearly suggests the "A" variant, a
turn sign (displaying one of several types of turns) represent
"B" while a sign denoting the name of a town denotes the
"c" form.
A programmable marking, such as a marine light, can
not easily be further sub-divided. The relevant marine agency
may publish a listing of the spectrum of light phase char-
acteristics but the actuallightldark sequence is an individual-
ized process and the observer would have to examine many
individual lights in order to gain an appreciation ofthe
categories of messages.
IB The Physical Dimensions of the Transportation-Marking
1B1 The Communication Model
38
While semiotics provides a valuable tool for any system
of signs it gives only limited attention to the physical
dimension that creates semiotic signs. This study ofT-M
requires two additional perspectives: a) communication
theory, and b) the semiotics of the object. That form of
semiotics includes objects not directly and deliberately
means of communications. Roland Barthes has written an
essay on the second perspective, the semiotics of the object
("Semantics of the Object" in The Semiotics Challenge,
1988). Noth's Handbook provides additional coverage.
Communication theory has many practitioners. One pair
of practitioners frequently cited for communication theory --
and in particular a mathematical model of communication --
are Shalmon & Weaver (SIess, Noth, et.a!., invoke their
work). Their mode, and other communication models,
constitute a "communication chain" including an information
source, transmitter, channel, receiver, and destination.
Messages are defined as "a sequence of elementary symbols"
and signals "are only the energetic or material vehicles of
signs, their physical form," (Noth 1990, 174-175). A simple
representation of the chain can take this appearance:
IS-------T-------C--------R--------D
I I I I
M SSM
Messages (M) travel from Information Source (IS) to Trans-
mitter (T) then the Signal (S) proceeds to Channel (C) and
thence to Receiver (R) which conveys messages to Destina-
tion (D).
The information source is the programming unit. Chan-
nel in older models referred to the medium the signal passed
39
through (air, telephone wire, etc.) but for newer models
channel refers to characteristics ofthe signal such as
electrical impulses.
Communication theory is important for T-M since that
model is concerned with physical forms while semiotics
centers on the mental process of the sign (that statement is
somewhat of a simplification but essentially it holds true).
The above model includes signals which -- for the
model -- are "the energetic or material vehicles of signs,"
though not the signs. The communication model with its
information source and transmitter encompasses the total
communication process though not the subject matter (Noth
1990, 174). It includes the element which produces and
projects the T-M as well as the message or mental process.
Both semiotics and communication theory are needed to
better explain T-M and its working.
1B2 Semiotics of the Object
Barthes' semiotics of the object does not include T-M.
Rather it examined and included objects that were not
explicitly communication systems. It may be a misinterpre-
tation of his work to include the T-M within that category of
semiotics. Yet the model of semiotics of the object fits T-M
in several ways. It also provides a means to include more of
T-M within the discipline of semiotics.
Since Barthes' treatment is complex and very much in
the mainstream of semiotic thought (especially the continen-
tal European form) this brief review may not fully convey the
. concept. Barthes' defines the object "as what is fabricated or
produced; it is of finite substance, standardized, formed and
normalized" (Barthes 1988, 181). The object is the focus of a
40
set of connotations, and a set of coordinates; the later are
more important for this study.
The connotations are existential and technological.
Existential is described by Barthes as "the appearance or
existence of a thing which is non-human and which persists
in existing, somewhat against us" Barthes 1988, 180). He
cites Sartes in which objects external and outside the human
person creates nausea, and Ioneseo where a mass of objects
invade and smoother the human (Barthes 1988, 180-181).
This element does not have much bearing on this study.
The other connotations is that of the technological (with
reference to the above definition of the object). Barthes sees
the object as something generated in great quantities, as
something very much involved with consumption (Barthes
1988, 181). While this form of semiotics may be removed
from T-M, the inclusion of the technological via the object is
important for this study since much of conventional semi-
otics omits the physical dimension.
Both of these connotations -- in a Barthian mode -- are
more refined and semiotical than the needs of this study. But
the concrete character of the object is a vital correction to a
semiotics focusses on mental processes. More important is
the second phase of his semiotics of the object: that of the
two coordinates of the symbolic and of taxonomy.
The first coordinate, the symbolic, denotes the fact that
every object serves as a signifier of something signified. The
second, that of classification, has social significance for .
Barthes: "a certain classification of objects ... is imposed
upon us or suggested by our society." (Barthes 1988, 184).
While objects and classification so referred to are at variance
with T-M yet the linking of object and classification by
41
Barthes may have a bear on T-M as objects and their use of
classification. A primary goal of this and the other T-M
studies is the uncovering of a pre-existing commonality and
inter-connections.
Some forms of T-M have only limited relationship with
the semiotics of the object of Barthes. For example,
unlighted markings such as road signs and pavement
markings nearly subsume non-sign objects into the physical
sign. Various partially-lighted markings, such as lighthouses,
and aero obstruction beacons, utilize both unlighted and
lighted segments of the obj ect to produce messages. Yet
fully-lighted signals, especially those of railway systems,
maintain an object that is 110t a direct part of the marking: the
signal mast, bridge, ladder, etc. They constitute an object that
is not a marking yet clearly denotes a T-M form. A visual
sighting of such a signal even if the lighted portion is
obscured portrays a semiotic message, a T-M message.
Perhaps one can say that the totality of the T-M is a
semiotic sign: for some markings the object and sign are
virtually identical; for other markings the semiotic sign and
the physical undergirdings can be separated yet both --
though in different ways -- denotes a message producing and
transmitting phenomena.
1C Taxonomy & Holarchy: Expressions of Singulars
& Wholes & Transportation-Markings
1Cl Introduction
Taxonomy has been a long-enduring element of T-M.
More recently Koestler's notion of holons and holarchy has
been added. Taxonomy and holarchy each encompasses the
individual T-M form and the totality of those forms and their
42
relationships. The notions are not synonyms though they
overlap to some degree. They offer perspectives both
paralleling and diverging from one another. However, they
complement each other more than contradict. Taxonomy
presents an arrangement, a system built up of the ind~vidual
objects. Holarchy presents objects (holons) that are sllnu.l-
taneously wholes and components of larger wholes. Put Im-
precisely, taxonomy is an arrangement of objects while
holarchy (or hierarchy) appears to consist of objects placed
in an arrangement in which each holon is both nearly
complete and also part of something larger.
A T-M study requires a bringing together -- in a man-
ner both compact and comprehensive -- the varied and di-
verse elements that make up the field ofT-M. The lack of
any existing integrative approach makes that "bringing to-
gether" yet more imperative. The approach for providing that
linkage for this study is traditionally that of classification.
Classification can both provide points of connection, and it
can also uncover preexisting connections, and areas of
commonality between and among markings.
This sub-chapter includes rules of nomenclature for the
monographs. It does not include the actual classifications
which are found with the specific treatments of various
groups of markings. All of the studies are needed by the
observer in order to grasp the full range of classifications. A
general classification (Part H, 1st and 2nd eds) draws together
the individual taxonomies.
The approaches to classifications in the Monograph
Series have taken several forms: Part B, concerned with the
US, has three classifications: visual representations, an
outline by type of marking, and an outline by nature of
message. Parts C & D classifications are incremental in
43
nature: separate classifications are provided for buoys (there
are two classifications for buoys: one in outline form, and r
one in visual forms), and for each area of fixed markings (an
Appendix in the 2nd ed. provides a general classification).
Part E and Part F contain unitary classifications; that is, the
entire classification is in one place rather than an incremental
form by nature of marking. Part F also contains a variant
form because of the many forms of signals. Messages can
also be classified (see Ch lA).
1C2 Nomenclature
The nomenclature or rules for naming and classifying T-
M forms were established in 1969 and 1970. The classifi-
cation system has been substantially inf1uenced by the Dana
System of Mineralology (Vol I, 7th edition, 1944, Charles
Palache, et.al., eds). The Dana System employed numbers as
well as names for mineral specimens (in contrast to many
natural classifications that have names only; other classifi-
cations -- including those of libraries -- use numbers). The
8th edition of the System (Dana's New Mineralogy, 1997)
continues the use of numbers though the numbers are set off
by periods.
What is the rationale behind this nomenclature and
classification schema? The schema adopted is not a "natural"
pattern since there is no natural T-M arrangement; T-M is of
the realm of the artificial. Hopefully, the adopted arrange-
ment is not altogether arbitrary either. The system has four
levels (each represented by a digit): mode of transportation;
nature of marking; classes of markings (when applicable);
and the individual marking. Because of the special nature of
buoys and other floating aids to navigation, the marine mode
of transportation has been divided into two parts.
44
Buoys are therefore represented by the number" 1" and
fixed aids by "2". Aero navigation aids adjoin marine and are
alloted "3" (there are some resemblances between marine
and aero; for example, Readers' Guide to Periodic Literature
in some older volumes referred to "Aerial Lighthouses,"
Vols VI-X, 1922-1937). Traffic control devices are repre-
sented by "4" and rail signals, signs and marks by "5".
Other arrangements by mode of transportation are
possible. Historically, road safety aids are probably the oldest
followed by marine, rail, and aero. Yet there are other factors
supporting the present arrangement: Marine aids are the most
developed area of modern T-M forms. Many aero aids are
unlighted or partially-lighted as is the case with marine, and
many aids are electronic in nature for both aero and marine.
One could also note that "beacons" are a major form of
marine and aero aids while many rail and road aids are of the
"signal" form. Therefore, marine, then aero then road and
finally rail is a reasonable arrangement.
The nature of the message number is denoted by the
second digit follows this arrangement: Fully-lighted visual
messagers are represented by "1" (for example, rail and road
signals). Partially-lighted markings are listed under "2". The
original classification attempted to distinguish between over
50% lighted and those merely half-lighted. But that is a
difficult, if not impossible, distinction. Perhaps some com-
puterized process may be able to ascertain that a lighthouse,
for example, is more than 50% lighted (since the need may
be greater at night than in daytime) and a railway target with
switch lamp is exactly half-lighted and half-unlighted. But in
this preliminary study such distinctions are not possible.
Number "3" denotes unlighted markings (signs, pave-
ment markings, buoys without sound or light mechanisms).
45
Accoustical signals are "4" in the classification and elec-
tronic devices are "5". Markings with messages from two
different categories are listed under "6"; for example. a
lighted sound buoy. Because of changes in the system and in
different monographs it will eventually be necessary to
examine and alter the numbers of some T-M forms in older
classifications.
The third digit number is not required for all markings.
It is needed where there are two or more groups of markings
are found within a message type. For example, there are
several forms, or classes, of unlighted buoys: nuns, cans,
spars, etc. The third or class number designates the various
groups. In this classification the third digit" 1" marks a nun
buoy. A "0" will be found in the third digit position when
classes do not exist.
This last digit denotes the specific marking number and
this allows for up to ten members for a specific classification
sequence. For a nun buoy in the international classification
the total number is 1412: indicating it is a buoy that is
unlighted (14), that it is the first member of a group of more
than one type of unlighted buoys (141, Unlighted conical)
and the "2" designates that it is a US nun buoy.
A classification problem occurs with traffic control
devices. Traffic signs merge the type of sign (in a physical
other-than-semiotics sense) with the messages (sign-in-a-
semiotic sense) with the result that the traffic sign has a fixed
and very narrow message instead of a single marking which
can be programmed for many different specific message
characteristics (such as a marine light). There are many types
of signs each with one message. (Note: this classification is
of types not messages while with traffic signs the type and
message become closely united and can not be readily
46
"broken apart." This has meant that the last digit does not
represent individual signs since they are semiotic signs -- in
some sense and to some degree -- more than physical signs
and therefore the fourth digit becomes a referent to groups of
signs. For example, under 442, Regulatory signs, there are
several categories of signs for prohibitory purposes and each
of these can be divided into sub-categories; for example,
those dealing with turns are numbered 4423. A message for a
sign affects the physical appearance of the sign as a physical
unit and is therefore within the nomenclature of the
classification.
In summary, the T-M classification follows this pattern:
First Digit: Mode of Transportation: Marine (in
two parts), aero, road and rail.
Second Digit: Nature of the message (visual
divided into all-lighted, partially-lighted, and unlighted),
acoustical, electronic, combination.
Third Digit: Classes of a given form of marking
when applicable.
Fourth Digit: Individual marking number (altered
to group of closely united markings when numerous).
Numbers employed:
First Digit: 1 to 5
Second Digit: 1 to 6
Third Digit: 0 to 9
Fourth Digit: 0 to 9
IC3 Holarchy
Arthur Koestler coined his terms Holon and Holarchy
before there was a Transportation-Markings. Nevertheless,
this researcher was slow to grasp the significance of the
47
holon despite reading an account of holons and holarchy in
Toulmin's Return to Cosmology (1982). Only in the last few
years has the holon become a major element for T-M studies.
Koestler wrote of hierarchy, holons, holarchies in Ghost in
the Machine and in several other treatments. One such treat-
ment is Janus: A Summing Up (1978).
This coverage will closely follow the Janus coverage.
Koestler's ideas are complex and only certain aspects will be
reviewed here. Two key words are parts and wholes.
Koestler notes that the word "parts" suggests something that
is a fragment, not complete, lacks autonomous life. The word
"whole" suggests something complete by contrast. Koestler
denies the existence of parts and wholes in a full sense. It is
his view that an organism constitutes a whole which consists
of sub-wholes and sub-wholes, in turn, have sub-wholes.
Instead of an organism undergoing processes it is a
"stratified hierarchy of sub-wholes." A diagram of inner-
connected sub-wholes presents a picture of a pyramid (or
upside-down tree) in which sub-wholes are nodes and the
lines connecting the nodes are communication and control
channels. Hierarchies in many forms constituted a major pre-
occupation of Koestler. He recognized that the term had a
pejorative meaning for some if not many people therefore he
coined Holarchy as a substitute. A holarchy is an arrange-
ment ofholons with their janus-like character (Janus was the
Roman god of doors with faces in both directions).
The term sub-whole can be joined by other entities
including "part-whole," "sub-structures," "sub-structures"
and other less than graceful terms. To avoid the awkwardness
Koestler devised Holon. Holos comes from the Greek with
the meaning of whole. The suffix "On" (found in words such
as neutron, proton) can denote particle, part. Holon then is a
48
-
•
sub- or part-whole. Editorial remarks accompanying Janus
speak of holons as having "a dual tendency to behave as
quasi-independent wholes, asserting their individualities, but
at the same time as integrated parts of larger wholes in the
multi-levelled hierarchies of existence." (Koestler 1978,
"Janus: A Summing Up").
Holons manifest considerable autonomy, are sub-
stantially self-regulating, display integration in themselves.
At the same time they are parts of yet other categories or
holons. They are janus-like in character: one direction mani-
fests dependency while in the opposite direction they are
largely autonomous.
Some T-M forms may constitute isolated monads
though many if not most resemble holons and holarchy. A
channel buoy rarely exists in a solitary manner but is inte-
grated with other buoys marking channels, obstructions
among other roles. An airport taxiway light in one of many in
that function. Each buoy or taxiway light is a holon but they
are in turn part of the holon of airport lights, buoys in general
which are in turn part of the holon of marine aids to naviga-
tion, and aero navigation aids which then become part of the
holon of T-M. Even isolated T-M forms display character-
istics of the code system to which they belong. Codes are
also vital to Koestler's thought. He notes the place of codes
for the structure and function of holons. This can suggest the
place of codes in semiotics.
Notes on Sources
While this study contains a standard bibliography, a
review of important basic sources for semiotics, communica-
tion, classification and holarchy may be an appropriate con-
clusion for this chapter.
49
Among semiotic works of note is that of Theory of
Semiotics by Umberto Eco. It is more ambitious work than of
Guiraud. It provides perspectives on semiotic phenomenon r
with considerable attention to the visual. Eco includes some
T-M forms though in a rather fragmented sense. A researcher
conversant with both semiotics and a subject discipline may
well be able to apply basic notions to a specialized work.
Though for this researcher, and this study, the work of
Guiraud is more valuable.
Pierre Guiraud's Semiotics is a very compact work but
written in an understandable manner and with a focus on the
place of codes. Guiraud has been of more value for this study
than any other semiotic. A.A. Berger of San Francisco State
University has written a work of semiotics entitled, Signs in
Contemporary Culture. Berger devotes two chapters to
codes; a coverage influenced by Guiraud though expanded.
Two other more recent works in semiotics that give
considerable attention to codes are Caged in Our Signs: A
Book About Semiotics by Kyong Liong Kim (Ablex Publish-
ing, 1996), and Semiotics and Communications: Signs,
Codes, Cultures by Wendy Leeds-Hurwitz (Lawrence
Erlbaum, 1993). Both give considerable attention to codes;
this is especially true of Leeds-Hurwitz who devotes several
chapters to the topic.
Two massive tomes can also be mentioned here:
Winifried Noth's Handbook ofSemiotics, and the Encyclo-
pedic Dictionary ofSemiotics edited by Thomas Sebeok in
three tomes (volumes). Both provide a coverage marked by
diversity and depth for the discipline of semiotics.
Thomas Sebeok has written and edited a great many
50
essays, books, and entire series. An essay that helps to sum
up and survey his work has been written by Eugen Bauer.
That essay, "Thomas Sebeok's Doctrine of Signs" appears in
Classics ofSemiotics edited by Martin Krampen. The essay
includes a bibliographical sketch of Sebeok along an exposi-
tion of his work and an extensive bibliography.
A more general work in communication is that of the
four-volume International Encyclopedia ofCommunications
edited by Erik Barnouw (Oxford University Press). It
includes semiotics and many other topics with connections to
communications. The work of Shannon and Weaver, men-
tioned in many works, exists in a monograph entitled, The
Mathematical Theory ofCommunication published in 1949
(reprint 1964).
There are not many works that include at length a wide
range ofT-M forms. One such work is the Symbol Source-
book: An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic
Symbols by Henry Dreyfuss. The work is not exhaustive
though it comes closer to a full-length treatment than
probably any other work. There was to be an ongoing symbol
databank that would add to the symbols. But with the death
of Dreyfuss the project was discontinued. Martin Krampen's
"Signs and Symbols in Graphic Communications" (Design
Quarterly #62, 1965, Rudolph Modley's "Graphic Symbols
for World-wide Communication" (Sign, Symbol, Image,
1966) and Handbook ofPictorial Symbols provides coverage
of many T-M forms though the coverage is restricted to the
visual, and especially graphic symbols. Both of Modley's
titles also provide classification of symbols that can be
applied to many forms ofT-M. An additional work that en-
compasses aspect of T-M in all modes is Navigation: Land.,
Sea, Air, and Space edited by Myron Kayton, 1990.
51
The primary source for the classification is the Dana
System ofMineralology by Charles Palache, et.al. (Vol I,
1944). This edition, though perhaps dated for mineralology,
is very adequate for the classification system. (and more so
than newer editions of the System which omit the numerical
dimension. The 7th edition was partially completed in 1944
with further volumes in 1951 and 1962. The 8th edition,
1997, was prepared by Richard V. Gaines and six other
collaborators.
Koestler developed the idea of holon in Ghost in the
Machine, 1967. It also receives attention in two later books:
Bricks to Babel: A Selection From 50 Years ofHis Writing,
Chosen & With a New Commentary by the Author, 1981, and
Janus: A Summing Up, 1978. Toulmin's Return to Cos-
mology: Postmodern Science & the Theology (~fNature,
1982, offers a succinct review of Koestler's holon and
holarchy.
52
CHAPTER TWO
LIGHT & COLOR PROCESSES &
VISUAL TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS
2A Primer on Light & Color
2A1 Light: A Brief Review
Chapter 2 is a revision and enlargement of the same
chapter from the 3rd edition (1999). This Chapter begins
with the topic of light, continues with color as a dimension of
light, augmented by a review of essential aspects of color,
and finishes with remarks on uses and influences of color in
T-M. References to sources will follow standard forms in
some instances while in other cases references will be more
general or simply refer to other monographs in the Series.
There are several elements involved in understanding
the nature of lights and a reading of even a few authors
presents a contradictory or, at the very least, paradoxical
explanations.Divergent understandings can also display
convergence as well.
Electromagnetic energy has several forms including that
of light. The physical character of radio waves and of light
are both forms of radiant energy (Murdoch 1985, 14;
Bloembergen 1985, 655). Older theories about the character
of light included ideas that light consisted of rays or cor-
puscles (particles). More modern notions began in the 17th
century and the foundations of contemporary studies were
established in the 19th and early 20th centuries (Ditchburn
1976, 15).
James C. Maxwell developed the Wave Theory of Light
53
in the second half of the 19th century (undergirded by the
work of several others in the 17th and early 19 centuries).
This theory received a high degree of acceptance. In
summary, the theory stated that light waves were electro-
magnetic waves and, hence, the same as any waves produced
by electrically generated radiation except for wavelength
(Brill 1980,3). Heinrich Hertz strengthened the theory by
experiments which indicated electric circuit-generated
electromagnetic waves conformed to the same physical laws
that lights or optical waves did (Brill 1980, 3). Light, there-
fore, exhibited wave properties and its nature was electro-
magnetic.
But very early in the 20th century it was found that
some properties of light cannot be explained by the electro-
magnetic theory. For example, the theory could not explain a
blackbody's radiation (radiation absorbing material across
the spectrum of the wavelengths) (Bloembergen 1985, 656;.
Murdoch 1985,14). The explanation could only come from a
particle (corpuscule) theory of light. Isaac Newton had sug-
gested a particle theory of light but that had been disregarded
with the advent of the electromagnetic theory of light (Brill
1980,3; Ditchburn 1976,13; Murdoch 1985, 14).
A key element in understanding the workings of light is
to be found in the work of Max Planck on black-body radia-
tions. Those entities, though without color and non-reflect-
ing, glowed more visibly as their temperature increased:
temperatures changes resulted in color changes. Ongoing
thermal activity throughout the electromagnetic spectrum
range appeared to be taking place. Scientists were aware that
energy exchange was taking place in the black bodies. Great-
er temperatures added energy in a heat form. Energy was
removed by light radiation. The color of the emission and
intensity of it were brought about by the wavelength or light
54
frequency (Mooney 1996, 73-74).
Planck noted that, according to classical physics princi-
ples, the energy additions and subtractions should be a con-
tinuous process. However, the theory did not match the
colors observed, and changes in color. Planck came to the
conclusion that theory and observation could only agree if
the light energy was emitted in the form of very small
bundles whose "propagation [was] perforated by 'jumps'."
(Mooney 1996, 73-74). Planck referred to energy granules as
quantas. Quantas contained varying amounts of energy
frequency. A high frequency wave (with short wave length)
contained more energy quanta radiation than a low frequency
one. Planck developed a way to measure wave energy
(Mooney 1996, 73-74).
This way of measurement, Planck's Constant -- which is
at the heart of Quantum Theory -- indicates that energy of
emitted radiation is proportional to its frequency" (Brill
1980,3). This hypothesis does not insist that emitted energy
must be in packets. A possible, but difficult, reconciliation
with wave theory cannot be ruled out. In 1905 Albert
Einstein, who made use of Planck's work, perceived that
light "was in the form of small energy "quanta" (later termed
photons) (Brill 1980,3). The work of other researchers
coupled with previous work brought about the Quantum
Mechanics theory by 1927. The existence of that theory does
not resolve all of the problems regarding an understanding of
light.
There are several possible and revised explanations of
light. One theory of light combines Maxwell's electromag-
netic theory with Einstein's notions of photons and relativity.
Each approach partly explains the workings of light. (Brill
1980,3-4). A variant version notes there is no theory of light
55
in itself. Rather, Quantum Mechanics is one theory that
includes light propeliies and matter properties. This version
(Ditchburn 1976, 13-15) can be placed in a diagram form
showing "streams" of electromagnetic theory, quantum
theory/photons, and relativity flowing into and forming
Quantum Mechanics. Ditchburn notes that in Quantum
Mechanics the two ideas complement rather than rival each
other; each notion has appropriate milieux. Bloembergen
speaks of properties oflight which are "wave-like" and other
properties which are "particle-like" and the manner of their
combination in Quantum Mechanics "without internal con-
tradiction" (Bloembergen 1985, 656).
A leading illumination engineer offers yet another ex-
planation by suggesting light has a dualistic nature (Murdoch
1985, 17). Dualistic suggests a two-track form that manifests
a closely united nature of two elements rather than two tracks
combined into one. Murdoch notes that in an explanation of
the processes of energy transmission the quantum theory
(rather than Quantum Mechanics) better explains some of the
portions of the process while the older electromagnetic pro-
cess better explains the remainder of the process. Dualism, in
this view, more adequately describes the process than a
single element.
Yet Harald Fritsch (of the Max Planck Institute) states
that Maxwell's electromagnetic theory is intact. The theory
may be intact but it needs to be interpreted: all waves are in
photon form. While there may be no contradiction between
the view of Fritsch and other authors, yet Fritsch's interpre-
tation seems at variance with the idea of combining disparate
elements, and of separate theories that explain some though
not all light processes. It may be enough to say that either the
once-dominant electromagnetic theory of light has become
subsumed into a more all-encompassing theory which more
56
adequately explains light, or the electromagnetic theory
remains valid but needs to be interpreted in the light of the
photon theory (Fritsch 1984, 105-106). Daly notes that
"Niels Bohr showed that light could be understood and
treated as either wave-like or particle-like, but not at the
same time, and that each function complemented the other."
(Daly 1989, 16).
Light is radiant energy. A more expansive definition is
supplied by Murdoch: it is "visually evaluated radiant
energy." Light is energy; it is "transmitted by radiation, and
... a form of radiant energy to which the eye is sensitive."
(Murdoch 1985, 5). Light occupies a portion of the electro-
magnetic spectrum that includes energy in a variety of wave-
lengths including radio, cosmic and x-rays. The wave-lengths
that are visible to the unaided eye are termed light (Danger
1987,36). And what is color? The sensations generated by
specific wavelengths in the visible part of the spectrum.
Kaufman completes this definition by noting colors are the
"characteristics ... by which an observer may distinguish
between patches of light of the same size, shape and
structure." (Kaufman 1981, 5-2).
2A2 Introduction to Color
The visible part of the spectrum is one color: white
(Danger 1987,36). If light is "broken down" through the use
of a prism six colors appear: the primary ones of violet, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red. Red is the longest in wave-
length while violet is the shortest. Visible light is bracketed
by infrared rays Gust above) and by x-rays Gust below
violet). (Danger 1987,36).
The wavelengths for primary colors are:
380-430 nm Violet
430-490 nm Blue
490-560 nm Green
57
560-590 nm Yellow
590-630 nm Orange
630-770 nm Red
nm=nanometers. These are sometimes referred to as milli-
microns (a millimicron: 1/1 ,000,000 of a millimeter; ten
millimeters= 1 centimeter = .03937 inches) (Murdoch 1985,
10). Cutler (1972, 13) has figures somewhat at variance with
other sources: 400-450 nm violet; 450-500 nm blue; 500-570
nm green; 570-590 nm yellow; 590-620 nm orange; 620-700
red.
The process of human vision and the presence of color
is complex. A color sensation is generated when light
(radiant energy) passes into the eye (Danger 1987, 36-37).
The human eye has three forms of receptors: one responsive
to red, another to blue, another to green. The light that has
entered the eye acts as a stimul us for the receptors which
creates nerve impulses in the receptors which, after
transmission to the brain, become mental images. (Danger
1987, 36-37).
Equal stimulation of the receptors results in the brain
perceiving white but the receptors need not be so stimulated.
If, for example, the blue receptor is not involved then the
receptors for red and green create yellow. The degree of
involvement for the receptors means that a vast number of
permutations is possible. White, black and gray supplement
the six primary colors in this process. Yet an older essay
(Hartridge 1961, 102-111) questions the three-color theory
and instead promotes a seven receptor, polychromatic theory.
The second theory contains tricolor receptors and two sub-
sidiary units (Y-B and R-BG-Y). The more complex theory
may have much to recommend it over the simpler one. Yet
the three-color receptor theory is buttressed by the more
recent work of Davsoll in his study entitled, The Physiology
58
a/the Eye (1990,399-400).
There are many physical, physiological, and psycho-
logical factors that affect the creation, transmission and inter-
pretation of color. These include the light energy, absorption,
reflection and transmission of the energy form that the
human eye receives and which it processes as well as the
viewing conditions (Culow 1972, 35). CuIow notes that
"colour, as such, has no material existence. The wavelength
of the light is the physical reality (the stimulus) which is
responsible for the perception of colour. For instance, a light
beam of wavelength about 550 nm is not in itself green but
the reaction caused by it on the eyes of a normal person is
that which we call green." (Culow 1972, 7). The remark that
a wavelength is not a given color but rather what humans so
regard as color as energy processed by the eye and brain is an
important observation.
What are termed primary colors depends on the per-
spective in question. Chemistry views color as a matter of
pigments and compounds; primary colors are red, yellow,
and blue in this perspective (BilTen 1963, 84, 98,141-151).
Physics views colors as light and includes red, green, and
blue-green. Physiology and psychology, which examines
color from the perspective of human vision, includes four
primary colors: red, yellow, blue, and green according to
Faber Birren. Earlier studies held to the view there were
three primary colors and these colors correspond to the
chemistry or physics perspective. More modern studies
(including Herring, Ostwald, Hofler, BitTen) found that what
humans view in color differs from color as pigment or light
and therefore four colors are primary for humans. (Birren in
the places sited).
Possibly the best known figure for color research in the
59
US is Albert Munsell (Birren 1963,144-151). His studies
incorporate a strongly physics-orientated approach to color.
Munsell followed Helmholtz's notion of color having three
facets: hue, value, and intensity. Hue refers to that quality
which the non-specialist terms color. Value has reference to
brightness (the dark or light of a color). While intensity, or
chroma, focusses on the purity or grayness of color. (Birren
1963,144-151).
Munsell emphasized the physics of light but he also
included the psychology of color through his representation
of some hues as stronger than others in his color solid (See
Science o/Color, 1953,367 for a discussion of color solids).
Munsell occupied a middle ground "between color as energy
and color as sensations." However, Bin'en notes that
Munsell's work fell "short a f the kind of perfection realized
by Wilhelm Ostwald." (Bin'en 1963, 144- I51).
Ostwald notes that the science of color has occupied one
of three perspectives: chemistry, physics, or physiologyl
psychology. Ostwald, aller a review of other studies, thought
that "in the last analysis color is a sensation" and that "a true
solution of color's mysteries lay in an analysis ofthe physio-
logical and psychological processes of seeing." (Bin'en 1963,
144-151).
Ostwald adopted Herring's four primary color system of
red, yellow, green, and blue. But he constructed a new
pattern of color based on three colors. Herring had also
advanced the idea of color having three forms: pure hues,
white, and black. Ostwald's system of color has seven forms
of color: a) the first form includes the pure hues of red,
green, yellow and blue; b) the second is that of white; c) the
third of black; d)-g) the final forms are mixtures of the first
three. Human vision perceives only these forms. (BitTen
60
1963,144-151).
Signal colors have been greatly influenced by early work
in color. Primary colors mirror developments in T-M. It can
be noted that in T-M the defini tion of primary colors may
vary with the mode-specific context, and color is not the only
factor at work in T-M forms.
2A3 Light Sources
Incandescent light globes have had a major role in
electric safety aids though a few aids have employed other
lighting forms in the past (e.g. some early approach lights
employed neon; see Part J, 90). In recent years other forms of
"bulbs" are increasingly employed. These include halogen,
metal halide, discharge forms. More recently an additional
form, L.E.Ds., has achieved a prominent role and may
supplant traditional and less than traditional forms.
The incandescent bulb dates back to the 1870s (Joseph
Swan and Thomas Edison are the inventors). In incandescent
light an electrical current passes through a wire (often tung-
sten). The wire glows and light energy radiates outward.
However, most of the energy is in a heat form not light
(Electric Lighting). One source claims only 5% of the energy
is light while a second suggests 15%. (Carmanah; Laughton
1985,27/8). The incandescent bulb can be made more
efficient but that results in a shortened life span. (Laughton
1985, 27/8).
Halogen lamps (that is one of many names for this light
source; other names include halogen cycle, tungsten-halogen,
quartz, quartz-iodine). (Glossary). These are incandescent
lamps that employ a halogen group gas such as iodine or
bromine. (Glossary). With the presence of iodine any
61
tungsten evaporating from the filament will be regenerated
and return to the filament. The cleaning or regeneration
process adds to the life span of the lamp. (Technical
Information). Halogen lamps experience a reduced level of
darkening of the globe in contrast to conventional incan-
descent bulbs. (Lindsey 1991,43-44). Halogen lamps mani-
fest very good "color rendering." And they produce con-
siderable wattage in a small envelope. (Lindsey 1991, 75).
Many aero nav lights employ halogen lamps (e.g. ADB).
Flashing lights have long been a mainstay of aviation
safety. (see Part J). Historically these have been largely of an
incandescent form. A different form of flashing light
developed in the last half-century. These lights are known
by many names including strobe lIghts, capacitor-discharge,
and condenser-discharge lights. These were originally
employed for approach lighting and more recently for
obstruction lighting (see Part G, Part J). While discharge
lights forms have differences they share a xenon short-arc
technology. The arc tube is comprised of a tube or envelope
of quartz containing xenon gas in which an electric current
travels through the gas between two electrodes. (Kaufmann
1984, 8-52; Brooks 1983, 255). The flash tube can be either
compact or linear in form. The color has been described as
that of daylight or sunlight. (Teclmical Information). The
energy for the flash comes from energy stored in a capacitor
(Brooks 1983, 258).
The metal halide lamp is a form of discharge lighting;
that is of high intensity discharge nature(mercury vapor and
high pressure sodium are also of that form) (Brooks 1983
236-237; Glossary). Metal halide lamps include a ballast that
allows the light to continue operation in contrast to the short-
arc of xenon lights. Metal halide lamps including traces of
metals that creates a white light of a daylight character, The
62
lamp can also produce a wide range of color hues. Metal
halide lamps are long-lasting and efficient. A variety of aero
beacons employ this technology. (venture-lighting.com; also
electric lighting ...). Keeler 1987 viewed the metal halide as a
possible replacement for incandescent lights. (Keeler 1987,
291). However, the Coast Guard has instead employed
L.E.D. forms. (see LNMs of 13th CG District).
L.E.D.s (light emitting diodes) have rapidly become a
key form of light. Marine aids to navigation, traffic signals,
railways signals are adopting this form of lighting. The
L.E.D. is a tiny silicon chip requiring only an electrical
current of limited power. Each chip is composed of crystal
elements for one color. Filters are not needed. Electrical
energy is converted to light not heat in contrast to incan-
descent lamps. Solar energy is often used for L.E.D. modules
since the diodes are of low voltage and suitable for that
energy source. The life span of the diode can be measured in
years rather than in hours. Many diodes are needed for a
single installation. Even hundreds of L.E.D.s at an instal-
lation (e.g. a traffic signal) require little energy. (Wikipedia;
Carmanah-roadlights.com; MRSEC.wisc.edu).
An older light source, neon, finds some use for
obstruction lighting. This is seemingly more often employed
in Europe. ICAO speaks of a cold cathode neon-filled lamp
that can be directly attached to power lines and from which it
draws its energy. The neon red is reasonably close to signal
red. A neon discharge lamp set within a vertical tube is
marketed by ADB and other European firms as a low-cost
obstruction aid. Some limited use of mercury and flourescent
lamps are also employed for obstruction lightings. (Part G,
ICAO 1993, 128; manufacturers include ADB, Cegelec and
Thorn Europhane).
63
2B Color & Transportation-Markings
2Bl Historical Development of Color Use in T-M
A survey of the development of color usage for T-M
examines several issues: a) do color usages pre-date T-M and
therefore come from other fields? b) do color usages origi-
nate in various scientific and technical disciplines? or c) do
color usages emanate from T-M in itself?
A historical survey of color messages for T-M soon
encounters a problem in examining possible pre-T-M
messages. As Henry Dreyfuss notes in his Symbol Source-
book, not a "single source ... explained the traditional and
contemporary meanings of specific colors in specific
contexts" (Dreyfuss, 1972, 232). Historical sources that
consider color meanings often do so only in general terms.
However, some evidence is available which may indicate
whether or not messages corresponding to T-M messages
may predate that usage.
Dreyfuss notes that for the 200 years before 1900 only
red had a meaning corresponding to present signal usage
(Dreyfuss 1972, 23 8). Red has had a variety of meanings in-
cluding that of danger. Red flags were employed in colonial
Massachusetts as a signal to a doctor while he was on his
rounds; storm warning flags were also red (Dreyfuss 1972,
238-239). These examples suggest red had a danger or near-
danger meaning before the advent of modern T-M forms. But
the researches of Dreyfuss found no evidence about yellow
or green that suggests modern usages. There are indications
of the use of yellow and green in industrial safety and auto-
racing but only after T-M usage was underway (Dreyfuss
1972, 240-241).
64
Green and red were employed as markers for starboard
and port side (respectively) of ships, beginning in 1847
which reflects the use that green and red occupy in Eastern
Hemisphere buoyage and beaconage markings (O'Dea 1959,
68). It can be noted that red was employed for starboard
buoys before that date and not until the early 20th century
did some nations employ a pattern based on the 1847 ship-
board lighting practice. (Naish 1985, 194; Parts C/O). The
marine use of green and red is at variance with the core
meaning (red= danger, stop; green= proceed, clear) whether
red is to starboard or port, and green is to starboard or port.
While the evidence is limited and sketchy for T-M
message patterns there are indications that red came from
non-transportation uses (green and red in marine T-M forms
are a variant usage). But for the most part, T-M color formu-
lae emanated from other sources. Other possible sources of
color meanings include color studies in psychology, physics
and cheminstry, and the internal requirements ofT-M.
Much of the work in color standards for T-M took place
in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Psychology was in its
earliest stages during this time and not a major factor in the
development of color messages. Psychology has become a
major factor in color and in T-M messages but only after
many of the foundations were established. Color studies
based on physical science were of more significance.
T-M message colors are very similar to primary colors
which suggests an influence from color studies. This is true
even though some of the major work in color took place at
the same time as developments in T-M colors uses were
occurring. Nonetheless, the close parallels between the work
of such research as Munsel and Ostwald indicates an in-
65
fluence upon T-M developments. Especially important is the
Munsell color system since it fits in well with signal color
systems especially those of railways (AARPAPOS, Ch 1).
Munsell's hues include red, green, yellow, blue and
purple (Birren 1963, 148-149). It is perhaps telling that
Munsell includes purple, unlike other systems, and that
purple appears in railway color patterns though, admittedly,
on a limited scale. Railway uses of color and Munsell's stu-
dies chronologically overlap. Ostwald's work is somewhat
later yet some influence on T-M may be present.
In summary, what can be said of the impact of color and
especially of color research on the!-M colors? While a.
cause and effect relationship would be difficult to establIsh
probably some relationship is present. Signal col~rs and.
primary colors demonstrate considerable correlatiOn. It IS
quite possible that those involved with transportation color
usage (in an earlier stage) were familiar with the work of .
Munsell. While American railway literature does not prOVIde
details on any actual connection there is the tantalizing sug-
gestion that railway colors -- which are the basis of many
signal color systems -- are tied to the Munsell system. There
is at present a large body of publications dealing with color
standards and signal colors yet much of that literature came
about after the establishing of colors.
Munsell's studies were less vision-orientated than those
of Ostwald yet they had greater impact on color. This may
indicate that Munsell's work took place about the same time
as much transportation color usage was developing. It does
not necessarily indicate the superiority of Munsell over
Ostwald.
The use of primary colors in T-M may possibly have
66
been selected because "red, yellow, green, and blue are
unique in appearance and resemble nothing else" (Birren
1963, 151). The use of primary colors needs to be qualified
since some special hues have been employed that are not
primary colors (or at least not primary in all color systems:
lunar-white, purple and what one railway calls orange [which
may be within the limits of yellow]) ( Swiss Federal Rail-
ways 1981; Part F, 1991, 117).
Color usage in T-M is not fully an achievement of
science. Some measure of historical accident and even
arbitrary actions played a role in these developments. Light-
house authorities as well as railway companies made use of
the available color glass technology and mechanisms of their
times. Science and technology were not always the final
arbiter in these matters. The colors employed and the result-
ing messages were formed by the agencies and companies
directly involved in signals with a complementary yet in-
creasingly important role by scientists, engineers and tech-
nicians in manufacturing concerns, government agencies and
universities.
In summary, the meaning of most signal colors does not
predate the modern era ofT-M. While psychological factors
are often important in scienti tic color studies -- and psycho-
logy began in roughly the same era -- it is not responsible for
much of the actual T-M color usages. The development of
the T-M message system was brought about by an interplay
of the signal system with the science and technology of the
late 19th and early 20th centuries. The work of chemistry and
physics, especially in railway signal undertakings, greatly
influenced the development of the colors employed and the
accompanying messages.
The focus of this segment has been on color meaning to
67
T-M. It can also be noted that over many decades certain
colors have meanings stemming from T-M. Colors can even
be removed from T-M usage and retain the same meaning in
diverse roles. For example, to say that an arms control agree-
ment has received a yellow light means that caution has crept
into the process or even that the agreement is on hold. Red
with the meaning of danger or stop occurs in advertizing and
the same is true of green with a meaning of "go ahead" or
"pull out all the stops." Many of the meanings associated
with colors used in T-M do not preceed those selfsame
markings yet many of those meanings follow meanings
created in T-M usage.
2B2 Summary of Color Usage in T-M
The scope of this monograph cannot not encompass the
full range of T-M messages. But a review of general uses of
color in T-M is possible. The first edition of Part A color
usage was arranged by the transportation mode (aero, marine,
rail, road). But in the 2nd ed to this edition the focus is
instead on the color usage followed by reference to the mode.
The modal monographs provide more detailed coverage.
Color usage is not accompanied by references as the
coverage ranges over a wide range of materials. Again, the
modal monographs supply that information.
The use of red follows the widely-accepted meaning of
stop in many cases. In aero markings it finds frequent use in
obstruction markings on towers, buildings and other barriers
that can affect air navigation. Red is not infrequently
combined with other colors. For example, red is added to the
backside of aero threshold lights to denote wrong direction
by aircraft. It also conjoined with the color white in aero
approach lights.
68
Red can be employed with variant meanings that do not
denote danger (at least in a direct sense). In marine aids to
navigation red alternates with green as an indicator of the
sides of channels rather than as a stop signal. Red is rarely
used as a danger signal in marine navigation. A few major
lights may have a red sector denoting a special region of
danger near that light; that would constitute a standard mean-
ing of red. Red is also found with directional lights (narrowly
focussed lights of several colors delineating a multiple-
channel). Seemingly, no other transportation mode employs a
principal color in an atypical manner to this extent.
Red has the accepted meaning of stop in road and rail
situations; most of the meaning of red as a stop or danger
message originates with these signals. A possible area of
confusion is the railway use of red when conjoined with
other colors. The use of multiple colors indicates qualified
versions of more basic messages, or -- in the case of muIti-
ple:signal heads -- red can have the standard meaning even
with other colors present. Traffic signals are an exercise
in simplicity in which red has an unvarying message of stop.
There are a limited number of situations where a flashing red
or double red indication is present and these represent addi-
tional variants of the basic stop message.
Green was once a cautionary color for railway signals,
but it has become very much associated with a "go" message
with the one major exception of marine usage. It has a some-
what limited role in aero navigation though various aero bea-
cons employ green, the "go" side of threshold lights are
green in color; taxiway centerline lights represent a variant
use.
For marine aids to navigation green shares the function
described for red which is to mark the sides of channels. A
69
possible point of confusion concerns which side is designated
by green and which by red. In most instances the Eastern
Hemisphere employs red to port and the Western Hemis-
phere red is to starboard (this matter is further complicated
by the direction of the head of navigation).
Green in rail and road signals follows the format of the
comments about red. The general meaning ascribed to that
color comes from these signals. Green in rail use may appear
by itself though it can appear wi th other colors which some-
times --but not always -- qualifies the basic message. Flash-
ing and multiple green signals signify other nuanced mean-
ings. The use of green for road signals follows a simple
pattern with few qualifications (turn and lane signals offer
some qualifications).
Yellow has a widely agreed-upon meaning of caution. A
variety of terms in addition to the word caution have been
applied to yellow. This is especially the case with railway
signals. Yellow is found with some forms of airport beacons
both alone and in conjunction with white. Yellow is em-
ployed for portions of runway edge lighting. Yellow in the
previously described situation, may have a cautionary char-
acter since yellow/white edge lamps are located between
approach lighting and the main section of edge lighting.
Yellow has a limited role in marine navigation. These uses
include special purpose buoys and warnings.
Yellow is pati of a triumvirate of basic colors along
with red and green. Yellow has an importance in road and
rail approximating that of red and green. Road signals em-
ploys yellow for cautionary messages. Rail signals have a
more complex pattern of usage and the remarks for red and
green can generally be applied to yellow
70
Red/Green/Yellow loom up very large in human con-
sciousness for T-M colors. Yet white is a frequently
employed color and in some instances eclipses apparently
more commonly used colors. White is the most common
color in use at airports and it is also significant away from
airports. White finds use with beacons, approach lighting
systems, runway edge and runway centerline fixtures. White
is sometimes used alone sometimes with other colors.
White is also a key color in marine color usage. Most
major coastal lights employ white, and white is used for
many other lights as well. [t is also employed in buoyage
systems for specified roles. White is also a major color for
structures. The new international buoyage system has
probably decreased the use of white since the new system is
more specific about color usage than previous systems and
has increased the use of green and red.
Road signals colors do not include white. But many
road pavement markings employ white as well as some signs.
White is used for railway signals though on a restricted level.
Some mainline signals display white messages though often
for specialized purposes (e.g., switchlpoint indicators).
There are also some special forms of white in use. One
of these is lunar white (sometimes termed blue white) used
by some railways. A second special white is termed "variable
source white" is found largely with aero lights which can
vary intensity according to weather conditions and time of
day. Changes in intensity alter color temperature and hue of
the color in use. (Breckenridge 1967,48; see also ICAO
1990, Attachment A).
The other colors in T-M are more restricted in use. The
most important of these is that of blue. It is used for taxiway
71
light at airports, construction work, and derails on railways.
Blue also finds limited use with road signs and pavement
markings. Purple (often termed violet in Europe) has limited
applications in railways. Purple has been a substitute for red
in some non-mainline signal situations. Amber is not a color
in itself but an alternate name for the yellow hue employed in
some railways. It denotes a less saturated hue of yellow but
remains within the spectrum of tolerances for yellow. The
color orange employed by the Swiss Railways is within
acceptable yellow boundaries. Orange in different hues than
previously described forms are employed for some buoys and
some older pedestrian signals. Some aero markings are also
orange. Other colors include black and brown are sometimes
employed with road signs.
The welter of colors and meanings can become confus-
ing. But the core colors of red/green/yellow with the accom-
panying messages of stop/proceed/caution constitute much of
the color system in T-M. Marine and aero aids to navigation
represent a kind of sub-culture of usage. White occupies an
intermediate position with major uses for marine and aero
aids. The remaining colors are much more restricted and
peripheral in T-M usage.
2C Historical Development of Color Messages
1 The Development of Messages Before 1900
a) Before 1850
Quite obviously T-M before 1900, and even more
before 1850, displays a truncated appearance. The aero mode
did not exist and traffic signals were primitive and very much
of a rarity before 1900. Only two modes were served by
markings of a relatively complex nature. In the early 19th
72
century only marine markings amounted to very much at all.
Traffic control devices were limited in scope and simple.
Railway signals were in a primitive and embryonic stage.
However, developments in color messages in one or two
modes spill over into other modes and in time affect the total
spectrum of T-M. To speak of color developments on the
coasts of England and Scotland, for example, may seem a
narrow topic yet it can have far-reaching results. This is also
true of many other seemingly small events in color.
At the beginning of the 19th century marine markings
stood nearly alone as a T-M system. White was preeminent
in that system. The range of color was not as narrow as that
statement might suggest. "White" can include a number of
hues; the phrase "uncolored light" includes shades known as
"white, bright, or clear" (Stevenson 1959, 77). The color of
illumination, when color glass is not employed, can also
create a difference in color. This is especially the case when
a variety of fuels were used in early lights.
Despite the primitive state of early 19th century tech-
nology, including that of glass manufacturing, some marine
lights exhibited color messages in that era and before. For
example, Flamborough Head had a red and white color
system in 1806 and this Iight also revolved. This may be the
first light exhibit a two-color message, and also to revolve.
Bell Rock (or Inchcape) displayed large panels of red glass
after Flamborough was established. Extensive use of red
glass was probably a rarity then and later. (Stevenson 1959,
77).
Color studies were underway even in the early 19th
century. For example, A.D. Stevenson carried out experi-
ments that demonstrated "red was the best color as an alter-
native to white or natural light" (Stevenson 1959, 79); that
73
finding is borne out by much later studies. A French contem-
porary of Stevenson, Baron Saint Holouen, proposed a color
light system for distinguishing between lighthouses but that
proposal did not reach a concrete stage. (Stevenson 1959,
79).
A US lighthouse in New Hampshire displayed a three-
color message of red, white, and blue. This may have been
more of a patriotic gesture than an advanced color optic
system. The blue was soon dropped because it could not be
seen for an adequate dIstance (Adamson 1953, 88). Blue
continues to find use with airport taxiway lights and slight
employment in railway signals but not in marine lights.
Perhaps surprizingly, the first light in England with a
color message displayed a green light not one of red. Sur-
prizingly because green has a shorter viewing capability than
red and rarely employed for coastal lights. That initial color
light, the Smalls in UK, was a very early light: 1775.
(Stevenson 1959,281-282; and this is the reference for the
next two paragraphs as well).
Color developments were very gradual but there were
more extensive changes in light phase characteristics. In
1750 all lights had been fixed but by 1800 three additional
characteristics had been added: revolving, oscillating, and
occulting. Quick-flashing was added in 1819 and additional
patterns were added late in the 19th century and in the 20th
century.
By 1850 the situation in lighthouse forms was not
greatly different from half a century earlier. Lights were
usually dim in intensity, often white in color and not infre-
quently of a fixed character. The second half of the century
saw many more developments in light phase characteristics,
74
lens optics, and improved illuminants.
The first actual traffic signal was established in 1868.
However, a primitive form of land signal for surface traffic
already existed. This "land lighthouse" was similar to a
marine lighthouse in that it was made up of a tower topped
by an open fire. It was not intended to direct or separate
traffic but rather to provide guidance for travellers between
towns (Stevenson 1959,47). A simpler "land lighthouse"
was established near Whitby in Yorkshire in the early Middle
Ages. This writer has a photograph of that beacon which
shows an iron brazier fastened to four wooden poles, the pur-
pose was identical to the more elaborate land tower. The
great tower of Saint Botulph's Church in Boston, UK may
constitute a third example of a "land lighthouse." Knowles
refers to it as the "beacons of the fens." (Knowles 1976, 14).
Railways began working on signals early in the 19th
century. Railways and signals began in England with many
later developments in the US. The first signals may have
been on the Liverpool & Manchester Railway in 1830. The
earliest signals were much like current switch signals with
targets. An early US signal utilized flags, baskets or balls
painted white or black. White was the clear indication ofthat
time and for many years to come; black represented a
hazardous or stop condition. A somewhat more modern
signal employed discs painted white or red. White continued
as a clear or go signal while red became the symbol of
danger; the red discs contained the word "danger" as well.
When night messages were added they followed the white
and red pattern of day indications; the "banner" box signal of
the Civil War era continued that message pattern.
(ARSPAPOS 19536-19).
By mid-century T-M forms and their message systems
75
,I
il
Ii
i·
were limited in numbers and in complexity but some ad-
vances were occuring. Marine colors and light phase char-
acteristics had undergone some improvements and
expansion. For example, lighthouse technology (including
the Fresnel lens and improved fuels) was experiencing major
developments. Railway signals employed several colors. Red
was in use and displaying the meaning it has at present.
White was a significant color though with a different
meaning than the contemporary one. Green had limited use
during the mid-century. It had begun as a caution color and
long retained that meaning especially in the US. Modern
T-M forms and messages were some distance in the future,
but some embryonic underpinnings were becoming visible
by mid-century
b) 1850-1900
1850-1900 stands as a vital transition period for T-M. It
is the last period lacking aero navigation aids. It includes the
most intense period of the crisis in railway signal color
development. It represents the zenith of visual marine aids to
navigation, and it includes the first traffic signals. But this is
also a period of embryonic beginnings rather than fully com-
pleted solutions. The railway signal problem is not resolved
until the first years of the new century, nor do seminal
changes occur in marine aids until the 20th century. But that
half-century is, nonetheless, a vital bridge between a primi-
tive level of markings to a level more closely resembling
modern T-M.
Throughout much of this period the railway signal color
pattern remained relatively uniform: red for stop, green for
caution, white for proceed. The original code (formulated at
Liverpool before the mid-point of the century) had far
reaching impact. This is is not surprizing since railways were
76
largely confined to the industrial nations of Europe, Japan,
and North America; signal work in the UK thereby could
affect much of that restricted railway network. (ARSPAPOS
1953, 73-74; also for following paragraphs).
Chappe Brothers, an English lighthouse engineering
firm, determined that the colors of red, white, and green were
more commonly used on railways than any other colors, and
manifested a stronger intensity. Through survey and experi-
mentation they also found that white was the most frequently
employed color and of the strongest intensity. White thereby
became the proceed indication. Green became the caution
signal in the Chappe study. It is not known if any form of
yellow was tested.
White signals became a major safety problem within a
relatively short time after the 1841 Conference. It was found
that if a red or green lense broke or fell out of the signal then
the lamp became a de facto white signal indication. Or if a
house lantern near a track displayed a strong white lantern
that lantern might be mistaken for a signal message. In the
British Isles the task of phasing out the white signals was
soon undertaken. White lasted far longer in the US. At least
one US railway dropped white because of an accident and
instituted the now familiar green/yellow/red message pattern.
The slowness for changing colors and messages can be
traced to at least two explanations: a) human inertia: the
railways were accustomed to the older system and m~y have
perceived a potential for accidents if the existing pattern was
changed. The railway attitude may be less unacceptable than
it first appears: symbols can become ingrained in human
consciousness and what appears to be a conservative attitude
is reasonable at least to some degree. To be sure, the status
quo in itself was a potential safety hazard. b) The second
77
explanation for the slowness of change was the unsolved
problems of precise color definitions -- to that time -- and the
low quality standards for signal glass. Until those problems
could be resolved it was not possible to say what the
characteristics of any color ought to be and also impossible
to produce glass of uniform hues.
Before a permanent solution was to be found to the
problem there were interim solutions. One attempt at a cau-
'tion signal employed a red and green signal together. Red
alone or green alone gave a standard meaning but together
they would signify a cautionary message. A second alterna-
tive proposed a system of position and light signals for cau-
tion. This was introduced and continues on some railways.
Late in the century the American Railway Association
appeared to be almost literally groping in the dark as the hunt
for a third color that could be used for a caution signal
continued to be elusive (ARSPAPOS 1953, 74). Several
colors were suggested for a caution signal including violet,
blue and orange. Violet was presumed too close to red in the
color spectrum to give a clear and unambiguous message.
Blue and orange were also proposed. But again the possible
or even likelihood of confusion with other colors precluded
their use. The red/green combination idea was implemented
on some railways in the face of no workable alternative. Late
in the century a decision was reached approving green as the
proceed indication but this remained an abstract resolution
for some time. (ARSPAPOS 1953, 74).
The 19th century ended without a resolution of what
may have appeared to be an intractable problem. The
problem of deciding on colors and messages could not be
resolved before the science and technology undergirding
colors and messages was resolved. A remarkable range of
78
hues were masquerading under a few basic names: reds
ranged from orange to deep red, greens might be yellow-
chrome, blue or any points in-between. Yellows, blues and
purples suffered from similar vagaries. These problems
explain why yellow could not be a caution indication; some
yellows were reddish-yellow and could be possibly confused
with red, while other yellows were greenish-yellow and
possibly confused with green. One problem was moving
toward resolution: green gained acceptance, including in the
US, as the proceed indication.
Only gradually did clear indications of the shape of
modern T-M forms develop. At first there were only hazy
outlines of how safety aids should function, Changes in
colors and light phase characteristics were joined by
advances in lighting illuminants, optical apparatus and
mechanical equipment.
Green and red were rarely used in the first half of the
19th century and for much of the second half as well. A
group-flashing light phase characteristic was added, as well
as a form of pre-Morse code indication (flashes indicated
agreed-upon numbers rather than letters). A quick-flashing
characteristic joined the list of light phase characteristics.
The existence of more characteristics does not mean that a
quick implementation took place: change often occurred at a
very slow pace. The fixed characteristic predominated even
into the 20th century and constituted a near monopoly of
characteristics actually in use. Technology, economics and
human inertia probably explain the slowness of change (see
Putnam 1913, 1-53; EB 1911, 627-651; USCG Light Lists;
IALA publications and other treatises on lighthouses and
matters maritime).
Technology has had at least as much impact on marine
79
markings message characteristics as that of colors and mean-
ings. And the state of technological production has consider-
able bearing on expanding the range of marine messages.
While much of the new technology existed before 1900, the
mere existence of technology did not translate into. rapid
implementation. Technology during this time was frequently
in one of two states: a prototype state which was outside of
the market, and technology within the market but available
on a mass-production basis. For example, optical apparatus
for major lights was crafted on an individual basis during the
19th century. While fuel systems were perhaps less custom-
ized neither were they mass-produced. This meant that
technological advances were available but at a slow pace and
continued to be an expensive process. The economics of
deep-water navigation supported major seacoast lights. But
economics may have less adequately supported lighting
apparatus for river and harbor systems. This resulted in
simple and often primitive lighting existing in river and
harbor cha1l1lels while new technology, including more
varied light phase characteristics, was found mostly at the
major lights. (See also Part J, and mode-specific studies).
In the last decade of the 19th century various develop-
ments lead to a great diffusion of new technology: new
liquid-fuel and vaporized-fuel lamps, the introduction of
electricity and acetylene fuels, and the adding of automated
equipment and timers. The older forms of markings may still
have been in place but they were to be greatly altered in the
new century (see especially Putnam 1913).
Most traffic signal developments occurred in the 20th
century. Embryonic beginings can be traced to the 19th
century. The first signal was in London and produced by a
railway signal manufacturer. That underscores the relation-
ship between road and rail colors and messages. The first
80
signal had messages of red for stop and green for go. Since
UK railway interests early adopted green for go messages
this practice was extended to road signals. UK had two-color
signals and, hence, three clearly differentiated signals were
less significant than in the US. Traffic signal usage did not
include white. Other signals -- in a loose sense -- included
red lanterns hung over holes in roads. This use of red adds to
the evidence that red long held the meaning it has today
(Mueller 1970b, 6).
2 The Development of Messages Since 1900
a) 1900-1925
Nearly any dates selected for beginning and ending a
period of historical development can be arbitrary and artifi-
cial. Any case made for a chronological division could likely
be made against that selection as well. The year of 1920
might be selected to mark the end of early modern develop-
ments in T-M yet many developments continued beyond that
date. 1930 might be an adequate substitute except that many
developments were completed by then (except for aero aids).
The year of 1925 may be a more adequate ending date for the
earlier 20th century except for aero aids whose formative
periods extends to about 1930.
The resolution to a solution of the railway problem
colors and meanings began in 1899 (Reference for this seg-
ment is ARSPAPOS 1953,74-75,78; also Killigrew 1949).
A US academic, E.W. Scripture, noted that "signal colors
could be determined by a careful study of the physical and
colors conditions involved." (ARSPAPOS 1953, 75). This
view attracted the interest of the Corning Glass Works which
asked E.W. Scripture to set up a scientifically accurate and
precise standard for the various signal colors. This work was
81
undertaken at Yale University by Professors Scripture and
Churchill. Churchill later joined Corning and established an
optical laboratory.
In 1905 Churchill prepared an essay that proposed both
general principles and specific methods for testing specifi-
cations for signal glass that would lead to standardization. He
further noted that adequate glasses were actually available
that would bring about a three-color signal system. These
new standards included a red which eliminated any orange
hue, a green with a slight bluish tint, and a yellow that would
not be confused with green or red. Churchill's work also in-
cludes a lunar white, a blue and a purple all of a new formu-
lation.
The Railway Signal Association (US) endorsed green
for the proceed indication and yellow for caution in 1906.
Individual railway standards fell away in the face of a gen-
eral standard. In 1910 white was dropped for a clear signal,
and the three-color system of red, green, and yellow was
adopted. Some limited changes would occur over the years
but these basic decisions held fast. In summary, these
changes included the solution of the caution problem, intro-
duction of an officially-sanctioned proceed indication and the
addition of new colors for special uses.
For marine aids to navigation the changes of the late
19th century were continued in the new century. There was,
as well, a notable degree of implementation of technological
advances. Red and white continued to dominate marine color
patterns. More extensive use of green did not take place until
about 1925 for major lights. Green was undergoing employ-
ment for marking of bridges, and tor harbor lights in Europe
(following a conference at St Petersburg in 1912) positioned
red to port and green to starboard. Light phase character-
82
-
istics did not undergo significant change (USLHS 1918;
Gibbs 1955, 99; Putnam 1913, 37, 39; Adamson 1953, 256;
Conway 1915,80; Weiss 1926,35).
Technical changes underlying colors and meanings were
more substantial. Electricity was introduced at the tum of the
century and well on to way to becoming a major fuel by
World War I though not yet a dominant one. Two types of
acetylene gas apparatus were introduced in the first decade of
the century. An improved oil fuel, incandescent oil vapor,
was finding increased-use. Electricifying of buoys began in
1917 and this greatly extended the system of lighted color
messages. A major expansion of aids in the early 20th cen-
tury brought lighted markings into less industrialized regions
and more remote regions of industrial nations.
Experiments with different forms of light sources and
expansion of light phase characteristics took place after this
period. Nonetheless, much of the shape of modern marine
aids to navigation was underway in the first quarter of the
century.
Aero aids to navigation began even in the earliest years
of aviation. Lighted letters (using prismatic reflectors and
filaments lamps) were in use in Germany in 1909 for airships
(O'Dea 1958, 104-105). Parafin flares were in use in Eng-
land before World War I; electric and parafin flares were
employed by France during that conflict. Airport beacons,
boundary and obstruction lights and wind indicators were in
use in England shortly after World War 1.
A single individual, US Army Lieutenant Donald L.
Bruner, is more responsible than any other person for the
aero color code (Lipsner 1951,201). Lieutenant Bruner, was
an engineer in his pre-military days which, as it were, color-
83
ed his army activities. He was greatly interested in night and
topics impinging on that interest (Holland 1951, 67). His
contributions to aero color messages virtually span the field.
He helped to create the rotating airport beacon and worked
on airway beacons. He focussed on the boundary lighting at
airports (boundary lights preceded the employment of run-
way and threshold lights). Bruner selected white for peri-
meter lights, green for landing approaches and red for
obstructions.
Bruner's use of colors and meanings paralleled uses in
other T-M forms. In some sense he created an embryonic
T-M discipline by recognizing and transferring developments
from older transportation systems to the new one of aero
navigation aids. His work also indicates the acceptance of
specific colors and meanings by the 1920s.
By 1929 aero color messages had the following configu-
rations: airport beacons exhibited a Hashing combinanations
of green and white (Black 1929, Appendix 9). Course lights,
either red or yellow, accompanied the beacon messages.
Yellow or white marked boundaries with green lights on
superior approaches. Dangers were marked by red lights.
This largely followed Bruner's work and has endured to a
significant degree.
Possibly the earliest traffic signal in the 20th century
was one established in Paris in 1912 (Mueller 1970, 7-10). It
consisted of a kiosk topped by a revolving box painted red
and white. Red indicated stop and white denoted go. That
seems to reflect the older railway signal message pattern. The
signal in question was ignored by Parisians and soon dis-
carded. A semaphore traffic signal was installed in Detroit
the following year with the new message pattern of green for
go and red for stop. But a signal in Richmond, Virginia three
84
years later reverted to red for stop and white for go message
pattern. A non-semaphore traffic signal had been set up in
San Francisco the previous year with red and green lamps.
None of these early signals included a caution indi-
cation. The first signal with a caution indication may have
been in Cleveland in 1914. The caution message in that
signal consisted of a bell denotingg impending light changes
rather than a lighted message. It was not until 1920 that a
three-color traffic signal was developed. This signal, in
Detroit, displayed red, green, and amber or yellow lamps.
The caution message had the specific meaning of "clear the
intersection." An unexplained delay occurred in adding a
caution signal to the traffic signal despite the railway three-
color system of the previous decade and despite the involve-
ment of railway signal manufacturers in trat1ic signals.
The position of yellow to other colors in the signal
housing varied. In some instances the yellow came after both
the red and the green; in other cases it overlapped with both.
The familiar pattern of red/yellow/green was yet in the
future.
The mid-I920s was a time of experimentation on
several fronts. These experiments included work with purple
and blue as possible signal colors. Other experiments worked
on the design of graphics and signals, the standardization of
signals, messages and colors, and the position of signal
colors. But by 1925 much of the shape of modern traffic
signals and messages was clearly present.
b) Developments Since 1925
There have been major developments in many railway
systems especially since World War II (ARSPAPOS 1953,
85
II
I
~
1
t
11
'I
I
I
I
I
,
,
l
44-46, 70-71, 76, 95-96). Oldcr patterns of semaphore sig-
nals have been swept asidc by color-light signals. Yet much
of the railway signal colors and mcssages were established
very early in the ccntury and additional developments have
been quite limited. There have been significant changes in
the move from clectromcchanical to computerizcd systems
but those changes did not greatly affect thc basic level. Other
changes occurred in lenses, color glass and fucls but none of
these had significant impact 011 colors and messages. A new
signal, the cab signal, created some change in message sys-
tems but only to a restricted degree. New patterns of signal
configurations such as double yellows and flashing colors
create changes in existing patterns yet they do not affect the
basic system of colors and meanings.
Traffic control device colors are little changed from the
1920s. Though some colors have been added for signage
including blue, green, brown, and orange. Arrow indications
have been added for signage including blue, green, brown
and orange. Arrow indications have been added to signals
and a variety of symbols have been created for pedestrian
signals. A type of signal has been created that is "optically
programmed" and which projects a color over a narrowly
focussed area that cannot be seen unless the viewer is in
direct line with it (this is reminiscent of marine range lights)
(3M 1971,2.3=2.5). While colors have remained the same
for signals, they now employ larger lenses than older ver-
sions creating a larger visual image. Words on signal lenses
have been omitted and words on pedestrian signal lenses are
increasingly rare while graphic symbols are more common-
place (Mueller 1970, 13-16; cp the US MUTCD editions
1948,1961,1971,1988,2001).
Green has become more common in marine aids to
navigration, and a wider ranger of light phase characteristics
86
are also available. IALA-generated changes (1980) affected
color usage and increased standardization for buoys and
beacons. However, most of the colors and meanings were
already in use even if in different configurations and arrange-
ments. More recent additions to light phase characteristics
include the composite group flashing, the Morse code, and
isophase forms. The occulting form formerly included two
lights patterns especially in the US: those in which the period
of light was greater than the period of darkness, and those in
which periods of light and darkness were equal. Occulting
now includes only those lights with characteristics with more
light than dark; a new phase the isophase (or equal interval) -
- which was added earlier in Europe than in the US --
includes only those characteristics displaying equal measures
of light and dark.
Aero nav aids, in contrast, to other T-M systems, have
undergone many basic alterations. Taxiway lighting, ap-
proach lighting, and high-intensity obstruction lighting are
among the major areas of change.
Taxiway lighting did not exist in early aviation because
early airports were of a simple design and often floodlighted.
Blue taxiway lights were introduced in about 1939 (Douglas
1977). The first standards for taxiway lights may have been
that of the "Army-Navy-Civil Committee" (US) in about
1941. The IES Lighting Handbook for 1947 was the first
"formal publication" dealing with taxiway lighting. The
blueused for taxiway lighting is known as "original blue,"
and unlike other colors there is only one blue in use.
(Breckinridge 1967,48; US Standards ... 1964, 26). The
blue taxiway light is a fixed indication and -- as is the case
with other airport lights --- uses a clear lamp with colored
lens.
87
Approach lighting also began in about 1939
(Breckinridge 1955, 15; CAA 1958,44). Two colors are
employed: white and red. A typical approach lighting system
has three phases: white bi-directional lights, followed by
white/red lights, and finally, red-only lights. This use ofred
is contrary to road and raj I usage and is another example of
the variant form of meaning that can be ascribed to red.
A second use of white is employed with sequenced
lights (FAA 1981, 4; Breckinridge 1967, 44, 48). These
lights were introduced in about 1950 at airports and often in
conjunction with approach lighting; at a later stage they
became omni-directionallights of a condenser-discharge or
strobe nature. The color is known as "aviation variable
white" and is within the variable source white category. This
white is produced by the lamp unit itself rather than by
colored lens over a clear lamp. Another form of strobe light-
ing is employed with a high-intensity obstruction lighting.
This survey has ranged over the greater part of this cen-
tury and has touched on the several modes of transportation
and the many forms ofT-M. The focus of the survey has
been on the colors and their meanings. While the survey has
been too brief to cover all points hopefully it offers an
overall view of a diverse and complex topic.
Despite changes of many kinds the basic colors and the
essential meanings of those colors (as well as variant mean-
ings) remains largely unchanged. The nature of markings is
generally conservative which means that colors, meanings
and other message systems once established -- even if in an
arbitrary or accidentialmanner -- often hold to that meaning.
Changes in technology, design, and transportation may alter
the pattern of messages, but more often than not, once a
pattern is established it has a long life.
88
CHAPTER THREE
ELECTROMAGNETIC PROCESSES &
ELECTRONIC TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS
3A Primer on Electromagnetic Processes
3Al Electromagnetic Radiation & Waves
Electronic as well as Acoustical T-M forms were
omitted in the first edition of Foundations. That first edition
focussed overwhelmingly on visual forms. The 2nd edition
rectified that omission. The acoustical coverage in that edi-
tion included an introductory statement for both light and
color, and l'-M and acoustical science concerns but the cov-
erage of electronic forms did not. That omission is now
corrected.
It is true that the 19th and early 20th centuries lacked
electronic T-M forms. However, the past 75 or so years have
seen a rapid development of those forms. That development
has eclipsed and eiVen replaced both visual and acoustical
aids of many forms. This coverage, though brief, is needed to
describe electronic processes and provide a general intro-
duction to electronic T-M forms.
Chapter 3A, the Primer, examines underlying electronic
notions (3A 1), and the specifics of generation, propagation
and reception of electromagnetic waves (3A2). Chapter 3B
reviews the various forms of electronic l'-Ms following a
tripartite arrangement: Multi-stations with single messages
(3B 1) and multiple messages (3B2); and single-stations with
both single and multiple messages (3B3).
Source materials for this chapter are of a diverse char-
89
Hertz designations and relevant electronic markings:
The radio communication process follows a sequence:
91
Examples
Omega 10.2-13.6
Radio Bns 190-300
Radio Bns 300-535
Frequency
VLF 3-30 kHz
LF 30-300 kHz
MF 300-3000 kHz
HF 3-30 MHz
VHF 30-300 MHz VOR 108-118
UHF 300-3000 MHz DME 1025-1150
SHF 3~OGHz MLS5
EHF 300-3000 GHz (or 3 THz)
(References: Robinson 1985, Dodington 1982, Field 1985)
Legend: V=Very; L=Low; M=Medium; H=High; U=Ultra;
S=Super; E=Extremely; F=Frequency; kHz=kiohertz; MH=
Megahertz; GHz=Gigahertz; THz=Terahertz
3A2 Electromagnetic Waves: Generation,
Propagation, & Reception
The radio portion of electronic communication is a
means through which data is conveyed from one point to
another without communication cables. The transmission of
information signals is carried out by modulation (or alter-
. ation of characteristic of a waveform) of a signal (often
termed carrier) in a higher frequency. This modulated signal
is translated into an electromagnetic wave that is propagated
through the atmosphere to the receiving point where it is
translated back into a modulated signal, amplified and
"demodulated" into an audio and/or visual format that results
in a meaningful message (Raffoul 1986, 1161; also Gibilisco
1985,544).
Electromagnetic waves include radio waves and light
waves (sound waves are different form of energy matter).
They are produced by a transmitter and broadcast through the
atmosphere. Radio waves are one element of the electromag-
netic radiation spectrum. These waves occupy about 40% of
the lower end of the frequency spectrum. Infrared, visible
light waves and x-rays occupy other portions of the
spectrum. The unit of measurement for the frequency is that
ofthe Hertz until (formerly termed cycle). A Hertz unit
denotes signal frequency per second in cycles; for example, a
10khz frequency would be 10,000 cycles per second in alter-
nating current (Appleyard 1985, 1-2; Graham 1983, 60).
acter. Some ofthe sources are of a "how to" nature though
not including actual navigation systems. Other materials are
of a handbook nature and simultaneous practical and abstract
in content. Yet other treatises focus on navigation with an
emphasize on the propagation of waves as well as transmit-
ting and receiving equipment. The discipline of physics takes
up these matters in more theoretical terms and therefore has a
less direct role in this study.
Electromagnetic radiation constitutes a transmission of
energy. This energy is a result of charged particles that en-
gage in a process of acceleration thereby becoming magnetic
fields propagated in space and known as electromagnetic
waves (Graham 1983, 60).
The radio wave spectrum includes frequencies from 10
kHz to 100 GHz. The spectrum can be expressed by
frequency (cycles per second hertz units), wavelengths
(distance in meter between high point of adjoining wave
which are somewhat akin to water waves in appearance with
crests and troughs), as well as in frequency bands (VLF, MF,
etc). Electronic T-M forms employ some but not all of the
frequencies. The following chart outlines frequency bands,
90
a) carrier modulation by the transmitter; b) translation of the
modulated carrier by transmitting antenna; c) propagation of
the electromagnetic wave; d) translation of the electromag-
netic wave into a modulated sign by the "receiving antenna;"
and e) "demodulation" or removal of the information from
the signal by the receiver after amplification (Raffoul 1986,
1661).
Transmitters are often classified by the form of the
modulation process. These include amplitude modulation
(AM).' freq~ency modulation (FM), phase modulation (PM),
and smgle sIdeband (SBB). Choice of transmitters type is
determined by application, frequency, and national and inter-
national regulations (Raffoul 1986, 1661, 1676; also
Gibilisco 1985, 23-4, 391, 544, 653, 742).
Transmitters include a power supply, oscillator, and
amplifiers. Oscillation refers to the current that oscillates
(follows a pendulum pattern) and the oscillator creates and
maintains a specific pattern. There are several forms. One
common form is the crystal oscillator which provides a stable
current through the process of injecting electricity into
crystals (Gerrish 1989,293,296, 303).
Antennas can be classified in two ways: by frequency
(VLF, MF, etc.), and by radiation mode. The modes include
elemental current, travelling wave, array, and apperture
antennas. Radiation mode are determined by wave length and
thence by frequency. The antenna has several parameters of
which the radiation pattern is the most impOliant and which
heavily influences other characteristics of the antenna
operation. The purpose of the antenna is to translate electrical
energy into radiation energy (at the opposite end the
translation will be in the reverse order) (Raffoul 1986, 1668;
see also Douglas-Young 1987, 19ft).
92
The reception aspect of the process includes a second
antenna and a receiver. The receiver "demodulates" an
incoming signal and thereby removes the data that has been
transmitted. Incoming signals are often very low in volume
and this requires an amplifier for the message to be usable.
Receivers can be classified by modulation (as was the case
with transmitting units) and also by equipment types. The
most cornmon form of receiver is one known as a "super-
hyterodyne" receiver (Raffoul) 1986, 1682).
Transmitters/antenna/a second antenna/receiver cons-
titutes a technological configuration and process. At the core
of that process is the propagation of radiated energy which
contains a specific message. How the messages are worked
out (both in machines and in content) is considered in 3B
while propagation is reviewed here.
How radio waves function from transmission to recep-
tion depends on wave frequency. A wave ofa specific fre-
quency propagates as does any other wave on the same fre-
quency. Some sources speak of two forms of waves: sky-
waves and groundwaves (e.g. Appleyard 1985,3). The
groundwaves can be further divided into surface and space
waves. The space wave can be further bifurcated into direct
and skywaves (Horn 1989,462). Whether waves are con-
sidered separately as subdivisions (and further subdivisions)
all three forms are pertinent to this study. Surface waves fol-
low the shape of the earth. How far such a wave travels de-
pends on frequency and the characteristics of the ground.
Direct waves travel a "direct, line-of-sight path from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna" (Horn 1989,
462).
Skywaves may suggest that the wave ends up in space
with little consequence. However, the ionosphere can cause
such waves to refract -- depending on frequency -- and ulti-
93
mately return to the surface and captured by appropriate
receivers. The ionosphere is in several layers of which the D,
E, and F layers have the most dense ionization. The layers
are affected by various factors: whether it is day or night, the
season of the year, latitude, and sunspots. There is less ioni-
zation at night with the result that the D layer vanishes when
there is no sun. The amount of wave refraction depends on
ionization density and radio frequency. Lower frequencies
result in higher refraction and at a given point the wave will
be refracted from ionosphere to the surface of the earth
(Appleyard 1985, 4-5).
VLF and LF undergo propagation primarily through
ground waves. These frequencies perform well over ocean
water because sea water conducts well; many marine systems
therefore utilize VLF and LF. MF uses ground and sky while
HF generally employs skywaves. VLF and higher frequen-
cies employ direct waves (Douglas-Young 1987,203-204).
3B Electronic T-M Forms:
Signal Configurations & Receivers
3B 1 Introduction
This material is not intended to replicate the coverage of
types ofT-M and their messages (marine aids to navigation
and aero navigation aids) though it may overlap with that
coverage. The focus of the monographs on marine and aero
aids are the marking and the message systems rather than a
specific focus such as electronics. This chapter focusses on
electronics including the receiver: what process is used to
convey the data and what is the receiver (initially a machine
but ultimately the human user) seeing or hearing? This
chapter brings together the electronic dimension of other
studies and expands on them. The expansion of GPS to
include rail and road navigation -- as well as aero and marine
94
forms-- is more present than in the time of the 3rd edition.
There are a variety of classification schema (whole or
partial) for electronic navigation systems. For example,
Maloney refers to Hyperbolic/Rho-Theta/Rho-Rho forms
(Maloney 1985,443-444); Raffoul includes a radial and
hyperbolic bifurcation (Raffoul 1986, 1936). Dodington
offers a schema of Rho-Rho, Rho-Theta, and Theta-Theta
(Dodington 1982,25-80). Rho-Rho refers to distance mea-
suring, Rho-Theta to distance and bearing measurement, and
Theta-Theta to bearing measurement.
Some of these classifications are seemingly contra-
dictory while others are less than fully complete. This com-
piler offers an alternate classification to meet the needs of
Transportation-Markings. The focus of this segment is the
electronic character of messages and receivel'S which need to
be placed within the context ofT-M forms.
Electronic T-M forms can be placed in one of four
categories:
a) Multi-station at one location with multiple messages
(MSOLMM).
b) Multi-station at multiple locations with single
message (MSMLSM).
c) Single-station with single message (SSSM).
d) Single-station with multiple message (SSMM).
This approach includes marine and aero T-Ms and
encompasses radar aids, satellite navigation as well as radio
beacons and hyperbolic systems.
3B2 Electronic Signal Configurations & Receivers:
Multi-Station at One Location with Single Message
The term "Hyperbolic" is interchangeable with that of
95
the classifiction category of this study. This is the largest
segment of electronic T-M forms and encompasses systems
dating back to World War II as well as more contemporary
satellite systems. This is also the largest segment of this
study though GPS has attained greater significance in safety
aids. The word hyperbolic comes from the geometric term
"hyperbola" and refers to the form of curved line represented
by that term. (Maloney 1985,442). The electronic markings
of this form create hyperbolic lines in an intersecting pattern
resulting in lines of po§ition which indicates location for the
ship or plane employing that system. It may be more work-
able to describe the operations of various hyperbolic devices
rather than the hyperbolic processes with references to
individual systems. Vignettes of system backgrounds are
included in this study as they can provide a vital dimension
for the individual markings.
Consul is an anomaly not only for hyperbolic systems
but all electronic systems since it occupies divergent -- even
apparently contradictory -- places in various classifications.
Consul (the UK term) began as the German "Sonne" system
in World War II. It is hyperbolic because it employs multiple
stations yet it can be better described as a radial system.
Radial Systems are so termed because a single transmitter
radiates a 360 degree signal which forms "a straight-line
bearing from a single object." In a radial system -- because
the baselines are very close together and unless a ship is near
the station -- the lines are radial or straightline not hyper-
bolic. It is employed both by aero and marine navigators.
Cutler 1986,1937,1945-1946; also Consolan, BP-5).
Reception of Consul signals do not need special equip-
ment. Lines of position can be picked up by radio direction
finders or even regular commercial receivers. The receiver
need only have 250-370 kHz capability. Readings are
determined by measuring differences in reception of trans-
96
missions. Stations are three in number with a range from a
minimum of 25-50 nautical miles (nmi) to a maximum of
500-1400 nmi (or 46-96 km to 926-2596 km).
A US version, termed Cansolan, is very restricted in
coverage. A Soviet form under the acronym BPM-5 is some-
what broader in coverage. The US form is based on a two-
station form while the former USSR type has a five-station
configuration with dot and dash characteristics of a narrower
design.
Decca is a hyperbolic system with marine and aero
applications. The stations include a master and three slave
stations. It transmits on frequencies between 70 and 130 kHz.
There is a fixed ratio between the frequencies of the several
stations of 5,6, 7, 8, and 10. It transmits a continuous wave
signal that is not modulated. It is a coastal aid that has a
nominal range of240 nmi (444) km). (Maloney 1985,462;
also Parts C & D, Volume I, 2nd ed.; and next paL).
The Decca system requires special receivers that are at
variance with both standard radio receivers and hyperbolic
receivers. Nonetheless, it is an easy system to apply. The
slave stations are named after primary colors and the phase
meters of the receiver are color-coded to match the slave
stations. The receiving unit is in effect four receivers in one.
The until modulates the four frequencies resulting in a single
shared frequency. This creates a phase compatibility allow-
ing determination of the location of the vessel. The compari-
son of incoming transmissions is that of phases rather than
time; this was a featured by the now-closed Omega system.
Loran-A is a hyperbolic system that is largely obsoles-
cent. It was a primarily a ship navigation system though it
had value for air navigation as well. Loran-A consists of a
master and a slave station. Loran-A utilizes one of three fre-
97
quencies: 1850, 1900 or 1950 kHz. The transmissions were
in pulses (see Parts C & D; also older editions of USCG light
lists, and editions of Federal Radionavigation Plans).
The receiver is somewhat similar to standard receivers
though modified for Loran receptions. The receiver transfers
data to a mechanism somewhat like a digital clock. Two such
readings supply the data needed for establishing location.
One line-of-position (LOP) is established by comparison of
time differences from the master and one slave station. A
second reading is gained by utilizing the master and another
slave station, or by the same stations if a double transmission
exists. Maximum range was 800 nmi. (Previous sources).
Loran-C was the major hyperbolic system in use for
some time and continues to find some usage. To some de-
gree it was superior to Loran-A. However, Loran-C repli-
cated that higher quality. Loran-C is a marine system that
includes some aero navigaton use over oceans. A system
known as Loran-B was developed but did not found practical
usage.
Loran-C has a master and two or three slave stations. It
operates on 90-110 kHz frequency. Loran-C transmits eight-
pulses per transmission (Loran-A had one pulse). LF
achieves transmission syncronization expandings coverage
but with the same amount of radiated power. It has a range of
1500 nmi (Maloney 1985,462; also Cutler 1986, 1942,).
Loran-C matches cycles within pulses rather than the
envelopes of pulses as was the practice of Loran-A (Markus
1978,371).
Reception and measurement require at least two stations
and may utilize three or four. Receivers may be modified
Loran-A models or they may be computerized systems that
are fully automatic. Measurement employs two methods:
98
time measurement of the difference in the arrival of signals,
and time measurement of the carrier frequency.
Omega was a truly global system during its years of
operation. It operated on a VLF frequence spectrum of 10.2
to 13.6 kHz. Omega consisted ofjust stations world-wide.
The stations transmitted timed pulses at four frequencies of
10.2,11.3,13.6, and 110.05 kHz. The eight stations did not
follow a master-slave pattern. Range was virtually without
limits (Robinson 1985,37-3; see also Maloney 1985,468).
Receivers measured differences in phases rather than in time
in contrast to Loran-A. Since there is no master-slave pattern
any two stations can be used to gain the necessary data.
Omega was closed down in 1997 (FRP 1996, 1-11; FRP
1999,1-10).
Toran is regarded by some navigation sources as a
hydrographic aid and by others sources as an aid to naviga-
tion. It is a phase difference comparison system. Signals are
HF and are transmitted by two confocal transmitters and one
reference transmitter. Range is 300 miles on a frequency of 2
MHz. (IALA 1970, 4-4-340).
Satellite navigation systems are newer than most other
radio aids yet they have reached a near dominant state among
radio aids and, for that matter, many visual and audio aids.
For several decades Transit served many global navigation
needs. It consisted of at least four satellites which broadcast
on continuous frequencies of 150 MHz and 400 MHz.
Receivers determined location fi'om position data of the
satellite and by Doppler shift measurements. During the last
decade of the 20th century Transit was phased out. Other
limited use satellite systems included Lorsat and Starfix. A
Soviet system, Cicada, was similar in operation to Transit.
(Robinson 1985,37-6; see also FRP).
99
Increasingly Global Positioning System (GPS) and a
system for supplying corrections for precise navigation have
become of critical significance for navigation. GPS can be
regarded as a multiple station system with one a single
message. It is therefore not hyperbolic but instead employs a
pseudo-range and time measurement system. With some two
dozen satellites systems in place it supplies global needs. The
signals use frequencies of 1575.42 MHz and of 1227.6 MHz.
Receivers pick up signals from four of the satellites and
quickly determine position (latitude and longitude) and also
altitude and velocity. (Hobbs 1990, 584-5). Differential GPS
(DGPS) provides corrections through various systems that
allow even the landing of aircraft within narrow parameters.
GPS and DGPS already offer easily read information for
pedestrians, hikers as well as increasing range of data for all
modes of transportation. (FRP 1999, 1-9; National Civilian
2000,5; Modern Magellan 1998, 63).
3B3 Electronic Signal Configurations & Receivers:
Multiple-Stations at one Location with Multiple-Messages
This category refers to separate transmitters that are in
close proximity to one another and which operate as an
integrated system. Examples of this form include two aero
systems: Instrument Landing System (ILS) and Microwave
Landing Systems (MLS).
Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) is a long-established
that was intended to be replaced by the Microwave Land- ing
System (MLS). However, MLS developed more slowly than
anticipated and the development of GPS and DGPS has
superseded completion and future use ofMLS. ILS has three
components: Localizer, ,Glide Slope, and Marker Beacons
(Part B, 2nd ed; Field 1985,30-31; Robinson 1985,37-4;
Douglas-Young 1987,447-449. These are the sources for the
remainder of the sub-section as well.
100
-•
The Localizer -- positioned 1000 feet past the runway
stop end -- has two antennas (or a single antenna with two
patterns) provides azimuth guidance. The antennas have a 90
Hz left-hand pattern that is modulated, and a 150 Hz right-
hand pattern that is also modulated. The receiver contains a
"course deviation indicator" (cdi) with two needles. If a
plane is to the left of the course centerline the receiver picsk
up the 90 Hz signal and the needle moves or deviates to the
right. Ifthe plane is to the right of the course then the 150 Hz
signal is detected which moves the needle to the left. The
localizer broadcasts on 109-112 MHz frequency spectrum.
The Glide Slope -- located 1000 feet past the approach
end of the runway and off to one side of the runway -- broad-
casts on a frequency between 328.6 and 335.4 MHz. This
unit provides altitude information. For example, if the plane
is flying too low then the appropriate needle (which is on a
horizontal plane) will point upward; if too high then it points
downward.
The final component of ILS are the Marker Beacons.
There are two to four units and they mark "decision height
points." They transmit on a fl'equcncy of 75 MHz. They may
broadcast a continuous wave signal or a coded signal of dots
and dashes. The receivers contain indicators that are both
audio and visual. In the US form the first beacon marks the
point where the glide slope signal is encountered, the second
marks the decision height for the highest category ILS; the
third denotes decision height at lower category airports. A
fourth beacon may be in operation of non-precision airports.
The incoming signals are combinations or dots and/or dashes
that differentiate between the beacons.
The Microwave Landing System broadcast on 5 GHz
frequency which is SHF in contrast to the VI-IF of ILS. At
101
that frequency, and with its narrow beam, MLS is less
affected by irregular terrain and weather situations than ILS.
The localizer and glide slope together create one approach
path which is at a fixed angle of descent. The MLS azimuth
aspect consists of a microwave beam that examines a broad
area either side of the centerline, and the elevation aspects
reviews a large area of elevations. The receiver unit in the
aircraft, by measuring the time of the incoming pulses, can
determine the exact location of the aircraft. A third aspect of
the MLS, the Precision-Distance Measuring Equipment (P-
DME), provides on-going distance data in contrast to the
beacons of ILS which gives location indications at stated
points. (Field 1985, 31-33).
3B4 Electronic Signal Configurations & Receivers:
Single Station - Single & Multiple Messages
Single station units, both single and multiple message
forms, are fewer in number and scope than multiple station
units; it is therefore feasible to discuss both in one segment.
This category needs to be qualified since some single units
may sometimes work in tandem. Many of these systems are
radio beacons and related devices; some radar assemblies are
also included.
Radar is a vital element in navigation but largely for
ship- and plane-based uses. Written sources on radio-
navigation often do not include ground-based radar systems.
However, such systems exist though of more limited scope.
Objects known as radar ref1ectors are commonplace in
marine navigation though not actual radar devices: they are
passive rather than active devices. Radar ref1ectors are
objects so shaped that shipboard radar can more easily spot
and identify an aid to navigation so equipped. "True" (active)
radar aids include Racons and Ramarks. The racon, a
secondary form of radar also known as a transponder beacon,
102
needs to be triggered (interrogated) before operating; the
trigger is a shipboard radar systems. Racons can transmit
either coded or continuous signals. The receiver by actuali-
zing the racon receives bearing and distance information. If
coded the radar unit can determine the location of the beacon
as well as its own location (Maloney 1985,48,226,233-234;
also Kennedy 1985,609; and Parts C & D, 2nd ed; also
following paragraphs).
Ramarks are a primary form of radar since they do not
require a receiver to "ignite" their transmissions. Ramarks
broadcast an omni-directional signal of a continuous nature.
They provide bearings for a ship though not distance or range
information. The receiving screen will illuminate a "radial
line at the bearing of the beacon." The frequency of the bea-
con is either the spectrum of marine radar frequencies (3
GHz or 10 GHz), or of the "beacon band" which is slightly
less than 10 GHz.
Radiobeacons (termed Non-directional Beacons, NDB,
for aero usage) are a LF and MF electronic device. Trans-
missions for marine purposes are on frequencies between 207
and 385 kHz. While aero forms are on frequencies of 190 to
425 kHz and 510-535 kHz. Aero forms can have a coded
(dots and dashes) pattern or a continuous wave that has been
modulated. Marine forms transmit dots and dashes in
patterns similar to light characteristics though in a differ- ent
energy form. Receivers are radio direction finders which
constitute a special form of radio receiver accompanied by a
directional anterma.
The remaining units create some measure of confusion:
VOR, DME, Tacan, Vortac. The first two are separate units
that are often collocated; Tacan is a primarily military system
that includes VOR and DME functions and VOR brings
together both civil and mi litary electronic systems (See Part
103
B, Vol I, 2nd ed).
VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) is an aero system.
It transmits on 108-118 MHz frequency spectrum. It contains
two signals: a reference signal that is non-directional and one
that is omn-directional. The receiver determines bearing by
measuring the phase difference between the two signals. The
range is 100-200 nautical miles (Robinson 1985,37-4). A
second form ofVOR known as Doppler VOR utilizes a large
antelU1a array with the transmitter (Dodington 1982, 25-86).
DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) consists of a
ground-based transponder and the aircraft equipment (termed
an interrogator) which is both a transmitter and a receiver.
The airborne unit transmits a pulsed signal to the transponder
which in turn transmits a signal that can be identified by the
interrogater. By measurement of the time that is consumed in
the double transmissions-receiving process the distance can
be determined. Frequency band for the interrogator is 1025-
1150 MHz and for the transponder, 962-1024 MHz
(Robinson 1985,37-4,37-5).
TACAN attaches a bearing measurement function to
DME. In some nations a system known as Vortac includes
Tacan in place of DME (Dodington 1982, 25-87).
104
CHAPTER FOUR
ACOUSTICAL PROCESS &
ACOUSTICAL TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS
4A Primer on Acoustical Processes
4A 1 Introduction & Terminology
Acoustical processes and resulting T-Ms, though not a
large topic, needs review in this study. This reviews includes
includes a variety of topics even if only tersely. Acoustical
processes begins with a primer analogous to those for light,
electronics and design. Chapter 4A is divided between an
introduction and definitions, and a explanation of acoustical
processes. Chapter 4B examines the types of sound signals,
messages, and impediments to reception of messages.
Marine aids to navigation have historically included the
most prominent part of acoustical signals that included
diaphones, bells, gongs, whistles among other forms. But
sound signals were only a small part even of marine aids.
Some bells are included with rail and road signals. And
audible pedestrian signals have become more common.
Sound signals also include some electronic mechanisms
which translate electromagnetic energy into audio signals at
the receiver end. This topic is treated in Chapter 3.
Acoustics is the science of sound. Sound is mechanical
energy that radiates through a medium (water, air, etc.) and
created by a vibrating object (Albers 1965, 1-2). The me-
chanical radiation of sound waves is an energy form distinct
from the electromagnetic radiation of light and radio waves.
Acoustics, in the view of Everest (1987, 7) has two natures
or phases: the physical and the psycho-physical. The two
105
Lphases are intertwined to a considerable extent. However,
Lindsay sees the physical as fundamental and psycho-
acoustics as a branch field. Pschoacoustics includes the
reception of sound energy or the hearing aspect of the
process. (Lindsay 1966,2-3).
Giancoli (1988, 382) notes that sound follows a three-
part process: a vibrating object object, sound waves, and the
detector whether ear or instrument. Explanations of how the
process functions can take various approaches including
descriptions of wave lines purporting represent a trans-
mission of sound, or mathematical formulae, or railway box
cars crashing into one another, or dust in tubes, or cork discs
floating in mid-air. A more comprehensive approach is that
of the energy transfer model (Truax 2001, 3-4). Truax notes
that this model is the basis of most treatments of sound
though other treatments may be less understandable.
Truax's major focus, a communication approach
focussing on the movement of information rather than on
energy, has less significance for this study than his prefatory
remarks on energy transfer. The following segment provides
a exposition in both brief and more technical forms.
4A2 Acoustical Processes
The energy transfer model perceives acoustical behavior
as a grouping of energy transfers between an originating
point and a receiving point. It studies the process of occur-
ence, the degree of efficiency, and factors that can alter the
process. The energy begins with an object that vibrates and
thereby radiating the created energy to a medium (air, water,
a solid object, etc). The radiated energy is propagated
through that medium thereby displaying various character-
istics including velocity and frequency (Truax 2001, 4).
106
The process in more complex terms includes several
dimensions. The first aspect consists of a struck object that
moves, or more correctly, oscillates if only slightly. The
object moves from 0 point to a maximum outward then
returns to the 0 point, then to a maximum point in the
opposite direction, then back to the original point (approxi-
mating like a clock pendulum though the motion of a tuning
fork would be closer to the process) (Chedd 1970, 11-12).
This acoustic motion is termed a "simple harmonic motion."
It is often visualized with wavy lines (somewhat akin to
oceanic waves). The greatest distance of movement
constitutes the amplitude of the ocscillation. If the movement
is plotted as a curve the crest of the wave is the amplitude
since it is farthest from the original position. The curve is
technically known as a sine curve though the wave are more
correctly termed longitudinal waves (Chedd 1970, 10-12;
Giancoli 1988, 382).
The distance between the crests, or peaks, of the waves
is termed the wavelength of the energy transfer or motion.
The velocity of the movement is another element in the
process. The velocity is determined by the density (how close
the molecules are to one another) and elasticity (the degree
that a substance can "bounce" back to its original shape). The
more the elasticity and the less the density the greater the
velocity. It may be thought that sound would travel faster in
gases than in solids and liquids because of the low density.
However, the much higher elasticity of solids and liquids
results in higher velocity in solids and liquids. For example,
sound travels at the rate of 5050 meters per second in water
but only 340 meters per second in air. Frequency is measured
in Hertz units: how many wavelengths in one second.
Frequency then is indicated by wavelength and velocity.
(Chedd 1970, 12, 15-16; also Giancoli 1988, 358-359).
107
The functioning of mediums is not simply a result of
what substance they are composed of. The temperature of a
substance affects the velocity of the sound waves, and
temperature variations within a medium further affect the
process. The several dimensions of the process present an
interrelated front: velocity is a component of the medium,
frequency is a component ofthe medium, frequency is a
component of the vibrating object, and the wavelength within
the medium is a result of the frequency and of the velocity
(Albers 1970,28).
One topic in acoustics that impinges directly and im-
mediately on both physical acoustics and psychoacoustics is
the attentuation, or impediments, to propagation of radiated
energy. This impediment results in the reduction of sound
energy to the human ear. Albers notes that when particles are
put in motion there is resistance to that process in the form of
friction that takes the form of heat. This means that atten-
tuation occuring during the process of propagation causes the
waves to lose intensity. This attentuation is a component of
the medium. And what takes place in one medium can be at
variance with that of another medium. And even within a
medium differences can occur because of the frequency of
the wave. Other impediments that can a/Teet wave
perfonnance are discussed in 4B as they are often part of
marine fog signal performance. (Albers 1970,29).
Further topics relating to sound include the pitch, the
intensity of sound (loudness), quality of sound, and spec-
trum. The first two factors refer to a "sensation in the con-
sciousness of the listener" though they can also be measured.
These elements refer as well to generation and propagation
of sound waves. Pitch refers to whether a sound is high, low,
etc. Pitch is determined by frequency but in inverse propor-
tions so high frequency brings about a low pitch and a low
108
frequency creates high pitch (Giancoli 1988,383).
Loudness relates not only to human hearing reception
but also to intensity of sound waves; however the relation is
not one of direct proportions. For example, a sound wave that
is twice as loud as another is ten times greater in intensity.
Intensity is mesured by decibels (the scale ofmeasurement is
a "bel" [after A.G. Bell] and a decibel is 1/10 of a bel)
(Giancoli 1988,385). A third element is that of quality (with-
out the connotation of inferiority or poorness). Quality can be
referred to as timbre or tone color especially in music. The
term tone is sometimes used in reference to fog signals (for
example, the tone from a gong is distinctly different from a
sea-activated whistle). (Giancoli 1988, 392).
The spectrum of light (within the electromagnetic
spectrum) is matched in the acoustical spectrum by a range
of sounds audible to the human ear. In the electromagnetic
spectrum ultraviolet and infrared frequencies cannot be seen
by the unaided eye, and in the acoustical spectrum ultrasonic
and infrasonic sounds can not be heard by the unaided ear
(Everest 1981, 18). Humans can hear frequencies of the
sound spectrum from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. The ultrasonic
frequencies are above 20,000 Hz, and infrasonic are below
20 Hz. Ultrasonic and infrasonic frequencies can affect
humans even though not audible (Giancoli 1988,383).
4B Acoustical Signals Processes & Messages
4B 1 Types of Vibrating Instruments & Generating Sources
The examination of sound signals was slanted toward
marine aids in previous editions. That is also true in this
edition though the coverage tends toward the muted since so
many marine fog signals are out of operation. A review of
109
the forms and messages remains importance though it speaks
much to the past. Audible pedestrian signals are becoming
more common and are included in this edition.
The vibrating process and the resulting sound (tone,
loudness, pitch) can be created through a variety of means.
The means, and technological configuration, may not appear
to be very important for this treatise since the primary con-
cerns are the generation, propagation and reception of sound.
Yet historically the details of the process have been a pri-
mary element. Early in this century (the following examples
are drawn from US Pacific Coast; though examples from
other realms are available) a whistle fog signal (fixed loca-
tion) entry in a Light List not only listed the energy from
(often steam), but the length of the trumpet as well (often 12"
in length though sometimes 10"; US Lighthouse Service,
Light List, 1918; also next paL). Modern T-M forms may
omit mention of the means and mechanism.
Sirens (air powered) were listed by class (which were
often first class) models. Reed horns (energy sources are
often unstated) were listed by class as well (very often 3rd
class). Fixed lights were divided into orders. This practice
had practical value since, for example, a first-order lens (920
mm/36" in diameter) was very different in visual effect from
a sixth-order lens (150 nun/just under 6") but it seems
debatable whether even a seasoned mariner could tell the
difference between a lO-inch steam whistle and a l2-inch
steam whistle. Perhaps the extra two inches of trumpet
altered the pitch to a discernible degree (see previous
source).
But contemporary practice has devolved to a point
where fixed fog signals are sirens, diaphones or diaphragms/
diaphragm horns. The last-named form so dominates the
110
field that fog signals are frequently termed horns without
designation of the form of vibration, energy source, dimen-
sions of the trumpet or other feature. The fine print in a
marine list of aids to navigation may indicate the propulsion
sources). The USCG AIN Manual speaks of sound signals
without reference to the form of vibration. Automatic Power
[now merged with Pharos Marine] does list the form of
vibrations (USCG 1990, 7-1 ff; Pharos Marine ca. 1989).
Possibly the most unusual form of fog signal is that of
explosive charges, That fog signal is also largely in the past.
This was a major signal in the United Kingdom. This form of
percussion signal usually required human operation. Explos-
ive charges have also been employed on railways and may
possibly be still in use. Quite possibly this too was more
common in UK and systems influenced by UK than in other
systems. (Parts C/O; Parts Ii and Iiii; Part J; IALA 1970;
Maloney 1985; Bowditch 1966; Renton 2001).
A major motivating power for maritime sound signals is
that of the sea. Many buoy-based signals continue to depend
on the action of the waves. This is an uncertain source since
waves are more common with stormy conditions when
visibility is more satisfactory. Waves are less prominent in
more calm seas which are more often accompanied by fog. A
sea-activated gong, whistle, or bell buoy may create a
clangorous situation when the need is less.
Bells and gongs are activated by tappers not clappers (a
point that might generate a semantic controversy) since the
bell or going is struck not by a single clapper within the bell
but by several tappers outside of the bell or gong. The tap-
pers are installed on the buoy framework so that they swing
freely even with slight movement of the buoy thereby hitting
the bell with more force than a single, internal clapper. The
111
process for the gong is somewhat difTerent in that one tapper
strikes one gong. Gongs are nat-bottomed, and nearly dish-
shaped containers grouped together (if that suggests the
orient there is a reason: gongs for British buoys at an early
date were imported from China; EB 1911, 647). Whistle
buoys have a more complex system. Wave action causes air
to move up and down the counterweight tube (located below
the float component of the buoy). The downward wave
action pushes air through the whistle valve mechanism
thereby creating the whistling sound. "Natural-powered" fog
signals can also include bells rung by human motive power
though that is mostly in the past (USCG 1990, Chapter 2).
Bells can emit a regular sound indication through the
use of a bell striker (IDAMN 1970, 3-2-290). This machine
periodically strikes the bell with a piston which emerges
from the striker. An older systcm required hand-wound
weights that activatcd a hammer striking a bell at regular
intervals (IALA 1970, 3-2-245). An electronic process is
capable of simulating the sounds of gongs or bells (Pharos
Marine). It is debatable to what degree simulated sound is
similar to older forms.
Other forms of fog signals require either the passage of
air or steam or an electromagnetic process to create sound
patterns. The sound for sirens is created by activating a disk
or rotor with compressed air or with electricity. A variant
form consists of a rotary shutter through compressed air is
passed. The siren is now less often employed and then
mostly at bridges. The siren is similar to a fire siren though
the message patterns are different.(IALA 1970, Ch 3; see
also DMA N.O. #114,1983; USCG Manual, Light Lists.
These are sources for the following paragraph as well).
112
Diaphones, now rarely used, consists of a slotted piston
driven by compressed air. A second version of the diaphone
creates two tones with one operating at a high pitch and the
other at a lower pitch. The reed horn, now probably extinct,
consisted of a reed across which air was passed. This may
have been a short range signal since it was usually located in
harbors rather than at coastal locations. Another probably
obsolete fog signal, the nautophone, created a sound similar
to the reed but through a diaphragm process
So far, all of these signals, sea-activated and otherwise,
propagated sound through the medium of air. One other
process, probably now out of use, employed water as a
medium. Water has proven to be a more consistent and
reliable medium for sound. That other form was the sub-
marine bell and the variant form of the submarine oscillator.
This signal rested on the sea bottom and was attached to a
lighthship or was suspended below a buoy. A shipboard
receiver was required to clearly hear the signal though the
sound was capable of being heard even without that aid
(Putnam 1913,51-52; see also Fay 1963).
Bells employed in rail and road service are much
smaller and of less power than their marine counterparts
since they are short-range signals. The bells are electro-
mechanical, or electronic (the latter also has a mechanical
dimension; see following Note). A weighted spring strikes
the gong (this may create another semantic issue: the object
struck in a "bell" apparatus, and thereby vibrates, is a gong).
This gong approximates the shape of a sea-going buoy gong
(though much smaller) though in this later case the gong is
part of what is termed a bell rather than a signal in its own
right. The electro-mechanical form contains a weighted
spring while in the electronic form (which is also mechan-
ical) a programmed plunger hits the gong (Westinghouse
113
Brake & Signal, Australia, 1983 Catalogue).
A relatively new sound signal is that of the audible
pedestrian signal. Possibly the first such signal was in
Portland, Oregon in 1948. However, such signals were not
very common until the 1980s. (Oliver 1989,33). The same
author notes that such signals can "emit buzzing, whistling,
beeping or chirping sounds." (Oliver 1989,33). Chime sig-
nals have also been employed in Portland (Kloos 2001). In
the eastern US many pedestrian signals have employed
buzzers. A buzzing sound is used for one direction with a
constant tone in the other direction in some localities.
Nagoya Electric Works of Japan supplies many signals in the
western US. These give off peep-peep and cuckoo sounds
(otherwise termed bird calls). Peep-peep often designates
east-west crossings while cuckoos designate north-south
corssings. (Oliver 1989,33-37). A semiotic system has been
created through the use of sound. Some signals also employ
tactility as a message system: "vibrotactile" devices signal
pedestrian movements through touch. (Kuemmel 2000, 42).
[From Part J, pages 180-181].
Note on Terminology
It is commonplace to speak of electro-mechanical
devices that employ electricity and mechanics in tandem. But
this can be confusing since electro-mechanical devices are
not the only form to employ mechanical means. To say, for
example, that a bell is electro-mechanical because an elec-
trically-programmed impulse drives a striking mechanism
against the bell's gong but that a bell with a metal plunger
which slams against a gong because of an electronic process
is electronic rather than electro-mechanical is confusing.
That second example is from a manufacturer's catalogue (see
previous reference).
114
It may be better to speak of the energy source and
assume it is involved with mechanical means unless other-
wise noted. That avoids a second area of ambiguity: a sound
instrument that is indirectly mechanical though not directly
so. An example of this would be an air-powered signal in
which a mechanical system creates a movement of air against
a reed which creates a sound that is technically not mechan-
ical by process since the source of energy does not directly
activate a mechanical system creating a sound.
4B2 Messages & Impediments
Messages for acoustical signals can be divided into
categories of regular and random characteristics for marine
markings. Road and rail T-M forms require a third category:
sound signals that are regular but without individual char-
acteristics. Therefore, the regular category can be divided
into regular-universal (no set configurations) and regular-
programmed (specific configurations).
The US Coast Guard has only nine possible fog char-
acteristics which indicates -- as is the case with other marine
aids to navigation -- an increase of standardization. The char-
acteristics, though limited in scope, provide different mes-
sage formulations for several horns in a given area. Fog sig-
nals have become less varied in both types and sizes of
vibrating instruments and distinguishing characteristics are
increasingly important. Fog signals, even if in reduced num-
bers, continue to carry out a mission of providing a loud and
raucous sound for mariners (USCG Light Lists, USCG
Manual).
Road and rail T-M bells (those found at railway cross-
ings) can be regarded as either a road or rail signal or both;
115
I I
i:
II
I '
I i
l.d
TCD and railways both include the topic. The bells of what-
ever fonn provide an insistent and staccatto sound that emits
more than a 100 strokes per minute; some forms sound off
more than 200 times per minute (WBAS 1983).
Railway cab signals, primarily a visual indicator, can be
accompanied by a supplementary bell. Some aero electronic
aids are translated not into visual images but sound manifes-
tations as well.
Accoustical indications in road, rail and aero forms can
be viewed as ultra-short range and short-range T-M forms. A
range of inches, feet or yards reduces or eliminates the
problem of impediments for reception of such signals. But
marine signals are comparatively long-distance signals and
impediments can be a problem. The older and now obsolete
submarine bell was a more consistent and reliable signal than
those using air. Water is more dense than gases but it is also
more elastic than air thereby allowing for greater velocity
and a more consistent, reliable medium. But other factors
doomed the submarine bell. Ships needed sensors attached
sound signals did not require shipboard technology. The bell
could be heard by the unaided ear though less adequately
(Putnam 1913, 51-52).
Air signals travel more efficiently through cool air
masses than through warm air masses. Frequently a fog
signal can encounter air currents of mixed temperatures with
the result that a signal travelling through a current of cool
(and doing so reliably) encounters warm air that throws off
the direction of the signal. For example, a navigator in a
direct line with a fog signal may gain the impression that the
signal is actually off to his/her right because of the deflec-
tion. Signal performance can be affected by other variables
as well. The distance that a signal can be heard may vary so
116
that the range of the signal also varies greatly from one
occasion to another. A signal with two tones can be so
affected by the atmosphere that one tone can not even be
heard. Even limited altitude can affect performance: a signal
heard from a ship's mast may not be heard on deck (USCG
Light Lists). Atmosphere over water is a fertile field for
variations which leads to variations of sound quality. Fog
signals are important though they have limitations. They
function as warning devices not directional devices.
117
CHAPTER FIVE
TRANSPORTATION-MARKINGS & DESIGN
SA Design, Culture and T-M
SA 1 Introduction
The original foundational monograph (1st edition, 1981)
lacked a design chapter. For a time a separate monograph
devoted to design topics had been envisioned. Instead, a
single chapter was written on the subject (2nd edition, 1991).
That chapter underwent only limited revisions for the 3rd
edition (1999).
Design may seem a peripheral -- even tangential -- topic
in a study of Transportation-Markings that centers on the
~pes of markings and their message systems. Yet any object,
mcluding that ofT-M, is very much bound up with design.
Both forms and messages are a product of design. T-M
design can be haphazard and unplanned but, nonetheless, it
is present.
A major change in this 4th edition is the addition of a
sub-chapter on design, culture, and T-M. The previous
editions focussed directly on T-M and design but omitted a
general treatment or primer on design and a historical review
of design. The primer includes terminology, design processes
and the interaction of design and culture. This primer joins
primers onlight and color, electronics, and acoustics that
appeared in previous additions. The historical review
includes the Victorian era and major movements in the 20th
century. A variety of design forms are touched upon.
In addition to Chapter SA there are two other sub-
118
chapters. Chapter 5B, external and internal factors in T-M,
substantially follows the pattern of previous editions as does
Chapter 5C which reviews T-M as a re±1ection of culture
through the perspective of design. The sub-chapters of 5A-
5B-5C-5D of the 3rd edition have been reformulated into the
two subchapters of 5B and 5C for this edition.
5A2 Primer on Design
a) Terminology
The core term for this coverage is, of course, Design.
Other terms including Fashion, Style and Culture are also
reviewed. While the terms may be few in number the possi-
ble definitions and descriptions for those terms are numer-
ous. Even though the definitions may be elusive, and even,
contradictory, a review of terms may provide a measure of
illumination and clarity.
Design can have diverse definitions, though a substan-
tial number can be reduced to a two-fold description: Design
is both noun and verb. The online encyclopedia Wikipedia,
notes that "[t]he verb is the process of originating and
developing a plan for an ... object ...." (Design. Wikipedia).
While the "[t]the noun is either the finalized plan of action or
the result of following that plan of action." More simply,
design is process or product (Lawson 1997,3; and S & S
1983,1).
A more complex description is given by Walker who
provides a four-fold explication of design that unfolds the
implicit meanings of the noun/verb perspective: " ... 'design'
causes ambiguities because it has more than one common
meaning: it can refer to a process ... or to the result of that
process ... or to the products manufactured with the aid of a
119
design .,. or to the look or overall pattern of a product ..."
(Walker 1989, 23).
Other approaches for describing design include those
that focus on the appearance. For example, Lauer 1990
speaks of "the planned arrangement of elements to form a
visual pattern." Since Lauer includes finished products the
definition may be broader in scope than appearances might
suggest. (Lauer 1990, 2). Dorothea Malcom 1972 offers a
second version: a design is a relating of elements and the
creating of a visual arrangement that presents "an interesting
unity ...." (Malcom 1972, 7).
T-M, in a design perspective, focusses on a pre-process
perspective: the historical factors, materials, and the impact
of transportation infrastructures and modes on the process of
designing specific T-M forms. The end product and appear-
anc~ of the forms is a second focus. However, the study of
desIgn and T-M ends where the actual designing ofT-M
designed objects begins.
. The term Fashion is not as vital to this study as Design
yet It has a role. Fashion can easi Iy conjure up images of the
latest fashion creations in New York and Paris. It can also
include not only fashionable clothes but objects well
removed from clothing. IESS offers a dozen examples of
"fashion" from painting to writing, entertainment, varius
forms of sciences, math (lESS 1968, 5, 342). Walker
describes fashion as "many forms of human behavior"
though clothes are pre-eminent. (Walker 1989, 171).
Fashion can be viewed negatively: "A fashion consists
of a current (constant change) trend, favoured for frivolous
rather than logical or intellectual reasons." (Fashion.
Wikipedia). But fashion can be viewed more neutrally: "a
120
pattern of change in which certain social forms enjoy
temporary acceptance and response ..."; changes in "the
direction of sensitivity and taste" rather than frivolity alter
the direction of fashion (lESS 1968, 5, 341-342). A more
positive view is that of Holly Brubach who sees fashion as
reflecting the culture, as providing identity for people.
Fashion is a major component of life and, at the least,
implicitly positive. (Brown, salon.com 1999).
A third term, Style, seemingly receives less attention in
a design context by many writers. Walker 1989, by contrast,
devotes considerable attention to style that includes reference
to a definition of style by Meyer Schapiro: "By style is meant
the constant form - and sometimes the constant elements,
qualities and expression - in the art of an individual or a
group - style is, above all, a system of forms ...." Walker
expands the definition by adding content to form. (Walker
1989,23).
Style refers to groups of objects rather than a single
artifact. An object that is classified as belonging to a style
indicates other objects with shared characteristics as well.
New York Times Magazine in 1998 devoted an issue to style
that questioned whether contemporary culture even has a
style: "Modernity has rendered the material world into some
kind of plasma that is perpetually prodded and massaged into
an endless variety of contours." (Muschamp NYTM 1998,
61). Walker also doubted the the existence of what he termed
a "unitary style" by noting " ... what we witness is a plurality
of styles, a culture of fragments." (Walker 1989, 157).
Style and fashion have been seen as interchangeable
terms. Walker notes that style can be seen as "a mode of
fashion" while fashion is "a prevailing custom or style of
dress." However, fashion has a short life span and can be
121
viewed as a fad or vogue. Style, on the other hand, has
longevity and a recognizable character. A fashion appears
and then disappears. A style can include the fashionable, but
a style can continue even when the content is classified as no
longer a fashion (Walker 1989, 155, 156).
A different approach to style is found in Ferebee who
describes style as "the designer's language." The grammar
for that language are the elements of design (line, form, etc).
(Ferebee 1970, 8). Dormer 1990 speaks of styling rather than
style and describes it as "the visual language that says to a
culture that it is ordering itself ... into productive patterns of
work, lesiure and institutions." (Dormer 1990, 19).
The next term, Culture, is a different kind of term than
the previous ones. Culture and popular culture are words that
find frequent use though with greatly varying meanings. A
working definition of culture is needed in this study since
T-M as a reflection of culture is a focus of the study. Kroeber
and associates uncovered nearly 300 definitions of culture.
(Seymour-Smith 1986, 65). Reece McGee, influenced by
Clyde Kluckholn, defines: " ... culture [as] an historically
derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living
which tend to be shared by all or specifically designated
members of a group or a society." (McGee 1972,21, 176).
"Designs for living" is at the core of the definition and in-
cludes what people wear, where they live, objects they use.
And those objects are shaped by the cultural system and
reflect that culture as will be noted in 5A c).
Two final terms having bearing 011 design and on T-M
are minimalism and functionalism. Minimalism frequently
refers to sculpture and not quite as often to painting in the
1950s and 1960s. Simplicity displayed through geometric
form was a marked characteristic of minimalism. The term
122
minimal art is more commonplace than minimalism. Not
infrequently sources beginning with minimalism move to
minimal art. Sources also employ minimalism for music and
under that title. Rarely is the term expanded to other design
forms. An exception is Mcllhany 1970 who employs the term
minimal art (and also minimal form) but expands it to design
of all forms including consumer, industrial forms. Minimal-
ism can be applied to forms of small dimensions or encom-
passing dimensions but in a second-skin form. (Minimal-
ism/Minimal Art: WWW sources: Columbia Encyclopedia
2001; Wikipedia; Artmovements; Artlex. Print: McIllhany
1970, 72-73, NOAD 2001, 1087).
Functionalism can be defined simply as design whose
form follows function. This reflects the idea that a designed
object's design is dictated by its function. Louis Sullivan, an
early proponent, did state that "form ever follows function."
However, G. Marcus claims he meant "forms express
function." (Marcus 1995, 10-13). Functionalism has to with
adapting the form to its function and environment. The term
was to take on a narrower meaning in the 1930s when it
increasingly referred to buildings following specific chara-
acteristics (often keynoted by concrete, glass, flat roofs).
(Marcus 1995, 12). But a broader meaning remains valid.
Functionalism, the philosophy undergirding functional
design, was a key notion of the 20th century. And it is
important in this study though with a more general meaning.
(NOAD 2001, 1087,687; Ferebee 1970,78;
Michl 1997).
A final remark on terms and their relationship is
supplied by Alyson Ward in an article on clothing for the
2004 Summer Olympics. She refers to "form, function and
fashion" and also to "style, function." Her bringing together
of what may be seen as disparate ideas underlines the vital
123
connections between what can be viewed as the ephemeral
with practical, even timeless concepts. That offers a vital
perspective for this study. (Ward 2004, C6).
b) Elements & Principles of Design
A design project is made up of elements and the way the
elements are assembled is dependent on principles of design.
The number of elements can vary with authors and designers.
though there are usually about a half-dozen elements. They
include line, value, color, shape and fonh, texture, space.
Principles of design can include balance, rhythm, emphasis,
unity. The arranging of elements can be of similar and/or
different elements. A unity is achieved with an arrangement
of elements and principles and that constitutes a design.
(Malcom 1972, 7, 20, 76; Samuelson & Stoops 1983, 35
[hereafter S & S]; Ballinger 1965,26-37).
The most employed element is that of the line. A line is
a recording of movement and it "is the path of a point mov-
ing through space." (S & S 1983, 35-38). Designs ranging
from graphic symbols to drawings, marks, diagrams employ
lines. Lines, in turn, generate the elements of space and
shape. Lines are the starting point of design elements and
may be the only employed element. The element of Value
refers to gradations of color density: the contrasts of dark and
light in varied permutations. A third element, Color, can
generate many variations, combinations. Human emotions,
moods can be seen through color in design. (S & S 1983,35-
38,40-43,45-47).
Other elements include shape, form, texture, space.
Shape is a two-dimensional form enclosed through the use of
a line (e.g. a circle). Form is a shape but in a three dimen-
sion volume (a sphere as contrasted with a circle in shape;
124
other basic geometric forms include cubes, cones, cylinders,
pyramids). Texture refers to suface quality with the com-
position indicated by tactile encounter. (Malcom 1972, 64; S
& S 1983, 58-60, 69-70). Space has been described as "the
boundless expanse within which all things are contained."
Space constitutes "an exceedingly elastic environment ready
to receive line, shape, form, value, color and texture." (S & S
1983, 69-70; Ballinger 1965, 26).
Principles of design include balance, rhythm, emphasis,
unity, movement, contrast. Balance suggests stability. It can
take a symmetrical or an asymetrical form. Some forms of
design, whether schools or periods, focus on symmetrical
forms while others tend toward a less symmetrical balance.
(Ballinger 1965,27). Rhythm employs repetitions in one or
other form. These can be continuous, intermittent or follow
an alternating pattern. Rhythm can also be termed repetition
in which the rhythm of design is the operational principle.
(Malcom 1972, 92; Ballinger 1965, 28). The principle of
emphasis includes a greater focus on some portion of a
design through the use of color, line, size, contrast. Unity
indicates a "satisfying sense of relationship" through the use
and interrelationship of the various elements employed.
(Ballinger 1965,29).
The final principles are movement and contrast. Move-
ment is a technique of the designer that compels the eye
movement of the viewer toward the design and to specific
dimensions of the design. Malcom goes so far as to say that
"an artist controls and forces this movement of our eyes ...."
( Malcom 1972, 86). Contrast can be viewed as a separate
pimciple though it is possibly subsumed within the princple
of emphasis. It denotes contrast through changes in density
of color or shape, size, texture. (Malcom 1972, 104).
125
c) T-M, Design & Culture
In 1955 James Gibbs (a West Coast maritime historian)
remarked that "Conventional light stations and the present
one at [Point] Arguello [CA] are as different as the Gay
Nineties bathing suit and the brief Bikini worn by shapely
girls today." (Gibbs 1955, 27). James Gibbs touches on an
important notion with his informal prose: very divergent
designed objects are imprinted by the surrounding culture
and reflect that culture with its distinctive cast.
Objects tied closely to the immediacy of fashion and
objects seemingly immune to the transitory can both be
faithful indicators of a given time. Victorian clothing and
safety aids are linked through culture-impacted design as are
similar products in this time. The opacity, solidness,
bulkiness, ornamentation of the Victorian era whether in
societal mores or in design practice is reflected in many
forms of designs. And the movement toward function, the
reducing of opacity, and the increasing of a more minimal
attitude, is displayed in the 1950s and into the 21 st century
whether in society, popular culture or specialized design at
the periphery of the mainstream.
In a www.salon.cominterview Holly Brubach offers
reflections from her book, A Dedicated Follower ofFashion.
that expands the idea of the influence of popular culture and
design. She notes that "[fjashion is in fact architecture's
feminine counterpart ...." "Buildings and clothes are the pri-
mary components of our everyday landscape, and they em-
body the ideas and the attitudes of the time in which we
live." (Brubach in Brown, www.salon.com. 1999). Brubach's
scope of interest may not be all encompassing but it is possi-
ble to extrapolate from her perspective and suggest that all
designed objects are components and embodiments of the
126
current culture and times. It may not always be easy to ex-
plain how this process takes place but it does take place.
Ferebee notes that designers not only bring together the
elements that result in a design but they also create
statements that provide "a key to understanding the culture
from which they emerge." The designed object emanates
from the culture and simultaneously helps to explain that
culture. (Ferebee 1970, 8).
The views of Gibbs, Brubach, Ferebee and others have
both formally and informally explored the mutual interaction
of object and culture. They thereby influence, shape and, to
some degree, provide a structure and foundation for this
coverage of the design and interaction of design and culture
for the T-M phenomenon and the messages and their
meaning.
A scholar in cultural anthropology, semiotics, or design
may be able to disassemble and delineate how cultural
factors shape attitudes and objects which thereby become
reflectors and indicators of culture that can applied to a
specific entity. However, this writer can offer little more than
a brief note that T-M is not an isolated monad apart from
society and culture. On the contrary it is an active participant
in the culture as it creates and propagates a complex
.information and communication system.
5A3 Capsule History of Design: Victorian Era to the Present
a) Introduction and the Victorian Era
A brief history of design in various forms from the early
19th century to the eve of the 21 st century would be a signi-
ficant challenge to the historian of design. A history in cap-
127
sule form by an amateur is a far greater challenge. But that
effort is necessary in order to create a context for T-M within
design and culture. At the least primary salient features can
be suggested. A simple schema of the Victorian Era (to
1901) and the 20th century divided into periods of 1901-
1950 and 1951-2000 might be a plausible schema for this
review. Yet other formats are possible including a
multifaceted one of the Victorian era (to the late 19th
century), Art Noveau (late 19th century/early 20th century),
Bauhaus and Art Deco (substantially between the World
Wars), and the post-World War II era. That more complex
five-fold format will be followed here. The period after
World War II lacks a name since no primary theme exists.
The Industrial Revolution, with its far-reaching changes,
began roughly in the mid-18th century. Changes in design of
and making of industrial goods, architectural constructs,
clothing and much more was underway by the 1830s with an
accelerating quantity of goods and changes in industrial
procuedures as the century unfolded. (see Part J, Ch. IB).
Ferebee terms this development as the "Industrial Age
of Design" and notes how the accession of Victoria Regina
and making of goods occured nearly simultaneously. The
time of a products made by hand was to gradually fade out in
the face of machine-produced goods. Mass production of
goods depended on two factors: making many parts of the
same object simultaneously through the use of machine; and
assembling of parts that could be interchanged on an
assembly line moving continuously (Ferebee 1970, 34).
The result was more than a simple making of similar or
identical products at a faster rate of production. Mass pro-
duction led to change in design: by making a product's shape
simpler it made the making of the product simpler. The
128
simpler form affected style but, perhaps paradoxically, it
could develop a complex style of curvature (termed "Picture-
esque") as well as a simpler style (originally termed Proto-
functionalist). However, machine production laid a foun-
dation for "a new machine esthetic" which in time would
replace the Picturesque by a Functionalist pattern. (Ferebee
1970,34-5; Part J, Chapter IB).
In architecture the bifurcated world of Picturesque and
Proto-functionalist was also present. The outstanding
example of early functionalism is the Crystal Palace, 1851.
Its simplicity was due in large part to a prefabrication of
parts. (Ferebee 1970, 34-35). The building parts were of a
standardized form and manufactured in large quantities.
(Yarwood 1989, 895). Earlier green house (or glasshouses)
developments were prototypes for the Crystal Palace. (Dixon
& Multhesius 1985, 96-98). The structure was originally
termed "styleless" since it lacked neither Greek or Gothic
features. The stark geometric design would become in time
recognized as a style in itself. The style of the Crystal Palace
was molded by machines; machines also generated new
materials. In particular new methods allowed the production
of vast quantities of glass. Machines also led to the assembly
of the structure: trolleys ran on iron gi rders allowing a rapid
installation of the glass panels. (Ferebee 1970,34-35).
Perhaps curiously this precursor of modern design housed a
vast collection of articles mostly of an older and more ornate
nature. (S & S 1983, 119).
Railway station construction in London was influenced
by the Crystal Palace and other designs. For example, King's
Cross Station -- especially the train sheds -- were so in-
fluenced and began construction at about the same time as
that of the Cyrstal Palace. King's Cross was an even larger
structure that the Crystal Palace. But the simple lines of the
129
sheds were masked by a hotel and station fronting the
complex. And the masking elements followed an historized
design. (Dixon & Multhesius 1985, 96-98).
In summary, the Victorian era became an era of
transition from one age to another. That era witnessed the
building of a foundation for simpler, more stark styles and a
vast system of design and production that would churn out
endless objects of stupefying variety in the coming century.
b) Late 19th Century & Earlier Twentieth Century
There are three schools, or perhaps more accurately,
movements in design between the Victorian era and the
contemporary world. Each manifests many complexities in
names, meanings, ways of viewing design. The first, Art
Noveau may be regarded as a kind of transition state and
includes the latter part of the era of Queen Victoria and
continued on to World War lor nearly so. Following Art
Noveau are the starkly functional world of Bauhaus and the
more decorative curvature world of Art Deco. The latter
movements overlap both in time and regions. A brief sketch
can do little more than name names, add dates and give a few
hints of what those movements represented. Even such a
brief review presents a context for design and T-M.
Art Noveau occupies a period of time in the late 19th
century and early 20th century. It is variously dated as
beginning between 1880 and 1894 and ending from 1910 to
1914. (Ferebee 1970, 56; Derville 2002; Lampugnani 1986,
19). The name has the meaning of "new art." The name
originated with a art shop in Paris (1895) (Pile 1990, 16). Art
Noveau refers to a series of diverse avant-garde movements.
These movements were united in reaction to the academic
schools of art and a historical perspective. Art Noveau design
130
is focussed on outlines (often curved) rather than "surface
decoration". (Ferebee 1970, 56). The use of curves often
employed a "whiplash S_curve" that suggested botantical
plants. (Pile 1990, 16). Art Noveau followed a symbolic
aesthetics that represented ideas through natural forms rather
than a historic period. It represented more a part of modern
design more than mere decoration. Function inf1uenced form
in Art Noveau and in time the Picturesque would fade out in
face of functional design. (Ferebee 1970, 56-57).
The Bauhaus movement, which partially overlaps with
Art Deco, was organized by Walter Gropius in 1919 and
lasted, in its original state, only until 1933 when the Nazi
regime ended it. Bauhaus recognized the growing importance
of industrialization and its impact on design. Materials,
processes, technology were all involved in a process of
change. Bauhaus viewed control of technology by designers
as vital in the light of these changes. Designs of Bauhaus
were marked by simplicity, the use of technology. There was
to be no break between craft and art. The curriculum of
Bauhaus called for both designing and the actual constructing
of objects including small items such as light fixtures. It was
very much a functionalist design. Despite its short life in its
original place and time it would have a scminal impact on
design extending far and wide and to thc present time.
(Lampugnani 1986,35-37; S & S 1983, 127-128).
Art Deco is associated with the 1920s and 1930s though
at least one source dates it back to 1910. (Art Deco. Kollo).
The name is an abbreviated form of the Paris Exposition,
1925: "Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et
Industriels Moderne." Art Moderne, a common name for Art
Deco is extracted from that label (Art Deco. Kollo). The
actual term of Art Deco dates back only to 1968 when coined
by Bevis Hillier a British art historian. (Art Deco. www.
131
- _._._._-------~-----
Astoriaartdeco .com).
Zimney notes that' industrial" and "modern" (words in
the title of the 1925 exposition) describe Art Deco. That
exposition "sought to combine the ambitions of the earlier
Arts and Crafts Movement with industrial technology."
(Art Deco. Zimney). Some view Art Deco as having two
phases: an earlier and more complex character and a later
(after the beginnings of the Depression) simpler, unadorned
style. (Art Deco. Zimney). Others confine the term Art Deco
to the earlier period and the term Modernist or Streamline
Moderne to the later period. (Art Deco. Dccopix).
Earlier Art Deco included ornamentation employing
geometric forms and natural styles. By contrast, the later
version, Streamline in the 1930s, was markedly simple in
style. Older versions displayed "abstract, angular, or floral
ornamentation" while newer versions were short on
ornament and manifested a nearly "machine-like look."
(Art Deco. Zimney).
c) Design Since World War II
One can speak of Victorian or Art Noveau or Art Deco
design. But to name a sty Ie or a desi gn for the post-World
War II, and especially recent decades, is no small challenge.
Herbert Muschamp in the New York Times Magazine noted
that "[t]he rules are breaking down. In a frenzy to move
product, design is exploding, mutating, multiplying." And,
"[t]here is no dominant style, no prevailing trend."
(Muschamp 1998,61). John Walker, an English scholar,
asked the question in the 1980s, "[i]s there such a unitary
style for our own age? Most would answer argue 'no'
because what we witness is a plurality of styles, a culture of
fragments." (Walker 1989, 157).
132
--
...
..
..
I
--
..
..
A brief review can be little more than a glance at post-
World War II design. It can outline some events, trends
though falling short of a definitive or comprehensive review.
The nearly 60-year period of time can be divided into general
remarks to the mid-1970s, and more specific remarks from
the mid-1970s to 2000.
Stoops & Samuelson note the lack of a school or
dominant style of design in the post-World War II era as well
as the key features of that time. A major feature of post-war
design is from the older Bauhaus movement. The older
"prediction of the productive interaction of the designer and
the machine" was to come to fruition. Mass-production came
to dominate and many new materials became commonplace.
(S & S 1983, 135, 136). These were often synthetics that
included plastics (also known as synthetic polymers)
including, polyurethane, acrylics, polycarbonates) and
fiberglass (glass-reinforced plastic). (Plastic. Wikipedia). A
second feature in an era lacking a coherent school of design
was the role of diversity and individualism. Diversity and the
lack of overarching themes would continue throughout the
era and at an accelerating pace. (S & S 1983, 136, 138; Part
J, Ch 1B).
Design can be looked at from many vantage points
resulting in perspectives giving emphasis to different points
of significance. Two ideas of significance for this study are
minimalism and functionalism; minimalism is the more
notable. Minimalism has divergent meanings. It is employed
here with a small om' with the meaning that minimalism can
cover many design objects even if in an informal manner.
Sterling McIllany in 1970, in writing of minimal art,
noted that "minimal form is not the concern ofjust the avant-
133
garde painter and sculptor. It is a major force in contem-
porary design that pops up wherever we look ...." (McIllany
1970, 72-73). In contrast to a variety of other writers who
begin with and remain with minimal art, he expands it well
beyond that. McIllany includes clothes, architecture, con-
sumer design as well as art. All of these borrow from geo-
metric forms and display a "strong family resemblance to
that most severe of all modern minimal shapes: the com-
puter." (McIllany 1970, 72-73). Design may have greatly
changed since 1970 but McIllany's views continue to contain
considerable truth down to the present.
Minimalism and ultraminimalist not only denote sim-
plicity but may also suggest a lack of substance, even a lack
of coverage of whatever sort. However, a designed object
can be entirely covered, even opaque, when the fabric (of
whatever substance) is tautly stretched over the underlying
form and still constitute minimalism. Dyett in 1993 spoke of
minimalist and ultraminimalist activewear clothing and often
her examples were garments that entirely enveloped the body
but stretched to a thin membrane of spandex-altered cloth.
Such membranes can be termed second-skins. Buildings and
other designed objects can also have second-skins. (Dyett
1993, 8A). Minimalism can also refer simply to reduced
covering. A basic form of this minimalism is noted by
MargaretVisser. In an essay on swimsuits she observes that
one of the few notable fashion changes in many years was
the hip-baring swimsuit of the early 1970s which substan-
tially uncovered the body below the natural waist. This suit
was the one-piece version though the earlier two-piece
version began the trend. (Visser 1997, 182-183).
Functionalism and form follows function can also be
applied to many forms of design throughout much of the 20th
century. The terms vary in meaning and, admittedly, neo-
134
historical forms have become more conunon in architecture
and have overshadowed at times older streamlined buildings
and other objects. (Functionalism. Michl 2003; Ferebee
1970, 8). Yet form does follows closely the function of many
objects from space craft to computers. The supposed minimal
shape of a 1970 computer now appears boxy and bulky.
Recent flat-screen technology has reduced monitors and tv
screens to a near-non-existent state. A foot deep machine has
often been reduced to a very few inches. (Fulford 2003;
Abbot 2003; What is ... ICT 2004). A new Apple computer,
iMac G5, displays a 2 inch wide screen whose casing
contains the entire "supercomputer." At least one news
account refers to the design as minimalist. It is both that and
a matter of form following function. (Taylor, The Ipod's Big
Brother. Time. 9-13-04; see also Stone, Getting Imac Right.
Newsweek. 9-13-04). Perhaps minimalism can be seen as a
primary approach to design even when design forms are
quite diverse.
The diversity of designed objects is such that a few
forms can hardly represent the culture. Yet objects with the
character of cultural icons can represent a larger picture. Cul-
tural icons can be defined as "a person or thing regarded as a
representative symbol, especially or movement." (OED in
learning.unl.ac.uk). In 1979 Life magazine produced an ec-
cletic mixture of designed objects from the previous decade
that could be viewed as emblems and totems of the decade.
And it was indeed a diverse collection ranging from water
bottles to string bikinis to back packs, designer jeans, soccer
balls, food processors. At least some of the objects could be
classified as cultural icons. (Time Capsule, Life, 12-79). The
Montreal Museum of Archaeology and History produced a
~ollection 01'''20 Objects from the 20th Century" and many,
If not all, can be termed cultural icons as they were viewed as
"the objects most representative of the 20th century." They
.135
include predictable objects such as automobile, airplane,
electric light bulb, jeans and less predictable objects such as
the plastic garbage bag. (www. musee-pointe ....).
Out of the welter of designed objects are there a few
objects that could qualify as cultural icons? If reduced to just
two objects one might suggest blue jeans, and computers
(A.A. Berger's treatise on Material Culture focusses on
fashion with a specific emphasis on one object: blue jeans;
Berger 1992, 7, 8, 13). Blue jeans have ebbed and flowed
over a half-century and more but of late they loom up very
large on a popular cultural horizon. Denim Glossary claimed
over a half-billion pairs ofjeans had been sold in the US in a
single year in the mid-1990s. (Denim. Denim Glossary
1997). Plain jeans that are relatively cheap have been joined
by hyper-expensive designer jeans in the $75-250 range and
above (with many over $75 and $130-150 a common price
range). No article of clothing has the same place in the
culture. (Trebay 2004, 3C). Main-stream jeans (Levi's, Lee)
have been termed "iconic jeans" which strongly suggests a
cultural icon status. (Trebay 2004, 3C).
A second cultural icon may be that of the personal
computer. Clunky, room and even building-sized computers
of the World War II era have evolved into frequently tiny
objects with ever more power. Simple computers became
networks and with the internet a vast interconnected
information system spanning the globe. A small brown or
off-white box slice oftechnology has permeated the culture
in a way and to a degree unprecedented. The culture has been
so altered by that tec1mology in ways both positive and
negative that a pre-computer and -web world may be difficult
to remember. (Computer History. knobblycrab.co.uk;
Stephen 2004).
136
If a hint of the design and style of an age can be seen
through a few widely used designed objects then perhaps a
window can be opened an age through materials commonly
in use. No current material can sum up as, say, iron in a
previous age (e.g., "The Age ofIron"). But perhaps some
materials can suggest, concerns, foci of the time. There are
obviously many materials in use from traditional iron to
plastics. In the post-World War II era the petroleum industry
looms up very large from propelling motor vehicles to global
warming to producing the raw stuff of many products. Many
of these products are petroleum-based synthetic polymers or
plastics.
One synthetic polymer of significance in this time has
been lycra spandex (also known as elastophane). Lycra was
invented by Duport in 1959. (Reisch. CENEAR). It was
originally employed for foundation garments but it spread to
athletic clothing in the late 1960s and 1970s. Since then it
has become a ubiquitous product that finds usage in auto-
mobiles, clothing, furniture, shoes and a growing list of other
products. (Kelly 2004; Lycra. Free Dictionary). It is inter-
woven with fabrics of all kinds including denim, leather and
even salmon skin leather (www.Skinilondon.com).Reisch
remarks that "[i]ts elastic properties allow spandex to be a
fiber now uncorseted by convention." (Reisch. CENEAR).
Lycra is one product in one industry yet as it takes on a
character of ubiquity it has in some sense become a cultural
icon in its own right.
137
5B External Factors Affecting
Transportation- Markings Design
5B 1 Introduction for 5B & 5C
Design has several dimensions in T-M: 1) There is a
historical process at work: much of the current design of
markings has Victorian and Edwardian antecedents (5B2).
2) Design is affected by science and teclmology:. material~
from which T-M forms are constructed have a du'ect beanng
on design (5B3). 3) The exigencies of the modes of transpor-
tation have a design; routeways and their physical environs
have an impact on design as well (SCI a). 4) Design is
shaped by the internal requirements of T-M (SCI b),
Other dimensions include: 5) The given characteristics
of T-M are the result of the various aspects of design inter-
woven with the aforementioned factors. Design concepts
such as minimalism and form follows function can be
applied to T-M since T-M design is marked by simplicity and
an utilitarian character (5C2 a). 6) Design does not exist as
an isolated unit. Any object can renect it times (e.g., social,
economic, and cultural themes and values of an era). T-M is
no exception even if viewed as removed from "fashion". .
T-M can be seen to mirror the eras of its development and, 111
turn, the eras are reflected in the marking (5C2 b).
7) These remarks are directed to T-M in a general
sense. They are not directly aimed at the message systems of
T-M forms. However, the employment of graphic, geometric,
and alphanumeric symbols are also part of the design and
require review. The use of color, the way energy source
emissions are arranged (light phase characteristics, electronic
pulses, etc), the positions of markiI:gs (tl~e or~er of sig~a~ .
lamps in a signal, the movement of a sWItch sIgnal exhIbItmg
138
a target, etc) are part of design even if in a less tangible,
more elusive sense (5C3 a)-c).
References notes are substantially reduced in Chapter
5B and 5C. Many of the materials are extracted from the
modal monographs of this Series which do include refere-
nces. Part.T, Transportation-Markings: A Historical Survey,
1750-2000 (2002) also supplies information on the Industrial
Revolution(s) and development of T-M forms.
5B2 The Historical Process
The 19th century was a time of movement of peoples
from agricultural and rural locales to industrial sites and
urban areas (though the rural world was not eclipsed until
relatively recent times). This migration was accompanied by
a change from simple tools, primitive industry and small-
scale operations to increasingly complexity and larger scale
production. Immobility for most people gradually changed to
mobility as more rapid means of transpOliation were created,
and became available. Rapid changes in transportation were
paralled in communications: the semaphoric message
systems of 18th century France was supplanted by the
telegraph which, in turn, was supplemented by the telephone
and much more. With the passage of time limited changes
became rapid changes.
Individual cultures were altered in the process of change
as connections between cultures were created through
various means including the establishment of sea-lanes
which led to the movement of ideas followed by political·
domination. Eventually railway systems were established in
many regions often by the nationals of a few industrialized
states that further broke down cultural and political
differences though usually for the benefit of only a few.
139
Some movement toward a global community was initiated,
and ideas of style, architecture, engineering and other forms
of design -- usually of European and US origins -- fanned out
and became adopted/adapted by other nations. To a
considerable degree English ideas and technologies were in
the forefront of exported ideas and these have had a dispro-
portionate impact in viliually every part of the world.
It was in this changing world that modern T-M forms
were developed. The designs and building of these safety
aids can be clearly seen in the expansion of lighthouses and
railway semaphore signals. The great sea-girt and coast light
towers became increasingly prominent from the later 18th
century on. The great lights, through expansion of tech-
nology and transportation, moved outward to yet more
difficult sites in home waters then to sea-lanes and coastlines
around the globe.
Many of these lights were of English provenance and
are quickly recognized as such (for example, the shape of the
lantern house is a distinctive design that is often repeated;
various designs are not greatly different.). The basic design
was essentially repeated wherever the English were to be
found: India, British Columbia, West Indies, Australia, South
Africa. It would be simplistic to suggest, for example, that
the Stevenson family and the Chance company (engineers
and makers of lighthouse equipment) entirely shape Victor-
ian lighthouse globally (other firms in Britain, France and
other nations were also crafting lenses and towers). But a few
English firms did imprint marine markings with an easily
recognized design and silhouette.
The expansion of railway signals demonstrates a similar
pattern through a less dramatic visage. English semaphores
with their long, rectangular-shaped arms and two color
140
spectacles and mast ornaments (based on English .
engineering and technology, culture and concepts of railway
operations and safety) found use from England to South
Africa, from New Zealand to Latin America. However, the
design of the shape has permanently etched an image of
railway signals globally. The US form (often a three-lens
model with tapered blade) while less universal, presents a
design found in the Americas, Australia, and even in
England. It also represents a design that, once established,
never great varied. Both models are a cultural-technological-
transportation-and-communication "mix" (or matrix)
translated into a design.
A third semaphore design of some note is the German-
ic, or Central European form, with rectangular-shaped
blades "topped off" with an oval at the outer end; lamp units
are separate from the blades. This design is found not only in
central and eastern Europe but in some locations in Africa
and Asia. Variations of this design have expanded its use.
The connection between forms of design whether
"fashion" or T-M can be seen in a photograph in the files of
this writer that shows a "flapper" hanging onto an early
traffic signal. Somehow the two images belong together; they
mesh rather than clash. Traffic signals have not drastically
changed but the nuances of the design, the structural
supports, the use of words embossed on the lens all date that
signal to the 1920s as much as the napper garb dates the
flapper as from the 1920s.
5B3 Science & Technology's Impact
on T-M Materials & Design
A survey of how science and technology affected T-M
can end up listing many science and technology changes of
141
the 19th and 20th centuries. However, it may be possible to
indicate changes directly involved with T-M and their
design. This review is divided into an older -- and mostly
Victorian -- era, and a second period emphasizing on recent
decades.
A significant characteristic of the Victorian era is the
availability of iron. This is especially true of the latter phase
of the Second Industrial Revolution. The development of
iron production affected much of the 19th century including
the building of ships and locomotives, the making of railway
tracks, the construction of bridges. Iron's availability is also
equally important for T-M. Iron buoys greatly expanded the
use of floating aids and vastly improved the durability and
range of buoys. Older buoys were of wood construction and
though some wood buoys would continue in use there use
would decline. Iron buoys also made possible the addition of
fog signal mechanisms and eventually lighted mechanisms.
Iron also affected the building of fixed lights and fixed
fog signals. Optical changes -- especially the Fresnel lens --
radically altered not only m<\.;or coast lights but also the light
apparatus of many other transportation markings. New fuels
increased the efficiency of lights (including incandescent-oil
and acetylene). Automation began in the Edwardian era with
the sun valve, a predecessor of the photo-electric cell. Other
changes in safety aids included an increased production of
glass for signal lenses coupled with an improved ability to
produce glass of unvarying quality based on science-based
research.
All of these changes affected design: new forms of
markings required design work and new materials increased
the sophistication of existing forms of markings. The greater
flexibility in the designing and constructing of safety aids
142
would transform T-M.
A review of changes in the 20th century that have had
an impact on T-M is more challenging since there has been a
virtual explosion of basic and applied science and technology
in the 20th century. A simple listing of changes would be
prohibitive in length. The following review, though tending
toward the random and eclectic, suggests some areas of
changes in T-M within a design perspective.
One focus of change is the micro-processor. It has
greatly affected T-M though to what degree has that change
been direct? The internal workings of many markings have
been altered, and entire systems of markings have been
organized and controlled with computers. Yet the messages
have not greatly changed because of computers. It can be
said that for the most part T-M messages and meanings have
only been indirectly affected by computer technology. This
refers more immediately to visual and acoustical aids. How-
ever, computer technology has a more direct role with some
forms ofT-M. For example, advanced railroad control
systems employ computer systems that directly affect
message systems.
The impact of radio has been far more direct. Begin-
ning with radiobeacons in the 1920s, the use of electronic
markings has been increasingly important. Medium and long
range marine markings and many aero markings (including
short-range aids at airports), have become a major force and
has often eclipsed visual and sound aids. Electronics has had
both a major impact on the inner workings of markings and a
direct impact on markings and message production and
emissions. Electronic markings as well as the replacement of
electro-mechanical inner workings by microprocessors have
both altered the design process.
143
Metallurgical changes have also been of significance:
steel has largely replaced iron; aluminum and stainless steel
have taken on major roles in T-M. Welding has replaced
rivets in metal assemblies in many cases, and in other cases
structural steel and bolts have found many uses. The design
process has been altered along with changes in metals and
methods of assembly.
A key change directly altering mcll1Y forms ofT-M
from traffic signs to complex light mechanisms is the use of
plastics. Plastics are nearly ubiquitous and superficially
ephemeral objects. As a result their direct role can be easily
overlooked. Often times plastics are virtually hidden since
their appearance can be confused with glass, fiberglass,
paint, fabrics, paper.
Plastics, in the true sense of the word, began in the early
20th century. Their use in T-M has become ever more vital.
The flexibility of plastics in extrusion processes, in liquid
forms, and in maleable units has made it important for the
design ofT-M including housings, supports, backup
structures.
The available range of plastics is nearly endless. They
include acrylics which has been molded into sophisticated
lenses that efficiently emit messages for marine aids and
have proved durable even in harsh marine climates. Cellulose
acetates have been widely employed for signal lenses, and
polycarbonates have been utilized for reflective materials.
Urethanes in a liquid state have been applied to signs and.
pavement markings. The range of plastics -- or petroleum-
based synthetic polymers -- are in use across the length and
breadth ofT-M. The form of present and future T-M forms
will be substantially affected by plastics.
144
SC T-M & Design
SCI Interaction ofT-M & Infrastructures with Design
a) The Impact of Transportation Routeways on the
Design of T-M Forms
This topic may appear to be well removed from design
as such. While it may not be a direct and immediate com-
ponent of design it does aid in shaping the direction and
content of design. Routeways can be divided into two general
forms of precise limits, and of flexible limits; specific forms
of routeways manifest more nuanced differences.
Rail routeways are sharply defined and admit of little
flexibility (encapsulated in the title of the now defunct
Canadian Institute of Guided Ground TranspOli, Queen's
University, Ontario). Limited i1exibility is found at junctures
with other tracks. This characteristic of rigidity is reflected in
the markings and their design since the marking forms are of
a signal type (contrasted with the beacon type). Railway
signals generally regulate relationships between units of a
mode of transportation rather than between environment-
mode relationships, or a composite pattern of the intra-mode
and environment-mode forms. Signs and non-sign markings,
though of a different nature, reflect these factors as well.
Road routeways are somewhat similar to those of rail
though less rigid. These routeways are structured and
delineated yet allow for greater variations. Intra-modal
relationships are a vital element of road markings. Both
interaction between modes of transportation and between
routeway and terrain are more important than in rail. Road
signals are rarely multi-directional though uni-directional
145
signals often share a single installation site and are integrated
with adjoining units. The design of signals ref1ect the nature
of routeways, the style of signal and the underlying terrain.
Signs and road markings, to some degree, ref1ect this
situation.
Aero routeways bear a partial resemblance to road
characteristics and a partial resemblance to marine route-
ways. At airports the constraints on modes of transportation
are similar to those of roadways, while away from airports
routeways are abstract constructs with very limited physical
boundaries. At airports the direction of movement is nearly
always one way, and lighted and unlighted aids are designed
and constructed within narrow parameters.
Marine routeways, though marked by flexibility, mani-
fest some structure in boundaries. Channels are marked for
inland waters, and charts -- though not markings in them-
selves -- denote routes offshore. The surrounding terrain,
admittedly of a watery form, is a major factor for the marine
mode, and more significant than terrain associated with other
modes of transportation (physical geography is vital for other
forms but either less immediate or more easily altered than
for marine navigation). Many marine aids are omnidirection-
al and this befits their role as indicators of channel boun-
daries and of objects. Range lights and daymarks are narrow-
ly focussed and bear resemblance to signals (though marine
forms are beacons not signals in nature).
b) Influence ofT-M Internal Requirements on Design
T-Ms can be likened to a many faceted prism with each
prism displaying additional prisms; some of these facets refer
to design. This segment of the study has an elusive focus not
easily captured. The core question is: how does the
146
..
!
•
..
"withinness" of a T-M form affect design?
More precisely, what does a marking need to create a
message and then to project it? Considering the diversity of
T-M forms there can be no short answer and a detailed
answer can become overladened with the details ofdiverse
forms of markings. For lighted forms there is a need for a
power source, lamp, lenses, and a mechanism for creating
messages of a standardized form and which are easily and
quickly recognized.
For traditional coastal lighthouses the structure, lamp,
lamp housing could and often did result in a large and
massive structure. Technology was relatively primitive so the
lantern house, mechanism (clock work device, lens, burner,
wicks, etc) were large and the power source (liquid or vapor-
ized fuels) required on-going directly human attention. The
creation and projection of the message was not impeded by
the size of the structure, the equipment, or the need for
frequent attention. The design of a traditional lighthouse was,
however, affected by the technology, scale of operations and
human presence.
Older harbor and river marine lights, while partially
standardized, often displayed a notable degree of individual-
ity: a custom-made structure (or at least on-site assembly), a
self-contained lantern (of a traditional form of cast iron, glass
panels and requiring frequent maintenance [and even daily
care which could include adding of fuel, and lighting of the
lanternD. Newer major marine lights may be constructed of
structural steel members, often prefabricated, with a self-
contained light apparatus (often of aero origins), computer-
ized and automated, and requiring little human attention.
Smaller lights often consist of pre-assembled daymarks
(including large, easily-read identification numbers), pre-
147
II
L
fabricated structures, a long-term fuel source, factory-
assembled acrylic lens with bulb changer.
The resulting design requirements for these new lights
are substantially different from older forms. Contemporary
design is carried out in a factory or a marine aid to navigation
base with only pre-arranged assembly in the field.
Railway signals, whether of older or newer vintage, pre-
sent a different problem: they must be positioned near the
routeway and therefore the size of these signals must be
relatively small. Older forms were not of powerful intensity
because the equipment was not large enough and could not
be sufficiently enlarged because of space limitations. By con-
trast, lighthouses could be powerful even with early technol-
ogy because space restrictions were less of an impediment.
Railway signal mechanisms contained several lenses and the
necessary devices for illuminating and darkening the lamps
in turn. The technical needs and locational requirements
strongly influenced the design factor. This is also true of
marine and other markings as well. The height of railway
signals was also determined within narrow specifications.
Road signals, though not as confined to locational
factors as rail signals, are required to produce a series of
alternating messages in close proximity to routeways and to
do so without interfering with traffic movements. Lens size,
housing, mechanical and optical equipment and installation
are established within narrow limits, and design is shaped by
those factors. Changing traffic, engineering and safety per-
ceptions called for larger lenses -- at least for red lenses -- yet
space considerations were little changed. The addition of
optically-programmed signals with precisely focussed single-
lane visibility also affected design.
148
Aero lights are subject to severe restrictions: these lights
operate in a tiny area virtually in the path of the aircraft. If
lights are set into the pavement the supporting structure must
be very strong and if above ground the structure must contain
a substantial degree of frangibility (the ability to snap off
when hit). Aero lights frequently often display a single color
of a fixed character and this simplifies engineering and
design needs. Aero lights then, must be small, possess an
ability to be demolished when above ground though still of
durable construction (this contrasts with marine lights which
must be able to resist environmental challenges such as
turbulent seas).
Design requirements for other markings may be
different yet some of the aforementioned requirements are
present: clarity and simplicity of message, an agreed-upon
message, a more pronounced (in contrast to older forms) pre-
assembly/pre-installation character, an increase in simple,
graphic symbols and fewer word messages.
In summary, each form ofT-M has internal require-
ments that affect design. Internal needs are accompanied by
the age of the marking, the mode of transportation, routeway,
and nature of the marking.
c) Summary of Factors Affecting
the Creating of T-M Characteristics & Design
Major factors involved with T-M design include his-
torical process, cultural influences, science and technology,
the impact of the modes of transportation, and the internal
requirements ofT-M forms. That is not the end of the pro-
cess. Messages (designed objects in themselves) affect the
design of markings. Cross-fertilization of factors as well as
the chronological changes add to the complexity and affect
149
..
the composition ofT-M configurations and design.
Cultural factors have both past and present dimensions.
A T-M form is a reflection ofa culture but it is also part of
past markings which, in turn, were affected by their cultural
matrix. This is also true of science and technology which
have a past as well as a present. And science and technology
have an impact on past markings and influences the design of
present markings.
This past and present character affects all aspects of
older markings including routeways, modes of transportation,
and the internal requirements of markings. What is the
import of these interacting factors? They create a dynamic
that generates a multi-faceted interaction affecting all other
T-M forms, their design, and their message systems. This
dynamic takes place despite differences how a marking was
created (the design, building, activation) and which factors
were at play and to what extent.
As an example, a quintessential Victorian sea-girt light
tower produced by eminent Victorians employing the
science, technology, and engineering of that era -- and
reflecting the cultural values of that era -- creates a marking
and message system that becomes part of an interconnected
system ofT-M forms. That safety aid affects other parts of
the larger system both in the Victorian era and thereafter.
No element is lost, no factor fails to affect others
markings. Perhaps the effect is tangential!peripheral! margi-
nal and all but invisible. Yet all future markings of whatever
sort camlot escape, to use the previous examples, the
influence and the impact of relatively primitive lighthouses
on the coast of Scotland with their great stone towers topped
by cast iron lantern houses. The latter encompasses massive
150
jewel-like lense, brass clock work mechanism, oil fueled
burner and ethereal wicks under the close watch of a
lightkeepeer.
It would be difficult to dissect a marking and say, for
eXall1ple, that factor "x" with such-and-such degree of
influence, came from markings "A" or "B" or "C". There are
examples in which the influence of one T-M form has a close
and visible impact on seemingly unrelated markings. For
eXall1ple, at one time railway signal makers manufactured
traffic signals, early airway beacons were termed "aeriel
lighthouses," and many older marine range lights were
manufactured by railway signal works. But it is of little
consequence how shrouded in the mists of the past T-M
influences may be, the impact of one marking and its design
upon another marking is present.
5C2 T-M as a Reflection of Culture
a) Historical Backdrop
These reflections cover a lengthly period of time, in-
clude diverse topics and focus on what is not entirely tangi-
ble and may be elusive. The central tenet of these remarks is
that the T-M does not exist in a vacuum; that it is part of the
cul-ture in which it is found; in some sense it is a reflection
of that culture. That reflection is seen mostly through the
medium of design: design of the structure that makes up a
mark-ing, design 0 f the actual marking creating and pro-
ducing the faculty, and the design of the messages emitted.
The way that T-M is a reflection of a culture depends on
several factors including specifically cultural values,
attitudes and social constructs and other influences including
historical and technological factors. Marine and rail T-M
151
forms were reflections of the Victorian age and important
dimensions of those reflections have carried over into the
present. The cultural cunents of that age that were reflected
may have been outside mainstream characteristics since
marine and rail signals were allied with engineering and its
more functional approach. This was in contrast to much of
Victiorian architectural and other design forms.
If cultural reflections were peripheral and atypical in
some ways they occupied the mainstream in other ways. For
example, T-M forms are very Victorian in their solidity and
permanence and thereby ref1ect mainstream values and
constructs of that cuiture. This is truer of marine aids to
navigation than of railway signals. One can speak of this
topic only in general terms since there are major cultural
differences between the 19th century and contemporary
periods as well as sub-periods within those eras.
In more recent times T-M forms more often ref1ect
mainstream attitudes. These include increased development
ofminimalism, ofa form following function (and a variant
type: form following efficient usage which is not necessarily
the same), a non-permanence of structure (though not neces-
sarily of the "throw-away" sort), the use of more sophisti-
cated materials (acrylics and other petroleum-based pro-
ducts, aluminum, steel, stainless steel contrasted with a
decrease in use of glass and of cast iron), change of opera-
tional processes (microprocessors instead of electro-mechan-
ical devices), and employment of simpler and bolder graphic
and other symbols.
Themes of functionality and practicality permeate T-M
and thereby contribute to a certain timelessness and a not
easily dated quality to T-M. These themes lead to a
simplicity and a focus on basic designs for message systems.
152
•
•,:~
This observation can be amplified by a passage from Part F,
International Railway Signals, on the dual theme of a super-
ficial out-of-date appearance of signals and an actual time-
lessness of signals. This theme has application to other forms
of markings as well. The passage, in part, reads:
The railway signal in many of its forms appears very
dated; a prime example of low technology, more
than a little quaint, and a frequent reminder of the
Victorian and Edwardian eras and all the image they
may conjure up. Microprocessors and electronic
train control add a patina of modernity to the great
assemblage of visual signals but no more than that.
Despite some modernizing inroads, many signals --
at least in design -- are little changed from the 19th
and early 20th centuries; many other signals follow
designs that are derivatives of the early signals.
In many instances signals do not, upon close inspec-
tion, manifest an outdated appearance. Often they
are marked by a stark simplicity; they represent a
virtual fusing of form and function into one dimen-
sion. They are notable examples of minimalism
accentuating clean and unencumbered lines. Sim-
plicity, function-inspired form and minimalism con-
tradicts neo-traditionalist design especially in archi-
tecture of both the late 19th and 20th centuries. Yet
many other forms of design also exhibit those char-
acteristics found in signal design including transpor-
tation equipment, communications technology, run-
ning/biking/aerobics gear with their "second skin"
look. Much of contemporary design has not swerved
from simplic~ty and functionalism and may have
focussed more strongly on those characteristics.
If one separates the signal in itself from railway
153
rtransportation that can appear archaic and no longer
a trend-setter, then it may be possible to view the
signal as an object that follows a timeless path of
simple geometric shapes, economical usage of
materials and which excludes superficial and useless
decoration. This signal parallels not only contem-
porary design but that of past eras as well. The
signal is then part of the present and not a musty
anachronism of the past.
b) T-M: A Reflection of its Times
T-M's role as a culturally-retlective object is largely
accomplished in and through design. That design may have
often been design with a small "d". That is, a localized
design by crafts people and engineers without formal training
in design. Nonetheless, it was a bona fide design and it
reflected the culture of which -- and in which -- it took place.
l'-M may have been peripheral to cultural processes in some
respects. Yet when viewed from the perspective of semiotics
and communications it constituted a core element of cultures
and societies since it was a core element of transportation,
communication and information systems.
l'-M follows a logical and empirical path that results in
designs that focuss on what was necessary to project the
message with little thought given over to "style" and
"fashion." And in that process T-M was influenced by
cultural patterns and ref1ected a given culture.
Newer T-M forms more strongly exemplify minimalism
and functionalism (though those terms probably were not
employed in T-M design in many instances). Nonetheless,
starkness, economy, boldness and a physical minimum are
very much attributes ofT-M design.
154
In more than a few instances a modern lighted T-M
form, to cite one form, is little more than the lens, operating
mechanism, and a housing that fits snugly about the lens and
its inner mechanism, and help up by a sparse support struc-
ture. An example would be the Humboldt Bay Light near
Eureka, California. The Light consists of a single, vertical
pole holding up a very small but high powered lantern
(originally intended for aero beacons but now employed for
major US Coast Guard installations) that is almost a pure
light form; any increasein minimalism would negate the
existence of the light.
What are some of the features of modern T-M design
that reflect a culture? Major features include a movement
from permanence to a more ephemeral existence in struc-
tures; messages are larger, bolder and simpler; systems are
more evidence as markings are more often grouped together.
Older T-M forms were often of a more permanent
nature and marked by a more solid and opaque appearance
than contemporary models. This is more true of marine aids
to navigation and less so for railway signals. Older aids to
navigation were often customized; this is true of coastal
lighthouses but it partially applies to "minor" lights built by
hand even if from existing blueprints.
With the passage of time many T-M forms became
mass-produced (even some coastal lighthouses have been
factory products which were then installed on site; the late
Willapa Bay Light on the Washington State coast (US)
consisted for a time of a pre-assembled structure from AGA
(now Pharos Marine [Parsons USCG 1986]). Both com-
ponents and even entire markings are interchangeable in
many cases and can be "uprooted" and moved to other sites.
155
I
III
i I:
. Ii
)
New materials and construction methods lead to a situation
in which there is less brick, stone, and cast iron and more
steel and aluminum. As well as fewer rivets, more welding;
less complex glass assemblies and more acrylic; less electro-
mechanical devices and more computers. These changes
have become the hallmarks of new T-M forms.
Messages have become bolder and simpler for many
T-M forms. This has meant that lenses for traffic signals are
often larger, and wordy messages have bcen replaced by
simple, stark graphics (whose meaning, however, may not be
any easier to decipher and decode; the meaning may, in fact,
have become more difficult to unravel). Numbers and day-
marks (marine) are much more common and standardized;
newer daymarks not infrequently obscure the formerly
visible structure. These practices reflect the graphics, use of
colors and a more uncluttered design of the larger society.
The design ofT-M forms, both structures and message
systems, has been undergirded by cultural characteristics that
affect the design process. For an older period of time many
markings were individualized and even customized. This was
true not only of experimcntal markings but also of more
established forms. For the modern period mass-produced
objects based on standardized designs is a hallmark of the
culture and ofT-M.
Systems are also a contemporary watchword: entire
groups ofT-M forms, even on a global scale, follow set
patterns in message systems. Both design and construction of
these markings is precisely conceived and carried out. This in
contrast to the older system of US marine aids to navigation
(and no doubt other national systems) which did not fully
incorporate river and harbor lights and daybeacons into the
buoyage system and as a result many lights were nearly
156
•
-
•I .
-
independent agents marking a point, channel edge, etc. even
if in close proximity to a system of buoys marking parts of
the same body of water. But in recent years, especially with
the advent of the IALA system, nearly all non-coastal aids
are incorporated into a close-knit and all-encompassing
system of position, location, color and other symbols.
5C3 Message Systems & Design:
Transportation-Markings as Communication
a) Introduction and Terminology
Design has an impact on all aspects ofT-M messages
both directly and through ancillary forms. For example, the
physical support structure of a traditional lighthouse has a
direct bearing on the message capability (though the lamp
remains of first importance). The signal mast and ladder for a
railway semaphore signal (though further removed from the
core message than is the structure for a lighthouse) is, none-
theless, part of the message configuration since the "non-
message" silhouette of mast and ladder in itself denotes an
upcoming message even if the specific message can not be
deciphered when some distance away. This means that the
design of any part of a message-producing facility is also part
of the design of the message system. The structure can be
secondary or indirect or peripheral but, nonetheless, it
communicates some portion of a message.
Design, of course, can directly affect the explicit and
immediate dimensions ofT-M messages. In these instances
the role of design is specific and deliberate; not accidental,
tangential or vaguely suggestive. All T-M messages include
design in this sense though it may be clearer in some cases
than in others. T-M messages, no matter what form they may
take, have a design dimension. The design of messages can
157
exhibit many forms: a road sign of geometric shape with
graphic symbols, the flash of a marine light with its indivi-
dualized pattern of light and dark, or the pulses of an aero
electronic aid.
The greater part of this segment reviews the design of
messages in a strict and explicit. These message center on
graphic, geometric and alphanumeric shapes. This review
also examines acoustical, lighted visual, and electronic
message configurations.
Terminology can be problematic and the "rough and
ready" definitions of this study may not measure up to more
exacting standards. The subdivision of design into graphic,
geometric and alphanumeric symbols may be seen as
questionable since all of these symbols are typically seen as
graphic symbols. For example, Rudolph Modley in his
Handbook ofPictorial Symbols speaks of graphic symbols as
having three forms: a) pictorial (or iconic); b) related to
images; and c) abstract (or arbi trary); (the final form includes
the alphanumeric. (Modley 1976, v). This schema includes
three forms of graphics symbols rather than three or more
forms of visual symbols. But this compiler, after a long
acquaintance with various T-M forms, nonetheless, sees
merit in regarding the characteristics of these symbol forms
as denoting a differentiation within the forms. There are, in
short, several basic groups of symbols rather than one group
with sub-forms within it.
b) Graphic, Geometric & Alphanumeric Symbols Designs
Graphic symbols designs in this study include all
designs whether abstract or representational, except recog-
nized geometric shapes and alphanumeric forms. Graphic
symbols include actual objects (e.g., arrows), representa-
158
j
-
tions of recognized objects (e.g., bridges, railways tracks),
abstract symbols created for a specific message (e.g., a
diagonal bar superimposed on a dune buggy in a sand dune).
Geometric symbols include simple and unadorned
shapes from geometry: circles, diamond, elipses, obrotunds,
obrounds, octagons, ovals, pentagons, rectangles, squares,
and triangles.
Alphanumeric symbols include letters and/or numbers.
Letters can be in either word or non-word forms. Alpha-
numeric forms represent a complex topic since all forms of
T-M include some alphanumeric forms though variations are
substantial. Marine markings employs numbers for markings
in buoyage and beaconage systems; letters are employed in
identifying some aids. Aero markings include letter and/or
number designations for runway and taxiways. Railway
systems employ words for various signs (e.g., station signs,
and numbers as well (e.g., whistIeposts). Some targets also
display letters and/or numbers.
Traffic control devices employ by far the largest number
of alphanumeric symbols: mileage indications, place names,
exit indications, some warning and construction signs, and
even some pavement markings. Graphic symbols have
increased at the expense of word symbols though the
alphanumeric form remains a strong element.
In many instances the actual symbols are composites of
two or even all of these forms. The use of color extends this
, complexity further. The place of color in the design equation
is more difficult to determine. Color may be part of the
parent design form (geometric, graphic or alphanumeric) or
color (since it has a form in itself) may be related more
closely to graphic design.
159
c) Visual, Acoustical & Electronic Message Configurations
160 _l
The forms of energy (electromagnetic and sound) when
applied to T-M can exist in either modulated or non-modu-
lated states (modulated: altering the flow of energy by chang-
ing the frequency or by some other type of interruption).
Configurations refer to interruptions or alterations of a flow
of energy into recognized patterns of messages. There is a
design principle at work in the creation of these configura-
tions. Configurations of messages as they are found in visual,
acoustical, and electronic T-M forms are reviewed here.
Light, at a basic level, presents a specific color or wave-
length of electromagnetic energy. A first-level modulation
would be a turning on and off of the facility of generating of
visual electromagnetic energy. This first-level modulation is
sufficient for creating flashes. However, more can be done to
create different messages than a creating of si~ple flashes.
Flashing, in specific terms, refers to a pattern in which
periods of darkness are greater than the periods of light.
Occulting patterns present a reverse situation: light periods
are greater than those of dark while isophase (equal-interval
patterns) display equal portions oflight and dark. T-M forms
can display a single, unvarying pattern of messages though ..
multiple levels of flashes (e.g., a railway system employing
a pattern of slower and faster flashes).
tt
Flash pa.ttern~dcan take. on ~l1any div~rse and complex _
pa ems: manne al s to naVIgatIOn agenCIes provide a broad
range of categories (group f1ashing, and quick f1ashing
among others) and a wide range of specific characteristics _
are possible within a category (e.g., a marine light displaying
a flash every five seconds: FI W., 5s [W= white]). Occulting _
patterns also include several categories with the resulting
individual characteristics.
Fixed patterns can take one of several forms: a single
color light in marine systems, a series of fixed color lights in
aero situations, a series of fixed but alternating lights (in
several colors) in road and rail usage and a variety of other
forms (fixed and f1ashing, fixed with graphic symbols, etc.).
In summary, the message design process begins with a
unit of visually perceived electromagnetic radiation followed
by a design modulation resulting in one of many possibilities.
Some of these possibilities are basic patterns that extend
through a mode ofT-M, or at least a specific system; other
patterns are designed for a single marking.
Sound waves can also be modulated though the process
is at variance with those of light energy because it represents
a different form of energy. In many instances sound waves
do not undergo a design process (though one can argue that
the design of the sound mechanism and its sound resulting in
a "natural pattern" is a design process as well) since the
message consists of activation of the sound instrument
producing a simple unvarying sound (including buoy bells,
gongs and whistles; railway crossing bells, cab signal bells).
However, some fog signals have patterns analogous to those
of the energy emanations of lighted markings, and therefore,
a. deliberate design process is at work in those forms. A fog
SIgnal with a specific characteristic could, for example,
exhibit one of these patterns: one blast every 20 seconds (3
second blast) or two blasts every 20 seconds (2s bl, 2a ai, 2s
bl, 14s si [bl=blast, si= silence]). The designing of sound
messages creates an identification for a given fog signal (as it
does for any accompanying lighted aid). .
Electronic markings represent a more complex entity.
They are not part of the visible portion of the electromag-
161
162
Chapter 5A may seem far removed from Chapter 5B/-
5C. Yet they are linked: 5A provides a context far T-M espe-
cially as designed objects. The terms, design process and ob-
jects of 5A are very much the fabric of culture. That is also
true of T-M in 5B/5C. Many of the designed objects are of
simple, uncluttered and durable character. That suggests T-M
as well.
netic spectrum in themselves yet they need to be translated
into what can be seen and/or heard. The designed messages
can take many forms: a group of pulses in Morse code that
can be translated into an alphanumeric code, an unvarying
pulse that denotes a course or channel mid-point (as in the
case of airport electronic devices), or energy in pulse forms
that denote location, or provides data from which locations
can be ascertained (for example, long-range oceanic navi-
gation forms); some airport markings also include sound
messages as well.
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***
This segment of Chapter 5 displays a perhaps curious
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179
INDEXES
General Index
180
Acoustical Processes,
Primer, 105-109
Defined, 105
Described, 105-106
Dimensions, 108-109
Phases, 105-106
Sound Processes, 106
Approaches, 106
Energy Transfer Model,
106-108
Impediments to Sound
Transmissions, 108
Frequency Spectrum, 109
Sound Pitch, Intensity,
Quality, 108, 109
Acoustical Signal Processes
& Messages, 10, 109-117
Vibrating Processes, 110-
111
General Sources &
Types,
110-114 (Siren, Reed
Horns, Whistles,
Diaphones, Dia-
phragms, Explosives,
Bells, Gongs, Sub-
marine Systems,
Audible Pedestrian
Signals)
Electro-Mechanical,
Devices, Described,
114-115
Acoustic Messages &
Impediments,
Message Categories,
115
Characteristics, 115,
116
Impediments, 116,
117
Signal Range, 116-
117
Aero Nav Aids, 13, 14, 15,
20,22,37,42,45,47,
49,61,62,63,68,69,
70,71,72,74,76,83,
84,87,88,94,95,96,
99,100,101,102,
104, 143, 146, 149,
158,159, 161, 162
Classification/Taxonomy,
2, 11, 12, 13, 15,23,24,
26,31,32,33,36,41,42,
43,44,45,46,47,49,52,
95, 96,
Nomenclature, 44, 45,
46,47
Color, 53,
Defined, 57
Introduction & Relation to
Light, 53
Primary Colors, 57, 58,
59,60
Processes of Vision &
181 Color, 58, 59
Research, 65, 66
Psychology of Colors,
60,65,67
Science of Colors, 59, 60
Theory, 58, 59
Usage, 53,61,64,67,
68
Historical Usage, 64,
65
Use of Specific Colors,
68-72
See Specific Colors
Color Messages, Historical
Developments, 72, 76
Before 1850, 72-76
1850-1900, 76-81
1900-1925,81-85
1925-, 85-88
Colors: Specific Hues
Amber, 72, 85
Aviation Variable White,
88
Black, 20, 58,60, 72,75
Blue, 57, 58, 59, 60,66,
67, 71, 72, 74, 78, 79,
82,86,87
Blue-Green, 59
Blue White, 71
Brown, 72, 86
"Daylight", 62
Gray, 58
Lunar-White, 67, 71, 82
"Natural Light", 73
Orange, 57, 58,67,
72, 78, 79, 86
182
Purple, 66, 67, 72, 79
Sunlight", 62
Uncolored Light, 73
Variable Source White,
71
Violet, 57, 58, 72, 78
Yellow, 57, 58, 59, 60,
64,67,68,70,71,72,
77,79,82,84,85,86
White, 19, 20,58, 60,
62,68,70,71,73,74,
75,76,77,81,82,84,
85, 88,
Channel (Ho1on), 48
Communications, 16, 18,
19,22,23,24,31,32,
33,49,50,51,91,92,
106, 154
Chain, 39
Model, 23, 32, 33,38,
39,40,41
Physical Communication,
32
Theory, 32, 39, 40
Design, 10, 11,
Primer on Design, 119-
137
Introduction, 118-119
Dimensions - T-M, 138,
139
Elements & Principles of
Design (Elements: Line,
Value, Color, Shape &
Form, Texture, Space;
Principles: Balance,
Rythm, Emphasis,
Unity, Movement,
Context), 124-125
History of Design,
Introduction, 127, 128,
Design & Culture
Victorian, 127, 128,
129,130
Late 19th/Early 20~h
Centuries Art Deco,
128, 130, 131, 132
Art Moderne, 131
Art Noveau, 128, 130,
131, 132
Bauhaus, 130, 131, 133
Modernist, 132
Streamline Modern, 132
Post- World War II,
132-137
Characterisitics &
Described, 132-133
Cultural Icons, 135-
136
Functionalism &
Minima1ism & Ultra-
Minimalism, 133-
134
Special Topics, 133-
137 (Clothing [Blue
Jeans, Exercisewear,
Secondskin,
Swimwear];
Materials [Lycra
Spandex; Plastics];
Computer Tec1mo-
183
logy)
Primer on Design, 119-127
Terms, 119-124
See Also: Culture, Design,
Fashion, Functionism,
Form, Style, Minimalism,
Minimal Art,
Design & Culture, 126-127
Universal character, 162
Design & Internal Require-
ments ofT-M,
Withiness ofT-M &
Design, 146-147
Marine, 147-148
Railway, 148
Road, 148
Aero, 149
Design & Impact of Route-
ways on Design (Precise
Routeway Limits and
Flexible Limits),
145-146,
Design and Sci-Tech
Impact on T-M Design,
19th century (Iron,
Fresnel, Lens, Glass,
Automation),
141-143
20th century (Elec-
tronics, Metalurgical
changes, Plastics),
143-144
Electronic Processes, 10, 89-
94
INDEXES
General Index
-
Frequency Spectrum, 90-
91
Primer, 89-94
Electromagnetic Radi-
ation & Waves, 89-91
. I)Waves: GeneratIOn, ropa-
gation & Reception,
91-94
Signal Configuration &
Receivers, 94-96
Electronic T-M Forms,
Multi-station with single
message, 96-100
Multi-station with multiple
messages, 100-102
Single station,
Specific types: Consol,
Sonne, Consolan, Decca,
Loran-A, Loran-C,
Omega, Toran, 96-99;
Transit, Lorsat, Starfix,
Cicada, GPS, DGPS,
99-100; ILS, MLS,
Localizer, Glide Slope,
Marker Beacons, 100-
102; Racon, Ramark,
Radiobeacons, NDB,
102-103; DME,
TACAN, VOR,
VORTAC,103-104
Green, 19,35,36,37,57,
58,59,60,64,65,67,
68,69,70,71,74,76,
77,78,79,81,82,84,
184
85,86
Holarchy, 11, 19, 24, 31,
32,33,42,43,47,48,
49, 52,
Holons, 19,23,24,43,
47,48, 49,52
Light, 10, 11, 53
Defined, 57
Spectrum, 109
Theories, 53, 54, 55, 56,
57
Particle Theory, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57,
Wave Theory, 53, 54,
55,56,57
Light Phase Characteristics,
62,74,75,79,82,83,87
(Composite Group Flash-
ing, Fixed, Flashing,
Group-flashing, Isophase
[Equal-Interval], Morse
Revolving, Oscillating,
Occulting, Quick-Flash-
ing)
Light Sources, 61
Discharge, 61, 62 (Strobe
Capacitor-Discharge,
Condenser-Discharge,
Xenon Light)
Flourescent, 63
Halogen, 61, 62
Incandescent, 61, 62, 63
LEDs, 61, 63
..
i
•!
--
I
--
..
Acoustical Processes,
Primer, 105-109
Defined, 105
Described, 105-106
Dimensions, 108-109
Phases, 105-106
Sound Processes, 106
Approaches, 106
Energy Transfer Model,
106-108
Impediments to Sound
Transmissions, 108
Frequency Spectrum, 109
Sound Pitch, Intensity,
Quality, 108, 109
Acoustical Signal Processes
&Messages, 10, 109-117
Vibrating Processes, 110-
111
General Sources &
Types,
110-114 (Siren, Reed
Horns, Whistles,
Diaphones, Dia-
phragms, Explosives,
Bells, Gongs, Sub-
marine Systems,
Audible Pedestrian
Signals)
Electro-Mechanical,
Devices, Described,
114-115
Acoustic Messages &
Impediments,
Message Categories,
115
Characteristics, 115,
116
Impediments, 116,
117
Signal Range, 116-
117
Aero Nav Aids, 13, 14, 15,
20,22,37,42,45,47,
49,61,62,63,68,69,
70,71,72,74,76,83,
84,87,88,94,95,96,
99, 100, 101,102,
104,143, 146, 149,
158, 159, 161, 162
Classification/Taxonomy,
2,11,12,13,15,23,24,
26,31,32,33,36,41,42,
43,44,45,46,47,49,52,
95,96,
Nomenclature, 44,45,
46,47
Color, 53,
Defined, 57
Introduction & Relation to
Light, 53
Primary Colors, 57, 58,
59,60
Processes of Vision &
181 Color, 58, 59
Research, 65, 66
Psychology of Colors,
60,65,67
Science of Colors, 59, 60
Theory, 58, 59
Usage, 53, 61,64, 67,
68
Historical Usage, 64,
65
Use of Specific Colors,
68-72
See Specific Colors
Color Messages, Historical
Developments, 72, 76
Before 1850, 72-76
1850-1900, 76-81
1900-1925, 81-85
1925-, 85-88
Colors: Specific Hues
Amber, 72, 85
Aviation Variable White,
88
Black, 20, 58,60, 72, 75
Blue, 57, 58, 59,60,66,
67, 71, 72, 74, 78, 79,
82,86,87
Blue-Green, 59
Blue White, 71
Brown, 72, 86
"Daylight", 62
Gray, 58
Lunar-White, 67, 71, 82
"Natural Light", 73
Orange, 57, 58,67,
72, 78, 79, 86
182
Purple, 66, 67, 72, 79
Sunlight", 62
Uncolored Light, 73
Variable Source White,
71
Violet, 57, 58, 72, 78
Yellow, 57, 58, 59, 60,
64,67,68,70,71,72,
77,79,82,84,85,86
White, 19,20,58,60,
62,68,70,71,73,74,
75, 76, 77, 81,82,84,
85, 88,
Channel (Holon), 48
Communications, 16, 18,
19,22,23,24,31,32,
33,49,50,51, 91,92,
106, 154
Chain, 39
Model, 23, 32, 33, 38,
39,40,41
Physical Communication,
32
Theory, 32, 39, 40
Design, 10, 11,
Primer on Design, 119-
137
Introduction, 118-119
Dimensions - T-M, 138,
139
Elements & Principles of
Design (Elements: Line,
Value, Color, Shape &
Form, Texture, Space;
Principles: Balance,
...
Mercury, 63
Metal Halide, 61, 62, 63
Neon, 63
Historic Sources, 73, 76,
83
Marine A/Ns, 12, 13, 15,
16,17,19,20,22,34,
35,36,37,38,39,40,
45,46,49,69,70,71,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79,
82, 83, 86, 87, 105,
109,110, Ill, 112, 113,
115,117,126,138,
140, 142, 143, 146,
147, 148, 150, 151,
155, 157, 158, 159,
160, 161, 162
Messages, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37,38,39,40,44,45,
65
Messages & Design,
Introduction, 157, 158
Terms, 158
Graphic, Geometric,
& Alphanumeric,
158-159
Visual, Acoustical,
Electronic, 160-162
Physics of Light, 54, 55, 57
Railway Signals, 12, 13, 14,
15,20,22,35,37, 42,
45,47,70,71,72,73,
76,7~ 78,7~ 81, 82,
86,105,113,114,116,
185
138, 139, 140,141. 145,
148, 151, 153, 154, 155,
157, 160
Red, 20, 34,36, 57, 58, 59,
60,64,65,67,68,69,
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75,
76,77,78,79,81,82,
84,85,88
Semiology, 23, 25,50
Semiosis, 34,35
Semiotics, 10, 12, 16, 18,
22,23,24,26,31,32,
33,34,35,36,39,41,
42,47,49,50,51,
114, 127,
Code, 34, 35, 50
Components, 34
Defined, 34
Semiotic Sign, 42
Semiotics of the Object,
32,33,39,40,41,42
Connotation, 41
Coordinates, 42
Signification, 34, 35
Symbols, 9, 20, 22, 28, 29,
30, 31, 39,41, 51, 75, 77
TCDs, 12, 13, 14,20,22,
36,37,38,42,45,46,
4~6~ 71, 72,73,75,
80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 105,
113,114,115,116,145,
146, 148, 156,
157, 158, 159
T-M As a Reflection of
Culture, 151-156
Historical background,
151-154
Victorian, 152
Minimalism & Form,
152
Railroad Signals, 153-
154
T-M & Reflection of Times,
154-157
T-M & Design & Culture
See Design & Culture
186
NAMES
i Personal Names
Abbot, 135
Albers, 105, 108
Adamson, 74, 83
Appleyard, 90, 93, 94
Ballinger, 124, 125
Barnouw,51
Barthes, 32, 33, 39, 4_0, 4J_,
42
Bauer, 51
Bell, 109
Berger, 23, 25, 35, 50, 136
Birren, 59, 60,66, 67
Black,84
Bloembergen, 54, 56, 58
Blonsky,34
Bohr,57
Bowditch, 111
Breckenridge, 71, 87, 88
Brill, 54, 55
Brooks, 62
Brown, 121, 126
Brubach, 121, 126, 127
Bruner, 83, 84
Chedd, 107
Churchill, 82
Conway, 83
187
Culow,59
Cutler, 58, 96, 98, 99
Daly, 57
Dana,23,25,44, 45,52
Danger, 57, 58
Davson,58
Derville, 130
Ditchbum, 53, 54, 56
Dixon & Multheius, 129,
130
Dodington, 91, 95, 104
Dormer, 122
Douglas, 87
Douglas-Young, 92, 94,
100
Dreyfuss, 51, 64
Dyett, 134
Eco,50
Edison, 61
Einstein, 55
Everest, 105, 109
Fay, 113
Ferebee, 123, 127, 128,
129, 130
Field, 91,101,102
Fresnel, 76, 142
Fritsch, 56, 57
Fulford, 135
Gaines, 25, 52
Gerrish, 91, 92
Naish, 65,
Newton, 54
...
•
•
.,.
Giancoli, 106, 107, 108,
109
Gibbs, 83, 126, 127
Gibilisco, 91, 92
Graham, 90
Grillo, 162
Gropius, 131
Guiraud, 23, 25, 34, 35, 50
Hartridge, 58
Helmholtz, 60
Herring, 59, 60
Hertz, 54, 90,91, 107
Hervey, 34
Hibbs, 21
Hillier, 131
Hobbs, 100
Hofler, 59
Holland, 84
Hom, 93
Ionesco,41
Janus, 24,49
Kaufman, 62
Kayton, 51
Keeler, 63
Kelly, 137
Kennedy, 103
Killigrew, 81
Kim, 26, 50
Kloos, 114
Kluckholm, 122
Knowles, 75
188
•
Koestler, 24, 25, 33,41,42, •
47,48,49,52
Knowles, 75
Kollo,131
Krampen,51
Kroeber, 122
Kuemmel, 114
Lampugnani, 130, 131
Lauer, 120
Laughton, 61
Lawson, 119
Leeds-Hurwitz, 26, 35, 50
Lindsey, 62, 106
Lipsner,83
McGee, 122
McIllany, 123, 133, 134
Malcom, 120, 124, 125, 128
Maloney, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99,
103,105,111
Marcus, 123
Markus, 98, 99
Maxwell, 53, 55
Michl, 123, 125, 135
Modley, 51,158
Mooney, 55
Morris, 34
Mueller, 81, 84, 86
Munsell, 60, 65, 66
Murdoch, 53, 54, 51, 58
Muschamp, 121, 122
Noth, 23, 25, 33, 34, 35,
39,40,
50
Oakley, 9
O'Dea, 2, 31, 65, 83
Oliver, 114
Ostwald, 59, 60, 65, 55, 56
Palache, 23, 25, 44, 52
Parsons, 155
Pile, 130, 131
Planck, 54, 55
Putnam, 79, 80, 83, 113,
116
Raffoul, 91, 92, 93,
Reisch, 137
Renton, 111
Robinson, 91, 99, 100,
101, 104
Saint Holouen, 74
S & S: Samuelson &
Stoops, 119, 124, 125,
129,131,133
S & W: Shannon &
Weaver, 23,39,51
Sartres,41
Schapiro, 121
Scripture, 81, 82
Sebeok, 34, 50, 51
Seymour-Smith, 122
Stevenson, 73, 74, 75, 140
SIess, 34
189
Swan, 61
Taylor, 135
Toulmin,48
Trebay,136
Truax, 106
Victoria Regina, 130
Visser, 134
Walker, 120, 121, 122,
132, 133
Ward, 123, 124
Weiss, 83
Yarwood, 129
Yelavich, 31
Zimney, 132
190
MMAH: Montreal
Museum of Archaeology
& History, 135
Morse, 87
Mount Angel, 21
Ontario, 145
Oregon, 9, 114
Oregon Coast, 19
Pacific Coast, 20, 110
Paris, 84, 130
Pharos Marine, 111, 112, 155
Point Arguello, 126
Portland, 114
Puget-Cowlitz Lowland, 20
Nagoya Electric Works,
114
Neskowin, 21
New Hampshire, 74
New Zealand, 141
North America, 177
North Coast, 21
North Head, 19
Northern Pacific, 20
Queen's University, 145
Railway Signal Association,
82
Richmond, VA., 84
Rocky Point, 20
Saint Botolph's, 75
191
Latin America, 141
Lee, 136
Levi's, 136
Library of Congress, 15,
16
Liverpool, 76
Liverpool & Manchester
Railway, 75
London, 80
Longview, 29, 31
Kelso, 20, 29
King's Cross Station, 129
Japan, 77
Humboldt Bay, 155
Humboldt County, 9, 21
IALA, 14, 16, 79, 87, 99,
111, 112, 113, 157
ICAO, 63, 71,
IES, 87
IHB,16
Inchcape, 73
India, 140
McKinleyville, 21
Marylhurst, 9
Max Planck Institute, 56
Middle Ages, 75
Milk Ranch, 21
Detroit, 84, 85
DMA, 113
Dupont, 137
Eastern Hemisphere, 65,
70
Edwardian, 142, 153
1841 Conference, 77
England, English, 21, 73,
74,83, 132, 140, 141
Eureka, 21, 155
Europe, European, 63, 77, 82,
87, 140, 141
FAA, 88
Flamborough Head, 73
France/French, 74,83, 140
Garibaldi, 19
German/Germanic/
. Germany, 83,96, 141
ii Corporate/PoliticaliGroup/Geographical Names
Central European, 141
Chance, 140
Chappe Brothers, 77
Chehalis, 20
China, 112
CICGT,145
Civil War, 75
Clam Beach, 21
Cleveland, 85
Columbia River, 19
Corning Glass Works, 81,
82
Crystal Palace, 129
ADB, 62, 63
Africa, 141
AGA,155
Alki Point, 19
Americas, American, 9,
66, 141
American Railway
Association, 78
Apple, 135
Arcata, 21
Army-Navy-Civil
Committee, 87
Asia, 141
Australia, 114, 140, 141
Automatic Power, 111
Bauhaus, 128, 131
Bell Rock, 73,
Boston, UK, 75
Britain/British, 21, 112,
131, 140
British Columbia, 140
British Isles, 77
CAA, 88
California, 21, 155
Cape Disappointment, 19,
20
Cape Kiwandi, 20
Cape Lookout, 20
Carmanah, 61, 63
Cegelec,63
r
Saint Petersburgs, 82
San Francisco, 85
Scotland, 73, 150
Sea-Tac,20
Skini1ondon.com, 137
The Smalls, 74
South Africa, 140, 141
Soviet, 97, 99
Stella, 19
Summer Olympics, 123
Swiss Federal Railways,
67, 72
3M, 86
Thorne Europhane, 63
Tillamook Bay, 19
Tillamook County, 20
Tillamook Rock, 19
Trebay, 136
University of Central
England, 21
University Press of
America, 10
UK, 74, 81, 96, 111, 135
US, 9, 21, 25, 43, 46,60,
74,75,76,77,79,81,
82,86,87,97,102,
110, 140, 141, 155,
156,163,
US Army, 83
USCG, 63, 79, 111, 112,
113, 115, 117, 155
USLHS, 83, 110
USSR, 97
Vader, 20
Victorian, 118, 126, 127,
128, 130, 132, 140, 142,
150,152,153
Washington State, 29, 155
West Coast, 126
West Indies, 140
Western Hemisphere, 70
Westinghouse Brake &
Signal (WBS), 113, 114,
116
Whitby, 75
Willapa Bay, 155
World Wars, 128
World War I, 83, 130
World War II, 85, 96,
128, 132, 133, 136, 137
World Wide Web, 16,
17, 136
Yale University, 82
Ye1avich, 31
Yorkshire, 75
192