A STUDY OF THE BOSEONG RIVER VALLEY CULTURE by GYONGTAEK KIM A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Anthropology and the Graduate School ofthe University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2002 "A Study of the Boseong River Valley Culture" a dissertation prepared by Gyongtaek Kim in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor ofPhilosophy degree in the Department of Anthropology. The dissertation has been approved and accepted by: Date 121 o;)- I :2-oo :2 I Committee in charge: Dr. C Melvin Aikens, Chair Dr. Song Nai Rhee Dr. William Ayres Dr. Hao Wang Accepted by: Dean of the Graduate School 11 L 111 An Abstract of the Dissertation of Gyongtaek Kim for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology to be taken Title: A STUDY OF THE BOSEONG RIVER VALLEY CULTURE December 2002 Approved: _ '- ­ Dr. C. Melvin Aikens This dissertation explores the development of sociopolitical complexity in southwest Korea's Boseong River Valley. One of the main archaeological tasks currently being pur$ued in Korea is charting the emergence of complex society there. This dissertation comprehensively reviews the issues and history of research on the subject, then embarks on an analysis of the trajectory towards complexity in a selected region of southwest Korea. A large scale archaeological project in the Boseong River Valley during the 1980s rescued a huge corpus of data threatened by the construction of the Juam Dam project, which has remained undigested, never sufficiently organized or analyzed. I draw on this corpus, organizing and analyzing the data it yields on burial practices and settlement distribution, because these categories of information are particularly useful in examining key research issues. The burial excavations were of unprecedented scope, with 381 dolmen graves identified and investigated in 23 locations. Many dolmens have been observed and r iv investigated in Korea, but an excavation sample of this size is unique and presents a rare analytical opportunity. A quantitative analysis ofburial furnishings from these dolmens identifies five categories that reflect differing social statuses. Charting the distribution of such burials within the region allows the mapping of zones differentially occupied by persons of varying social status, and the places on the landscape where elite personages were situated. Comparing these patterns with the occurrence of large and small settlements strengthens a picture of a class-differentiated society within the region. Based on this analysis, I conclude that the dolmen period society of the Boseong River Valley had advanced to an intermediate level of sociopolitical complexity. In conclusion, the archaeological evidence is discussed with reference to historical events in the region, as these are known from ancient Chinese and Korean chronicles, to propose an interpretation of the growth of cultural development in the Boseong River Valley in relation to broader developments in southern Korea. CURRICULUM VITA NAME OF AUTHOR: Gyongtaek Kim PLACE OF BIRTH: Seoul, Korea DATE OF BIRTH: August 29, 1 964 GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon Seoul National University DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor ofPhilosophy in Anthropology, 2002, University of Oregon Master of Arts in Anthropology, 1 994, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts in Archaeology and Art History, 1 990, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Complex Society Quantitative Analysis PUBLICATIONS: Kim, G. T. 1 995 A Critical Review on Korean Archaeological and Historical Literature on Socio-political Development in Ancient Korea. Journal of Korean Ancient Historical Society 1 8: 23-65. Choi, M. L. and G. T. Kim v 1 999 Theoretical Background in the Study of the Korean Dolmen Society, In A Comprehensive Study of the Korean Dolmen: Distribution, Type, Origin, Diffusion and Social Reconstruction, edited by M. L. Choi, C. G. Lee, Y. M. Lee, and S . J. Lee, pp. 349-370. Cultural Properties Preservation Bureau, Daejeon (in Korean). ... Vl ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express sincere appreciation to the members of my doctoral committee, Dr. C. M. Aikens (chair), Dr. S. N. Rhee, Dr. W. S. Ayres, and Dr. H. Wang. In particular, I cannot find an appropriate way to express thanks to my great adviser, Dr. Aikens, who always encouraged and supported me with understanding and love. I appreciate the professors who guided and taught me at the Seoul National University in Korea, Dr. H. J. Im, Dr. H. J. Ahn, and Dr. M. L. Choi. In particular, I owe a huge debt to my mentor, Dr. Choi, which I can never repay, since I became one of his students. I also appreciate the scholarship committee members, Dr. K. D. Bae and Dr. C. G. Han. Limited space does not allow me to express my appreciation to many people who have helped me, but I will express my sincere appreciation to them in person. I cannot forget Dr. B. W. Kang's help and encouragement in Eugene. Mrs. Iris Moye, at the American English Institute, and Dr. J. H. Koo, an economist of the U.S. Federal Bank, are two best friends who helped me during my stay in Eugene. I would like to give many thanks to all my family and relatives. I sincerely apologize to my wife, Jinkyung and beloved son, Wonsuk to make them await me in Korea for such a long time, and also appreciate my parents-in-laws to look after them in my absence. Finally, I sincerely appreciate my parents and generous uncle and aunt for supporting me such a long time with exceptional patience and love. vn This dissertation is dedicated to the greatest mother in the world, Mrs. Gyonghee Lee. l Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Working Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 II. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF KOREAN ARCHAEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 Beginning ofModem Archaeology in Korea . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 1 9 A Brief Sketch of Korean Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Periodization of Korean Archaeology . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 67 III. DISCUSSIONS ON THE EMERGENCE OF COMPLEX SOCIETY IN KOREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 69 Dominant Themes in the Study ofKorean Sociopolitical Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Discussions of Korean Sociopolitical Complexity before the 1 960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Discussions ofKorean Sociopolitical Complexity in the 1 970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Discussions of Korean Sociopolitical Complexity since the 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 90 Conclusion: Ancient Korean Society and the Growth of Sociopolitical Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 0 N. ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE BOSEONG RIVER VALLEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 13 New Field Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 4 Sites of Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 1 Sites of the Bronze Age and Iron Age I ........................... ......................... ...... 130 Sites of the Iron Age II (Proto Three Kingdoms Period) and Later Periods . . . . 248 Conclusion . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 -IX V. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSlON .................................. ..................................... 272 Introduction ... ................................................................. . ....... . . ......................... 272 Dolmens in Korea and in the Boseong River Valley ........... ............................. 276 Reflections of Commoner and Elite Status among Dolmen Burials ................. 284 Summary and Conclusion ..................................... .. . ....................................... ... 304 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 309 l l X LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Site Survey Results in the Boseong River Valley .................................................. 9 2. Dolmens Excavated in the Juam Dam Archaeological Project ............................ 10 3. Residential Features Investigated in the Juam Dam Submergence Area .............. 11 4. Excavated Archaeological Sites in the Submerged Area by the Juam Dam ........ 11 5. Traditional and New Chronologies of Korean Archaeology ................................ 24 6. Panchon-ri Dolmens ............................................................................................. 92 7. The First Field Campaign of the Juam Dam Project Executed in 1986 ............. 116 8. The Second Field Campaign of the Juam Dam Project Executed in 1987 ......... 117 9. The Third Field Campaign of the Juam Dam Project Executed in 1987 ........... .119 10. The Fourth Field Campaign of the Juam Dam Project Executed in 1988-89 ..... 120 11. Dolmens Excavated in the Juam Dam SubmergenceArea ................................. 133 12. Bokgyo Dolmens ................................................................................................ 137 13. Gosuwol Dolmens ..................................................................... : ........................ 139 14. Dolong Dolmens ................................................................................................. 141 15. Hansil Dolmens .................................................................. ................................ 143 16. Singi Dolmens at Daekwang-ri ........................................................................... l46 -L Table 17. 1 8. 19. 20. 2 1 . 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 3 1 . 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. XI Page Singi Dolmens at Deokchi-ri ..... . ..... .... . .......... ..... ...... ........ . .. ......... ...... ..... ... ....... 1 53 Juksan Dolmens .. ...... ...... ... .... ..... .. . ..... .. .......... ..... ........... .... ... .... .... .. ................. .. 1 55 Jangseon Dolmens . .... .. .. . . ....... .. ... .... . ...... .... . ...... .. ............ ............... .... . ............ . . . 1 58 Hajuk A Dolmens ........... . ....... .... ........... ...... ... .... .. .......... . ............... . . . .. ... ..... ... .... 161 Hajuk B Dolmens ...... .. ........ ... ..... . ....... . .......... ...... ... .... . ..... ..... .. . .......... .. ...... ....... 163 Hajuk C Dolmens ........ ... . . ........... .. .... ... ..... . . . . ........ ....... . . ... .. .. ............... ... . ...... . ... 171 Sinwol C Dolmens .. ...... ........ .. . . . .... ... ... .. .. ... ... .. . . .. ...... ......... ... .. . . . . . . .... .... ........ ..... 174 Sinwol D Dolmens .. .. . ... .. ....... ... ... . ... .. . .... . . .... ........ . .. .. .. .... ......... .. ............ ........ ... . 1 77 Sinwol H Dolmens . . . . ... . .... ......... . . .. ..... .... . ............... ... ..... ...................... ..... .... . . . .. 1 80 Daejeon Dolmens ... .. ..... ..... ... ............... . .. . ....... ..... ..... ... .. . ...... . . ......... .. .... . ..... ....... 1 83 Salehi A Dolmens ... ...... . . ...... ... ........... ....................... . ..... .................... ........ .... ... 1 86 Salehi B Dolmens .... . . . .. ...... . . ....... . . ..... ....... ..... .... ... ..... .... .... ........ ................. . ... . . . 1 88 Geumpyeong Dolmens ...... ............. .... ... .................. .......... ........... ....... ...... ......... 194 Gokcheon Dolmens .... ... . .... ....... ........ ............ .......... ..... . . ................... ...... ......... .. 1 97 Naeu Dolmens . .......... . .. ....... ...... . ....... . . .... . ....... ..... . ............. .... .... . ... .. ........ .......... 1 99 Size Distributions of Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Naeu Site .... ... ..... 202 Banwol Dolmens . ........... . .... ... .. .......... ..... . ............. ....... .. ..... .... ... . ............... ....... . 207 Sabi Dolmens ...................................................................................................... 2 1 0 Yueheon Dolmens .... ..... . ..... .................. ....... ..... .. ........ ... .. ......... ; . ... . . . . . . . . . . ..... , . . . . . 2 1 4 Dolmens and Dolmen Burial Chambers .. ............ ......... ............. ..... .. .................. 2 1 6 Pit Houses Reported in South Jeolla Province before the Juam Dam Project .... 219 l xii Table Page 38. Residential Features Identified in the Juam Dam Submergence Area ............... 221 39. Gokcheon Site Houses ........................................................................................ 223 40. Hajuk Site Houses at the Bokgyo Locality ......................................................... 231 41. Hansil Site Houses .............................................................................................. 235 42. Houses and Features Identified at the Dolong Site ............................................. 237 43. Dolong Site Houses ............................................................................................ 239 44. Dolong Site Small Features ................................................................................ 242 45. Hajuk Site Houses ............................................................................................... 251 46. Hansil Site Houses and a Storage Facility .......................................................... 255 47. Dolong Site Houses: Iron Age II ........................................................................ 261 48. Dolong Site Houses: Three Kingdoms Period .................................................... 264 49. Naksu Site Houses .............................................................................................. 270 50. Archaeological Features Investigated in the Juam Dam Project ....................... .273 51. Regional Dolmen Distribution in South Korea ................................................ 279 52. Regional Dolmen Distribution in Korea (1) .............................. ; ........................ 280 53. Regional Dolmen Distribution in Korea (2) ....................................................... 281 54. Artifacts from Dolmen Burial Chambers ........................................................... 286 55. Dolmen Burial Chambers and Artifacts (1) ........................................................ 287 56. Dolmen Burial Chambers and Artifacts (2) ............................... : ........................ 290 57. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Key Artifacts (1) ........................................ 291 58. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Key Artifacts (2) ........................................ 293 Xlll Table Page 59. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Multiple Kinds ofKey Artifacts ...... . . ........ 294 60. Quantity of Burial Chambers Yielding Artifacts ......... ......... .. . ........ ................... 296 6 1 . Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Key Artifacts .............................................. 298 62. Classification ofDolmen Burial Chambers ....................................................... .305 63. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Bronze or 3 Kinds of Key Artifacts ........... 306 l XIV LIST OF FIGURES B� p. 1 . Traditional Korean Provinces ................................................................................. 5 2. Major Rivers and Mountain Ranges in Korea ....... .................... ........ . ......... .. .. ..... . . 6 3 . Locations of Samhan and Other Polities .. ... ...... ... .......... ..... ...... ......... .. . ................. 7 4. Locations of Three Kingdoms and Kaya ............... . ............................ ...... ............. . 8 5. Archaeological Sites in the Juam Dam Submergence Area . ............ ..... ............... 1 3 6. Archaeological Sites in the Isacheon Dam Submergence Area ... ............. ...... ...... 14 7. Major Archaeological Sites in Korea ... .. ....... .... ... ........................... .. . .................. 25 8. Major Palaeolithic Sites in Korea .. ..... ... ... ....... .. . ... ..... .................. . .......... .... . .... .... 29 9. Stone Tools from the Seokjang-ri Paleolithic Site .. ... ... ......... ......... ............... ..... .30 1 0. Topographic Map of the Jeongok-ri (Chongongni) Site ........ .... ......... ... ...... ... ...... 3 1 1 1 . Stratigraphy of the Jeongok-ri Paleolithic Site and Stone Tools therein ........ ..... .32 12 . Major Neolithic Sites in Korea ..... ..... . . ........... ........... ....... ... ..... . ; .......................... 34 13. Examples of Yunggimun Pottery and Flat-based Pottery ....... ... .......................... .36 1 4. Temporal Change in the Surface Decoration of Jeulmun Pottery .. . ......... ..... . . .... . 37 15 Neolithic Burials Found at the Songpyeong-dong and Gyo-dong Sites .............. .38 16. Jeulmun Pottery and a Pit House at the Amsa-dong Site .... ... ... : .. . . ...................... 39 L XV Figure Page 1 7. Examples of a Grinding Stone Set and Composite Fishhooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 1 8. Examples ofDiverse Mumun Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 1 9. Major Bronze Age Sites in Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 20. Examples of the Liaoning Style Bronze Daggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 2 1 . Examples ofPolished Stone Axes, Adzes, and Semi-lunar Knives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 22. Examples ofthe Dolmen Types ............................................................................ 48 23 . The Songguk-ri Stone Cist and Burial Goods therein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 24. Rock Drawing at Daegok-ri and Yangjeon-dong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 25. Major Iron Age Sites in Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 26. Examples of the Korean Style Bronze Daggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 27. Examples ofthe Fine Linear Design Bronze Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 28. Examples of Bronze Implements for Ritual Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 29. Examples of Rolled rim Pottery and Long-neck Black Burnished Pottery . . . . . . . . . . 57 30. Locations of Wiman Choson and Other Early Polities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3 1 . Examples o f a Koguryo and a Baekje Stepped Stone Mound Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 32. Examples of Silla Wooden Chamber Tombs with Stone Mound in Gyeongju . . . . 6 1 33 . Locations ofMingdao Coin Sites and Examples of Early Chinese Coins . . . . . . . . . . . 63 34. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Panchon-ri Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 35 . Paired Dolmen Burial Chambers at Jinchon-dong and Chunghyo-dong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 36. Distribution of Semi-subterranean Houses at the Heunam-ri Village Site . . . . . . . . . . . 99 37. House No. 4 at the Heunam-ri Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 02 L XVI Figure Page 38. Lithic Specimens from the Geumpyeong and Juksan Paleolithic Sites . . . . . . .. . . . . .. l25 39. Lithic Specimens from the Gokcheon and Daejeon Paleolithic Sites . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 126 40. Jeulmun Pottery Sherds from the Hajuk Site ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . ... l29 4 1 . Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers a t the Bokgyo Site . . . . 135 42. Burial Chamber of Dolmen No. 7 with an Outside Stone Line and Artifacts from the Bokgyo Site ................................................................................ 136 43. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones at the Gosuwol Site . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 44. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Dolong Site . . . . 142 45 . Burial Chambers ofDolmen No. 1 and Dolmen No. 2 at the Hansil Site . . . . . . . . . . 144 46. Burial Chamber of Dolmen No. 3 at the Hansil Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 145 47. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Singi Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . 149 48. Distribution ofDolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Singi Site . . . . . . . . 1 5 1 49. Lithic and Bronze Implements at the Singi Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . ...... . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 52 50. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Juksan Site . . . . . 1 56 5 1 . Paleolithic Lithic Specimens from the Juksan Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 1 57 52. Distribution ofDolmen Capstones at the Jangseon Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 59 53 . Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at theHajuk A Site . . . 1 60 54. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Hajuk B Site . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 55. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Hajuk C Site . . . 1 66 56. Paired Burial Chambers of Dolmen No. 6 at the Hajuk C Site .. . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . .... . . . 167 57. Polished Stone Daggers from the Hajuk C Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .l68 58. Polished Stone Arrowheads from the Hajuk C Site . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l69 -L xvn Figure Page 59. Other Stone Implements from the Hajuk C Site . . . . . . ..... ........ . . . . . . . . . ... .. . .. . . ........... l 70 60. Distribution ofDolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Sinwol C Site . 1 75 6 1 . Distribution o f Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Sinwol D Site. I 78 62. Polished Stone Implements and Red Burnished Pottery at the Sinwol D Site ... 1 79 63. Distribution ofDolmen Capstones at the Sinwol H Site ....... . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . 1 8 1 64. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Daejeon Site . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . 1 84 65. Lithic Implements from the Daejeon Site . ... ......... ... ... .................. ............. ........ . ISS 66. Distribution ofDolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Salehi A Site . . 1 89 67. Distribution ofDolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Salehi B Site . . . l 90 68. Examples of Stone Pavements and Stone Implements and a Net-sinker Found at the Salehi B Site ...................................................................................... 191 69. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and a Paired Burial Chambers of Dolmen No. 7 at the Geumpyeong Site . . . . . . . . .............. . ....... . . . . . ... . ... . . . . . .......... . . ... . . .... l 93 70. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at Gokcheon Site . . ... . 195 7 1 . Burial Chambers ofDolmens No. 3-1 and 4-2 at the Gokcheon Site . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . l 96 72. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Naeu Site . . . . . . . . 203 73. Bronze Daggers and Jades from the Naeu Site . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . 204 74. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Paired Burial Chambers of Dolmens 6 and 7 at the Banwol Site . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . .. . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . .. . 206 75. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Sabi Site . . . . . . .. .208 76. Artifacts Recovered from the Sabi Site . . .. . ... . . . . .... . . . . ... . . .. . . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . ..... . . . . ... ...... 209 77. Location of the Yucheon Dolmen Site . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 2 12 78. Distribution ofDolmen Burial Chambers at the Yucheon Site . . .... ... ... . . . .. . ... . . . .. 2 13 XVlll Figure Page 79. House No. 1 and Stone Implements therein at the Gokcheon Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 80. Houses No. 2 and No. 3 from the Gokcheon Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 226 8 1 . Locations of the Hajuk Site and Neighboring Sites . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 228 82. House No. 1 and Artifacts therein at the Bokgyo Locality of the Hajuk Site . . . . 229 83. House No. 2 and Artifacts therein at the Bokgyo Locality ofthe Hajuk Site . . . . 230 84. Locations of the Hansil and Do long Sites and Local Geography of the Hansil Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 85. Local Geography of the Dolong Site and the Distribution of the Residential Features ........ .............................................................................................. 245 86. Examples of Pit Houses at the Do long Site . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 246 87. A Mumun Pottery Kiln and Artifacts therein at the Dolong Site . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 247 88. House J 1 and Artifacts therein at the Hajuk Site . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 89. Feature C4 and Artifacts therein at the Hansil Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 90. Pottery from the Hansil Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 9 1 . Pottery from the Iron Age II Houses at the Do long Site . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 258 92. An Iron Age II Kiln and Artifacts therein at the Do long Site . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . 259 93 . A Mumun Pottery Period House & an Iron Age II Feature . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 94. Distribution of Semi-subterranean Houses Uncovered at the Naksu site and Their House Floor Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 95. Houses No. 1 1 with Inside Storage Pit and No. 4 with Drainage . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 96. House No. 9 with an Auxiliary Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 97. A Virtual Reconstruction of a Naksu House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 98. Known Distribution of Dolmens in Korea . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 XIX Figure Page 99. Excavated Dolmen Sites in South Jeolla Province ............................................. 278 F 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Research The primary purpose of this research is to investigate certain developmental processes of sociopolitical complexity in ancient Korea. This research is mostly based on archaeological data from the area submerged by the Juam Dam in the Boseong River Valley, South Jeolla Province (Figures 1 and 2). In particular, 38 1 dolmen burials at 23 locations investigated in the same region were selected as the main archaeological data to be analyzed in detail for interpretation and inference. In the middle of 1 980s, a large scale archaeological project in the Boseong River Valley accompanied a multipurpose dam construction project. In total, four field campaigns over a four year period (1 986-1989) provided a large corpus of archaeological data previously unavailable. Thanks to the new archaeological data, it became possible to reconstruct archaeological culture of the Boseong River Valley where available archaeological information had been extremely limited not to allow comparative research r with other regions. M. L. Choi (1 9S4) carried out an extensive regional study on the Yeongsan River Valley in South Jeolla Province focused on the growth of sociopolitical complexity in the region. This dissertation is another attempt to explore developmental processes of sociopolitical complexity in SouthJeolla Province, specifically in the Boseong River Valley with archaeological data from the submergence area by the Juam Dam submergence area. In total, four field campaigns over a four year period ( 1 986-1 989) provided a large corpus of new archaeological data. Thanks to the new data, it became possible to reconstruct the archaeological culture of the Boseong River Valley, where available 2 archaeological information had previously been too limited to allow comparative research with other regions. M. L. Choi ( 1984) carried out an extensive regional study on the Yeongsan River Valley in South Jeolla Province focused on the growth of sociopolitical complexity in the region. This dissertation is an attempt to explore developmental processes of sociopolitical complexity in another part of South Jeolla Province, specifically in the Boseong River Valley, with archaeological data from the Juam Dam submergence area. As a preliminary step in this research, I reviewed and synthesized Korean archaeological and historical literature on the sociopolitical development of ancient Korea ( G. T. Kim 1 995, 1 997; M. L. Choi and G. T. Kim 1 999). The issues addressed previously have been developed in greater breadth and depth and with some revisions in Chapter III of this dissertation. Briefly, the Sindonga Symposium in 1 97 1 prompted scholarly discussion on the emergence of the state in ancient Korea. Thereafter, there 3 were various attempts to apply anthropological models and theories to ancient Korea, in particular, the neoevolutionary developmental model proposed by E. R. Service (1 962, 1 975). However, Korean historians were reluctant to accept the capability of anthropological models and theories to deal with the Korean situation. In particular, anthropologist G. S. Jeon's harsh criticism of careless applications of evolutionary models to ancient Korea strengthened the historians' anti-anthropological tendency (G. S. Jeon 1 988, 1990). Regardless of the historians' objections, however, use ofthe term "chiefdom society" to characterize an intermediate form of complex society in Korea became more popular, and reached the public in a newly revised official high school history textbook. Today, archaeologists do not hesitate to characterize Korean Bronze Age or Iron Age sites as the remains of chiefdom societies. In this study, a large corpus of archaeological data from southwest Korea's Boseong River Valley, in South J eolla Province, is used to address the question of early sociopolitical development, especially as it may be illuminated through the analysis of dolmen burials and associated artifacts found there. Mostly based on accounts of the Japanese historical document, Nihon Shoki, there was an opinion in the Korean historical circle that South Jeolla Province had been the territory of Mahan, one ofthe traditionally known Samhan (Three Han) political groups, until it was brought into the sphere of Baekje in 369 A.D. by King Geunchogo (B. D. Yi 1 976). However, the idea, mostly based on controversial historical records, has been considered highly speculative with little archaeological and historical evidence brought to bear in its support. Based on available archaeological data and my previous research, I propose that South Jeolla Province followed its own developmental trajectory for a long time during the Samhan Period, and only belatedly came under the control of the Baekje Kingdom when local socioeconomic and sociopolitical growth was outstripped by developments in other regions (Figures 3 and 4). 4 A unique burial tradition in the Y eongsan River Valley, including a number of ancient tombs in the Bannam-myeon area and the appearance of Baekje style stone chamber tombs in the Y eongsan River Valley, show that the area was indeed incorporated into the Baekje Kingdom, one of the famed Three Kingdoms. This probably occurred after the late 5th century and more likely the middle of the 6th century A.D. But preceding that incorporation the region had its own historical development, which was leading it in the direction of increasingly complex society in a process that grew out of its own settings and local interactions (M. L. Choi 1986c; S. N. Rhee 1 998, 2002). South Jeolla Province, selected for my research, is quite an appropriate region to study the local development of sociopolitical complexity in ancient Korea as has been quite well illustrated in M. L. Choi's work on the Yeongsan River Valley Culture ( 1984). Compared to other regions, the remote location of South Jeolla Province, in the southwesternmost part of the Korean peninsula, has protected numerous archaeological sites from the devastation caused by industrial construction carried out in modern industrialized Korea. 124° 34° Yellow Sea IZ6" .· G 126° l!l--.. -·- ·" ..... "· North j Homgyong \ Sea of Japan 34° 50 0 50 100 k ... lliiilliiil� I 128" 130-0 Figure L Traditional Korean Provinces (Nelson, S. M. 1 993: lS). 5 Yellow Sea 0 IOOkrn ·. 126° • • (J I:ZSO South Sea no• Eastern Sea 42" 0 Figure 2. Major Rivers and Mountain Ranges in Korea (S. 0. Kim. 1 996: 67). 6 7 Figure 3 . Locations ofSamhan and other Polities (G. B. Lee 1984: 25). 8 Figure 4. Locations ofThree Kingdoms and Kaya (G. B. Lee 1984: 39). 9 Table 1 . Site Survey Results in the Boseong River Valley (Choi and Lee 1 985). County (Kun) Township (Myeon) QODR QODS LOSA Burial Seungju Songkwang 338 338 5 0 Seungju Ssangam 197 69 0 0 Seungju San gsa 9 0 0 0 Boseong Mundeok 201 148 0 0 Boseong Bognae 229 122 3 Boseong Yuleo 285 18 0 Boseong Kyeombaek 82 4 0 0 Hwasun Nam 141 81 0 Total 1589 792 11 LOSA: Loci of scattered artifacts, QOD: Quantity of dolmens, R: Reported, S: to b e submerged. In this region, an extensive archaeological data base became available for study after a multipurpose dam construction project (Juam Dam) was established in 1 984 in the Boseong River Valley. A huge area was to be submerged, and a large-scale site survey was executed to identify and locate cultural relics in the submergence area (Table 1 ). Based on the site survey results (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985), a field campaign plan was designed to investigate and record cultural relics which would be lost beneath the reservoir waters. Field campaigns executed for four times over a four-year period ( 1986- 1989) uncovered enormous amounts of archaeological features including almost 200 semi-subterranean houses as well as storage pits, workshops, kilns, and 3 8 1 dolmens at 23 locations along with four Paleolithic locations (Figures 5 and 6). 1 0 The majority of archaeological features identified and investigated in the Juam Dam submergence area are mostly dated to the Mumun Pottery Period and Iron Age II, including the dolmens (Table 2) and semi-subterranean houses and related facilities (Table 3). As shown in Table 3, however, some residential features were dated to the Three Kingdoms Period. In addition, Upper Paleolithic or Mesolithic sites, which had not been expected in this archaeological project, were identified and investigated in four locations: Juksan at Deoksan-ri, Geumpyeong at Sinpyeong-ri and Gokcheon at Usan-ri both in Seungju County, and Daejeon at Sasu-ri, Hwasun County. Table 2. Dolmens Excavated in the Juam Dam Archaeological Project. County QODS QODE QODB REFERENCES Seungju 211 222 175 Jeonnam University Museum 1987, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c Boseong 113 126 106 Jeonnam University Museum 1988b, 1988c Hwasun 46 33 26 Jeonnam University Museum 1988c Total 370 381 307 Jeonnam University Museum 1987, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c QOD: Quantity of dolmens, S: Reported in the site survey, E: Excavated, B: Burial chambers. The Juam archaeological project was the most significant incident in the history of South Jeolla Province archaeology in terms of its scale and outcome (Table 4). · Because of its huge scale, however, and because of the unremitting pressure on the r I 1 1 Korean archaeological profession to rescue field data from destruction in the path of industrial growth, the data obtained by this monumental project have been accorded only limited descriptive study, with analytical and interpretive study put off for the future. The objective of my study is to more fully analyze and interpret a major set of the Boseong River Valley data, with a view to better understanding the local evolution of sociopolitical complexity in ancient Korea. Table 3. Residential Features Investigated in the Juam Dam Submergence Area. Sites Houses Features. Sum Reference Do long 155 53 208 Choi et aL 1 989, 1 990; Seo and Seong 1989 2 Hansil 1 2 1 3 Seo and Seong 1989;. M . H . Lee e t aL 1990 3 Gokcheon 3 0 3 Y. J. Lee et al. 1 988a, 1 988b 4 Hajuk 9 0 9 Hwang and Shin 1 990; Son and Lee 1 990, Song et al 1990 5 Naksu 1 6 2 1 8 M. L . Choi et al. 1 989 Sum 195 56 25 1 Table 4. Excavated Archaeological Sites in the Juam Dam Submergence Area. Sites No. Archaeological Period Archaeological Feature Yucheon Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 2 Singi 1 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 3 Sinwol C 4 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 4 Sinwol D 5 Mumun Pottery Period Dohnen 12 5 Sinwol H 9 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 6 Geumpyeong 13 MPP/Paleolithic Dolmen/Deposit 7 Hansil 19 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 8 Do long 20 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 9 Juksan 22 MPP/Paleolithic Dolmen/Deposit 10 Gokcheon 24 MPP /Paleolithic Dolmen, house/Deposit 11 Naeu 25 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 12 Banwol 28 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 13 Sabi 29 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 14 Singi 30 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 15 Hajuk A 33/(j) Mumun Pottery Period llA Dolmen/House 16 Hajuk B 341® Mumun Pottery Period IIA Dolmen/House 17 Hajuk C 351® Mumun Pottery Period IIA Dolmen/House 18 Gosuwol 37 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 19 Salehi A 48 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 20 Salehi B 49 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 21 Bokgyo 102 Mumun Pottery Period House 22 Daejeon 104 MPP/Paleolithic Dolmen/Deposit 23 Jangseon 106 Mumun Pottery Period Dolmen 24 Naksu CD Iron Age II House 25 Hansil: @ MPP/IA!fKP House/House/House, storage 26 Do long ® MPPilA/TKP House, storage, kiln/House, storage, kiln/House No. is site number in the Figure 5 except for Yucheon site (site number in Figure 6). IA: Iron Age II, MPP: Mumun Pottery Period, TKP: Three Kingdoms Period. Hwasun County . . Boseong County . �- , ,,.,;__,_ . . :, � : . ·" ./" . •JT- 1 3 Seungju County i I el4 N Yucheon at Yupyeong-ri inSeungju ·-""· ·. " Figure 6 . Archaeological Sites in the Isaclieon Dain Submergence Area (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985: ii). . ·. ])_4 "'\· ·. 1 5 Working Hypothesis In preview, I believe the Juam Dam Project data quite well demonstrate that the phenomenon known in Korea as "dolmen society" had already reached quite an advanced level of sociopolitical complexity, both in the Boseong River Valley and elsewhere. Although we still lack sufficient archaeological evidence to reconstruct a detailed cultural history of the Boseong River Valley, the enormous amount of archaeological data of the Juam Dam project, covering multiple archaeological periods from the Paleolithic to the proto-historical period or even Three Kingdoms Period, helps to provide a sound baseline for a cultural history, and offers important insights into the development of sociopolitical complexity in southwestern Korea. Germane to the study of prehistoric sociocultural development is the role of a society's economic base, and as a working hypothesis it is posited here that prehistoric societies based on a sound subsistence economy could evolve into complex societies, but only to a certain point unless their natural environment allowed continued economic expansion commensurate with a growing population. Specifically, for prehistoric societies of an intermediate level of complexity to evolve into state-level societies, they would need an economic base strong enough to provide sufficient surplus with which to support a large number of emerging elite persons. Those societies which lacked such an economic base would stagnate or become absorbed into state-level societies emerging nearby (S. N. Rhee 1 998, 2002). 1 6 In prehistoric Korea, agriculture, specifically cereal production, was the primary base of economic wealth. In particular, in the beginning of the Iron Age I (or Former Iron Age), around 300 B.C., wet-rice or paddy rice cultivation became increasingly important in this regard (S. N. Rhee 2002). C. M. Aikens ( 198 1 : 261 -262) pointed out that increasing societal complexity creates a demand for expansion and control of the food supply, and that the development of an agricultural economy comes a response to this demand. His model could work in the case ofthe Boseong River Valley, which is the region to have the most amount of rainfall in the Korean Peninsula as much as 1 ,3 1 6.7 mm per year ( J. H. Song and Y. M. Lee 1 988 : 1 26). It would be no exaggeration to state that the last two thousand years of Korea's economic history, 'until the emergence of industrial economy in the twentieth century, was one of continual expansion of paddy fields for wet-rice cultivation. There is no even slight doubt that the element most essential to paddy rice cultivation is well-watered riverine plains. In relation to the Yeongsan River Valley, which lies to its west, the Boseong River Valley is much more mountainous and lacks wide riverine plains, unlike the Yeongsan River Valley (National Geography Institute 1 982: 495-499, 504-508). In terms of its natural environment, the Boseong River Valley is better suited for dry-land farming than wet-rice cultivation. Consequently, its agricultural potentials were limited, ultimately rendering sociopolitical development of the region stagnant, especially in relation to the nearby Yeongsan River Valley, where dolmen societies continued to successfully evolve into highly advanced state-level societies, as indicated in archaeological remains such as huge mound tombs identified at Bannam area, specifically 17 Sinchon-ri, Daean-ri, Deoksan-ri and Bog-am-ri, Naju (M. L. Choi 1 997; Seo and Seong 1 988; Institute of Cultural Properties 2001) . In Chapter II, I provide a brief outline of Korean archaeology to place the research of this dissertation in broad context for the reader. Chapter III provides a detailed account of Korean research into the problem of sociopolitical development from prehistoric into historic times, which identifies a number of critical research problems and issues. Chapter IV follows with a detailed compilation and ordering of the archaeological data uncovered by the Juam Dam project. The reported data have been selected for their relevance to understanding the implications of dolmen burial and related residential features for early sociopolitical development in Korea. In Chapter V, I conclude with a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the problems identified in the preceding discussions. Archaeologically, a prehistoric complex society may be reflected in certain material remains including "differentiated burials, large or monumental structures, valued goods, chiefly centers, intensive agriculture, and artifacts requiring craft specialization" (S. N. Rhee and M. L. Choi 1 992: 54). These inform of the presence of "organiz�d behavior, concentration of energy and wealth, and the existence of elite leaders within a community or a region" (S. N. Rhee and M. L. Choi 1 992: 54; also Peebles and Kus 1 977; Carneiro 1 98 1 ; Steponaitis 1 98 1 ). Accordingly, for the purpose of drawing inferences relative to prehistoric sociopolitical complexity of the Boseong River Valley, this research will focus mainly on monumental burials and status goods buried in them. 1 8 CHAPTER II A BRIEF OUTLINE OF KOREAN ARCHAEOLOGY According to available historical records, interest in the prehistoric culture can be traced back hundreds of years in Korea. Gyubo Lee, distinguished scholar and writer during the Koryo Dynasty (A.D. 9 18- 1 392), left a brief comment on dolmens located in the Guemma area in his daily journal as early as A.D. 1 200. A few intellectuals ofthe Choson Dynasty (A.D. 1 392- 19 10) were also interested in prehistoric artifacts and features, in particular dolmens and lithic implements, and acknowledged them as products of ancient people rather than products of nature (S. G. Choi 1 987: 747-748). In 1748, J. H. Jeong, the father of a local governor of Jinju in South Gyeongsang Province, excavated 6 ancient tombs to see if they were the lost tombs of his ancestors. His attempt may be regarded as the first problem-oriented archaeological field investigation in Korea (W. Y. Kim 1 98 1 : 22). Jeonghui Kim, distinguished epigrapher and artist during the later period of the Choson Dynasty, was the first Korean intellectual who had an archaeological perspective in a modern scholarly sense. As early as in the middle of the nineteenth century, he 19 fully appreciated prehistoric remnants· as products of ancient people. He identified a stone monument located on Mountain Bukhan, one of the four stone monuments erected by the Silla (57 B.C. � A.D. 992) King Jinheung (reigned A.D. 540 � 576) in the mid­ sixth century A.D., and deciphered the inscription. His two articles, Observations of Examining Two Stone Inscriptions and A Study on the Tomb of Sill a King Jinheung, are regarded as distinguished scholarly products even from today's viewpoint (S. B. Yi 1 988: 225-226; G. B. Lee 1 984: 256). Jeonghee Kim also dated a tile having an inscription of the Former Han Dynasty (206 B.C. � A.D. 7) in terms of calligraphic style, a typological standard. However, he did not try to provide a firm base to enhance archaeology as a modern academic discipline in Korea (S. B. Yi 1 988 : 226). Beginning of Modern Archaeology in Korea When western ideas and institutions began to be introduced into Korea in the end of the nineteenth century, Korean society was sociopolitically very unstable. On the other hand, Japan, which had begun to adopt a positive attitude toward acceptance of Western civilization since the Meiji Restoration ( 1868), already reached quite a level of modernization and industrialization. fu the end of the nineteenth century, Japan began to expand her political influence into the Korean peninsula. fu 1 9 1 0 Japan built a colonial government in Korea and administered Korea for thirty-five years ( 191 0- 1945) until the end of the Second World War. 20 During the Japanese coloniafoccupation, modernization of Korea was largely carried out under the control of the Japanese government as a part of its colonial administration, and modem Western sciences were also introduced into Korea as a part of colonial administrative policy as well. Japanese scholars initiated modem archaeological research in Korea during the period of colonial occupation. In 19 1 5, a modest museum was inaugurated in Seoul to store and display materials obtained in the course of archaeological fieldwork. The Japanese Government General in Korea that administered Korea set up a committee for archaeological survey and excavation, and the committee planned and executed a number of archaeological projects as a part of colonial administration rather than for authentic scholarly purposes. The improvement of Korean archaeology and the elucidation of Korean cultural history were not their primary concerns (W. Y. Kim 1 98 1 :22). During the colonial period, though a number of archaeological projects were executed at that time, participation of Koreans was intentionally excluded. Also, numerous archaeological sites were excavated for non-academic purposes such as looting for precious cultural treasures, improving the diggers' excavation skills, and justifying colonial administration through distorting ancient Korean culture (S. B. Yi 1988:226- 229). Japanese archaeologists were mostly interested in excavating the huge tombs of historic times in order to obtain invaluable artifacts and traces of cultural influence from China; prehistoric sites were almost neglected. Their primary thrust was to stress the cultural backwardness of ancient Korean culture and downgrade ancient Korean culture as a minor peripheral phenomenon with excessive emphasis on one-sided cultural 21 influence from China (W. Y . Kim 198 1 : 22; G. D . Bae 1 99 1 : 1 1 - 1 3 ; M. L. Choi and S . J . Shin 1 991 :291 -292). In the 1 930s, in particular, animal bones and lithic implements, including two obsidian flakes that had been appreciated as remains of Pleistocene were identified at the Donggwanjin in Jongseong County ofNorth Hamgyeong Province (see Figure 1) . However, Japanese archaeological circle ignored this discovery and denied even a possibility of existence of the Paleolithic Culture in the Korean Peninsula (G. D. Bae 199 1 : 1 1 - 13) . Instead, they insisted that the Neolithic was the earliest prehistoric culture, and even Bronze Age as a separate prehistoric stage was not existed in the Korean Peninsula. They argued that bronze and iron were introduced into the Korean peninsula almost simultaneously from northeastern China around the third century B.C. According to them, this fabricated bronze-iron stage, the so-called Chalcolithic Age, lasted until as late as the fourth century A.D. when the Three Kingdoms, Koguryo, Baekje, and Silla (see Figure 4.) were already established as ancient states (W. Y. Kim 1 98 1 : 22). In other words, Japanese archaeological interpretation negated the reality of prehistoric complex society in ancient Korea before the historic dynasties. Korean archaeology did not have an opportunity to construct its own academic foundation and framework or to train specialists during the period of Japanese colonial occupation. It was not until the end of the Second World War, which freed Korea from Japan that archaeological projects in the Korean Peninsula began to be executed by Koreans themselves. However, the negative influence of Japanese colonial administration was not easily remedied for a long time. Korean scholars had to 22 overcome such vestiges of Japanese colonialism as the lack of chronological and regional frameworks and trained specialists. They also had to deal with distorted interpretations of ancient culture and history. Moreover, the north-south division of the Korean Peninsula and subsequent Korean War ( 1950-1 953) became another major obstacle in the development of Korean academic disciplines including archaeology. When Korea resumed her independence from Japanese colonial occupation in 1 945, the National Museum was the only institution, if any, capable of carrying out archaeological projects in South Korea. The outbreak of the Korean War halted all archaeological activities for almost a decade. In 196 1 , the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology was inaugurated at Seoul National University, and a few university museums including Seoul University Museum began to execute archaeological projects in the 1 960s. In 1 969,- the Korean Atomic Research Institute set up a carbon-1 4 Laboratory, and began to release local carbon dates with the laboratory's acronym KAERI. During the 1 960s, archaeological projects were rather isolated and academic standards remained at the level of collecting and describing first-hand data. In the 1 970s, archaeological projects became more problem-oriented, and field techniques were quite improved. In 1 975, the Korean government established the Institute of Cultural Properties under Cultural Properties Preservation Bureau (a Bureau of the Ministry of Culture and Information), a research institute to take charge of affairs related to cultural properties, including archaeological projects and the preservation and management of prehistoric and historical monuments. Since the 1 970s, rapid industrialization of Korea has brought about large-scale salvage archaeological projects 23 including a number of field excavations and site surveys. These new circumstances came to require trained human resources and academic institutes to take charge of archaeological projects, and there was a rapid growth of modem Korean archaeology, not only quantitatively but also qualitatively. After repeated trials and errors, a basic framework of Korean archaeology was prepared in the 1 970s, and archaeologists could shift their research to more profound and detailed questions and directions (W. Y. Kim 1973). Since then, scholarly discussions in response to the need to exchange opinions and synthesize new academic achievements have been activated and there is a thriving archaeological establishment in Korea today. A Brief Sketch of Korean Prehistory The Three-Age System ofPaleolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze-Iron Age, developed and refined in Northern Europe in the nineteenth century, has long been employed in the periodization of Korean prehistory. The cultural sequence of Korean prehistory widely accepted in the Korean archaeological circle is as follows: Paleolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, and (Early) Iron Age. These four prehistoric "ages' were followed by the historically documented Proto-Three Kingdoms Period and Three Kingdoms Period (Table 5). Recently, S. N. Rhee and M. L. Choi (2001 ) presented a revised chronology and periodization of Korean prehistory as follows (Table 5): Paleolithic Age (too 24 controversial regarding the upper limit, all the way from 700,000 B.P. to 200,000 B.P.), Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age I or Former Iron Age (formerly, the Early Iron Age), and Iron Age II or Later Iron Age (formerly, the Proto [or Former/Early] Three Kingdoms Period, or the Sam Han [Three Han ] Period). Table 5 . Traditional and New Chronologies of Korean Archaeology. Traditional Chronology Calendar Years New Chronology Unified Silla A.D. 668- Unified Silla Three Kingdoms Period A.D. 300--668 Three Kingdoms Period Proto Three Kingdoms Period A.D. 1-300 Iron Age II Early Iron Age 300--1 B.C. Iron Age I Bronze Age 1,500--300 B.C. (New) Bronze Age 1 ,000--300 B.C. (Traditional) Neolithic Age 8,000--1 ,500 B.C. (New) Neolithic Age 6,000--1 ,000 B.C. (Traditional) Paleolithic Age 700,000--10,000 B.C. (New) Paleolithic Age 500,000--10,000 B.C. (Traditional) They attempted to fully reflect recent scholarly accomplishments of Korean archaeology and new archaeological investigations in the new chronology (Figure 7). According to them, the new chronology would help to overcome and further refine chronological discrepancies resulting from on-going regional studies, and to be a chronology of Korean prehistory standardized for twenty-first century Korean archaeology (S. N. Rhee and M. L. Choi 200 1 : 141) . 25 Figure 7 . Major Archaeological Sites in Korea (Rhee and Choi 1 99 1 : 55). 26 My study will adopt the new chronology and terminology submitted by Rhee and Choi (200 1) . More will be said in following pages about the apparent gap between Paleolithic and Neolithic. It was Japanese archaeologists during the period of colonial occupation who first adopted the Three-Age System in the periodization ofthe Korean archaeology. According to a typical scheme prevalent among the Japanese academic circle during the colonial period, the cultural sequence of Korean archaeology was as follows: Stone Age, Chalcolithic Age, Lelang Period, and Three Kingdoms Period (Fujita 1948). As mentioned, Japanese scholars sponsored by the colonial government executed archaeological projects as a part of colonial administration rather than as authentic scholarly activities. As one result, they excessively exaggerated the stagnation of ancient Korean culture while stressing strong influences from foreign cultures, in particular far advanced Chinese Culture. For instance, they ignored the existence of a Paleolithic Culture that was identified by lithic implements and animal bones at the Donggwanjin site in the 1930s. It was Japanese archaeologists during the period of colonial occupation who first adopted the Three- Age System in the periodization of the Korean a rchaeology. According to a typical scheme prevalent among the Japanese academic circle during the colonial period, the cultural sequence of Korean archaeology was as follows: Stone Age, Chalcolithic Age, Lelang Period, and Three Kingdoms Period (Fujita 1948). As mentioned, Japanese scholars sponsored by the colonial government executed archaeological projects as a part of colonial administration rather than as authentic scholarly activities. As one result, they excessively exaggerated the stagnation of ancient Korean culture while stressing strong influences from foreign cultures, in particular far advanced Chinese Culture. For instance, they ignored the existence of a Paleolithic Culture that was identified by lithic implements and animal bones at the Donggwanjin site in the 1 930s. 27 The Chalcolithic Age, conceived as a transitional stage from the Neolithic through the Bronze Age, also distorted the reality of separate Bronze and Iron ages in the Korean Peninsula. Strictly speaking, however, it is undeniably true that available archaeological information on the Korean Peninsula was too limited and fragmentary during the Colonial Period to construct a reliable cultural sequence or periodization of Korean archaeology. It was not until the 1 960s that the existence of a Paleolithic and separate Bronze and Iron Ages were documented by incontrovertible concrete archaeological evidence in both South and North Korea. Paleolithic Culture in Korea Currently, about 70 Paleolithic sites (Figure 8) have been identified and reported in the Korean Peninsula (G. D. Bae 1 991 ). As mentioned, stone implements and animal bones belonging to the Paleolithic Age were reported at the Donggwanjin site (see Figure 8 :CD) in the Duman River Valley. However, Japanese colonial scholars who had denied the existence of Paleolithic Age in Korea were reluctant to accept Donggwanjin as a Palaeolithic site. ---- -- -- 28 In the 1960s, a number of Palaeolithic sites had been reported and investigated in the Korea Peninsula. In particular, Gulpo-ri site in Yunggi, North Hamgyeong Province (see Figure 8 :@) and the well known Seokjang-ri site in Gongju, South Chungcheong Province (see Figure 8 : @) are crucial Paleolithic sites identified and investigated in the 1960s (Y. H. Do 1964; B. G. Son 1 967), and they confirmed the existence ofPaleolithic Culture in Korea (Figure 9). Thereafter, there has been no doubt about the existence of Palaeolithic Age and Paleolithic Culture in the Korean Peninsula. Since its first discovery in 1 978, many field campaigns at the world- famous Jeongok-ri site (see Figure 8: @) in the Hantan River Valley (Yeoncheon, Gyeonggi Province) have drawn the attention of international scholarly circles to Korean Paleolithic Culture (Figures 10 and 1 1 ). .However, there has been continuous debate on the characteristics and chronology ofthe Palaeolithic sites and culture of Korea among domestic and foreign archaeologists. In general, Korean Paleolithic Culture is subdivided into three phases: Lower Paleolithic (ca. 500,000 - 1 00,000 B.P.), Middle Paleolithic (ca. 1 00,000 - 35,000 B.P.), and Upper Paleolithic (ca. 35,000- 12,000 B.P.). Recently, there has been some discussion of a separate stage of the Mesolithic Age or Culture in the Korean Peninsula with reference to a few sites, including two sites identified and investigated in the Juam Dam archaeological project, the Gokcheon and Daejeon sites. However, still Korean archaeological circle tends to feel that at present the available archaeological evidence is not sufficient to establish a Mesolithic Age or Culture as a separate cultural stage in prehistoric Korea. 29 Figure 8. Major Paleolithic Sites in Korea (M. L. Choi et al. 1 99 1 : 412). 30 I . Figure 9. Stone Tools from the Seokjang-ri Paleolithic Site (W. Y. Kim 1 986: 1 5). 3 1 0 1 km 0 Figure 1 0. Topographic Map of the Jeongok-ri (Chongongni) Site (G. D. Bae 1 989: 3). 32 Figure 1 1 . Stratigraphy ofthe Jeongok-ri Site and Stone Tools therein (Kim 1 986: 1 8). 33 Neolithic Culture in Korea Those Korean archaeologists who deny the existence of a separate Mesolithic Period believe that there was quite a temporal break between the ends of the Paleolithic Age and the beginning of the following Neolithic Age in prehistoric Korea. It has been believed that there were significant environmental changes including faunal, floral, and coastline changes at the beginning of the Holocene around 8000 B.C. There is little evidence of human habitation during the first 2000 years of the Holocene, but by about 6000 B.C., a new cultural stage, the Neolithic, becomes increasingly well represented in the Korean Peninsula (Figure 12) . It is belieyed that hand-made Jeulmun (comb patterned design) pottery, chipped and polished stone implements, semi-subterranean houses with storage pits and hearths, and an intensive hunting-gathering-fishing subsistence economy are diagnostic of Korean Neolithic Culture. Some Korean and Japanese archaeologists who have focused their research on the Jeulmun Pottery prefer the terms "Jeulmun Pottery Period" and "Jeulmun Pottery Culture" rather than "Neolithic Age" and "Neolithic Culture" . Here I use the two terminologies interchangeably. Neolithic sites, including quite a number of shell­ middens, are usually found along riversides and seacoasts. There are several regional variants of the Korean Neolithic, centered on large rivers or seacoasts, and distinctive pottery styles represent them. The Korean Neolithic culture is often divided into three sub-periods: Early (6000- 3500 B.C.), Middle (3500 - 2000 B.C.), and Late Neolithic (2000 - 1000 B.C.). 34 . • I �4 . : Figure 1 2. Major Neolithic_ Sites in Ko!ea (M. L. Choi et al. 1 99 1 : 413). It is now known that before the spread of the comb-patterned Jeulmun Pottery, Yunggimun (raised design) pottery and undecorated plain flat-based pottery were manufactured and used in a number of sites, including Osan-ri (Y angyang, Kangwon Province, see Figure 12 : C8>), Seopohang (Yunggi, North Hamgyeong Province, see Figure 12 : CD), and Dongsam-dong (Busan, see Figure: @) on the east and southeast coasts (Figures 1 3) . Jeulmun Pottery decorated on the whole surface first appeared in the central western region around 4000 B.C. According to H. J. Im ( 1 983), over time the amount of surface decoration on Jeulmun Pottery was gradually reduced; initially covering all three parts of the vessel, rim, waist, and bottom, it later covered only two parts, rim and waist, and finally only one part, rim (Figure 14). 35 Archaeological features, found at Gyo-dong Cave, Chuncheon (see Figure 12 : @) and Songpyeong-dong, Unggi are considered as Neolithic burials (Figure 1 5) . However, the characteristics of the burial features are not clear, and there is so far little, if any, archaeological evidence to clearly illustrate burial practices in the Neolithic of Korea. Only a few Neolithic settlement sites have been discovered. The best known are Amsa-dong, Seoul (Figure 1 6, see Figure 12 : ©), Misa-ri (Ha-nam, Gyeonggi Province, see Figure 1 2: @), Seopohang, Jitap-ri (Bongsan, Hwanghae Province, see Figure 12 : @), and Osan-ri sites. Most of semi-subterranean houses ofthe Korean Neolithic have a round or rectangular floor plan, and often there is a hearth and storage pit inside or outside of the house. �.-"�� _; 7 10 .. ... R ____ / --·-· Figure 1 3 . Examples ofYunggimun (Raised Design) Pottery (top) and Flat-based Pottery (bottom) (S. M. Nelson 1 993: 68, 93). 36 37 A B II m Figure 14. Temporal Change in the Surface Decoration of Jeulmun Pottery (Im 1 983: 6). 0 2m Figure 1 5 . Neolithic Burials Found at the Songpyeong-dong (top) and Gyo-dong (bottom) Sites (W. Y. Kim 1 986: 57). · 38 .39 Figure 1 6. Jeulmun Pottery and a Pit House at the Amsa-dong Site (Kim 1 986: 36). 40 0 20 CM Figure 1 7. Examples of a Grinding Stone Set and Composite Fishhooks (Ro 1 997: 26, 3 1 ) . 41 Indications of food production has been identified and reported at quite a few Neolithic sites; however, concrete archaeological evidence for plant or animal domestication in the initial stage of the Korean Neol ithic is still rare. Since the middle of the Neolithic, however, food production began to be well documented, and in particular, grinding stone sets, rel iable archaeological evidence of cereal production, and charred foxtail millet has been reported at a few sites, including Namgyeong (Pyeongyang) and Jitap- ri (Bongsan) sites (Figure 17). Composite fishing tools and net-sinkers discovered at Osan-ri and other coastal sites are concrete archaeological evidence to indicate active marine adaptation as well during the Neolithic Age (Figure 17). Animal domestication could be inferred from clay fi gurines and stone sculptures of dogs and pigs reported at Seopohang and Gulpo-ri sites. Bronze Age Culture in Korea In the end of the 2 nd millennium B.C., Neolithic Jeulmun Pottery was replaced by a new type of undecorated plain ware called Mumun Pottery. Mumun Pottery was introduced into the Korean Peninsula earlier than bronze tools, and it lasted as a primary potteiy type during the Korean Bronze Age and even the Iron Age I. Literally, the term "Mumun" translates as "non-decorated", meaning plain-surfaced, but the Korean M umun Pottery includes diverse pottery types, including some having decorations (Figure 18). 42 Figure 1 8. Examples of Diverse Mumun Pottery (H. J. Ro 1 997: 45). 43 Often "Bronze Age" and "Mumun Pottery Period" have been treated as interchangeable terms for the same phenomenon in Korean archaeology. However, in fact we now know that there was quite a temporal interval between the first appearance ofMumun Pottery and the first appearance of bronze implements in the Korean Peninsula. The Bronze Age has been considered the most problematic period in prehistoric Korea, and still there is little clear understanding as to the origin of Korean Bronze Culture (Figure 1 9). It has been said that the Korean Bronze Culture originated from the Liaoning Region around 1 ,500� 1 000 B.C. ; however, there is little archaeological evidence to support such an early date as far as the geographical boundary is limited to the Korean Peninsula. Bronze implements dated around 1 000 B.C. are very rare in the whole Korean Peninsula, and furthermore; bronze implements are very rare during the whole Korean Bronze Age. Indeed for this reason some archaeologists have suggested that this interval be called the Mumun Pottery Period instead ofthe Bronze Age (M. B. Yun 1 975; Nishitani 1 982). Their comparative rarity notwithstanding, however, bronze implements such as the Liaoning (or Manchurian) style daggers (Figure 20), mirrors, axes, arrowheads, and knives are important diagnostic artifacts of the Korean Bronze Age. Most of the bronze implements have been recovered from burials, mainly in stone cists, rather than in residential features. Bronze implements are typically considered as status symbols or ritual instruments rather than as practical implements for use in daily life. Instead, polished stone implements such as axes, adzes, arrowheads, daggers, semi-lunar knives, and grinding stones and pestles were still important in daily life during the Bronze Age. 44 Figure 1 9. Major Bronze Age Sites in Korea (M. L. Choi et al. 1 99 1 : 433). 45 0 20CM Figure 20. Examples of the Liaoning Style Dagg�r� (H. J. Ro 1 997: 78). 46 Abundant polished stone axes and adzes imply development of architectural technology, and grinding stones and pestles, and diverse styles of semi-lunar knives are considered to be closely related to crop cultivation (Figure 2 1 ). In addition, the charred rice grains found at a few Bronze Age settlement sites such as Songguk-ri (Buyeo, South Chungcheong Province), Heunam-ri (Yeoju, Gyeonggi Province), and Namgyeong (Pyeongyang) sites are critical archaeological evidence to demonstrate the importance of rice cultivation in the Korean Bronze Age. The semi-subterranean houses continued in use as a main residential type, but the scale of villages enlarged and village locations expanded to include inland regions, contrasting with the largely coastal or riverside occupational pattern of the Neolithic Age. A number of large-scale village sites such as Dolong at Daegok-ri (see Figure 1 9: ®), Songguk-ri( see Figure 1 9: @), and Heunam-ri ( see Figure 19 : ®) imply population increase, and semi-subterranean houses became more numerous compared to the precedent Neolithic Age. The large-scale villages and new village locations might also be considered as evidence of increased sociopolitical complexity. While there was little, if any, concrete archaeological evidence for burial practice in the Neolithic of Korea, a few kinds ofburial structures are known from Bronze Age sites. In particular, dolmens (Figure 22) and stone cists (Figure 23) were the two main burial types in the Korean Bronze Age. Dolmens and stone cists are typically quite different in their burial furnishings. While often quite abundant grave goods including bronze implements and jades had been furnished in the stone cists, extremely few bronze implements have been reported in dolmen sites except for extremely few dolmen sites. Figure 2 1 . Examples ofPolished Stone Axes (top left), Adzes (bottom left), and Semi­ lunar Knives (right) (H. J. Ro 1 997: 53; W. Y. Kim 1 986: 84-85). 47 48 I 0 1 m ..____. Figure 22. Examples of the Dolmen Types: Northern (top), Southern (middle), Odeok (bottom left), and Chimchon (bottom right) (W. Y. Kim 1 986: 93-94). 49 [ 1 .95m (length); 0.80m (width); 0.8 1m (inside height)] 0 20CM Figure 23. The Songguk-ri Stone Cist and Burial Goods therein (H. J. Ro 1 997: 68). Figure 24. Rock Drawings at Daegok-ri (top) and Yangjeon-dong (bottom) (W. Y. Kim 1 986: 98-99). 50 I I : I i ! 5 1 It is not unusual that no burial furnishings at all are found in dolmen investigations. Occasionally, along with a few Mumun pottery sherds, a few polished stone implements have been reported in some dolmens. The clear distinction between stone cist and dolmen burial furnishings, both in the quality and quantity of objects, is often suggested as evidence for the emergence of socio-political class distinctions at that time. Petroglyphs at Daegok-ri and Cheonjeon-ri, Wulju County and at Yangjeon-dong, Goryeong County are well-known evidence of prehistoric art, and the paintings provide precious information on daily life and rites in Korean Bronze Age (Figures 24). Iron Age I (Former Iron Age) Culture in Korea It has been believed that the Korean peninsula rushed into the Iron Age I around 300 B.C, traditionally Former or Early Iron Age (Figure 25). However, the actual date is still controversial. While North Korean archaeologists have urged that iron objects appeared as early as 500 B.C., it is not until 300 B.C. that clear evidence of iron objects appeared even in the northern parts of Korea. The introduction of iron, the development and diversification of bronze artifact manufacture as status symbols, and the disappearance of bronze objects for practical use are diagnostic elements to characterize Korean Iron Age I Culture. There is no doubt that iron implements, particularly agricultural implements, significantly improved productivity, and the improved productivity enhanced the degree of social complexity. 52 ...... - -T i I I I I I r-�-�-- .... -.... T-::r- (9 .. I I -tf _(/ ... Figure 25. Major Jron Age Sites in Korea (M. L. Choi et al. 1 99 1 : 434). 53 During the Iron Age I, new bronze implements such as the Korean Style Dagger (also often called the slender dagger), horse trappings, fine linear design mirrors, spearheads, halberds, bells, and certain ritual instruments appeared (Figures 26-28). Also new types of rolled rim pottery and long-neck black burnished pottery were manufactured and used together with Mumun Pottery, the traditional Bronze Age pottery (Figures 29). Dolmens yielded their prevalence as a main burial type to newly introduced wooden coffin burials, stone lined burials, and jar coffin burials, though dolmens persisted as one of the main burial types in South Jeolla Province until the beginning of the Iron Age II. Large scale village sites and burial sites are reliable indicators of population growth and enhanced socio-political complexity. Wiman Choson, which is believed to have been located in northern Korea and Manchuria, had already achieved a state level society as early as in the beginning of 2nd century B.C. (Figure 30). However, warfare with the Chinese Han Empire ( 1 09 � 1 08 B.C.) made Wiman Choson disappear from Korean history, and the Han Empire subsequently established four commanderies (Lelang, Chenfan, Lintun, and Hsuantu) to administrate the old territory of Wiman Choson (see Figure 3). In particular, the Lelang Commandery among the four commanderies had much influence on ancient Korean culture until it was collapsed by Koguryo (A.D. 3 1 3) (see Figures 3 and 4). The collapse of Wiman Choson as a result of warfare with Chinese Han Dynasty also brought crucial and rapid change in the Samhan Society (Three Han: Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan) in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula (see Figure 3). After the collapse of Wiman Chason, groups of people of Wiman Chason fled to the Samhan area. , . Figure 26. Examples of the Korean Style Bronze Daggers (H. J. Ro 1 997: 98). a 0 0 C\l 0 54 56 0 20om Figure 28. Examples of Bronze Implements for Ritual Use (H. J. Ro 1 997: 1 02). o'-, ____ _Jtpcm Figure 29. Examples ofRolled-rim Pottery (top) and Long-neck Black Burnished Pottery (bottom) (H. J. Ro 1 997: 1 04-1 05). 57 123" / 1Jtr ) I . Chabiryong'_ � -� � · s 1\ TONGHAE Pass ' " �'1J / l I 38' j_ ?" CHINOON' \ . i 38' . �"�- � _5) Kangnung 0t 1 : • Seoul - N 4 0 3m 164 \ Figure 54. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Hajuk B Site and a Polished Stone Dagger therein (Son and Han 1988 : 270). 165 Hajuk C Dolmens (77 Juksan -ri, Mundeok-myeon, Boseong) Another dolmen group at the Hajuk C site was the largest among the four dolmen groups found in the alluvial plain of the Dongbok River Valley. In 1 987 summer, 23 dolmens, aligned north and south in three rows parallel with the flow of the Dongbok River, were assigned for excavation (Figure 5 5). The heavy rains of 1 987 flooded or destroyed dolmens on the riverside, but also exposed dolmen capstones. In the excavation of 1 987, in total 3 1 dolmens were investigated and 8 dolmens (Dolmens Nos. 1 -8, 1 -9, 2- 1 , 1 1 -2, 1 1 -3, 1 3- 1 , 14-2 and 1 9- 1 ) were additionally identified and investigated in the excavation designed for study of semi-subterranean houses in 1 989 Spring. In all, the total number of features investigated at the Hajuk C site turned out to be 39 dolmens (Table 22). In a case of Dolmen No. 6, two burial chambers were built under a single capstone (Figure 56). Three types of burial chamber structures were identified: stone cists, stone circles, and pit graves. Only two dolmens (Nos. 1 and 1 7) adopted a pit grave as a burial chamber structure, and all other dolmens adopted stone cists or stone circles. Except for one dolmen (No. 1) which adopted a pit grave burial chamber structure, propping stones to support the dolmen capstone were found only in dolmens adopting a stone cist burial chamber. Stone pavements installed around burial chambers and a lid stone to cover a burial chamber were also identified among dolmens adopting a stone cist burial chamber structure. i l 1 1 l. l b 1. 1 1 l : J 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 Figure 55. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Hajuk C Site (Song and Lee 1 988 : 349-350, 352). 1 66 - I 0 lm = I · Figure 56. Paired Burial Chambers of Dolmen No. 6 at the Hajl:lk C Site (J. H. Song and Y. M. Lee 1 988: 360, 400). 1 67 ' 1 68 Figure 57. Polished-stone Daggers from the Hajuk C Site (Song and Lee 1 988: 379-382). 0 0 0 e u ., 0 1 69 0 0 0 0 Figure 58 . Polished Stone Arrowheads from the Hajuk C Site (Song and Lee 1 988: 383). - - . : -�>.· . 8 8 8 8 8 8 . (88 8 8 ,�-A ·\·- u �® � . . at - j 1 l . : J\1 � 0'· � -(9- � 0 I IO.CIII: I 1 70 . Figure 59. Other Stone Tools from the Hajuk C Site (Song and Lee 1 988 : 384-385, 388). 17 1 As shown in Table 22, while burial chambers adopting a stone cist were large enough to allow a deceased adult to be buried in extended posture { 1 50 � 2 1 0 em), the length of stone circle burial chambers was too short for extended interment except in the case ofDolmen No. 1 -4, which was 140 em long. Also, while there was no extra floor treatment for stone circle or pit grave burial chamber structures, the floors of stone cist burial chamber structures were paved with flat stones. In the Hajuk C dolmen site, relatively rich burial goods were furnished, including Red burnished Pottery, Mumun Pottery sherds, fire making stones, and a number of polished stone implements including daggers, arrowheads, knives, grinding stones, grinding pestles, axes, and grooved adzes {Figures 57 - 59). Most of these artifacts were collected from dolmens with stone cist burial chambers. From time to time, artifacts of later archaeological periods, such as Kimhae Pottery sherds, were identified in a few dolmens. These later period artifacts seemed to indicate that these dolmen sites had been disturbed over a long span of time, rather than suggesting that dolmens continued to be built until such a late period in the Boseong River Valley or South J eolla Province. Table 22. Hajuk C Dolmens (Song and Lee 1 988; Song et al. 1 990). Fea. Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size(Orientation) Structure 1 360x220x 1 30(N-S) 260x 140x ?(N-S) PG MPS, RBS, Gs and Gp 2 1 - 1 1 80x l 50x550NVV-SE) 70x40x ?(N-S) SCI MPS, RBS 172 3 1 -2 200x 1 65x50(NW -SE) 1 20x70x ?(N-S) SCI net sinker 1 , MPS 4 1-3 225x 1 1 5x50(NW-SE) 1 1 O(diameter)x 1 1 0 SCI 5 1 -4 1 70x 1 20x45(NW-SE) 140x85x ? (N-S) SCI MPS, handle 1 6 1-5 1 00x47x1 0(NW-SE) 50x30x ? (N-S) SCI 7 1-6 1 10x70x30(NW-SE) 70x60x ? (N-S) SCI MPS, chisel 1 8 1 -7 1 20x70x25(E-W) 50x25x ? (E-W) SCI 9 1 -8 1 80x 1 1 Ox30(N-S) 60x80x ? (N-S) SCI grooved adze 1 , arrowhead 1 1 0 1 -9 1 1 Ox90x20(N-S) 90x40x ? (N-S) SCI arrowheads 2 1 1 2 220x 1 80x95(NW -SE) 1 80x53x40(N-S) sc net sinker 1 , MPS, burnished red (2) 1 2 2-1 1 85x85x30(N-S) 1 00x50x20(N-S) SCI stone knife 1 1 3 3 280x250x80(N-S) 170x50x45(NW-SE) sc MPS, arrowhead 4, dagger 1 14 4 1 70x 1 25x65(N-S) 200x50x35(N-S) sc MPS, net sinker 1, grindstone 1 1 5 5 450x220x65(NW -SE) 170x50x40(N-S) sc MPS, RBS, arrowhead 1 , stone knife 1 , net sinker 1 1 6 6 260x250x90(N-S) 1 60x50x40(N-S) sc MPS, net sinker 1, ax 2, knife 1 1 30x50x40(N-S) PG 17 7 390x250x60(NW-SE) 1 65 x50x60(N-S) sc MPS, RB 1 , arrowhead 2, knife 1 , spindle whorl 1 1 8 8 230x 1 60x50(N-S) 1 50x60x40(N-S) sc MPS, knife 1 , dagger 1 , net sinker 1 , arrowhead 1 1 9 9 320x 1 80x60(NW-SE) 1 60x55x45(N-S) sc MPS, RBS, net sinker 1 , dagger 1 , arrowhead 1 , plane blade 2 20 10 265 x 1 80x80(N-S) disturbed/ destroyed ? 2 1 1 1 3 60x190x 1 1 0(N-S) 1 80x55 x40(NW -SE) sc MPS, arrowhead 2, grinding pestle 1 22 1 1- 1 1 50x140x25(N-S) 90x50x ? (N-S) SCI MPS, RBS 23 1 1 -2 Missing (N/ A) 1 63x53x45 (N-S) sc arrowheads 2 24 1 1 -3 Missing (N/A) 1 70x40x40 (N-S) sc arrowheads 3 ! ! i 25 12 345x200x800NVV-SE) 170x60x45�E-SVV) SC 11PS, dagger 2 26 12-1 190x90x20(N-S) 70x60x ? (E-VV) SCI MPS, fire building stone 2 1 73 27 13 410x240x85(NVV-SE) 200x60x45(NVV-SE) SC MPS, RBS, dagger 1 , arrowhead 1 28 13-1 145x90x30(E-VV) 90x60x25(E-W) SCI lithic net sinker 1 29 14 250xl 20x50(NVV-SE) 1 80x60x40�-S) SC dagger 1 30 14-1 1 80x l l 5x35(NVV-SE) 120x60x?(N-S) SCI saw blade 1 3 1 14-2 1 80x 1 1 Ox40(N-S) 170x80x30�-S) SCI lithic net sinker 1 32 15 33 16 34 17 35 1 8 3 6 19 280x2 10x850NVV-SE) 2 1 0x55x45�-S) SC MPS, ax 1, dagger 2, arrowhead 4 280x1 40x550NVV-SE) 1 40x45x40�-S) SC MPS 300x l 70x60�E-SW) 1 00xl00x30 PG Mumun sherd 1 270x1 60x 1 10�-S) Destroyed by flood ? MPS, RBS 250xl 5 0x50(NVV-SE) 140x40x200NVV-SE) SC MPS 37 1 9- 1 70x60x25(N-S) unclear ? 38 20 39 2 1 3 1 Ox200x90(NW -SE) Destroyed by flood 320x220x75(NVV-SE) Destroyed by flood ? dagger 1 ? Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, Gs: Grinding stone, Gp: Grinding pestle, MP: Mumun Pottery, PG: pit grave, RB: Red burnished pottery, S: sherds, SC: stone cist, SCI: stone circle. Measurement in em. VVhile numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation. Sinwol-C Dolmens {705-1 Obong-ri, Juam-myeon, Seungju) At the Sinwol C dolmen site, the initial site survey identified 1 3 dolmen capstones oriented south to north along the flow of the Boseong River (Figure 60). 1 74 Only four burial chambers were identified, and two burial chambers isolated from their own capstones were additionally identified (Table 23). Table 23. Sinwol C Dolmens (D. H. Yun 1 987) Fea. Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size( Orientation) Structure 240x200x60(N-S) 2 1 Ox50x40(N-S) sc tubular jade 1 2 220x 1 50x55(N-S) Not found(N/A) N/A 3 270xl 50x1 00(N-S) 1 60x40x35(N-S) sc dagger 1 4 1 80x 1 00x50(N-S) 1 70x50(N-S) sc MPS 5 1 70x50x40(N-S) Not found(N/A) N/A 6 1 50x 1 OOx45(N-S) Not found(N/ A) N/A MPS 7 260x200x90(N-S) Not found(N/ A) N/A arrowhead I 8 l40x 1 1 Ox40(N-S) Not found(N/A) N/A 9 200x200x60(N-S) Not found(N/A) N/A 1 0 1 60x 140x50(N-S) 1 60x50x20(N-S) sc arrowhead 1 1 1 560x450x80(E-W) Not found(N/A) N/A MPS 1 2 95x 100x70(E-W) Not found(N/A) N/A l 3 290x1 40x70(E-W) Not found(N/ A) N/A 1 4 3 80x230x 100(N-S) Not found(N/A) N/A MPS A Missing 1 70x45x25(N-S) sc B Missing 1 70x80x?(N-S) sc dagger piece 1 Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, MS: Mumun Pottery, N/A: not applicable, S: sherds, SC: stone cist. Measurement in em. -- ....:. 0 ·sM ;---;:;;.. Qf-; -0- 0 IM � I Figure 60. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones (dotted) and Burial Chambers at the · Sinwol C Site and Artifacts therein (D. H. Yun 1 987: 1 52, 165). 175 1 76 According to the excavation report, the south walls of the burial chambers were wider than the north walls, and the deceased were buried with their heads to the south. Two polished stone daggers, a polished stone arrowhead, and a tubular jade were found in these burial chambers, along with a polished stone arrowhead and a few Mumun pottery sherds from outside of the burial chambers (Figure 60). Sinwol D Dolmens (Obong-ri, Juam-myeon, Seungju) At the Sinwol D dolmen site, the initial site survey reported 32 dolmen capstones aligned to north and south in four rows (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985 : 1 0- 1 1 ). Two dolmen capstones were additionally identified, and 1 5 out of a total of 34 dolmens were assigned for excavation (Figure 6 1 ) . As usual, Southern Type and Capstone Type dolmens were mixed together, and the stone cist was a dominant burial chamber structure (Table 24) at the Sinwol D site. Burial chambers were mostly aligned to north and south, paralleling the flow of the Boseong River and the direction of an adjacent mountain ridge except for Dolmen No. 9- 1 which had an orientation of east and west (Figure 6 1 ) . Polished stone daggers and burnished red pottery jars were uncovered from burial chambers (Figure 62), and some artifacts were also found around burial chambers or between stone pavements. Based on the typology of polished stone daggers, polished stone arrowheads, and burnished red jars, this site was tentatively dated to the Iron Age I, or Early Iron Age (300-1 B.C.),. 2 3 4 Table 24. Sinwol D Dolmens (D. S . Ji and J. G. Park 1 987). Fea. Capstones No. Size (Orientation) 270x1 90x 140(N-S) 2 220x1 30x70(N-S) 3 240x 170x 1 OO(N-S) 4 270x2 10x73(N-S) Burial Chambers Artifacts Size( Orientation) Structure 1 30x30x30(N-S) sc Unclear (?) PG? 1 35x30x22(N-S) sc 155x37x30(N-S) sc MPS, chipped ax 1 MPS dagger 1 , triangular knife 1 , 177 5 5 340x200x70(N-S) 150x32x27(N-S) sc MPS, cupmarks 10 in capstone 6 6 200x 1 1 0x88(N-S) 1 05x35x32(N-S) sc MPS, RBS 7 7 1 87x1 1 Ox50(N-S) 1 30x33x27(N-S) sc MPS, dagger 1, arrowhead 1 8 8 252x190x54(N-S) 1 55x43x340(N-S?) sc MPS, RB jar 1 9 9 3 1 8x 174x90(N-S) 170x50x40(S-N) sc MPS, whetstone 1 1 0 9-1 1 55x94x50(N-S) 94x50x26(E-W) sc 1 1 1 0 270x190x60(N-S) 120x37x30(N-S) sc MPS, RBS, arrowhead 1 , flake 1 1 2 1 1 222x 175x42(N-S) 1 06x35x37(N-S) sc MPS, plane blade 1 1 3 1 2 185x134x55(N-S) 1 30x30x28(N-S) sc MPS, arrowhead 1 14 1 3 2 12x 1 66x38(E-W) Unclear (disturbed) SC ? MPS 1 5 1 4 1 80x160x75(E-W) ? PG? MPS 1 6 1 5 280x52x40(N-S) Unclear (disturbed) SC ? Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, MP: Mumun Pottery, N/A: not applicable, PG: pit grave, RB: Red burnished Pottery, S: sherds, SC: stone cist. Measurement in em. While numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation. �: �11 �� < !It • � I M 2 !1t � -� • · CI:!It ' II ....-r 0 2S COM I !it =:.:::.==· • • � � � a' " f !lt I !It • M 1211! !It 1�1 1 4 11 Figure 6 1 . Distribution ofDolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Sinwol D Site (D. S. Ji and J. G. Park 1 987: 228, 238). 1 78 $· ' \L. $ ffi . . . W.. . A � . . . . . ... . . , I II I I ' Figure 62: Polished Stone Impleme_nts and Red Blimished Pottery from· the . ... - Sinwol D Site (Ji and Park 1987: 254, -256); 179 1 80 Sinwol H Dolmens (Obong-ri, Juam-myeon, Seungju) The initial site survey identified 1 3 dolmens at the Sinwol H Dolmen location, and two more dolmen capstones were additionally identified later. Orientation of the dolmen capstones did not show any consistent pattern (Figure 63) and only four burial chambers were found among 1 5 dolmens investigated (Table 25). Obviously, many dolmen capstones were dislocated from their original places by unidentified processes. Along with only a few Mumun Pottery sherds, a polished and a chipped stone ax were all the artifacts uncovered from the excavation. There was also insufficient evidence to identify dolmen types. Table 25. Sinwol H Dolmens (M. L. Choi, et al. 1 987) Fea Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size (Orientation) S tructure 1 . 3 230x1 58x68(�-SE) ?x?x?(NW-SE) SC? 2 4 467x258x 1 74(NE-SW) 1 40x?x?(� -SE) SC? 3 9 283x208x96(NE-SW) Unclear (disturbed) SC? 4 10 303x1 30x93(NE-SW) Unclear (disturbed) SC? Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, N/A: not applicable, SC: stone cist. ?: Unclear, Measurement in em. While numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation. 4 0 SM ) I I z f ; 1 8 1 Figure 63 . Distribution o f Dolmen Capstmies at the Sinwol H Site (Choi et. al 1 9.87: 3 1 3) . 1 82 Daejeon Dolmens (15 Sasu-ri, Nam -myebn, Hwasun) In the initial site survey, 24 dolmens were reported on a hill at Daejeon village (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985: 37), and 1 3 of them were assigned for excavation. In the midst of investigation, three dolmens were additionally identified and excavated, including two burial chambers isolated from their own capstones. While serious damage did not allow identifying the structure of three burial chambers, the other dolmens adopted stone cists as their burial chamber structures without exception (Table 26). Long sides of the burial chambers were oriented in the direction of flow of the Dongbok River (Figure 64). Except for the burial chamber of Dolmen No. 22, the other burial chambers were of sufficient size to allow burial of a deceased adult in an extended posture. The capstones of the dolmens were thought to have been obtained from a mountain about 500 m away from the Daejeon site. Along with some Mumun pottery sherds, the dolmen excavation yielded a few polished stone implements, including two daggers, a semi-lunar knife, two grinding stones, and two arrowheads (Figure 65). In addition, about 20 lithic specimens that belonged to the Upper Paleolithic type were identified in diluvial deposits in the easternmost part of the site. / ' Table 26. Daejeon Dolmens (Y. J. Lee, et al. 1 988) Fea. Capstones No. Size (Orientation) 2 4 270x 1 50x70(E-W) 200x120x60(E-W) 3 5 1 50x1 20x30(E-W) 4 8 1 80x l l0x50(E-W) 5 1 0 270x1 20x70(E-W) 6 1 2 7 1 3 8 1 4 1 1 Ox90x30(N-S) 140x80x60(N-S) 1 70x90x30(N-S) 9 1 6 320x1 40x 1 20(N-S) 1 0 20 1 30x1 25x25(E-W) 1 1 22 1 00x70x( N-S) Burial Chambers Artifacts Size (Orientation) Structure Destroyed (NE-SW) ? MPS , grinding stone 1 Not found N/A 175x35x25(NE-SW) SC MPS, stone material ! 1 90x65x35(NW-SE) SC MPS, dagger 1 , arrowhead 1 280x1 90x?(NE-SW) SC grinding stone 1 Destroyed (?) ? . 1 70x35x20(NE-SW) SC MPS, chipped burin 1 Destroyed (?) Destroyed (?) sc SC MPS, chipped ax 1 1 80x50x30(NE-SW) SC chipped ax 1 1 1 Ox90x?(NE-SW) sc 12 23 1 80x1 40x90 (NW-SE) 1 60x50x35(NE-SW) SC MPS 1 3 24 1 00x80x40(N-S) 1 70x?x?? SC raw stone material 2 1 4 25 1 30x80x40(N-S) Destroyed (?) ? 1 5 27 Missing (N/A) 1 70x40x25(N-S) sc 1 6 28 Missing (N/A) 1 66x96x37(NE-SW) SC MPS 1 83 Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature. MP: Mumun Pottery, N/A: not applicable, S: sherds, SC: stone cist. Measurement in em. While numbers in the frrst column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation. oo· · \�� �· 23� . 0 1 Figure 64. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Daejeon Site (Y. J. Lee et al. 1988: 250). 1 84 f L-- · ··- ---- . � . ... · - � bJ I I , I L ) .. .----- - -- - ,, 1 85 Figure 65. Lithic Implements from the Daejeon .Site (Y. J. Lee et al. 1 988: 256-257). 1 86 Salehi A Dolmens (Sicheon-ri, Bognae-niyeon, Boseong) At the Salehi A site, the initial site survey reported 19 dolmens on the slope of the Cheonbong Mountain range (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985 : 5 8-59). Subsequently, more dolmens were identified, and total number of dolmens turned out to be 23 within an area about 340 m2 across Excluding seriously damaged dolmens, 1 4 relatively well preserved dolmens were excavated (Figure 66) Thirteen burial chambers, consisting of eight stone cists and five pit graves, were identified (Table 27). Most of the burial chambers were quite seriously damaged and did not provide detailed information, except for the burial chambers ofDolmens 14, 2 1 , and 23, (Figure 66). A polished stone dagger handle and a Mumun pottery base were all the artifacts yielded at the Salehi A dolmen site. Table 27. Salehi A Dolmens (M. J. Choi 1 988). Fea. Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size (Orientation) Structure 255x1 84x70 (NE-SW) 1 54x78x36(NW-SE) 2 4 222x56x68(NE-SW) 1 08x58x30(N-S) sc 3 6 Broken (N-S) 126x40x26(E-W) sc 4 7 1 59x 142x48(NE-SW) 1 1 2x1 08x32(E-W) PG 5 1 0 1 50x 1 30x36(N-S) 86x34x30(E-W) PG 6 1 3 247x203x 1 20(NW-SE) · Not found (N/A) N/A 7 14 1 82x 1 25x48�E-SVV ) 8 1 5 1 79x1 19x68�-S) 9 16 144x1 32x50(NE-SVV) 1 0 17 1 34x 1 19x64�E-SVV) 1 1 1 8 202x174x l20�-S) 12 20 1 86x 1 62x50(E-VV) 13 2 1 1 86x162x80(NVV-SE) 14 23 1 74x60x66(NE-SVV) 1 00x64x36(NE-SVV) sc 1 1 Ox80x40(NE-SVV) SC/PG? 84x60x34(NE-SVV) SC/PG? 1 10x90x30 PG 1 36x66x38�E-SVV) sc 104x50x42(NVV-SE ) sc 80x64x22�-SE) sc 1 1 Ox 1 00x50(?) sc dagger handle 1 Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, N/A: not applicable, PG: pit grave, SC: stone cist. Measurement in em. VVhile numbers in the first colunm are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation. Salehi B Dolmens (Sicheon-ri, Bognae-myeon, Boseong) 1 87 While 1 6 dolmens were investigated at the Salehi B site (Table 28), the dolmen capstones were aligned northeast and southwest in three rows, paralleling to the trend of the Cheonbong Mountain behind the village, and to the flow of the Boseong River (Figure 67). The long axes of the burial chambers retained the same orientation to those of the capstones, and the stone cist and the stone circle were adopted as burial chamber structures (Figure 67). In a few stone cist burial chambers, stone pavements were identified, and along with a few Mumun Pottery and Red burnished Pottery sherds, polished stone daggers and arrowheads, and a grooved adz, were uncovered (Figure 68). Table 28. Salehi B Dolmens (S. R. Choi 1 988a). Fea. Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size( Orientation) Structure 172x 1 15x87(NE-SW) 1 1 0x90x1 0 (NE-SW) 2 2 1 30xl 08x55(NE-SW) 1 08x90x10 (N-S) SCI MPS, dagger 1 , 3 3 2 1 1 x l28x52(NE-SW) 1 80x38x40(NE-SW) S C MPS, RBS 4 4 1 80x 123x 102(NE-SW) 1 20x 1 1 5(NE-SW) SCI MPS 5 5 1 2 1 x83x1 09(NE-SW) Destroyed ? MPS, RBS, arrowhead 2 6 6 210x 1 1 7x53(N-S) 1 40x90x20(NE-SW) SCI MPS, arrowhead 1 7 6-1 Missing (N/A) 120x30x50(NE-SW) SC MPS 8 7 3 1 5x 1 94x73(NW-SE) 1 30x70x35(NE-SW) SC MPS, arrowhead 1 9 8 144x96x73(NE-SW ) 80x60(NE-SW) SCI MPS 10 9 2 13x203x97(NE-SW) 1 40x1 20x l 5(NE-SW) SCI MPS 1 1 1 0 1 54x 1 1 2x77(NE-SW) 100x95x20(NE-SW) SCI MPS, RBS, net sinker 1 1 2 1 1 80x75x50(NE-SW) Not found NIA 13 1 2 246x 1 53x74(NE-SW) Destroyed ? MPS 14 1 3 270x 1 9 1 x 125(NE-SW) · 1 50x40x35(NW-SE ) SC MPS, RBS, arrowhead 2 1 5 1 4 226x 1 46x102(NE-SW) 1 58x68x15(NW-SE) SC 16 1 5 1 70x 1 27x65(NE-SW) 120x90(NW-SE ) 17 1 6 175x1 70x742(N-S) Not found SCI MPS N/ A dagger I , grooved adz 1 1 88 Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, MP: Mumun Pottery, N/ A: not applicable, RB: Red burnished Pottery, S: sherds, SC: stone cist, SCI: stone circle. Measurement in em. While numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dohnen in the midst of actual investigation. � 6 \)� � � - . . 3 �- . . 2 - � .-. - : -� Figure 66. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Salehi A Site (M. J. Choi 1988: 41 ) . 1 89 I . Figure 67. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Bunal Chambers at the Salehi B Site (S. R. Choi 1 988a 127, 1 29). 1 90 P\ I \ I \ ! I · ·�. c:o�t L .. � 8-§ • . 19 1 Figure 68. Examples of Stone Pavements and Stone hnplements and a Net-sinker Found at the Salehi B Site (S. R. Choi 1 988: 1 34, 144). 1 92 Geumpyeong Dolmens (858 Sinpyeong-ri, Songkwang-myeon, Seungju) In the site survey, 1 1 dolmens were reported at Geumpyeong village, which was located in an alluvial plain formed by the meandering of the Boseong River (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985 : 1 5 - 1 6). Before actual investigation, executed as a part of the Juam Dam project in 1 986 (first year), another dolmen capstone was identified, and the total number of dolmens at the Geumpyeong site turned out 1 2 (Figure 69). In total, eight burial chambers were identified under seven capstones among the 12 capstones investigated (Table 29). Under the capstone of dolmen No. 7, which was the largest dolmen capstone at Geumpyeong (324x2QOx1 80 em), a pair ofburial chambers --a stone cist and a pit grave-- were identified (Figure 69). The capstones of dolmens No. 1 1 and No. 1 2 turned out to be propping stones originally used to support a capstone of Dolmen No. 7. Two more capstones turned out to be merely huge rocks. While the stone cist burial chamber was dominant at the site, as shown in Table 29, the burial chamber of Dolmen No. 2, which was of unclear structure, might be a stone circle­ - which is not uncommon as a burial chamber structure in South Jeolla province. Along with a few Mumun Pottery sherds, the Geumpyeong dolmens yielded a few polished stone implements, including an arrowhead, a triangular knife, two daggers, and an earthen spindle whorl. In addition, three lithic specimens belonging to Upper Paleolithic Period were found in the midst of dolmen investigation. 1 93 Figure 69. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and a Paired Burial Chambers of Dolmen No. 7 at the Geumpyeong Site (Lim and Choi 1 987: 348, 360). Table 29. Geumpyeong Dolmens (B. T. Lim and E. J. Choi 1 987). Fea. Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size (Orientation) Structure 238x 1 58x85(N-S) 155x45 x35(NE-SW) sc MPS, dagger 1 , flake 1 2 2 200x 160x90(N-S) Unclear (?) SCI ? 1 cupmark on capstone 3 3 200x 140x60(NE-SW) 1 1 2x40x30(NE-SW) sc MPS 4 4 228x200x60(NE-SW) 165x65x60(E-W) sc MPS, arrowhead 1, dagger 1 5 5 360x280x60(NE-SW) 1 60x45x?(NE-SW) sc MPS, triangular knife I , 1 70x50x30(N-S) sc MPS, cbisel l 6 7 324x200x1 80(NE-SW) 1 90x 120x?(E-W) PG ? MPS, flake 1 , spindle whorl 1 7 8 -I 50x86x80(NE-SW) 1 1 5x40x?(E-W) sc Burial chamber size- lengtbxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidtbxtbickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, MP: Mumun Pottery, PG: pit grave, S : sherds, SC: stone cist, SCI: stone circle. Measurement in em. 194 While numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation. Gokcheon Dolmens (Usan-ri, Songkwang-myeon, Seungju) At the Gokcheon site, the initial site survey identified 1 6 dolmen capstones (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985 : 23-24), but three dolmen capstones located in a resident's front yard were excluded in the investigation. One dolmen capstone reported as being out of its original location was excluded from investigation, and five dolmen burial � chambers isolated from their original capstones were additionally identified and investigated (Figure 70). r---... ., I HlJL ; ,I . ! �-{M•S•L) fl . [ r·H·IJL\ &--6 1 95 0 . · • 0 :·j� · ( HI-IJL Figure 70. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and �urial Chambers I"']�_ - �- .... I . J(> '\ i_ . !__o:_"�-=-J>I'f]L ·. , Figure 75. Distribution of Dolmen Capstones and Burial Chambers at the Sabi Site (Son and Lee 1 988: 482-483). 208 ' I I I 209 l ·- ] Figure 76. Artifacts Recovered froin the Sabi Site (Son and Lee 1 988: 506-507). 2 1 0 In total 2 0 dolmens were investigated (Table 34), and the Sabi dolmen site was seriously damaged in general. Only a few stone implements were uncovered without any Mumun Pottery sherds (Figure 76). Table 34. Sabi Dolmens (B. H. Son and I. Y. Lee 1 988). Fea Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts .No Size (Orientation) Size (Orientation) S tructure 1 94x l 42x50(E-W) Not found N/A semilunar knife 1 2 2 256x 1 60x82(E-W) Not found N/A 3 3 254x 1 56x52(E-W) Not found N/A 4 4 244x1 66x76(E-W) 176x90x50(NW-SE) sc ax 1 5 5 192x140x 102(N-S) Not found NIA 6 6 234x204x66(NW -SE) 1 58x52x50(NW-SE) sc dagger 1 7 7 158x 1 34x l 14(NW-SE) Not found N/A dagger 1 8 8 1 84x 1 70x80(N-S) Not found N/A 9 9 1 52x 1 40x40(N-S) 148x84x46(N-S) sc 1 0 1 0 1 88x1 86x l l O(N-S) Not found N/A 1 1 1 1 1 60x126x100(N-S) 1 1 2x82x40(N-S) sc 1 2 1 2 126x 1 90x60(NE-SW) Not found N/A 1 3 1 3 358x2 88x l 70(N-S) 1 36x52x46(N-S) sc arrowhead 1 14 B l Missing (N/ A) 1 56x44x24(NW-SE) sc net sinker 1 , spindle whorl I 1 5 B2 Missing (N/A) 136x84x4Q(N.,..S) sc 1 6 B 3 Missing (N/A) 1 60x76x46(NW-SE) sc 17 B4 Missing (N/A) 1 88 x76x50(NW-SE) sc 1 8 B5 Missing (N/ A) 132x70x l4(NVV-SE) SC 19 B6 Missing (N/A) l 90x70x40(E-VV) sc 20 B7 Missing (N/ A) 1 60x 1 04x40(N-S) sc dagger 1 Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the long axis. Fea.: Feature, N/A: not applicable, SC: stone cist. Measurement in em. 2 1 1 VVhile numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each dolmen in the midst of actual investigation Yucheon Dolmens (Yupyeong-ri, Seungju-eup, Seungju) While all dolmen sites described above were located in the Boseong River Valley, where the main Juam Dam was to be constructed, the Yucheon dolmen site was located in the Isacheon River Valley, where the supplementary Isacheon Dam was to be constructed (Figure 77, see Figures 5 and 6). The geographical distance from the Yucheon site to other previously described dolmen sites was not much far. In the initial site survey, 1 4 dolmens reported at Yucheon site (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 985 : 34). A rock reported as a dolmen capstone turned out to be not a dolmen capstone, and a dolmen capstone buried under the surface was subsequently identified (Figure 77). In addition, a burial chamber isolated from its capstone was identified and investigated, and in total 9 dolmens, including an isolated burial chamber, were investigated (Table 35 , Figure 77). Out of the nine dolmens, five were of the Southern Type, adopting a stone circle as a burial chamber, and four were of the Capstone Type, adopting a stone cist as a burial chamber. 212 Figure 77. Location ofthe Yucheon Dolmen Site and Distribution of Dolmen Capstones at the Yucheon Site (C. G. Lee 1 988 : 341 , 344). 3 0 10c• �----· -i � , ... 0 6.: tt·-----, �Qo Q : \ . 3 , ,_ ' .. � .. ... ... .. _ ..... .. Figure 78. Distribution of Dolmen Burial Chambers at the Yucheon Site and Artifacts therein (Lee 1 988: 346, 367). 2 1 3 2 1 4 Along with a few Mumun pottery sherds, two polished stone daggers (including _an unfinished one), a discoidal mace, and three polished stone arrowheads were uncovered (Figure 78). The Yucheon dolmen site in the Isacheon River Valley was reported to share a similar dolmen culture with the site of the Boseong River Valley (C. G. Lee 1988: 338). Table 35 . Yucheon Dolmens (C. G. Lee 1 988). Fea. Capstones Burial Chambers Artifacts No. Size (Orientation) Size (Orientation) Structure 3 15x1 30x65(N-S) 1 50x50x? (N-S) 2 230xl 30x55CNVV-SE) 2 10x120x? (NVV-SE) SCI 3 1 93 x l 25x64(N-S) 1 70x100x? (N-S) SCI arrowhead 1 , 4 3 1 Ox240x92(N-S) 280xl 50x38(N-S) sc RB with eggplant design 1 5 1 90x125x28(N-S) 1 20x60x?(N-S) sc arrowhead 1 6 237x l 20x47(N-S) 160x 1 OOx??(N-S) SCI MPS, dagger piece 1 7 228x l 70x67(N-S) 1 70x35x20(N-S) SCI 8 245x 1 60x55 (N-S) 1 50x 1 1 Ox?(N-S) SCI 9 Missing (N/A) 1 45x47x30(N-S) sc Burial chamber size- lengthxwidthxheight. Capstone size- lengthxwidthxthickness. Orientation: direction of the log axis. Fea.: Feature, MP: Mumun Pottery, RB: Red burnished pottery, S: sherds, SC: stone cist, SCI: stone circle. Measurement in em. 2 1 5 Dolmen Summary In the Juam Dam archaeological project, a total of 3 8 1 dolmens at 23 locations were investigated, and the descriptive results of the investigations were published in four volumes of excavation reports, Research Reports on the Excavation of Cultural Relics in the Area Submerged by the Juam Dam (I) - (IV) (Jeonnam University Museum 1 987, 1 988a, 1 988b, 1 988c ) . Quantity of dolmens and dolmen burial chambers investigated at each ofthe 23 dolmen locations is listed in Table 36. The dolmen investigation of the Juam Dam submergence area was the largest scale of dolmen investigation not only in South Jeolla Province but also in the Korean Peninsula. Though, as of 1 987, a total of 1 0,871 dolmens of 1 ,208 groups had been identified in the South Jeolla Province, only 123 dolmens at 20 locations had been officially excavated, excluding the dolmens excavated in the Juam Dam archaeological project (Y. M. Lee 1 987: 12-1 3). While in total, 307 burial chambers were identified and investigated, 55 burial chambers were already isolated from their original capstones. Out of total 326 capstones, 24 7 capstones retained underground burial chambers, and paired burial chambers were identified under 5 single dolmen capstones as follows Dolmen No. 6 at the Hajuk C site, Dolmen No. 7 at the Geumpyeong site, Dolmen No. 3-1 at the Gokcheon site, and Dolmens No. 6 and No. 7 at the Banwol site. In total 79 capstones not associated with burial chambers are assumed to have been dislocated from original places by unknown processes or merely huge size of rocks rather than dolmen capstones. The structures of 3 07 burial chambers are classified into three types: stone cist, stone circle, and pit grave. As illustrated in Table 36, while as many as 236 dolmens (76.9 %) adopted a stone cist as their burial chamber structure, as few as 1 7 dolmens (5.5 %) adopted a pit grave as their burial chamber structure. Table 36. Dolmens and Dolmen Burial Chambers. 2 1 6 Sites Dolmens Capstones Burial Chambers Kinds of Burial Chambers Bokgyo 8 5 8 5 3 0 2 0 0 2 Gosuwol 1 5 7 1 4 7 8 8 0 0 0 3 Do long 1 5 3 1 1 3 1 2 4 1 2 0 0 0 4 Hans it 3 0 2 0 3 3 0 0 0 5 Singi A 19 0 1 0 0 1 9 9 1 2 7 0 0 6 Singi B 1 5 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 3 0 0 7 Juksan 1 3 3 8 3 1 0 5 9 0 0 8 Jangseon 9 9 8 0 8 0 0 0 9 Hajuk A 1 1 6 1 1 6 5 0 0 0 5 0 1 0 Hajuk B 1 5 4 1 0 4 1 1 5 9 0 2 0 1 1 Hajuk C 39 0 37 0 40 2 1 7 1 5 3 5 1 2 Sinwol C 1 6 1 0 1 4 1 0 6 2 6 0 0 0 1 3 Sinwol D 1 6 0 16 0 1 6 0 1 4 0 2 0 1 4 Sinwol H 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 4 0 4 0 0 0 1 5 Daejeon 1 6 1 4 1 1 5 2 1 2 0 0 3 1 6 Salehi A 1 4 1 4 1 3 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 7 Salehi B 1 7 2 1 6 2 1 5 5 8 0 2 2 1 7 QD D/B QC CIB QB B/C sc CI PG uc 1 8 Geumpyeong 1 2 5 1 2 5 8 0 6 0 1 9 Gokcheon 1 6 0 1 1 0 1 7 5 1 7 0 0 0 20 Naeu 58 8 52 8 50 6 45 4 1 0 2 1 Banwol 10 3 1 0 3 9 0 8 0 0 22 Sabi 20 8 1 3 8 12 7 12 0 0 0 23 Yucheon 9 0 8 0 9 4 5 0 0 Sum 3 8 1 79 326 79 307 5 5 236 41 17 1 3 Ratio 1 (%) 76.9 1 3.4 5.5 4.2 Ratio 2 (%) 80.3 1 4.0 5.8 B: burial chamber, C: capstone, CI: stone circle, D: dolmen, PG: pit grave, Q quantity, SC stone cist, /B: without burial chamber, /C: without capstone, UC: unclear. Ratio 1 : to all the burial chambers (307). Ratio 2: to all the burial chambers excluding 1 3 unclear ones (294) Along with Mumun Pottery, the dolmen burial chambers were furnished with Red burnished Pottery, earthen net-sinkers, jades, bronze daggers and arrowhead, and diverse stone implements such as grooved adzes, arrowheads, chisels, grinding stones and pestles, plane blades, spears, saw blades, daggers, stone knives, spindle whorls, and whetstones. Considering that no artifacts or only a few artifacts such as stone implements and Mumun Pottery sherds have been uncovered from the dolmens investigated in the Yeongsan River Valley and other regions of Korea, the dolmens of the Juam Dam submergence area are believed to yield relatively rich artifacts both in quantity and quality. In particular, four bronze implements, three Liaoning style daggers (Singi Dolmen No. 1 , and Naeu Dolmens No. 8 and No. 38) and an arrowhead (Singi Dolmen No. 1 5) 2 1 8 need special attention. Shortly after the Juam Dam archaeological project, more than 1 0 bronze implements had been uncovered from a few dolmens sites located in the South coast, and drew scholarly attention, such as Bonggye-dong (Y. M. Lee 1990), Jeokryang­ dong (Y. M. Lee and G J. Jeong 1 993), Pyeongyeo-dong (Y. M. Lee et al. 1 993), and Orim-dong (Y. M. Lee and G J. Jeong 1 992) dolmen sites. Before the Juam Dam dolmen excavations, however, a Liaoning style bronze dagger known to be uncovered from a dolmen at Wundae-ri in Goheung (Y. M. Lee 1993 : 39) was the only bronze implement reported from dolmen sites in South Jeolla Province, and less than ten bronze implements had been reported from dolmen sites in the Korean Peninsula as well. These artifacts furnished in dolmen burial chambers as burial goods and meaning of combinations of theses artifacts will be analyzed and discussed in the following Chapter V, comprehensively. Settlement Sites In South Jeolla Province, the most common archaeological features are dolmens and jar coffin burials, and these two burial features demonstrate the greatest concentration in South Jeolla Province. Accordingly, most of archaeological field studies in South Jeolla Province had been concentrated on these two burial features, easily noticed on the surface rather than other archaeological features, unnoticed on the surface. 2 1 9 Table 37. Pit Houses Reported in South Jeolla Province before the Juam Dam Project. Sites Location QOH Note Reference 1 Songam-dong Kwangju 1 MPP M. L. Choi 1 977 2 Wonsan-ri Kwangju MPP M. L. Choi 1 977 3 Wunam-dong Kwangju MPP Y. M. Lee 198 1 4 Jangcheon-ri Yeongam 1 2 MPP S . R. Choi 1 984, 1 986b, 1 986c 5 Geonsan-ri Jangheung MPP M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1 982 Sum 1 6 A profile o f pit house was identified at the Wunam-dong site and at the Geonsan-ri site, but these 2 houses were not actually excavated. MPP: Mumun Pottery Period. QOH: Quantity of Semi-subterranean Houses. As shown Table 37, before the Juam Dam archaeological project, extremely limited numbers of residential features had been reported in South Jeolla Province . . In the whole South Jeolla Province, only 14 semi-subterranean houses had been actually excavated. At Wunam-dong site and Geonsan-ri site, a profile of the Mumun Pottery Period semi-subterranean house was identified, but there were no actual excavations for these two sites. While a few more potential residential sites had been.reported, further field investigations on these sites beyond surveying and collecting some artifacts from the surrounding areas were not executed. In strict sense, therefore, Jangcheon-ri site, where 12 Mumun Pottery Period semi-subterranean houses were investigated, was the only dependable residential site investigated in South Jeolla Province before the Juam Dam archaeological project. Moreover, all these sites are located in the Y eongsan River Valley, and there was even no report of residential site in the Boseong River Valley. 220 As shown in Table 1 , the initial' site survey for the Juam Dam archaeological project reported 1 1 loci of scattered artifacts, assumed to be potential residential sites. Among them, in particular, the Dolong and Hansil sites at Daegok-ri, located on a relatively broad alluvial plain drew scholarly attention. Based on quite favorable environmental conditions for a location of prehistoric and protohistoric village and a variety of artifacts collected from site survey, Korean archaeological circle strongly believed the Do long site to be a large scale of village site over multiple archaeological periods. In the first field campaign of the Juam Dam project, the Naksu site located on a small plain in a low hillside of the Naksu village and the Do long and Hansil sites were investigated along with 1 0 dolmen sites in 1 986 (see Table 7). The field investigations were executed only for quite limited portions of these sites, and in total 1 0 semi­ subterranean houses were identified as following: 6 Iron Age II houses at the Naksu site, 2 Mumun Pottery Period houses and a Three Kingdoms Period house at the Do long site, and a Three Kingdoms Period house at the Hansil site. The outcome of these fieldworks was much more than first discovery of residential features in the Boseong River Valley. In particular, the Dolong site turned out a large scale village site that had been occupied for multiple archaeological periods, and based on the exceptional significance of these sites, archaeological circle called for detailed investigation of the whole areas of the site. Consequently, the first field campaign of these residential sites came to be trial investigations in order to figure out general characteristics of these sites. The third field campaign of the Juam Dam project was designed mainly for the detailed investigations of the Do long and Hansil sites at Daegok-ri and Naksu site. The Dolong and Naksu sites had been investigated over a three month period in 1 987 summer, and almost 200 archaeological features, ranging from Bronze Age through the Iron Age II, or even the Three Kingdoms Period, were identified and investigated (see Table 9). In 1 989, the fourth field campaign was designed for the investigations of the Hansil site and unexcavated part of the Do long site in the previous field campaigns. 221 The fourth field campaign also uncovered over 50 semi-subterranean features ranging from the Mumun Pottery Period to the Three Kingdoms Period from three residential sites, Do long and Hansil sites at Daegok-ri, and the Hajuk site at Juksan-ri (see Table 1 0) . All residential features investigated in the Juam Dam submergence area are summarized in Table 38 . Table 38 . Residential Features Identified in the Juam Dam Submergence Area. Sites MPH MPF IAH IAF TKH TKF Sum H F Sum Do long 70 5 1 73 2 1 2 0 208 1 55 53 208 2 Hansil 2 0 3 0 7 1 1 3 1 2 1 3 3 Gokcheon 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 3 4 Hajuk 2 0 7 0 0 0 9 9 0 9 5 Naksu 0 0 1 6 2 0 0 1 8 1 6 2 1 8 Sum 77 5 1 99 4 1 9 1 25 1 1 95 56 251 F: Feature, H: House, lA: Iron Age II; MP: Mumun Pottery Period, TK: Three Kingdoms Period 222 The excavation of residential sites in the Juam Dam project has a significant meaning in that it was the first field campaign to investigate the whole area of a residential site in the history of Korean archaeology. Before the Juam Dam project, most residential site investigations had been conducted in a way to find and investigate only a few semi-subterranean houses in a limited area rather than to investigate the whole site. Mostly not more than 1 0 features were investigated in a field campaign for one or two months, though occasionally a few sites had been excavated for a few times over several years. However, after the Juam Dam project, investigation of the whole area of an archaeological site became a basic formula in most rescue archaeological projects in Korea, and a number of large scale of field investigations have been conducted. As shown in Table 38, over 250 subterranean or semi-subterranean features, ranging from the Bronze Age to the Three Kingdoms Period, had been identified and investigated at five archaeological sites: the Naksu site at Naksu-ri, the Dolong and Hansil sites at Daegok-ri, the Gokcheon site at Usan-ri, Seungju County and the Hajuk site at Juksan-ri, Boseong County. Primary focus of this dissertation is to analyze, synthesize, and interpret the 38 1 dolmen burial structures investigated at 23 locations (see Table 36) rather than residential features. Extensive and detailed archaeological analysis of the residential culture of the Boseong River Valley focused on the Do long and Hansil sites at Daegok-ri, Seungju was already executed (S. 0. Kim 1 996). Because of importance of these sites to overall study of archaeological understanding of the region, however, they are briefly summarized here. 223 Gokcheon Site (Usan-ri, Songkwang-myeon, Seungju) The initial site survey reported a group of dolmens at Gokcheon village ofUsan- ri, and they were investigated as a part of the first field campaign in 1 9S6 (see Table 30). In the midst of the dolmen excavations, a semi-subterranean house was identified and investigated, and two more semi-subterranean houses were also investigated during another excavation designed for Paleolithic deposit in 1 987. In total, 3 pit houses were identified at Gokcheon site, and all the 3 houses belonged to the Mumun Pottery Period (Table 39). Pit houses associated with dolmens were also investigated at the Dolong site and the Hansil site of Daegok-ri, and at the Hajuk site of Juksan-ri in the Juam Dam area, and another example of this association was reported at the Jangcheon-ri site, Y eon gam in the Y eongsan River Valley as well (S. R. Choi 1 986b, 1 986c ) . Table 39. Gokcheon Site Houses (Y. J. Lee, et. al. 1 988a, 1 988b). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP Facility Artifacts Note No. 390x3 1 Ox24(E-W) ov ph, he, storage, entrance MP, ah 2, ax 1 , ns2 destroyed by fire 2 290( diameter)x25 ro ph MP, ah 8 outside ph 3 4 1 0x280xl 0(NNV-SE) OV ph MP charcoal Size - long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth. Orientation: direction of the long side, ah: polished stone arrowhead, Fea.: Feature, FP: floor plan, he: hearth, MP: Mumun Pottery, ns: net sinker, ov: oval, ph: posthole, ro: round. Measurement in em. 224 House No. 1 was identified in the midst of dolmen excavations in 1 986, and the oval plan house floor was reported to be hardened without special treatments such as plastering with clay or firing. Five postholes were found inside the house wall, and four were found outside the house wall. An entrance paved with cobbles was identified in the southeastern comer of the house, and an outside hearth was also found. An oval plan (26.5x22.5 em) storage pit was identified in the western comer of the house. Based on charcoal inside the house, it was assumed to have been destroyed by fire rather than other reasons. Along with a few Mumun Pottery sherds, a few stone implements were uncovered, including an ax, two arrowheads, and two net sinkers (Figure 79). The shallow house wall was reported to be an evidence of a transition from semi-subterranean houses to above-ground houses (Y. J. Lee et al. 1 988a). House No. 2 and House No. 3 were exposed in the midst of investigation for Paleolithic Culture in 1 987. The floor of House No. 2 of round plan was also hardened without evidence of special treatment. Outside the house wall, 1 2 postholes set at a regular interval were found (Figure 80). Along with Mumun Pottery sherds, 8 polished stone arrowheads were uncovered from the house. The same kind of floor hardening was also noticed at House No. 3 . Inside the house wall, 3 small and 1 large postholes were found, and there was much charcoal in the center of the house within an area of 82cm x68 em across. No artifacts were uncovered except for only a few Mumun Pottery sherds (Figure 80). A - 0 il'R'l! I i< (; -M""" A - I . ! ) f .I /) ( ' \ I ., I N ::·-. : ... : l J .f 0 lm � . ., - A' 95.5c.: Figure 79. House No. 1 and Ston� Implements therein at the Gokcheon Site (Y. J. Lee 1988a: 84-85). 225 I · 0 A - 0 I o 1n I ---------------- _() -- - - - ' 0 ' . . ' � ' ' - A' 0 0 - A' Figure 80. Houses No. 2 (top) and No. 3 (bottom) from the Gokcheon Site (Y. J. Lee et al. 1988b: 1 00, 1 03). 226 227 Hajuk site (Juksan-ri, Mundeok-myeon, Boseong and Bokgyo-ri, Nam-myeon, Hwasun) As mentioned, the initial site survey reported four groups of dolmens at the Hajuk village on an alluvial plain developed by the Dongbok River, a branch stream of the Boseong River, and in total 65 dolmens were investigated (see Tables 20-22). The site survey also reported artifacts such as a polished stone dagger and Kimhae and Baekje Pottery sherds around the Hajuk dolmen groups. Based on environmental conditions and these artifacts, the Hajuk site was considered as a potential residential site occupied over more than one archaeological period (M. L. Choi and Y. M. Lee 1985 : 47). In the midst of the dolmen excavations, an iron arrowhead, a few stone tools and a variety of pottery sherds were also collected, and the heavy rain of 1 987 summer exposed a number of artifacts at five localities and a profile of a destroyed semi-subterranean house. As described above, 8 Jeulmun Pottery sherds, the first appearance of Jeulmun pottery from the inland South Jeolla Province drew serious scholarly attention (Y. H. Hwang 1988: 227-229; Y. M. Lee 1 988). The Jeulmun Pottery sherds also proposed a possibility of the existence of Neolithic features, specifically, semi-subterranean houses at the Hajuk site which had not been reported in South Jeolla Province yet. Another field investigation for the study of residential features of the Hajuk site was included in the fourth field campaign of the Juam Dam project. At 5 localities of the Hajuk site, in total 9 pit houses were investigated. Two houses from the Bokgyo locality were those ofMumun Pottery Period, and the other 7 houses from 3 localities at the Hajuk village were those of the Iron Age II. 228 Figure 8 1 . Locations of the Hajuk Site and other neighboring Sites: Bokgyo locality (left), Hajuk localities (middle and right) (After Song et al. 1 990: 241). . A Figure 82. House No. 1 and Artifacts therein at the Bokgyo Locality of the Hajuk Site (Song et al. 1 990: 260-261). 229 A - . . . . 0 l m .= Figure 83. House No. 2 and Artifacts therein at the Bokgyo Locality of the Hajuk Site (Song et al. 1 990: 263-264). 230 23 1 Jeonnam University Museum, which took charge of 3 localities among the total the 5 localities of the Hajuk site, investigated the Bokgyo locality (Figure 8 1 ). The heavy rains of 1 987 summer exposed the profile of House No. 1 , and in the midst of investigation of this house, House No. 2 was identified. Both pit houses were features of the Mumun Pottery Period (Table 40). Table 40. Hajuk Site Houses at the Bokgyo Locality (J. H. Song et al. 1 990). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP Facility Artifacts Note No. 695x265?x l 7(E-W) ro ph, pr, dp MP, ah, discoidal mace, extended from a round plan chisel house 2 370x350xl 5 (N/A) ro ph, dp MP, ah, grindstone, point workshop for stone tools? Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction of long side, ah: polished stone arrowhead, dp: depression, Fea.: Feature, FP: floor plan, MP: Mumun Pottery, ph: posthole, ro: round. Measurement in em. The House No. 1 was already seriously destroyed not to allow measure its size (Figure 82). Based on the distribution of postholes and charcoal on the floor, this house was reported to be projected from a round floor plan house of a diameter of about 560 em. At the center of the house floor, a depression ( 1 1 0cmx 1 20cmx35cm) surrounded by three postholes of diameter 25 cmx35-40 em were found. It was reported that 4 postholes rather than the identified 3 postholes had encircled the depression in the original context. The house floor was hardened with clay, and 2 1 postholes of 1 0 em (diameter) x 1 0 em (depth) set at regular intervals of about 20 em were identified along the house wall. A 232 few Mumun Pottery sherds and a few stone implements, including a discoidal mace, arrowheads, a plane blade, and a saddle quem were uncovered from the house. While a radiocarbon date of 2950 ± 1 20 B.P. (95 % confidence interval, half life 5570 years) was yield from charcoal data from the House No. 1 , reporters regarded this radiocarbon date to be much earlier than actual date of the house based on the current chronological view. House No. 2 also had a depression ( 100cmx40cmx 1 5cm) at the center of the house floor, and a posthole was identified at the each side of the depression (Figure 83). Postholes were also identified outside house wall. There were Mumun Pottery sherds and some stone implements inside the depression, including a polished arrowhead, a grindstone, unidentified cobble tools, raw materials, and unfinished stone tools. Based on the stone implements and raw stone materials, House No. 2 was assumed to be a workshop of manufacturing stone implements rather than an ordinary house for residence. Hansil Site (288-293 Daegok-ri, Sonkwang-myeon, Seungju) Hansil village and Dolong village are two natural villages of the Daegok-ri, Seungju. These two villages were separated by the Songkwang River, a branch stream ofthe Boseong River, and they faced each other across the River (Figure 84). 10 10 ao .. 233 F igure 84. Locations of the Hansil and Dolong Sites and Local Geography of the Hansil Site (M. H. Lee et al. 1 990: 35 1 ; Seo and Seong 1 989: 492). 234 As a part of the first field campaign of the Juam Dam project, the Hansil site was excavated for a month period along with the Do long site in 1 986 winter. The field investigation identified a Three Kingdoms Period semi-subterranean house at Hansil site. The whole area of the Hansil site, about 2,000 m2 was planned to be investigated in 1987 summer with the Dolong site, but the investigation of 1 987 was limited to set a few trenches without identifying or investigating more archaeological features. It was because the heavy rains halted the fieldwork for a month period, and the committee of the Juam Dam archaeological project placed a primary stress on the investigation of the Dolong site rather than that of the Hansil site. The Hansil site was investigated as a part ofthe fourth field campaign of the Juam Dam project for two month period. While a total of 1 3 semi-subterranean features ( 12 houses and 1 storage pit) were identified and investigated at the Hansil site, they have been assumed to be only a limited portion of residential features of the Hansil site, considering the size and temporal range of the Hansil site. Among the 1 3 semi-subterranean houses, 2 pit houses were reported to be belonged to the Mumun Pottery Period (Table 41 ), and the other houses belonged to the Iron Age II or Three Kingdoms Period. Overall archaeological characteristic of the Hansil site was reported to be not much different from that of the Do long site. However, it was reported that while the Dolong site had been aggressively occupied from the Mumun Pottery Period through the Iron Age II, or Three Kingdoms Period, the Hansil site had been occupied mainly after the Iron Age II rather than during the Mumun Pottery Period. According to the excavation report, while pit houses after the Iron Age II were 235 identified in the whole area of the site; the Mumun Pottery Period pit houses were only identified at certain area ofthe site. In addition, while in case of the Dolong site, quite a portion of the Mumun Pottery Period houses were round floor plan house with a depression in the center of the floor, the round floor plan houses were not identified at the Hansil site. Also, the population occupation at the Hansil site was assumed to have been lasted until a little later period than at the Do long site, and this idea was based on tlie appearance oflater types of pottery at the Hansil site, as late as the 5th century A.D. (M. H. Lee, et al. 1990: 347-348). Table 4 1 . Hansil Site Houses: Mumun Pottery Period (M. H. Lee, et al. 1990). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP Facility Artifacts Note No A4 495x298x l 5(E-W) rr projection ( 1 60x70) MP projection at north wall: entrance? AS 500-520x 10-15 ro ph, projection, MP, RB, EG, projection at north: storage pit (50x25) ax, ns entrance? Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction of long side, EG: eggplant design pottery, fP: floor plan, MP: Mnmnn pottery, ns: net sinker, ph: posthole, RB: red burnished pottery, ro: ronnd, rr: rectangular with ronnd comers. Measurement in em. Dolong Site (577-586 Daegok-ri, Songkwang-myeon, Seungiu) As mentioned, the Songkwang River divided Daegok-ri into two natural villages facing each other, the Do long village and Hansil villages. While the Do long village, where the Do long site was located, was placed in west, the Hansil village, where the 236 Hansil site was located, was placed in·east respectively (see Figure 84). To the east side of the Dolong village, the Songkwang River flew, and the other three directions ofthe Do long village were surrounded by low hills. The Songkwang River in front of the Do long village had a great volume of water, and had provided abundant aquatic products. It was believed that the physical environmental conditions of the Do long village during the prehistoric and historic periods had been quite favorable to support a large scale faming village. Korean archaeological circle fully appreciated the significance of the Dolong residential site, and the investigation of the Do long site was included in three field studies among the total four field campaigns of the Juam Dam archaeological project. The field campaigns to the Do long site thoroughly uncovered an area as wide as some 4,800 m2, and identified as many as 208 archaeological features, including semi-subterranean houses, storage pits or workshops, and kilns. All archaeological features uncovered at the Do long site by the three field campaigns are summarized in Table 40. Except for three Iron Age II houses uncovered at a hillside behind the main excavation area in 1 989, all the archaeological features investigated at the Dolong site are illustrated in Figure 85. The period names of"Bronze Age I" and "Bronze Age II" in the Figure 85 are interchangeable with those of "Bronze Age" and "Iron Age I" adopted here, respectively. Archaeological features at the Do long site and artifacts therein implied that the Do long site had been occupied from the middle of the Bronze Age, as early as the 5th century B.C. through the Three Kingdoms Period, as late as 5th century A.D. 237 In the first investigation of the Dolong site in 1 986, as mentioned, 3 semi- subterranean houses consisting of 2 Mumun Pottery Period houses and a Three Kingdoms Period house were uncovered (Figure 86). It was the first discovery of prehistoric or protohistoric residential features in the Boseong River Valley, and the significance of this incident was seriously appreciated much more than a discovery of a residential site. It turned out to be a discovery of one of the largest prehistoric and protohistoric village sites in the whole Korean Peninsula. Table 42. Houses and Features Identified at the Dolong Site (Choi et al. 1 989, 1 990; Seo and Seong 1989; Lee et al. 1 990). Year MPH MPF IAH IAF TKH TKF Sum H F Figure 85 1 1 986 (K) 2 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 Area A 2 1 987 (S+K) 60 5 1 50 1 l 0 173 1 2 1 52 Area A & C 2A 1 987 (S) 26 22 25 0 0 74 5 1 23 Area C 2B 1987 (K) 34 29 25 0 1 1 0 99 70 29 Area A 3 1 989 (S) 8 0 23 0 0 32 3 1 Area B Sum 70 5 1 73 2 1 2 0 208 155 53 F : Features, H: Houses, lA: Iron Age II, MP: Mumun Pottery Period, TK: Three Kingdoms Period S : Seoul University. K: Kwangju Museum. The scholarly significance of the site called for thorough investigation of the whole area of the site, and the third field campaign of the Juam Dam project in 1 987 was mainly designed for the investigation of the Dolong site. Due to the considerable size of the Do long site, the site was divided into north region and south region (Area A and Area ---- ------ ---------- ----- --- 238 C in the Figure 85, respectively), and each region was assigned to Kwangju Museum and Seoul University for excavation, respectively. In the field campaign of 1 987, a total of 173 archaeological features, consisting of 12 1 semi-subterranean houses, 50 Mumun Pottery Period features, and 2 pottery kilns were uncovered by the two institutes. In 1989, there was another field investigation of the Dolong site for the Area B (see Figure 85) which was not excavated in the third field campaign of 1 987, and additional 32 archaeological features were uncovered (Table 42). As shown in Table 42, in total 208 archaeological features were uncovered at the Dolong site through three field studies, and in total 12 1 archaeological features were reported to be the Mumun Pottery Period features. The 1 2 1 Mumun Pottery Period features consisted of70 pit houses (Table 43), 50 small features (Table -44), and a Mumun Pottery kiln (Figure 87). The characteristic of the 50 small features was not clearly identified. While some of them were reported as independent storage pits (Seo and Seong 1 989: 461 -464), a few of them were assumed to be outside hearths and Mumun Pottery kilns (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 235). Mumun Pottery Period houses were divided into two types based on the house floor plan and presence of a depression in the center of house floor, often assumed to be a workshop. Except for an oval floor plan house, all the Mumun Pottery Period houses found at the Do long site showed a round floor plan or rectangular floor plan, and the depression was identified only in the round floor plan houses except quite limited cases (see Table 43). The round floor plan house with the workshop facility was placed in earlier phase than the rectangular floor plan house without the workshop facility. 239 Table 43. Dolong Site Houses (Choi, et al. 1989, 1 990; Seo and Seong 1 989). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP/Facility Artifacts Note No. Seoul University 1987 2 400xl 90x30(NVV-SE) re/ MP, ah, ns 3 storage/warehouse ? 2 5 400x300x1 8(NNV-SE) rr/pr: en, hearth ( dp} MP, rp, ah 2, ns, workshop for stone sw 3 , chisel 2, tool manufacture ? dagger 1 , gs 3, etc. pr: entrance ? 3 8 5 10x380x l O(N-S) rr/ MP 4 9 460x400x 12(NNV-SE) rr/ MP, ah 2, rp 5 1 0 430x380x l 0(NE-SVV) rr/ MP, ah 1 6 1 5 .580x3 1 Ox7(N-S) rr/ MP 7 17 460x3 80x20(NE-SW) rrlhearth MP, ax, chisel destroyed by ftre he: convex lens type 8 1 8 650x5 50x 1 O(NE-SW) rr/ MP, grooved adze floor only 9 20 ? x300x20(NE-SVV ?) rr/ MP, ah, sw, ns 4 1 0 22 400x300x20(NVV-SE) rr/ph, dp : 1 10x65 x l 5 MP, sw, rp dp with postholes 1 1 28 ?x?x27(?-?) rr/ MP ftred earth 1 2 29 670x20 ro/ph, dp: 105 x?x? MP, ah 3, dp (ph): workshop 1 3 3 0 3 50x?x?(NE-SW?) rr/ MP, gs 14 33 7 1 0 x l 0 ro/ MP 1 5 34 5 10x460x45(NVV-SE) ro/ph ? MP, sw, ah destroyed 1 6 37 400x390x25(NVV-SE) rr/ph, MP he (pit: 65x55 x 1 5) 17 3 8 290x?x5(?-?) rr/ MP, ns 2, ah 1 8 3 9 3 80x250x 1 5(NNV -SE) rr/ MP 1 9 43 450x430x30(E-S) re/dp(ph): MP, rnano workshop? 240 20 46 430x340x30�E-SVV) rr/ MP 2 1 48 3 10x240x35�-SE) rr/ MP house ? 22 49 340x260x9(NE-SVV) rr/ MP, RB destroyed by fire 23 5 1 560x25 ro/ph, dp MP, ns 24 52 320x260x27(E-VV) n/ MP, pb, tk 25 53 3 1 0x260x1 0�-SE) rr/entrance, dp (he) MP entrance (shelf) 26 58 300x2 1 Ox7(NVV -SE) rr MP storage/ warehouse Seoul University 1 989 27 2 660(d)x35 ro/ dpl : 1 50x90x54 MP dps crossed at right dp2: 1 1 Ox90x? angle. 28 5 ?x?x? ?I MP fired floor only 29 7 4 1 Ox350x22(NE-SVV) ov/dp: 1 50x l 00x40 30 12 3 1 Ox280x26(NVV -SE) n/ph MP 1 ph in the house center. fired floor 3 1 1 6 ?x?x? ?/dp MP dp only 32 1 9 420x380x20�E-SVV) n/ph, dp: l30x56x 1 5 MP postholes in both sides of the dp 33 2 1 300x275x32 re/ MP 34 27 430x30 ro/dp: 1 00x50x20 partly fired floor Kwangju Museum 1 987 35 1 686x642x28(E-W) ro/ph, dp: 140x84x38 MP, dagger, ns, dp: workshop pit ah 3, gs 36 2 500�550x24 ro/ph, dp: 1 30x62x24 MP, ah, gs dp: workshop pit 37 3-1 3 1�350x1 3 · ro/ MP, dagger, ah, oxidized steel 38 5 350x 1 0 ro? MP, charcoal destroyed by fire 39 7 490x405x26�E-SW) rr/ MP, sw, charcoal destroyed by fire 241 40 8 61 0x41 8 x 1 8(NW-SE) rr/ MP, sq 41 9 420x28 ro/ph, dp: 130x50x 1 0 MP, rp dp: workshop pit 42 1 0 550x430x41 (NW -SE) rr/ph MP, chisel, ax, destroyed by fire charcoal C14: B.c. 430±too 43 1 1 390x 1 6 ro/ph, dp: 75x55 ah, MP, gs 2 dp: workshop pit 44 1 2 385x3 1 Ox29(NE-SW) re/ MP, ah, clay bead, destroyed by fire pb, sk 45 1 3 496x420x2 1 (NE-SW) ref MP, ah, tk, da, gs destroyed by fire 46 14 450x360x 1 5 (NW-SE) rr/ MP, sw, gs 47 14-1 3 80x270x27(E-W) rr/ MP 48 1 5 390-420x l 9 ro/dp: 140x85x27 MP, ns, stone tools workshop for st. 49 1 6 4 10x330x28(NW-SE) rr/ MP 50 1 6-2 420x240x5(NE-SW) rr/ MP, ah, gs, 5 1 1 7 465x460x 1 9 rr/ph, ah, gs, RB pebbles in the dp: 1 80x 1 00x20 posthole 52 1 8 390x308x26(N-S) rr/ pr, fired earth MP, ah fired earth ( 1 00x50) 5 3 1 8- 1 470-520x1 9 ro/ph, pr: 1 1 0x 1 55 gs, knife, ah, RB dp: 1 20x70x20, 54 2 1- 1 390-400x6 ro/ph, dp: 145x80x6 MP, ah dp with ph: · 55 22 540x450x20(NW-SE) rr/ph, MP, ah, gs, rp 56 26 480x420x1 5(NE-SW) rr/dp: 100x44xl 3, MP, gs, RB an accessory pit fired earth 57 27 430x355x22(NE-SVV) rr/ph, dp: 90x55x20 MP, sq, ah 4, ax, an accessory pit ns, rp 58 29 41 Ox350x25(N-S) rr/ph, pr, fired earth MP, sk, rp, 59 32-1 ? rr?/ MP 60 33-1 400+x360+x36 rr?/ MP, knife accessory pit 6 1 34 520x500x 1 7 rr/ph, dp: 1 20x50x27 MP, adz, gs 5 accessory pit 242 62 34-1 390x370x41 rr/ph, pr (70x70: ah, pb, gs, rp pr: many stone tools semicircle) 63 36 690-720x21 ro/ tk, ah, dagger, RB, MP 64 37 ?x?x20 ro?/ph MP, gs 2 accessory pit 65 38-1 4 1 0x41 0x 1 0 rr/ MP, gs 66 39 720x6 1 5 x l9(NW-SE) ov/ph, dp: 1 60x80x3 1 ah, chisel, gs, rp dp: stone and chisel) 67 40 477x350x24(NW-SE) rr/ MP, pb, gs 68 40-1 435x3 10x20(NW-SE) rr/ MP, sw, gs, sq 69 43 447x300x30(N-S) rr/ MP, spear 70 48 580x370x25(E-S) re/ unfinished stone destroyed by fire tools, MP, RB, C14 (B.c. 2SO± t oo) Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction oflong side. ah: polished stone arrowhead, dp: depression, en: entrance, Fea.: Feature, tp: floor plan, gs: grinding stone, he: hearth, MP: Mumun Pottery, ns: net sinker, pb: plane blade, ph: postholes, , pr: projection, re: rectangular, ro: round, rp: rim-perforated pottery, rr: rectangular with rounded corners, sk: semi-lunar knife, sq: saddle quem, st: stone tools, sw: spindle whorl, tk: triangular knife .. Measurement in em . . While numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each feature in the midst of actual investigation. Table 44. Dolong Site Small Features (Choi, et al. 1 989; Seo and Seong 1 989). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP Artifacts Note No. Seoul University 1 987 1 00x88x30(NW-SE) ov little charcoal 2 2 1 00x90x l O(N-S) rr Mumun Pottery fired clay and charcoal 3 3 1 1 5 x90x 1 6(NE-SW) ov little charcoal 4 4 1 50xl43x 1 9(NW-SE) re little charcoal 5 5 1 1 6x80x30(NE-SW) re Mumun Pottery frred clay and charcoal 243 6 6 1 40x 125x22(N-S) re Mumun Pottery 7 7 1 40x88x14(N-S) re arrowhead 1 , dagger 1 8 8 146x80x7(E-W) re Mumun Pottery 9 9 1 90x90x 1 O(E-W) re Mumun Pottery 10 10 88x62x9(NE-SW) re Mumun Pottery charcoals 1 1 1 1 1 30x 1 00x8(NE-SW) OV charcoals 12 12 120x100x7(NE-SW) ro fired clay and charcoal 1 3 1 3 100x 1 88x 1 3(NW-SE) ov 14 14 1 00x70x32(E-W) ov charcoal J I 1 5 1 5 1 16x86x34(NW-SE) re Mumun Pottery 1 6 1 6 1 1 8x52x25(NE-SW) re 17 17 94x64x70(N-S) ov Mumun Pottery fired clay and slates 1 8 1 8 1 1 Ox50x8(NW-SE) ov 19 1 9 1 56x l46x20(N-S) ro charcoal 20 20 90x76x 19(NW-SE) ov Mumun Pottery charcoal 2 1 2 1 90x60x26(NE-SW) OV 22 22 1 30x 1 OOx 1 O(NE-SW) ov much charcoal Kwangju Museum 1987 23 A 165xl50x35(N-S) ov arrowhead 24 B 1 30x 1 1 0x58(N�SW) IT MP, arrowhead, gs 25 c 1 1 Ox77x?(NE-SW) re 26 D 1 90x 1 64x52(E-W) ov Mumun Pottery 27 E 1 30x90x50(NE-SW) ov Mumun Pottery 28 F 95x90x38(N-S) tr Mumun Pottery 244 29 G 1 70x 1 55x40(N-S) ro Mumun Pottery 30 H 1 1 5 x 1 00x40(E-W) ro Mumun Pottery 3 1 I 1 03x93x35(NW-SE) ro arrowhead 32 J 1 02x75x35(NE-SW) IT 33 K 1 1 5 x 107x45(NE-SW) ro MP, arrowhead, RB, , gs 34 L 63x45x 12(NW-SE) IT 35 M 1 10x6 1 x 15(N-S) OV 36 N 80x40x12(NE-SW) fan Mumun Pottery 37 0 1 90x 1 32x70(NW-SE) OV Mumun Pottery 8 p 129x48x 1 9(E-W) OV 39 Q 125x80x33(N-S) tr Mumun Pottery 40 R 1 00x90x 1 8(NE-SW) ro Mumun Pottery � 41 s 142x 1 03x40(NE-SW) ov MP, arrowhead, gs 42 T 1 75x128x40(NW-SE) IT 43 u 82x56x19(E-W) IT Mumun Pottery 44 v 1 20x80x35(N-S) tr 45 w 90x55x 15(NW-SE) ov Mumun Pottery 46 X 1 1 Ox78x22(NW-SE) ov 47 y 1 00x67x40(NE-SW) IT Mumun Pottery 48 z 320x1 05x 10(NE-SW) ov Mumun Pottery 49 AI 1 80x75x35(NW-SE) tr 50 BI 220x70x25(E-W) ? Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction of long side, ah: polished stone arrowhead, Fea.: Feature, fp: floor plan, gs: grinding stone, RB: red burnished pottery, re: rectangular, ro: round, rr: rectangular with rounded comers. Measurement in em. : · ... · . . .. •.· ... . ·. ··�·. ·.-._: . 245 r-----,._ Am c·----.. Figure 85 . Local Geography of the Dolong Site and the Distribution ofthe Residential Features (M. L. Choi et al. 1 990: 455; S . 0. Kim 1 996: 98). ------------------------ - - - - - l 246 ·-� ® 0 G --0· - L-.@., . @ L.@ . - - · -- -------. 0 3 m " \ r 0 v v c:::;7 I Figure 86. Examples ofthe Pit Houses at the Do long Site: Bronze Age Houses (® (2)) and Three Kingdoms Period House (@) (Seo and Seong 1 989: 497). \��� (0['J 0 10Cflll l m Figure 87. A Mumun Pottery Kiln and Artifacts therein at the Do long Site (Seo and Seong 1 989. 53 1 , 556). 247 248 Sites of the Iron Age II (Proto Three Kingdoms Period) and Later Periods In South Jeolla Province, as mentioned, though 1 6 Mumun Pottery Period pit houses were identified or investigated at 5 locations, there was no report of any residential site of the Iron Age II. Sinchang-ri jar coffin burial site (W. Y. Kim 1 964), Masan-ri site (M. L. Choi 1 976b), and Gungok-ri shellmound site (S. R. Choi 1 987b, 1988b, 1989) were almost all sites of the Iron Age II formally investigated in the region. As shown in Table 38, however, the Juam Dam archaeological project identified and investigated 123 archaeological features dated to the Iron Age II or later period consisting of 1 1 8 semi-subterranean houses, 1 kiln, and 4 storage facilities from 4 locations. Thanks to these archaeological data from these residential sites, there is no doubt about continuous population habitation in the Boseong River Valley from as early as Upper Paleolithic or even Mesolithic Age to the historical periods. Hajuk Site (Juksan-ri, Mundeok-myeon, Boseong) Overall picture of the Hajuk site was already mentioned in the section of the Mumun Pottery Period sites. While Jeonnam University investigated 3 localities among the 5 localities, Gyeonghui University and Seonggyunkwan University· excavated one locality, respectively. The localities of the Hajuk site investigated by Gyeonghui University, Seonggyunkwan University, and Jeonnam University are named locality G, 249 locality S , and locality J, respectively. In total, 7 semi-subterranean houses dated to the Iron Age II were investigated at the Hajuk site (Table 45) along with 2 Mumun Pottery Period houses at the Hajuk site. A pit house exposed by the heavy rain of 1 987 summer was fully investigated at the locality G The house had a square floor plan with rounded comers, and the floor was covered with about 3 em thick clay. In the northern wall, a hearth built by clay and cobbles was found, and four postholes were identified outside the house wall. Two stone net sinkers, Mumun and lattice patterned pottery sherds, and a grindstone were all artifacts uncovered from the house. Considering, the relatively small size, limited amount of artifacts, and clay masses, this feature was supposed to be a space to manufacture pottery rather than a residential place (Y. H. Hwang and B. S . Sin 1 990). At the locality 'S ' , 2 pit houses were investigated. House B l has an oval floor plan, and a hearth facility was identified at the southeastern comer of the house. Postholes set at regular intervals of about 30cm were identified outside the house wall, and this house yielded a polished stone dagger, a net sinker, and lattice design pottery sherds. House S2 had a round floor plan, and the diameter of house floor was reported to be 540-550 em. The house floor was covered by clay ( 5 - l 0 em thick), and there was a hearth. Only a few lattice design pottery sherds were uncovered (B: H. Son and I. Y. Lee 1 990; J. H. Song, et al. 1 990). Jeonnam University identified 4 houses of the Iron Age II at 2 localities (Houses J l -J4). Houses J 1 and J2 were identified nearby the Hajuk C Dolmen site, and the other two houses (J3 and J4) were identified at a low hillside behind the Hajuk village. I ' I ' 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 \ \ 1 \ \ ' \ ' ' '• '·. .. 1 '\...-- ____ -..J. r--' 250 � A ' . A' E \ U Figure 88. House J1 and Artifacts therein at the Hajuk Site (Song et al. 1 990: 25 1 -253). 25 1 Table 45 . Hajuk Site Houses (Hwang & Shin 1 990; Son & Lee 1 990: Song et al. 1 990). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP FT Facility Artifacts Note No. G1 205x250x30 rr cl ph, hearth lithic ns 2, MP, outside house postholes whetstone 1 , po 2 . S l 246x207x50(N-S) ov X ph, hearth lithic ns 2, ax, po outside house postholes 3 S2 540�550x40-50 ro cl hearth po, 4 J1 500x450x45(N-S) rr X hearth 2 ah 2 iron ah, sw, half destroyed, charcoal, fired post and clay masses, stoneware 5 J2 500x500x? rr X ah 2, po 6 J3 525x495x27(N-S) rr ha hearth, po drainage 7 14 420x370x50 (N-S) OV X hearth charcoal, po house? Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction of long side, cl: clay, fP: floor plan, ft: floor treatment, MP: Mumun Pottery, ns: net sinker, ph: posthole, po: lattice patterned, mat impressioned, or cord patterned pottery, ro: round, rr: rectangular with round corners, sci: sandy clay, sw: spindle whorl. Measurement in em. G: Gyeonghui University, S : Seonggyunkwan University, J Jeonnam University. House structure, inside and outside facilities, and artifacts uncovered from these houses are summarized in the Table 45, and the relationship between the House No. J 1 (Figure 88) and Hajuk C Dolmen No. 1 -9 (see Table 22) called for interpretation. The distance between the House J1 and burial chamber of Dolmen No. 1 -9 (a stone circle structure) was only 20 em, and the level of the house floor was about 60 em lower than that of the dolmen layer. According to the reporters (Song et al. 1 990: 2 1 9), populations of the Mumun Pottery Period and Iron Age II had dwelled on the similar level of ground surface, and this interpretation could explain the existence of artifacts belonging to 252 multiple archaeological periods from Neolithic to Iron Age II or even Three Kingdoms Period on the same layers. Though the Hajuk site, located at an alluvial plain developed by the meandering of the Boseong River, is believed to share quite comparable overall characteristics with the Dolong site, unlike the case of the Dolong site thorough investigation of the site was not allowed, and only as few as 9 pit houses were uncovered. Considering the environmental conditions and physical size of the Hajuk site, and such various types and kinds of artifacts collected from the surface layer, spread over multiple archaeological periods from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age II or the Three Kingdoms Period, however, there is no doubt that archaeological significance of the Hajuk site was not less than that of the Do long site. Hansil Site (Daegok-ri, Songk:wang-myeon, Seungju) The overall character of the Hansil site was already presented in the section of the sites during the Mumun Pottery Period. At the Hansil site, a total of 1 3 features were identified and investigated during the first and fourth field campaigns of the Juam Dam project in 1 986 and 1 989. Except for two Mumun Pottery Period pit houses, all features uncovered at the Hansil sites were dated to the Iron Age II or the Three Kingdoms Period (Table 46), specifically, 3 pit houses to the Iron Age II, and 1 storage facility (Figure 89) and 7 pit houses to the Three Kingdoms Period. . • t· . 8 - -) 253 Figure 89. Feature C4 and Artifacts therein at the Hansil Site (Lee et al. 1 990: 38 1 -382) . . 254 ® 0"==-===�S===:dalOcm Figure 90. Pottery from the Hansil Site: examples presented to be similar to those from jar coffin burials ofthe Yeongsan River Valley (Lee et al. 1 990: 362-363). 255 Basically, the presence of grayish blue kyeongjil pottery (finer and harder pottery) was adopted as a main criterion to distinguish the features of the Three Kingdoms Period from those ofthe Iron Age II. This criterion was also applied to the cases ofthe Dolong site as well. A few pottery types from the Hansil site (Figure 89) were viewed to be quite similar to those from jar coffin burials with huge earthen mounds of the Yeongsan River Valley. Based on the chronological view on the burials, the occupation of the Hansil site was proposed to be continued until the 5th century A.D. or even later phase (M. H. Lee et al. 1 990: 347). In addition, a radiocarbon date from a charcoal sample from a pit house of the Dolong site, House 5 1 (K-87), 1600 ± 1 00 B.P. (A.D. 350 ±1 00) was presented as another evidence to indicate the occupation of the Do long and Hansil sites until the late phase (Seo and Seong 1 989: 487). Feature C4 with an unusual depth of about 1 80 em was reported to be an independent storage facility rather than a residential facility (Figure 90). Table 46. Hansil Site Houses and a Storage Facility (M. H. Lee et al. 1 990). Fea. Size (Orientation) No. Iron Age II A3 375x240x45(N-S) A6 475x41 4x 15(N-S) C3 790x720x30(N-S) Three Kingdoms Period FP FT Facility tr sc re sc fc: 60x70x l5 re ch ph, fc: 150x5 Artifacts none po po Note house ? A6 charcoal 256 Al 795x720x550NVV-SE) ro ch ph, fc 95x60x20 po, iron knife, ns regularly spaced fc: pm phs, A2 497x320x25(N-S) re sc fc 120x70x1 7 po, sw, iron charcoal, frred soil, fc: pm sickle stones: hypocaust ? i B l 850x755xl O(N-S) re cl ph, he, storage po, sw, ns, clay figure, iron knife & sickle Cl 484x350x14(E-W) tr sc fc: 100x l 00x 1 5 po, jades, ah, fc: 130x75x15 chisel C2 420x330x 17(N-S) re sc fc: 95x35 iron piece (?) fc with charcoal fc: 80x80 cs 540x424x36(NE-SW) re sc po, bead, gs destroyed by fire, 86-1 370x280x1 0(E-W) IT sc ph po, iron knife C4 340 ( 170: floor)x 1 80 ro sc ph, dp: 1 30x50x35 po, ns, ws storage pit Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction oflong side, ah: polished stone arrowhead, ch: hardening with sandy clay, cl: plastering clay on floor, fc: fired clay as a hearth facility, tp: floor plan, ft: floor treatment, he: hearth, ns: net sinker, ph: posthole, pm: pseudo morphic, po: lattice patterned, mat impressioned, or cord patterned pottery, rr: rectangular with round corners, sc: sandy clay floor without hardening, sw: spindle whorl, tr: trapezoidal. Measurement in em. Dolong Site (Daegok-ri, Songkwang-myeon, Seungju) At the Do long site, in total 87 features of the Iron Age II or later period were identified and investigated (Tables 47 and 48). While Kwangju Museum assigned 12 pit houses to the Three Kingdoms Period, Seoul University assigned no feature to the period. The actual dates of features uncovered by each institute did not seem to be much different from each other. Basically, there was no doubt that the Do long site had been occupied 257 over multiple archaeological periods and that occupation at some areas of the Dolong site could be initiated or terminated quite earlier or later than other areas. In fact, a few pottery data from the Iron Age II pit houses uncovered by the Seoul University (Figure ' 91) were also dated in terms of the traditional pottery chronology, and they were reported as potteries of A.D. 4-5 C (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 244). However, the reporters were quite cautious to attach a label of the "Three Kingdoms Period House" to the pit houses uncovered from the Do long site. It was mainly based on a fact that there was little archaeological evidence to show any connection between the Do long site and one ofthe Three Kingdoms, specifically Baekje Kingdom. Furthermore, the Boseong River Valley seemed to have been the territory of the Mahan or a local polity rather than of the Baekje Kingdom; accordingly, the residential sites investigated in the Juam Dam submergence area were considered to be remains of the Mahan or a local polity independent from the Baekje Kingdom as far as archaeological evidence was concerned. Also, there have been new opinions to call for reconsideration of the traditional chronological view on the appearance of the stoneware pottery based on the investigations of kilns of the Iron Age II (B. H. Choi 1 988, 1 99 1 ; S. R. Choi 1 992, 1 993) The archaeological data from the Dolong site indicated that the occupation of the Do long site continued around a thousand year, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age II or later period. Also two very unusual archaeological features of the Iron Age II were identified at the Do long site, a pottery kiln and a group of storage pits (Figures 93 and 94). _, \ 0 S CII � 0 Figure 9 1 . Pottery from the Iron Age II Houses at the Do long Site: dated to A.D. 4-5 C (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 320, 327). 258 · . · . . . · . . . · · . · . : . .. . . · . · . . � · I 0 \_ ___ !J! . !I \1 Figure 92. An Iron Age II Pottery Kiln and Artifacts therein at the Do long · Site (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 328-329). \ , . @ 0 I . 260 0········ · . - : -. . 0 l m LJ · � �____._....�.....__..� Figure 93 . A Mumun Pottery Period House (a posthole at the center) & an Iron Age II Feature (a group of storage pits overlapped with 5 pit houses) (Choi et al. 1 990: 463, 465). 261 Table 47. Dolong Site Houses: Iron Age II (Choi, et al. 1 989, 1 990; Seo and Seong 1 989). Fea. Size (Orientation) FPIFT/Facility Artifacts Note No. 350x300x30(NW -SE) rr/hac/hearth po, charcoal stoneware 2 3 450x320x35(NVV-SE) rr/hac/ph, hearth po, iron piece, regularly set phs sw destroyed by fire 3 6 320x3 10x45(NW-SE) rrlhac/he with stone MP, po destroyed by fire 4 7 470x390x50(NVV-SE) rr/x/sp, hearth, pit po, iron ah, pit: workshop for knife stone tool (?) 5 1 1 200x 190x5(NE-SW) rr/x/ po accessory of No 1 2 6 1 2 380x300x25(NVV-SE) rr/x/ sw, po 7 1 3 500x41 Ox70(N-S) rrlhac/hearth, dps po, dagger, dp: storage or grindstone, sw manufacturing 8 14 480x350x70(NW-SE) rr/haclhearth po destroyed by fire 9 1 6 460x300x45(NE-SVV) rr/x/dp: 2 10x130 po, MP dp: storage? 10 19 500x430x45(NVV-SE) rr/hac/he? po, knife destroyed by fue 1 1 23 340x290x30(N-S) rr/x/hearth po, MP, gs 12 24 580x?x25(NVV-SE) ?/xlhearth? destroyed by fire 13 25 400+x360x35(N-S) ?/x/hearth? po, chisel 14 26 420x380xl 5(NVV-SE) rr/x/ po, unfinished stone tools 1 5 27 1 50x 140x1 0(NVV-SE) rr/x/ po, Baekje pottery 1 6 32 3 1 0x280x50(NW-SE) ?lxl po, dagger 17 35 360x3 1 0x43(NW-SE) rr/xlhearth? po 1 8 40 450x380x25(NW-SE) rr/x po 19 4 1 350x320x30(E-VV) rr/x po 262 20 44 420x320x600NVV-SE) rr/xlhe, en po, ah, SW 21 45 250x240x 1 0(N-S) rr/xlhearth po 22 47 420x330x27(�-SE) ?/x/ po 23 54 390x?x40{?-?) x/ph, he (pit} none unique hearth 24 55 3 80x3 1 Ox40(� -SE) rrlhac ah, sw, po 25 5 6 490x?x20(�-SE) ?/xlhearth? po, anvil stone destroyed by flre Seoul University 1 989 26 600x400x340NVV-SE) re!fl/ph, he, dp 2, ph around the wall 27 3 930x680x53(�-SE) relfi/ph, hearth ph around the wall 28 4 370x280x1 20NVV-SE) ov/x/ none 29 6 400x?x35(?) ?/x/ 30 8 3 10x300x22 rr/xlhearth 3 1 9 260x?x20(?) rr/x/dp: 90x37x12 accessory ofNo. 10 32 1 0 740+x?x40(?) ov/fl/dp: 140x80x50 OL No. 9 33 1 1 360x260x240NVV-SE) rr/fllhearth 34 1 3 360x?x450NVV-SE?) rrlhearth 35 14 ?x?x? re 36 15 ?x?x? re/x 37 17 4 10x360x240NVV-SVV) rr/fl/ph, hearth 38 20 3 80x320x44�-SE) rr/fVhe, dp: 60x30x20 deep bowl, st 39 22 290x33 ro/fl crops 40 23 4 10x300x41CNVV-SE) rr/fllhearth, dp2 pot 4 1 24 580x420x37(E-W) re/fVhearth, dents 42 25 770x570x76�-SE) re!fl/ph, hearth six postholes 263 43 26 41 Ox320x45(E-W) re/fi 44 28 ?x?x? rr/sclldp OL No. 7 45 29 ?x?x? ?/?/ph raised house? 46 B 1 ?x?x?(?-?) ?/wr/drainage 47 B2 ?x?x?(?-?) ?/wr/drainage 48 B3 5 1 Ox350x30(NW-SE) rr/wr/drainage K wangju Museum 1 987 49 6 4 1 0x280x 10(NW-SE) ov/scl/ph, hearth (?) po 50 8-1 660x540x25(N-S) ov/ha/ph, pr: po, ik, sw 5 1 1 3- 1 ?x?x 1 5(?-?) rrlha none destroyed 52 15- 1 2 10-240x5 ro/ha sk, gs, sw, ns sandy clay & pebbles in floor 53 1 6-1 500x250x? rr/? ik, gs, po stoneware 54 20 280-3 1 0x22 ro/x/ph, hearth po accessory pit 55 21 384x320x23(NE-SW) rr/x/ph, hearth po 56 23 420x340x37(E-W) ov/x/ph, hearth po 57 24 590x440x29(NW-SE) re/hac/ph, he, pr po, bead, ns, sw destroyed by rain 58 25 ?x?x 1 5(?-?) rr/hac!hearth po 59 28 550x445x40(NE-SW) re/cllph, he, dp: MP, po, gs dp: 1 20x43x13 60 29-1 385x3 1 5x 1 5 re/x/ph, hearth 6 1 30 340x290x l l rr/x/ph, hearth po, ah 62 3 1 430x3 1 Ox28(N-S) rr/x/ph, hearth dagger, ah, po 63 32 503x390x27(NW-SE) rrlha/ph, hearth ah, sw, anvil 64 33 420x350x20(NW-SE) rr/x/hearth ah, po 65 34-2 290? x?x 12(?-?) tra/x/ none house ? 264 66 35 840x570x5 5(N-S) rrlhwph, he, dp: 90x25x10 po, ah 67 3 6-1 ?x 370x?(NW-SE ?) ?lhw knife, po 68 37-1 ?x?x32(?-?) ?/x/ ah, ns 69 42 420x370x25(NW-SE) rr/cl/ph, hearth ik, chisel, sw 70 44 460x350x22(N-S) rr/cl/hearth sq, po 71 46 363x255x25(N-S) re/cl/hearth po warehouse ? 72 47 635 x456x52(NW-SE) re/cl/ po, paddle 73 49 330-360x25 rolhwph, hearth po Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth orientation: a direction of long side. ah: polished stone arrowhead, cl: clay, dp: depression, Fea.: Feature, tp: floor plan, ft: floor treatment, hac: hardening with clay, ik: iron knife, MP: Mumun Pottery, ns: net sinker, ph: posthole, po: lattice patterned, mat impressioned, or cord patterned pottery, RB: red burnished pottery, ro: round, rr: rectangular with round comers, sci: sandy clay, sp: storage pit, st: steamer, sw: spindle whorl, wr: weathered rock. While numbers in the ftrst column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each feature in the midst of actual investigation. Measurement in em. Table 48. Dolong Site Houses: Three Kingdoms Period (S. H. Seo and N. J. Seong 1 989). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP FT Facility Artifacts Note No. 3 550x440x20(N-S) rr ha hearth po, paddle, earthen pipe, MP 2 4 3 1 3 x286x23(E-W) re X projection po warehouse? 3 7-1 ?x?x?(?-?) ? X abundant po warehouse? 4 7-2 600x3 30x 1 6(NW-SE) rr ft ph, hearth po 5 1 4-2 550x420x37(NE-SW) rr ft hearth po, iron ah, gs 2, 6 1 8-2 ? x?x? ? X hearth sw, po 7 1 9 420x330x24(NW-SE) OV X hearth po 8 3 8 430x41 0x50 rr cl hearth po, MP 9 40-2 ?x?x? ? x 10 45 340x295x30(NW-SE) rr x 1 1 50 500x320x29(N-S) rr x 12 5 1 5 1 0x350x50(NE-SVV) rr cl hearth hearth hearth hearth 2 po, iron sickle po, MP po, charcoal po, ah, paddle C14 A.D. 350 Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction of long side. 265 ah: polished stone arrowhead, cl: clay, Fea.: Feature, fp: floor plan, ft: floor treatment, ov: oval, ph: posthole, po: lattice patterned, mat impressioned, or cord patterned pottery, rr: rectangular with rounded corners. VVhile numbers in the first column are simple serial numbers assigned for convenience sake, numbers in the second column are numbers assigned to each feature in the midst of actual investigation. Measurement in em. Naksu Site (Naksu-ri, Songkwang-myeon, Seungju) In the initial site survey, the Naksu site was identified by a few pottery sherds found at an inclined hillside. Though only a few artifacts were identified in site survey, positive environmental conditions for a location of prehistoric and proto historic village drew scholarly attention. In 1 986, 6 semi-subterranean houses of the Iron Age II were identified, and the significance of the site called for detailed and extensive excavation. In 1987 another field campaign for the Naksu site was designed and carried out. Along with two auxiliary facilities, in tota1 1 6 semi-subterranean houses of the Iron Age II (Table 49} were investigated (Figure 94}. These Naksu houses were built on a weathered rock layer, and some houses were built in an "L" -shape in order to cut workload by taking advantage of the natural slope of the hillside where the Naksu village was located. Iron, lithic and earthen implements and yeonjil (soft} and kyeongjil (hard) pottery were uncovered. -� 0 L' 0 . : [) c() 0 0 e 0 CJ . 0 c 0 0 . G Figure 94. Distribution of Semi-subterranean Houses Uncovered at the Naksu site and their House Floor Plans (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 77, 1 07). 266 1 , .. � Figure 95. House No. 1 1 with Inside Storage Pit (top) arid House No. 4 with Drainage (bottom) (M. L. Choi et al. 1.989 : 83, 98). 267 268 � � /o l m �vr--- --------------------------� � � . Figure 96. House No. 9 with an Auxiliary Feature (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 92). 269 / � � K v \. K ' I 1-<� ----? Figure 97. A Virtual Reconstruction of a Naksu House (M. L. Choi et al. 1 989: 1 08). 270 Table 49. Naksu Site Houses (M. L. Choi, et al . 1 989). Fea. Size (Orientation) FP FT Facility Artifacts Note No. 460x320x26(NE-SVV) re ha po, charcoal destroyed by fire 2 590x370x35(N-S) rr ha ph, he, storage pit grindstone, po ph around the wall 3-1 380x340x20(NE-SVV) rr ha ph, he po 3-2 304x288x20(NE-SVV) rr ha po 4 4 15x330xl OO(N-S) rr ha ph, he, shelf, dr sw, po, ah, iron 5 425x420x43(N-S) rr ha ph po 6 4 10x300x1 2(N-S) rr cl ph grindstone, po, charcoals 7 280x230x25(N-S) rr X ph, drainage po, iron knife storage (?) 8 490x420x32(NVV-SE) rr X ph, storage pit: ah, po, seed stoneware, accessory 70x 1 10x30 storage: 140x60x30 9-1 600x445x68(NE-SVV) rr X ph, he, shelf, dr, po, sw stoneware 9-2 280x 1 60x20(NE-SVV) rr X po, sawfly accessory of No. 9-1 10-1 400x300x70(NE-SVV) rr X ph, he sw, po stoneware 1 0�2 3 80x200x50(NE-SVV) rr X ph, drainage po 1 1 480x400x40(N-S) rr cl ph, he, sp po stoneware 12 2 1 Ox 1 7 5 x25(NE-SVV) rr X ph po storage (?) 1 3 620x475x50(N-S) rr X ph, hearth t knife, sw, po 14 430x390x40(NE-SVV) rr X ph, po stoneware 1 5 490x400x40(NE-SVV) rr X ph, shelf (entrance?) po destroyed by frre Size: long sidexshort sidexdepth or diameterxdepth, orientation: a direction oflong side, ah: polished stone arrowhead, dr: drainage, fp: floor plan, ft: floor treatment, ha: hardened, he: hearth, ns: net sinker, ph: posthole, po: lattice patterned, mat impressioned, or cord patterned pottery, rr: rectangular with round corners, sp: storage pit, sw: spindle whorl, tk: triangular knife . Measurement in em. 271 Facilities affiliated with the pit"houses such as drainage ditches, stepped entrances, hearths, independent storage pits, and shelves were identified inside or outside of the houses (Figures 95 and 96). The dominant floor plan of the Naksu houses is rectangular with rounded corners (Figure 94), and Figure 97 is a virtual reconstruction of a Naksu house based on available information. There was a broad alluvial plain developed in the river valley below the Naksu­ site, and a number of artifacts were identified at the lowland plain. The plain was also believed to be a large-scale prehistoric or protohistoric village, potentially comparable to the Do long residential site in terms of scale and temporal range. Unfortunately, field study on the lowland plain was not allowed. The Naksu site has been tentatively regarded to be a village of an unknown polity of 54 small and large polities affiliated with the Mahan along with other 3 residential sites yielding the Iron Age II houses in the Juam Dam submergence area, the Do long and Hansil sites and the Hajuk site. Conclusion This lengthy chapter has been devoted to ordering and synthesizing data from the Juam Dam archaeological project selected for its relevance to analyzing the growth of cultural complexity in southwest Korea. In the final chapter, I offer a quantitative analysis of these data, and an interpretation of sociopolitical development in southwestern Korea based on them. 272 CHAPTER V ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION Introduction The study of sociopolitical complexity and its development over time has become one of the dominant research concerns of Korean archaeology. In my study, the main interest is the trajectory toward sociopolitical complexity that took place in southwestern Korea. In the period of written history, this area of Korea was a part of the Baekje Kingdom, one of Korea's famed Three Kingdoms. In this final chapter, I bring together substantial archaeological evidence to show that prior to its late incorporation into a dominant neighboring kingdom, the Boseong River Valley underwent its own evolutionary development of social complexity, and was already a society of an intermediate level of sociopolitical development before the time ofBaekje incursion and domination. As mentioned in Chapter I, the Juam Dam Project provided an enormous and unprecedented amount of new archaeological information and data on the Boseong River 273 Valley, a region which had been neglected in Korean archaeology and South Jeolla Province archaeology for a long time. The preliminary site survey for the area to be submerged by the Juam Dam identified and located over 1 ,500 dolmen burials along with 1 1 loci of scattered artifacts indicating potential residential sites (see Table 1 ) . In total four field campaigns conducted over a four year period ( 1 986- 1989) identified and investigated 4 Paleolithic locations, 381 dolmen burials at 23 locations and over 250 residential features at 5 locations (Table 50). The temporal range of these archaeological features spread from the Mesolithic or Upper Paleolithic to the Three Kingdoms Period. Table 50. Archaeological Features Investigated in the Juam Dam Project. Sites Periods Features References Daejeon Paleolithic Deposit Y. J. Lee et. al 1988b MPP Dolmens Y. J. Lee et. a1 1988b 2 Geumpyeong Paleolithic Deposit Lim and Yi 1 988 MPP Dolmens Lim and Choi 1987 3 Gokcheon Paleolithic Deposit Y. J. Lee et. al 1988a, 1988c; 1 990 MPP Dolmens Y. J. Lee et. al 1988a, 1 988c MPP Pit houses Y. J. Lee et. al 1988a, l 988c 4 Juksan Paleolithic Deposit S. B . Yi et al. 1 990 MPP Dolmens Ji and Park 1 988 5 Bokgyo MPP Dolmens Y. H. Jeong 1 988 6 Gosuwol MPP Dolmens M. B . Yun 1 988 274 7 Dolong (2) MPP Dolmens Y. H. Jeong 1 987 MPP Features Choi et al. 1 989; Seo and Seong 1 989 ( 1 kiln) MPP Pit houses Choi et al. 1 989; 1990; Seo and Seong 1 989 IAII Pit houses Choi et al. 1989; 1990; Seo and Seong 1 989 IAII 1 Group storage Choi et al. 1 989 pits & 1 kiln TK.P Pit houses Seo and Seong 1989, 8 Hansil MPP Dolmens Seo and Seong 1 989, MPP Pit houses Lee et al. 1 990, Lee et al. 1990 IAII Pit houses Seo and Seong 1989; Lee et al. 1990 TK.P Pit houses & Seo and Seong 1 989; Lee et al. 1 990 a Storage pit 9 Singi A MPP Dolmens C. G. Lee 1 987 10 Singi B MPP Dolmens D. H. Yun 1988 1 1 Jangseon MPP Dolmens Kim and Lee 1988 12 Hajuk (4) Neolithic LOSA Y. M. Lee 1 988; Song et al. 1 990 MPP Dolmens Song and Lee 1 988; Song et al. 1990; Hwang 1988; Son and Han 1988 MPP Pit houses J. H. Song et al. 1 990 IAII Pit houses Song et al. 1 990; Hwang 1 988; Son and Han 1988 13 Sinwol (3) MPP Dolmens Yun 1 987; Ji and Park 1 987; Choi et al. 1 987 14 Salehi (2) MPP Dolmens M. J. Choi 1 988; S. R. Choi 1 988 15 Naeu MPP Dolmens Song and Lee 1 988 16 Banwol MPP Dolmens Kim and Lee 1988 17 Sa hi MPP Dolmens Son and Lee 1 988 1 8 Yucheon MPP Dolmens C. G. Lee 1 988 19 Naksu IAII Pit houses M. L. Choi et al. 1 989 275 Sum Paleolithic Deposit 4 Sites Neolithic LOSA 1 Location (Hajuk) MPP Dolmens 1 8 Sites at 23 locations MPP Pit houses 4 Sites MPP Small Features 1 Site (Do long) : the functions of these features are not clearly identified: kiln, storage, workshop ? . IAII Pit houses 4 Sites JAil Kiln 1 Site (Dolong) IAII Storage pits 1 Site (Dolong) TKP Pit houses 2 Sites (Do long and Hansil) TKP Storage pit 1 Site (Hansil) 19 Sites of 26 Locations MPP: Mumun Pottery Period (Bronze Age and Iron Age I), IAII: Iron Age II, LOSA: Loci of scattered artifacts, TKP: Three Kingdoms Period, Numbers in parentheses are number of localities in a site. Chapter IV brought together condensed descriptions ofthe many archaeological features and sites investigated in the Juam Dam submergence area and published in a series of descriptive reports (J eonnam University Museum 1 987, 1 988a, 1 988b, 1 988c, 1 988d, 1989, 1 990). As repeatedly mentioned, the main purpose of this study is to explore the developmental processes of sociopolitical complexity in the Boseong River Valley of Korea based on this archaeological evidence. The following pages offer an analysis and interpretation based primarily on artifacts from dolmen burial chambers excavated in the Juam Dam submergence area. . j 276 Dolmens in Korea and in the Boseong River Valley As mentioned, the dolmen was the most dominant archaeological feature found and investigated in the Juam Dam archaeological project. The Juam Dam Archaeological Project provided a significant moment in the understanding of dolmen society not only in South Jeolla Province and but also in the whole Korean Peninsula. Before the excavation of 3 8 1 dolmens at 23 locations by the Juam Dam Archaeological Project, there had been only a few actual dolmen excavations even in South Jeolla Province, where dolmens are known from field surveys to be extremely abundant. Recently, there was a comprehensive research project on the Korean dolmens, and this study systematically compiled an enormous dolmen data from primarily surface observations (Figure 98). As of 1999, a total of 29,51 0 dolmens had been identified in Korea, and as many as 1 9,068 dolmens among them, or about 64.6 % of the total, were identified in South Jeolla Province alone (Figure 99). The total quantity of dolmens in North Korea is reported to be 3, 1 60, but this number seems to count only those officially recognized in South Korean academic circles rather than the actual quantity of dolmens distributed in North Korea (Tables 5 1 -53). Based on data and information obtained via other countries such as China and Japan, or unofficial sources, it has been estimated that there are at least 1 4,000 dolmens in North Korea (M. L. Choi et al. 1 999: 1 207). Thus, dolmens are a truly major feature of the Korean archaeological record, but the number of recorded dolmens hugely outstrips the number that has actually been studied through excavation. 277 Figure 98. Known Distribution of Dolmens in Korea (M. L. Choi et al. 1 999: 1207). 278 Figure 99. Excavated Dolmen Sites in South Jeolla Province (Y. M. Lee 1 993: 27). 279 The Juam Dam sample of excavated dolmens as of this writing, still affords us the best available set of quantitative information on excavated dolmen contents available from a compact region. Table 5 1 . Regional Dolmen Distribution in South Korea (after M. L. Choi et al. 1999). Provinces QID Ratio Land Size QED QI/QE(%) 1 9,068 72.4 % 1 2.4 3290 579 % 2 North Gyeongsang 2800 10.6 % 20 5307 53 % 3 North Jeolla 1 597 6. 1 % 8 2 123 75 % 4 South Gyeongsang 1238 4.7 % 12.3 3264 38 % 5 Gyeonggi 502 1 .9 % 1 1 .7 3 1 05 1 6 % 6 South Chungcheong 478 1 .8 % 8.9 2362 20 % 7 Gangwon 338 1 .3 % 1 6.8 4458 8 % 8 North Chungcheong 1 89 0.7 % 7.4 1 964 1 0 % 9 Jeju 140 0.5 % 1 .8 478 29 % Total 26,350 1 00.0 % 99.3 26350 1 00 % Dolmens in the North Korea are excluded. Land Size: actual size of each province (measurement unit is 1 ,000 km2). QE(D) : Quantity of Expected Dolmens. QI (D): Quantity of ldentified Dolmens. Korean dolmens are broadly classified into three types: the Northern Type, the Southern Type, and the Capstone Type. Northern Type dolmens are mostly reported only to the north of the Han River (see Figures 2). Their most distinctive feature is that the burial chamber i s fully exposed above ground leveL The Northern Type dolmens look like a large rectangular stone box, consisting of four upright slab-stones with an 280 oversized top. The oversized top also· makes Northern Type dolmens look like a table. Normally, two long side slabs, footed firmly in the ground, directly support the capstone; therefore, they are much thicker and sturdier than the short slabs placed at the front and back sides of the burial chamber. The latter were easily removable and served as entrances to the burial chamber. Today, one or both of the entrance slabs are often missing. Table 52. Regional Dolmen Distribution in Korea ( 1 ) (after M. L. Choi et al . l999). Provinces Dolmens Ratios Land Size QED QI/QE(%) South Jeolla 1 9,068 64.6 % 12.4 1 665 1 145 % 2 North Korea 3, 1 60 10.7 % 120.5 1 6178 20 % 3 North Gyeongsang 2800 9.5 % 20 2685 1 04 % 4 North Jeolla 1597 5 .4 % 8 1 074 149 % 5 South Gyeongsang 1238 4.2 % 12.3 1651 75 % 6 Gyeonggi 502 1 .7 % 1 1 .7 1571 32 % 7 South Chungcheong 478 1 .6 % 8 .9 1 195 40 % 8 Gangwon 338 1 . 1 % 1 6. 8 2256 1 5 % 9 North Chungcheong 1 89 0.6 % 7.4 994 1 9 % 1 0 Jeju 1 40 0.5 % 1 . 8 242 58 % Total 29,5 1 0 100.0 % 2 1 9. 8 295 10 100 % The quantity of dolmens in the North Korea: 3, 1 60. Land Size: actual size of each province (measurement unit is 1 ,000 km2). QE (D) : Quantity of Expected Dolmens. QI (D): Quantity ofldentified Dolmens. 281 Table 53 . Regional Dolmen Distribution in Korea (2) (after M. L. Choi et al. 1 999). Province QID Ratio Land Size QED QI/QE South 1 9,068 47.3 % 2 North Korea 1 4,000 34.7 % 1 20.5 22 121 63 % 3 North Gyeongsang 2800 6.9 % 20 3672 76 % 4 North Jeolla 1 597 4.0 % 8 1 469 109 % 5 South Gyeongsang 1238 3 . 1 % 1 2.3 2258 55 % 6 Gyeonggi 502 1 .2 % 1 1 .7 2 148 23 % 7 South Chungcheong 478 1 .2 % 8.9 1 634 29 % 8 Gangwon 338 0.8 % 1 6.8 3084 1 1 % 9 North Chungcheong 1 89 0.5 % 7.4 1 358 14 % 1 0 Jeju 1 40 0.3 % 1 .8 330 42 % Total . 40,350 100.0 % 2 1 9.8 40350 100 % The quantity of dolmens in the North Korea: 14,000. QED(D): Quantity of Expected Dolmens. Ql: Quantity of Identified dolmen. Land Size: actual size of each province (measurement unit is 1 ,000 knl). In a few cases, pebbles or slabs were laid on the floor of a burial chamber, but usually it was a plain dirt floor. Normally, burial chambers of the Northern Type are in the form of a single rectangular box, but in the case of a dolmen at Songshin-dong in Hwangju, the burial chamber was partitioned into four sections by three slab-stones, and a dead body appears to have been placed in each section. The length of Northern Type dolmen capstones is usually two to four meters, but in some cases the capstones are eight meters long or even longer. The usual height of the Northern Type dolmens is one or two meters, but a few have been reported to be more than two meters high. 282 As just noted, the majority of Northern Type dolmens are found north ofthe Han River Valley, especially in North Korea's South Pyeongan and Hwanghae Provinces. However, a few have been also found in southern Korea, for example at Ganghwa Island in Gyeonggi Province (National Historical Site No. 1 37), at Dosan-ri in Gochang (North Jeolla Provincial Monument No. 49), and at Manbong-ri and Hoejin in Naj u in South Jeolla Province. Initially they were erroneously interpreted as Capstone Type dolmens whose originally underground burial chambers had become exposed in time by wind and rain; but they are now clearly recognized as Northern Type dolmens. The above-named dolmen sites show that while northern Korea was the primary home of the Northern Type dolmens, a few of them were also constructed in the South. Southern Type dolmens are found mainly in southern Korea, south of the Han River, in particular in Jeolla and Gyeongsang provinces. The fundamental difference between Northern and Southern Type dolmens is the location of the burial chamber. While the Northern Type dolmen is constructed above ground, the Southern Type dolmen is constructed underground. A burial chamber is dug underground, and a varying number of slabs are used as supporting (or propping) stones placed between the burial chamber and a capstone. The capstone is usually a large roundish or elongated boulder, unlike the flat stones used on Northern Type dolmens. The underground burial chamber structure appears in several forms, but almost without exception it was covered with slab­ stones. The burial chambers of Southern Type dolmens are normally about one meter long or even less, while in a few cases they may be longer, up to one and a half meters. 283 One might assume that dolmens having such a small burial pit were constructed as the graves of children or infants, but it is more likely that they were associated with so-called "secondary burial", which involved the burying of only the bones of the deceased, collected and buried after they lost their flesh. Secondary burial is a practice still in vogue in certain regions of southern Korea. Capstone Type dolmens, the third main type, are considered by some scholars as a variant form ofthe Southern Type dolmen, though others strongly insist that the two types have distinctly different features and should be treated as separate types. The distinctive feature of Capstone Type dolmens is that the capstone is directed placed over the underground burial chamber without the use of any propping stones. Another distinctive feature of the Capstone Type is a stone pavement surrounding the burial pit. The stone pavement, built with small flat stones, strengthens the ground surrounding the burial chamber, and thus protects the burial chamber from the crushing weight of the heavy capstone. The stone pavement might also have served as a grave boundary marker. Capstone Type dolmens have been found throughout the Korean Peninsula. They have been reported in clusters in northern Korea, especially in Hwangju and Bongsan Counties in the Seohong River Valley of Hwanghae Province, at Taeseong-ri in Gangseo, and at Mukpang-ri in Kaecheon of South Pyeongan Province. However, by far the largest number of Capstone Type dolmens is found in southern Korea. Most of the 1 9,000 dolmens reported in South Jeolla Province, for example, are Capstone Type dolmens. The peninsula-wide distribution of Capstone Type dolmens, in extraordinarily ����-1111""""'----------------- - · - -- 284 large numbers demonstrates that they were the most typical and prevalent type during the later part of the Korean dolmen period. The origin of Korean dolmens is the subject of ongoing debate. The traditional view holds that Northern Type dolmens first appeared in the northern part of Korea and later spread to the South, giving birth to the Southern Type dolmens, which in tum gave . birth to the Capstone Type. Some scholars, however, considering the Capstone Type to be the earliest of Korean dolmens, hold that the Capstone Type evolved into the Northern Type in northern Korea and into the Southern Type in southern Korea. Although the debate will no doubt continue, the weight of current scholarly opinion and evidence greatly favors the Northern Origin theory. In South Jeolla Province, Capstone Type dolmens are most prevalent, and as in other parts of the Korean Peninsula, dolmens are often found in groups rather than individually. While up to 50 dolmens form a dolmen group in some locations such as Obong-ri and Usan-ri in Seungju, or Juksan-ri and Munyang-ri in Boseong, the number of dolmens that typically form a dolmen group does not exceed 1 0 to 20. Reflections of Commoner and Elite Status among Dolmen Burial Sites in the Boseong River Valley As mentioned, a total of 38 1 dolmens at 23 archaeological sites or locations were identified and investigated by the Juam Dam project. Typologically they all belonged to the Southern Type or the Capstone Type, and the Capstone Type dolmens are greatly 285 dominant in number over those of the Southern Type. Burial chambers were not found below 79 dolmen capstones, and these capstones might have been dislocated from the original places for unknown reasons or merely huge rocks misunderstood as dolmen capstones. While five paired burial chambers built under a single capstone were identified (Banwol Dolmens No 6 and No. 7, Hajuk C Dolmens No. 6, Geumpyeong Dolmen No. 7, and Gokcheon Dolmen No. 3-1), 5 5 burial chambers were found already isolated from their capstones. Aside from 1 3 burial chambers so seriously damaged as to preclude recognition of their structures, about 80.3 % ofthe dolmens adopted a stone cist as their burial chambers. Stone circles and pit graves were adopted by 14.0 % and 5.8 % of the dolmens, respectively (see Table 36). As noted several times above, despite the huge quantity of dolmens known from surface evidence in Korea, the number of excavated dolmen burials has been very small. Thus, the question of what all these graves may have contained in the way ofburial furniture that could indicate their occupants' status has never been well-answered. Here is the special importance of the Juam Dam corpus of3 8 1 dolmens. At last there is substantial number of excavated dolmens from a quite compact area, affording a reasonable sample that can be analyzed to asses the range and relative richness of grave furnishings that dolmens as a class contained. Such data are greatly needed to inform archaeological inferences about the levels of social status represented by dolmen burials, and give hope of placing earlier inadequately supported interpretations on a firmer basis. Within the Boseong River Valley corpus of evidence, few dolmens have yielded exceptionally abundant objects, or rich furnishings such as bronze artifacts. All artifacts 286 found from burial chambers, except Mumun pottery sherds, are listed in Table 54. A few dolmen sites such as the Singi (at Deokchi-ri), Hajuk C and Naeu dolmen sites yielded quite large amounts of artifacts, distinguishing them from other sites or locations. In general, however, the amounts and kinds of artifacts from the dolmens in the Juam Dam area are not much different from those found at other dolmen sites in South Jeolla Province, and even throughout Korea as a whole except for the cases of a few dolmen sites just noted. Table 54. Artifacts from Dolmen Burial Chambers. Sites BA BD AH JA RB SD Other Artifacts Sum 0 2 Gosuwol 0 0 3 0 0 0 Sk 1 , 4 3 Do long 0 0 4 0 0 0 Ns l , Sk 1 6 4 Hansil 0 0 0 0 0 5 Singi A 0 0 1 7 0 4 0 Gs 1 , Ws 2 24 6 Singi B 1 1 34 0 1 3 Ad 1 , Ch 1 , Sp 4, 46 7 Juksan 0 0 2 0 0 2 4 8 Jangseon 0 0 1 1 0 3 9 Hajuk A 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Hajuk B 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Hajuk C 0 0 24 0 1 0 1 0 Ax 3, Ad 1 , Gp 2 , G s 2 , N s 8 , Pb 2 , Sk 2, 66 Sw 2 1 2 Sinwol C 0 0 1 1 0 2 Sk 1 5 13 Sinwol D 0 0 3 0 3 2 Ax 1 , Pb 1 1 0 287 Sites BA BD AH JA RB SD Other Artifacts Sum 14 Sinwol H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 Daejeon 0 0 0 0 Gs 1 3 1 6 Salehi A 0 0 0 0 0 17 Salehi B 0 0 6 0 4 Ns I 1 2 1 8 Geumpyeong 0 0 0 0 2 Ch 1 , Sw 1 , Sk 1 6 19 Gokcheon 0 0 5 0 3 2 Ax 1 , Ad 1 , Ch I , W s 3 16 20 Naeu 0 2 2 1 1 0 9 19 Ma l , Ns 1 , Sa 1 64 2 1 Banwol 0 0 0 0 0 1 22 Sabi 0 0 0 0 2 Ax 1 , Ns 1 , Sw 1 6 23 Yucheon 0 0 2 2 5 Sum 3 1 27 1 3 36 5 1 Ax 6, Ad 3 , Ch 3 , Gp 2, Gs 4, Ma 1 , 286 Ns 1 2, Pb 3, Sa 1, Sk 6, Sp 4, Sw 4, Ws 6 Singi A: at Daegwang-ri. Singi B : at Deokchi-ri. Ad: grooved adz, Ah: arrowhead, Ba: bronze arrowhead, Bd: bronze dagger, Ja: jade, Ch: chisel, Gp: grinding pestle, Gs: grinding stone, Ma: mace, Ns: net sinker, Pb: plane blade, Sp: spear, Sb: saw blade, Sd: stone dagger, Sa: saw, Sk: stone knife, Sw: spindle whorl, W s: whetstone. Table 55 . Dolmen Burial Chambers and Artifacts ( 1) . Sites QBC NA AA MP NM MPP KA Bokgyo 3 2 0 2 1 0 2 Gosuwol 8 6 2 0 6 2 1 3 Do long 1 2 6 6 1 7 5 3 4 Hansil 3 2 1 2 5 Singi A 1 9 4 1 5 4 8 1 1 9 6 Singi B 14 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 6 7 Juksan 1 0 4 6 2 6 4 4 288 Sites QBC NA AA MP NM MPP KA 8 Jangseon 8 3 5 2 5 3 3 9 Hajuk A 5 4 0 4 1 0 Hajuk B 1 1 10 1 0 1 0 1 1 Hajuk C 40 7 33 5 1 2 28 20 1 2 Sinwol C 6 1 5 2 4 4 13 Sinwol D 1 6 3 1 3 4 7 9 6 1 4 Sinwol H 4 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 5 Daejeon 1 5 7 8 5 1 2 3 1 6 Salehi A 1 3 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 17 Salehi B 1 5 1 1 4 7 8 7 7 1 8 Geumpyeong 8 2 6 1 3 5 2 1 9 Gokcheon 1 7 1 1 6 7 8 9 7 20 Naeu 50 9 4 1 7 1 6 34 33 21 Banwol 9 7 2 1 8 22 Sabi 1 2 7 5 0 7 5 3 23 Yucheon 9 4 5 0 4 5 5 Total 307 1 07 200 49 1 56 1 5 1 1 1 9 */307 Ratio 1 1 00 % 34.9 % 65. 1 % 1 6.0 % 50.8 % 49.2 % 38.8 % */200 Ratio 2 1 00% 24.5% 78% 75.5% 59.5% Singi A: at Daegwang-ri in Seungju. Singi B : at Deokchi-ri in Boseong. QBC: Quantity of burial chamber, AA: Any kinds of artifacts, KA: Key artifact, MP: Mumun Pottery only, MPP: more than Mumun Pottery, NA: No artifact, NM: no artifacts or Mumun Pottery only. Ratio 1 : to the total number of burial chambers (307). Ratio 2: to the total number of burial chambers yielding any artifacts (200). 289 Some lithic implements were found in Boseong dolmens as burial furnishings, including axes, grooved adzes, chisels, pestles, grinding stones, maces, plane blades, saws, spears, semi-lunar knives, triangular knives, and whetstones. Also found are earthen specimens such as Mumun Pottery, spindle whorls, and net-sinkers. All of these are recognizable as primarily utilitarian items, apparently reflecting the occupations of farmers, artisans, and householders. In contrast, five kinds of artifacts, consisting of polished stone arrowheads and daggers, jades, red burnished pottery (including eggplant design pottery) and bronze artifacts, were found in fewer than half of the burial chambers investigated. These five kinds of artifacts clearly signify the higher sociopolitical status ofthe people buried with them. In particular, the number of dolmens furnished with any kinds of bronze implements is extremely limited, which implies their special importance within dolmen society. As shown in Table 55, 1 07 burial chambers (34.9%) did not yield any artifacts, and 49 burial chambers ( 1 6%) yielded only Mumun Pottery sherds. These represent the first two social categories that may be recognized on the basis of burial associations; people found with no possessions or offerings, and people found with only minimal and utilitarian possessions or offerings. Taken all together, these people of relatively low status comprised slightly more than half of all the interments (50.8 %). Polished stone daggers and arrowheads, red-burnished pottery, jades, and bronze implements have long been recognized as more significant artifacts, or "key artifacts" in reflecting higher wealth and social status. Items named as "key artifacts" were found in 1 1 9 burial chambers (38.8%). This group is quite large, representing more than a third 290 of all burial chambers in the sample, and it shows significant internal variation. Within this group, 85 burial chambers (7 1 .4%) yielded only one kind ofkey artifact, but a significant percentage (28.6%) of 34 burial chambers yielded multiple kinds ofkey artifacts (Table 56). Here then are two more recognizable levels of social status, subdivisions within a more elite class. Table 56. Dolmen Burial Chambers and Artifacts (2). Sites QBC NA AA O KA KA 1 KA 2 KA 3 KA Bokgyo 3 2 0 0 0 0 2 Gosuwol 8 6 2 1 0 0 3 Do long 12 6 6 3 3 3 0 0 4 Hansil 3 2 1 1 0 0 5 Singi A 1 9 4 1 5 6 9 6 3 0 6 Singi B 1 4 2 12 6 6 3 2 7 Juksan 1 0 4 6 2 4 4 0 0 8 Jangseon 8 3 5 2 3 3 0 0 9 Hajuk A 5 4 0 0 0 10 Hajuk B 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 Hajuk C 40 7 33 13 20 1 3 5 2 12 Sinwol C 6 5 4 4 0 0 13 Sinwol D 1 6 3 1 3 7 6 4 2 0 14 Sinwol H 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 Daejeon 1 5 7 8 7 1 0 1 0 16 Salehi A 13 12 1 0 1 1 0 0 291 Sites QBC NA AA O KA KA 1 KA 2 KA 3 KA 17 Salehi B 1 5 14 7 7 5 2 0 1 8 Geumpyeong 8 2 6 4 2 1 0 1 9 Gokcheon 17 1 1 6 9 7 5 2 0 20 Naeu 50 9 4 1 8 33 20 1 1 2 2 1 Banwol 9 7 2 1 1 0 0 22 Sabi 1 2 7 5 2 3 3 0 0 23 Yucheon 9 4 5 0 5 5 0 0 Sum 307 1 07 200 8 1 1 19 85 29 5 QBC NA AA O KA KA 1 KA 2 KA 3 KA */307 Ratio 1 1 00 % 34.9 % 65. 1% 26.4 % 38.8% 27.7 % 9.4 % 1 .6 % */200 Ratio 2 1 00% 40.5% 59.5% 42.5% 1 4.5% 2.5% */1 1 9 Ratio 3 1 00% 71 .4% 24.4% 4.2% Singi A: at Daegwang-ri in Seungju. Singi B: at Deokchi-ri in Boseong. QBC: Quantity of burial chamber, AA: Any kinds of artifacts, 0 KA: non Key artifact, 1 KA: 1 kind of key artifacts, 2 KA: 2 kinds of key artifacts, 3 KA: 3 kinds of key artifacts, NA: No artifact. Ratio l : to the total burial chambers (307). Ratio 2: to the Burial chambers yielding any artifacts (200). Ratio 3: to the burial chambers yielding any key artifacts ( 1 1 9) . Table 57. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Key Artifacts ( 1 ). Sites AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum QB QA QB QA QB QA QB QA QB QA QB QA QB QA 1 Bokgyo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Gosuwol 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 3 Do long 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 4 Hansil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Sites 5 Singi A 6 Singi B 7 Juksan 8 Jangseon 9 Hajuk A 10 Hajuk B 1 1 Hajuk C 1 2 Sinwol C 1 3 Sinwol D 14 Sinwol H 1 5 Daejeon 1 6 Salchi A 1 7 Salehi B 1 8 Geumpyeong 1 9 Gokcheon 20 Naeu 2 1 Banwol 22 Sabi 23 Yucheon Sum /307 Ratio I (%) */1 1 9 Ratio 2 (%) */230 Ratio 3 (%) AH BA BD JA RB QB QA QB QA QB QA QB QA QB QA 8 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 34 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 9 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 6 2 1 0 0 0 2 3 1 0 8 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 3 9 0 0 1 SD QB QA 0 0 3 3 2 2 0 0 292 Sum QB QA 9 2 1 6 40 4 4 3 3 8 10 20 44 2 2 4 4 2 2 6 8 0 0 0 0 2 7 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 7 10 19 1 9 33 61 0 0 2 2 3 3 2 2 5 5 65 126 1 3 3 6 1 3 34 36 49 5 1 1 1 9 230 2 1 .2 0.3 1 .0 2.0 1 1 . 1 1 6.0 38.8 54.6 0.8 2.5 5 .0 28.6 4 1 .2 100 54.8 0.4 1 .3 5.7 1 5.7 22.2 100 Singi A: at Daegwang-ri in Seungju. Singi B: at Deokch-ri in Boseong. AH: polished stone arrowhead, BA: bronze arrowhead, BD: bronze dagger, JA: jade, RB: red burnished pottery, SD: polished stone dagger .. Ratio I : to the total number of burial chambers (307). Ratio 2 : to the total number of burial chambers yielding at least one key artifact ( 1 1 9) . Ratio 3 : to the total number of key artifacts (230). 293 Table 58. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Key Artifacts (2). Sites Bokgyo 2 Gosuwol 3 Dolong 4 Hansil 5 Singi A 6 Singi B 7 Juksan 8 Jangseon 9 Hajuk A 1 0 Hajuk B 1 1 Hajuk C 1 2 Sinwol C 1 3 Sinwol D 14 Sinwol H 1 5 Daejeon 1 6 Salchi A 1 7 Salehi B 1 8 Geumpyeong 1 9 Gokcheon 20 Naeu 2 1 Banwol 22 Sabi 23 Yucheon 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 2 3 1 4 0 3 0 0 1 0 7 7 4 0 4 2 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 4 3 1 9 9 1 0 3 0 5 0 3 4 5 6 9 3 1 BC Sum Sum of 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 YMKA ofKA BC YKA 0 0 0 1 3 0 3 3 0 6 2 1 9 3 40 6 0 4 4 0 3 3 0 1 0 1 3 44 20 0 4 4 2 8 6 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 7 1 3 2 3 10 7 14 61 33 0 1 0 3 3 0 5 5 294 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 3 1 BC Sum Sum of YMKA ofKA BC YKA Sum 73 26 1 1 4 2 46 230 1 19 */307 Ratio 1 (%) 23.8 8.5 3 .6 1 .3 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.3 1 5 .0 38.8 */1 19 Ratio 2 (%) 6 1 .3 2 1 .8 9.2 3 .4 1 .7 0.8 0.8 0.8 38.7 100 Singi A: at Daegwang-ri in Seungju. Singi B: at Deokch-ri in Boseong. BC: burial chamber, KA: key artifact, M: multiple, Y: yielding. Ratio 1 : to the total number of burial chambers (307). Ratio 2: to the total number of burial chambers yielding at least one key artifact ( 1 1 9). Table 59. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Multiple Kinds of Key Artifacts. Sites Ah Ah Bd Bd Rh Sum Ah, Ba, Ah, Rh, Ah, Ja, Sum Total +Rb +Sd +Rb +Ja +Sd & Sd & Sd & Sd 0 2 Gosuwol 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Do long 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Hansil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Singi A 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 6 Singi B 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 3 7 Juksan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Jangseon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Hajuk A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Hajuk B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Hajuk C 3 2 0 0 0 5 0 2 0 2 7 12 Sinwol C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 Sinwol D 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 14 Sinwol H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ah · Ah Bd Bd Rh Sum Ah, Ba, Ah, Rh, Ah, Ja, Sum Total 295 +Rb +Sd +Rb +Ja +Sd & Sd & Sd & Sd 1 5 Daejeon 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 6 Salehi A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7 Salehi B 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 8 Geumpyeong 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 Gokcheon 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 20 Naeu 6 0 3 1 1 0 2 14 2 1 Banwol 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 Sabi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 Yucheon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sum 1 1 1 2 4 29 3 5 34 */307 Ratio 1 (%) 3 .6 3 .9 0 .3 0.3 1 .3 9.4 0.3 1 .0 0.3 1 .6 1 1 . 1 *129 Ratio 2 (%) 37.9 4 1 .4 3 .4 3 .4 1 .4 100 *15 Ratio 3 {%) 20.0 60.0 20.0 1 00 Singi A: at Daegwang-ri in Seungju. Singi B: at Deokch-ri in Boseong. AH: polished stone arrowhead, BA: bronze arrowhead, BD: bronze dagger, JA: jade, RB: red burnished pottery, SD: polished stone dagger. Ratio 1 : to the total number of burial chambers (307). Ratio 2: to the total number of burial chambers yielding two kinds of key artifact {29). Ratio 3 : to the total number of burial chambers yielding three kinds of key artifact (5). Tables 56-59 provide complete data on all the burial chambers yielding artifacts, and Table 60 condenses this information to compare burials based on the quantities of "key artifacts" they contained. These numbers illustrate a significant degree of social status differentiation among dolmen burials in the Juam Dam area. Although the data must be treated with some caution, they make it reasonable to hypothesize that we can recognize six sub-levels of status differentiation in the area, including a class of people who were unable to participate in dolmen burial at all. 296 Table 60. Quantity of Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Artifacts. No or Only MP MP plus but No Key One Key Two Key Three Key Ratio (*/307) 50.8 % 32 10.4 % 27.7 % 9.5 % Q ofBC: Quantity of burial chamber. Key: Key artifact. MP: Mumun Pottery. 1 .6 % At the bottom of the social hierarchy of the dolmen period were people who were unable to participate in dolmen burial, which at its simplest nevertheless involved a significant degree of family and community labor. How numerous such people were is not known, of course, since their burials have not been found, but their number was probably not insignificant. Above them were people who were able to participate in dolmen burial, but who were buried with no, or only minimal possessions or offerings. Over half of all the people buried in dolmens fit into this group. These two sets of people might reasonably be hypothesized as representing a "commoner" level of society, a level which contained within itself a perceptible degree of social status variation. Above the "commoner" level, the burials of a "social elite" may be recognized in the last three columns of Table 60. It is a substantial group overall, totaling almost 40% of the dolmen burial sample. The relative quantities of "key artifact" social status indicators allow, however, a ready subdivision into three subclasses. As among the 11Commoners," a perceptible degree of social status variation also existed among the "social elite." Most of the burials in this group represent a level of prosperity (and presumably influence) that would place them above the "commoners." But it is the people 297 represented in the "two key" and "three key" columns ofTable 60 who can reasonably be judged farthest up the hierarchy of social influence or control. Expectably also, the richest burials, representing the peak ofthe social hierarchy, are the fewest in number by a significant margin. Some have opposed the idea of viewing dolmen burial in Korea as an indicator of sociopolitical class distinction, pointing out that there are simply too many dolmens in the Korean peninsula. If only a chief or his close kin were able to adopt the dolmen for their burial, too many elite persons would be implied as existing at the same time period. My analysis, however, suggests a way out of this dilemma. If only those dolmens yielding at least two key artifacts are considered as burials for a leader or members of a dominant elite group, the idea that dolmens represented a chiefdom society or a society having an equivalent intermediate level of socio-political complexity comes to have a quite reasonable archaeological base. In particular, those dolmens containing three key artifacts may be seen as those of a leader of a superior social stratum who has the political strength to maintain himself as the leader of a community. Along the 3 07 dolmen burial chambers investigated in the Boseong River area, only five (1 .6%) were furnished with three key artifacts. This is a realistically small number of chiefly burials, and obviates the "too many dolmens" argument cited above. My analysis confirms that we would certainly be mistaken to think that all the dolmens of the Korean peninsula represent chiefly burials. We would be equally mistaken, however, to assert that none of them did. As the invaluable quantitative 298 sample of excavated dolmens from the.Boseong Valley shows clearly, dolmen burials are significantly patterned in a way that reflects a graded hierarchy of social statuses, with a very small number of dominant positions at the top. 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 6 1 7 2 8 3 9 4 10 5 1 1 6 1 2 7 13 8 14 9 Table 6 1 . Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Key Artifacts. Burial Chamber AH Dolong No. 2 Dolong No. 3 - 1 Dolong No. 8 1 Subtotal 3 Hansil No. 3 1 Singi A No. 1 Singi A No. 3 2 Singi A No. 4 3 Singi A No. 5 3 Singi A No. 7 5 Singi A No. 9 Singi A No. 1 0 1 Singi A No. 1 2 0 Singi A No. 1 3 Subtotal 1 7 BA BD JA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 RB SD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 Sum KOKA 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 5 2 2 I 1 1 2 1 299 Burial Chamber AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA 1 5 Singi B No. 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 6 2 Singi B No. 1 5 29 1 0 0 0 3 1 3 17 3 Singi B No. 1 8 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 8 4 Singi B No. 20 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 9 5 Singi B No. 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 4 2 20 6 Singi B No. 26 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 Subtotal 34 1 0 0 1 3 40 4 2 1 Juksan No. 6 0 0 0 0 0 22 2 Juksan No. A 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 23 3 Juksan No. B 0 0 0 0 0 1 24 4 Juksan No. D 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 2 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 25 1 Jangseon No. 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 26 2 Jangseon No. 7 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 27 3 Jangseon No. 9 0 0 0 0 0 1 Subtotal 1 0 0 0 3 3 28 Hajuk A No. l 0 0 0 0 0 1 29 Hajuk B No. 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 30 Hajuk C No. 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 1 2 Hajuk C No. 1 - 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 32 3 Hajuk C No. 1 -8 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 33 4 Hajuk C No. 1 -9 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 300 Burial Chamber AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA 34 5 Hajuk C No. 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 35 6 Hajuk C No. 3 4 0 0 0 0 5 2 36 7 Hajuk C No. 5 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 37 8 Hajuk C No. 7 2 0 0 0 0 3 2 38 9 Hajuk C No. 8 0 0 0 0 2 2 39 1 0 Hajuk C No. 9 0 0 0 1 3 3 40 1 1 Hajuk C No. 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 1 12 Hajuk C No. 1 1 - 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 42 1 3 Hajuk C No. 1 1 -2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 43 14 Hajuk C No. 1 1 -3 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 44 1 5 Hajuk C No. 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 45 1 6 Hajuk C No. 1 3 0 0 0 3 3 46 17 Hajuk C No. 14 0 0 0 0 0 1 47 1 8 Hajuk C No. 1 5 4 0 0 0 0 2 6 2 48 19 Hajuk C No. 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 48 1 9 Hajuk C No. 1 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 49 20 Hajuk C No. 20 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Subtotal 24 0 0 0 1 0 10 44 3 50 Sinwo1 C No. 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 2 Sinwol C No. 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 52 3 Sinwol C No. 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 53 4 Sinwo1 C No. B 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Subtotal 1 0 0 0 2 4 3 301 Burial Chamber AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA 54 Sinwol D No. 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 55 2 Sinwol D No. 6 0 0 0 0 0 56 3 Sinwol D No. 7 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 57 4 Sinwol D No. 8 0 0 0 0 0 1 58 5 Sinwol D No. 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 59 6 Sinwol D No. 12 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Subtotal 3 0 0 0 0 5 8 2 60 1 Daejeon No. 8 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 61 Salehi A No. 23 0 0 0 0 0 1 62 1 Salehi B No. 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 63 2 Salehi B No. 3 0 ·O 0 0 0 1 64 3 Salehi B No. 5 2 0 0 0 0 3 2 65 4 Salehi B No. 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 66 5 Salehi B No. 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 67 6 Salehi B No. 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 68 7 Salehi B No. 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 3 2 Subtotal 6 0 0 0 4 1 1 3 69 Geumpyeong No. 1 0 0 0 0 0 70 2 Geumpyeong No. 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 Subtotal 1 0 0 0 0 2 3 2 7 1 1 Gokeheon No. 1 - 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 2 72 2 Gokeheon No. 1 -2 0 0 0 0 1 1 302 Burial Chamber AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA 73 3 Gokcheon No. 1 -3 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 74 4 Gokcheon No. 2-4 A 0 0 0 0 0 1 75 5 Gokcheon No. 2-4 B 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 76 6 Gokcheon No. 3-1 0 0 0 0 0 77 7 Gokcheon No. 4-1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 Subtotal 5 0 0 0 3 2 10 3 78 Naeu No. 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 79 2 Naeu No. 4 0 0 0 0 0 80 3 Naeu No. 4-1 0 0 0 0 2 2 8 1 4 Naeu No. 5 0 0 0 0 0 82 5 Naeu No. 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 83 6 Naeu No. 6-2 0 0 0 0 0 84 7 Naeu No. 7 3 0 0 0 0 4 2 85 8 Naeu No. 8 0 0 1 8 0 0 9 2 86 9 Naeu No. 9 2 0 0 0 0 3 2 87 10 Naeu No. 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 88 1 1 Naeu No. 14 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 89 1 2 Naeu No. 1 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 90 1 3 Naeu No. 1 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 9 1 14 Naeu No. 19 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 92 1 5 Naeu No. 22 2 0 0 0 1 4 3 93 1 6 Naeu No. 23 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 94 1 7 Naeu No. 24 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 95 1 8 Naeu No. 25 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 I I _l 96 97 98 99 1 00 1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 1 10 I l l 1 12 1 13 1 14 1 1 5 1 16 1 9 20 2 1 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3 1 32 33 1 1 2 3 1 2 Burial Chamber AH BA Naeu No. 26 0 Naeu No. 27 0 0 Naeu No. 3 1 0 0 Naeu No. 33 0 0 Naeu No. 34 1 0 Naeu No. 38 0 0 Naeu No. 4 1 0 0 Naeu No. 42 0 0 Naeu No. 43 0 0 Naeu No. 44 1 0 Naeu No. 45 0 Naeu No. 46 0 0 Naeu No. 47 0 0 Naeu No. 48 0 0 Naeu No. 53 2 0 Subtotal 2 1 0 Banwol No. 4 0 0 Sabi No.6 0 0 Sabi No. 1 3 0 Sabi No. B7 0 0 Subtotal 1 0 Yucbeon No. 1 0 0 Yucbeon No. 3 1 0 303 BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA 0 0 0. 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 3 2 1 0 9 1 9 6 1 5 . 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 3 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 l ._1_ 304 Burial Chamber AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA 1 17 3 Yucheon No. 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 8 4 Yucheon No. 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 19 5 Yucheon No. 6 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 1 0 0 0 5 3 Total Q of Artifact 1 26 1 3 13 36 5 1 230 Ratio 1 (*/230) 54.8 % 0.4 % 1 .3 % 5.7 % 1 5 .7 % 22.2 % 1 00 % Total Q ofBurial chamber 65 1 3 6 34 49 1 1 9 Ratio 2 (*11 1 9) 54.6 % 0.8 % 2.5 % 5 .0 % 28.6 % 4 1 .2 % 100 % QA: Quantity of Artifacts. QBC: Quantity ofBurial Chamber. KOKA: Kinds ofkey artifacts. AH: polished stone arrowhead, BA: bronze arrowhead, BD: bronze dagger, JA: jade, RB: red burnished pottery, SD: polished stone dagger Ratio 1 : to the total number of key artifacts. Ratio 2: to the total number of burial chambers yielding at least one key artifact. Summary and Conclusion The excavations carried out in the Juam Dam submergence area comprised the largest archaeological project in the history of the South Jeolla Province as well as in the Boseong River Valley. Thanks to the Juam Dam archaeological data, we can suggest that there was continuous cultural development from the upper Paleolithic Age to the Iron Age II, or Three Kingdoms Period, in the Boseong River Valley. They also provided important new data on the emergence and development of complex society in the region, the point of main emphasis in this study. --------- - ------ ----- In particular, bronze daggers, polished stone daggers, and jades from a few 305 dolmens, as well as less spectacular evidence from many more, may well be regarded as quite reliable archaeological evidence showing the existence of social differentiation. The appearance of larger pit houses yielding more household equipment than other small and middle size houses also indicates the existence of social stratification, or at least more than one socio-economic social class. Furthermore, differences in the house size and the quantity and quality of household belongings became more evident in the Iron Age II houses, indicating a trend toward more complicated and stratified social organization (see Tables 45-49). Various kinds of pottery that have different specific functions such as the steamer for cooking rice, and iron implements for craft work further suggest at least the beginning of craft specialization exempted from food production. Table 62. Classification of Dolmen Burial Chambers. None Key Artifacts Key Artifacts NA/ MP MP+/OKK l KK 2 KK 3 KKIBI NA MP 3KK BI QBC 1 07 49 32 85 29 5 3 34.9 % 1 6.0 % 1 .6 % 1 .0 % Ratio (*/307) 50.8 % 1 0.4 % 27.7 % 9.5 % 2.6 % Ratio (*/307) 6 1 .2% 1 1 .4 % Ratio (*/307) 38.8 % QBC: Quantity of burial chamber. KK: Kind of key artifact. MP+/OKK : more than Mumun Pottery but no key artifact. NA: No artifact. MP: Mumun Pottery only. /BI: not 3KK but a Bronze implement 3KKIBI: 3KK or BI 306 Table 63. Dolmen Burial Chambers Yielding Bronze Artifacts or 3 Kinds of Key Artifacts. Burial Chamber AH BA BD JA RB SD Sum KOKA Singi B No. 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 Singi B No. 1 5 29 1 0 0 0 1 3 1 3 3 Hajuk C No. 9 1 0 0 0 1 3 3 4 Hajuk C No. 1 3 1 0 0 0 1 1 3 3 5 Naeu No. 8 0 0 8 0 0 9 2 6 Naeu No. 22 2 0 0 0 4 3 7 Naeu No. 38 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 Naeu No. 53 2 0 0 0 4 3 AH: arrowhead, BA: Bronze arrowhead, BD: bronze dagger, JA: jade, RB: red-burnished pottery, SD: stone dagger, Q: Quantity. KOKA: Kind of key artifacts Tables 62 and 63 represent another classification of the 307 burial chambers based on the contents of burial furnishings therein, and also illustrate 6 categories of social differentiation of the dolmen society in the Juam Dam submergence area. As shown Tables 62 and 63, combinations of the three kinds of key artifacts were found only in five dolmen burial chambers. If burial chambers containing any bronze implement are treated as equivalent to those with three kinds of key artifacts, the burial chambers affiliated with the highest rank would be 8, or 2.6 % of the total dolmen burial chambers. Eight out of 307 or 2.6 % seems to be a reasonable ratio to represent a privileged class in a society. While an extreme position that all dolmens were built for privileged chiefs and their close kin members is clearly not supportable, there is no doubt that the limited number of dolmens furnished with such precious items were not built for common people. 307 Under the subsistence economy of the Mumun Pottery Period, the population of the Boseong River Valley seems to have been quite successful in adapting itself to dry land farming sufficient to support the whole society. With intensified production, they could reach a chiefdom level society that could furnish Liaoning style bronze daggers, polished stone daggers, and jades in the dolmens of a chosen few elite persons. However, they were not so successful in changing their production mode to paddy field farming, which would have guaranteed enough production to support a greater population and a more advanced society. In contrast, the population of the Yeongsan River Valley was quite successful in adapting itself to paddy field farming, which has continued into the present as a main agricultural production mode in modem Korea. The successful shift to paddy field farming is no doubt what made it possible for the Yeongsan River Valley society to advance to an ancient state level society illustrated in the huge tombs at Bannam-myeon, Naju (S. H. Seo and N. J. Song 1 988). Basically, the divergence between the two areas grew out of their differing geographical conditions. Whereas relatively large-scale plains adequate for paddy field agriculture were well developed in the Yeongsan River Valley, the Boseong River Valley has by comparison quite limited arable land. In post-dolmen periods, there was a significant shift in the level of sociopolitical complexity between the two regions, especially during the Three Kingdoms Period around A.D. 300. This is manifested in the emergence of huge mound tombs in the Yeongsan Rive Valley, in particular, in the Bannam-myeon area ofNaju County, one of which even contained a gilt-bronze crown. Meanwhile, nothing similar appeared in the 308 Boseong River Valley. From archaeological data, it is clear that the prehistoric dolmen society of the Yeongsan River Valley continued to increase its sociopolitical complexity and by the end of the 5th century AD. reached the level of incipient state society. 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