Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue 
21.3 (2023)      ISSN: 2160-617X (online) 
ourj.uoregon.edu  
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema: Native American 
Representation in Dances with Wolves (1990) and Montford: The 
Chickasaw Rancher (2021) 
Tom Farrenkopf* 
 
Abstract 
In 2015, film critic Angela Aleiss wrote that “Dances with Wolves created a watershed... no 
Western has had such a powerful impact.” More than thirty years have passed since the release 
of the film Dances with Wolves in 1990, and since then, there have been significant shifts   in 
public opinion and government policies regarding Indigenous rights and representation.   Sports 
franchises are parting ways with former idols, and the US government has allocated substantial 
financial resources for providing healthcare to Indigenous communities, among other 
endeavors. Against this shifting cultural backdrop, the present research project seeks to 
investigate how, if at all, the representation of Native Americans in the American film industry 
has changed since 1990. To address this inquiry, I adopt a comparative analysis approach, 
drawing on the films Dances with Wolves and Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher (2021). The two 
key areas of examination are the on-screen portrayal of stereotypical character types and the off-
screen employment practices of production companies. Scholars and activists have argued that 
the cinematic representation of Native Americans has traditionally been confined to that of 
stereotypical characters, which has been deemed harmful to the Native American population's 
perceived identity. While both films employ such character types, the filmmakers of "Montford" 
utilize narrative techniques to mitigate, subvert, and identify these representations. With 
respect to hiring practices, a small increase in the number of Native Americans employed in 
roles involving creative control occurred over time. Overall, the most noteworthy and 
observable transformation within the American film industry has been the substantial rise in the 
number of film production companies owned and operated by Native Americans. 
 
1. Introduction believed that their example will induce the remaining 
tribes also to seek the same obvious advantages…The 
“It gives me pleasure to announce to Congress that present policy of the Government is but a 
the benevolent policy of the Government, steadily continuation of the same progressive change by a 
pursued for nearly thirty years, in relation to the milder process. The tribes which occupied the 
removal of the Indians beyond the white settlements is countries now constituting the Eastern States were 
approaching to a happy consummation. Two annihilated or have melted away to make room for 
important tribes have accepted the provision made for the whites…” —U.S. President Andrew Jackson, 
their removal at the last session of Congress, and it is December 6, 1830.  
*Tom Farrenkopf (tomf@uoregon.edu) graduated in 2023 with a Bachelor of Science in Cinema Studies, accompanied by a minor in Sociology. 
Their capstone undergraduate research project, titled "Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema: Native American Representation in Dances with 
Wolves (1990) and Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher (2021)," explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. Tom conducted this research 
under the guidance and mentorship of Dr. Ari Purnama, Assistant Professor of Cinema Studies. Building on their achievements, Tom has been 
accepted into the University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts, where they have been honored as a 2023 Shriram Fellow. With an 
ultimate ambition of attaining a doctorate in the cinematic arts, Tom aspires to contribute to academia as a professor of cinema studies. 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
 The comprehensive eradication of the Native order to lay the framework for evaluating Dances 
American populace constituted, on certain with Wolves and Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher. 
occasions, an overt objective pursued by the The stereotypes selected for examination relate to 
United States government and its constituents, the representations portrayed in these films. 
who sought to capitalize on governmental Following the breakdown of these stereotypes, a 
initiatives to displace Indigenous people, notably two-part analysis—one for each film—will 
exemplified by the Homestead Act of 1862. contribute to an examination of on-screen 
During this period, myths of so-called unholy portrayals and highlight how these ideas are 
savages circulated amongst those involved with represented in each film. In the fourth section, an 
the westward expansion effort. From spoken analysis of employment practices aims to 
word, transmitted through oral stories, this understand how representation behind the 
troublesome stereotype1 became widely camera may influence representation in front of 
circulated through books, wild west shows, and the camera. Lastly, the final topic discussed in 
eventually, full-length movies. From its this research is why representation in film 
inception, the American film industry has utilized matters and how the continued utilization of 
these character types and continued to represent historical stereotypes is potentially damaging to 
the Native American population in such a way those Indigenous viewers who identify with these 
that, as Jackson stated, “make[s] room for the fictional ideas. 
whites.” In the early years of cinema, imagery of 
Native Americans was utilized for the monetary 2. Methodology 
gains of white filmmakers. For instance, in The 
Daughters of Dawn (1921), director Norbert Myles Through a comparative examination of modern 
employed an entirely Native American cast with and historic films featuring Indigenous 
nearly 300 actors (Franklin 2014). Nevertheless, characters and themes, there appears to occur an 
the film maintains an overly the romanticized observable and measurable change related to the 
portrayal of those Indigenous characters degree of Indigenous representation. My 
represented. Furthermore, Native Americans research takes both qualitative and quantitative 
rarely received production offers outside of approaches to understanding whether and how 
acting roles, and, as I will discuss later, this trend Native American representation within the 
continues in contemporary filmmaking. American film industry has changed. 
However, over the last 31 years, a significant To begin with, this paper utilizes a 
increase in Native American film production comparative analysis approach by examining two 
companies raises the following question: How, if movies produced within the American film 
at all, has the American film industry altered its industry in order to understand what change has 
relationship with Native Americans between 1990 occurred and how. The films analyzed are Dances 
and 2021? with Wolves (Costner 1990) and Montford: The 
In the study that follows, five main subareas Chickasaw Rancher (Frankowski 2021). 
of research will provide further examination of While national opinion and policy have 
these topics. First, I describe a specific subset of continued to shift over time, the impact of films 
Native American stereotypical representations in like Dances with Wolves has aided public 
awareness of Indigenous issues. The shift in 
 
1 general national awareness and governmental  Onscreen portrayals of stereotypical characters are 
characterized as simplified and one-dimensional policies that followed the film constitutes the 
representations of individuals or groups that conform to fixed most significant reason for selecting this film. In 
patterns based on attributes such as sex, race, religion, 
profession, or age. 1991, after significant box office and industry-
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  30 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
wide success, Dances with Wolves was nominated future dialogue and investigation. 
for 12 Academy Awards and received seven. As The second approach involves the statistical 
described in a Native American online news analysis of each film’s hiring practices. My 
source, Indian Country Today, a 2015 article by analysis specifically examines those key roles 
Dr. Angela Aleiss2 states, “Dances with Wolves with direct creative control over the film’s 
created a watershed... no western has had such a production, including positions both in front of 
powerful impact.” While it cannot be definitively and behind the camera. Since representation 
proven whether the film directly affected behind the camera may significantly affect the 
policymakers, the immediate years after its product created, this second approach identifies a 
release saw significant policy changes. For crucial factor. Production companies require a 
instance, in 1993, U.S. President George H.W. substantial amount of labor on the opposite side 
Bush renamed Custer’s National Monument to of the camera and employ hundreds of workers to 
Little Bighorn National Monument., in 2010, the complete various tasks during the production 
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act process. 
provided healthcare access for all registered One way to categorize crew members is to 
members of the 574 federally recognized divide them into two district groups, referenced 
Indigenous tribes. Within this legislation, Native by their place above or below a “line.” In this 
American households earning less than 300 instance, the term “line” references the 
percent of the federal poverty line were eligible distinction between those who maintain creative 
to receive universal healthcare at no cost. These control of the film’s ultimate product (above-the-
contemporary U.S. government policies line) and those completing tasks to fulfill the 
represent a significant change in priorities from vision of filmmakers (below-the-line) (Clevé 2016, 
the former policies that worked up to and 6). For the purposes of this research, above-the-
included the expulsion, “civilization,” and line positions include the following creative 
annihilation of the Native American population.  positions: director, writer, producer, casting 
Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher is the second director, cinematographer, and principal cast. It 
film selected for qualitative analysis. Intending to is significant to note this distinction because 
understand how the film industry has altered its Chickasaw Nation Productions, the production 
relationship with Indigenous cultures over the company for Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher, 
last thirty-year period, I elected to examine a states on their website that over 200 Native 
contemporary film that boasted its inclusion of American cast and crew members worked on the 
more than 200 Native American cast and crew film.1 Additionally, I have analyzed publicly 
members. Additionally, the film’s production available information on each production team 
company is the Native-owned Chickasaw Nation member, if available, to determine each 
Productions. In a preliminary assessment of this member’s nationality or status as a recognized 
film, these factors stood out as distinctive when Native American or First Nation citizen of one of 
compared with other productions created within the 574 federally recognized tribes. This 
the American film industry. information is publicly available on an array of 
An observable weakness of this research sites such as IMDB, individual portfolio sites, or 
method is its limited scope. While this work is film credits. For example, I accessed Robyn 
nowhere near an exhaustive examination of a Elliot’s information through the Chickasaw 
larger cross-section of films, it opens the door to Nation legislative department website. In the case 
 of Lucy Tennessee Cole, a screenwriter for 
2 Dr. Angela Aleiss is a professor of film studies and has Montford, there is no publicly available 
published multiple books on Native American representation 
within the American film industry. information; thus, they represent an unknown 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  31 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
portion of this sample. To further break down stereotypes that are problematic in their 
these groups, I elected to look at the top ten presentation. Several of these stereotypes are 
acting roles from each film, as shown in their utilized in contemporary films. For example, in 
respective credit sequences. In conjunction with the Disney film The Lone Ranger (2013), Johnny 
the six creative directing roles, I examined a total Depp portrays a fictional Comanche character. 
of 16 positions for Dances with Wolves and 17 for The process of granting white actors a role 
Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher. outside of their race is known as “whitewashing,” 
Overall, this unit of measure is limited in that or, in this case, acting in “redface.”   
it maintains the U.S. government’s power of Before I lay the framework for these 
determination and overlooks those who do not stereotypes, it is worth mentioning that the 
fall within the established classification. Of stereotypes presented in this project constitute 
paramount importance to this research is the but a fraction of the overall representations 
recognition that the publicly available utilized within the American film industry. 
information utilized for each individual, where Furthermore, I find it significant to clearly state 
applicable, strictly adheres to the classification of that these stereotypes were typically not created 
membership in a federally recognized tribe and is by the American film industry. More exactly, 
comprehensively included as such. This many of these ideas were initially created 
approach ensures the accuracy and validity of the through literary works, photography, wild west 
data used in the study, thereby upholding the shows, and various forms of oral tradition. In 
integrity and credibility of the findings. By some cases, these stereotypes were constructed 
meticulously adhering to the recognition of as colonizing tools utilized as justification for 
federal tribal affiliations, the research maintains murder. However, it is through film and live 
a rigorous and principled stance, safeguarding shows that these stereotypes have gained a visual 
against misrepresentations and misconceptions representation. 
that may arise in the absence of such precise The principal error within these stereotypes 
classification. is that they brand all Native Americans as the 
Through the utilization of these two same one-dimensional characters. In one way or 
approaches, my goal is to gain an understanding another, these stereotypes have been utilized to 
of Indigenous cinematic representation based on paint an inaccurate portrayal of the relationship 
the qualities of each. between the white colonizers and Native 
Americans. As one scholar writes, “[w]hile Native 
3. Framing Historical Stereotypes American community members have tried to 
for Film Evaluations amend and correct them, these stereotypes still 
inform popular culture and curricula” (Raheja 
To lay the foundation for the cases of 2013, 222). While these stereotypical 
stereotypical representation utilized in these representations remain numerous in their 
films, I must first establish the framework of presentation, this study will examine those 
these ideas. To this end, I have elected to provide examples that correlate with the two selected 
a brief overview of each stereotypical character films. 
type and provide background information from In the book Killing the Indian Maiden (2009), 
those scholars—in film or otherwise—that have M. Elise Marubbio extensively examines the 
contributed to these ideas. Throughout American representation of Native American women as 
film history, filmmakers have repeatedly utilized portrayed in films. Within this book, Marubbio 
numerous oversimplified Native American identifies a representative idea that they refer to 
as the Celluloid Princess. One of the most cited 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  32 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
and recognizable examples of this stereotype Warrior is that of the noble/spiritual Medicine 
comes from Disney’s animated film Pocahontas Man. This character type is frequently depicted as 
(1995). This stereotype is realized when a Native the extreme opposite of the savage warrior and is 
American woman falls in love with a member of a characterized by their belief in working with the 
group of invading white colonizers and works to invading white colonizers. These magic-wielding 
bridge the gap between the two groups. It is the characters are portrayed as serving no higher 
sexualization of the exotic other that propels the purpose than guiding the white character on their 
white male character into a relationship with the journey. This literary trick—presenting a noble 
Celluloid Princess (Marubbio 2009, 43), and it is Indigenous character—is counterbalanced with a 
the Celluloid Princess who suffers the most and version of the plain old savage (Rollins et al. 2009, 
commonly dies as a direct result of the 160). Often depicted as observing whiteness as a 
relationship. In one way, this suffering is most holy form of existence, these characters elect to 
often initiated after the two engage in an intimate align themselves with the white colonizer and 
affair and the white male is forced to end the represent the spiritual guiding force that seeks to 
relationship (Marubbio 2009, 43).  unite the two groups of people. Through the 
Another stereotypical idea—that Native teachings of the “esoteric secrets” of tribal life, 
warriors have been and are frequently engaged in the white warrior is often elevated spiritually and 
all levels of criminal activities—has its roots in depicted as the savior of the tribe.  
how white Euro-Americans viewed the The image of the Stoic Indian has been 
Indigenous population and utilized their observed in motion pictures since their inception 
criminalization as justification for murder. and has remained a common stereotype. As 
Having permeated many aspects of American Johanna Feier writes, “warring American Indians 
life, the idea of Native “warriors” is reflected in were noted for their sternness, which popular 
numerous entertainment industries. Specifically, culture interpreted as a sign of stoicism and lack 
within the American film industry, this idea is of emotion” (2011, 12). These silent, grim, 
represented by the stereotypical characteristics of humorless representations is, as Feier argues, a 
the bloodthirsty warrior/savage: “[t]he form of “dehumanization… because it presents 
bloodthirsty warrior is a vicious, animalistic them as… machines.” The stoic presentation of 
beast, attacking white men and kidnapping white Native Americans is believed to have grown from 
children” (Boyd 2015, 106). These “savages” are the work of photographer Edward Curtis. 
presented as cold, heartless animals that possess Throughout his works, it is rare for his Native 
only one goal: assailing the white man. The idea American subjects to display anything other than 
that "[e]specially in Western films, the a vacant, emotionless expression. The Library of 
bloodthirsty, war-crazed Indian has been Congress houses thousands of his photos and has 
Hollywood's stock and trade" (Rollins and achieved significant circulation, perpetuating 
O'Connor 2002, 33) highlights a prevailing these mostly one-dimensional images. The 
stereotype prevalent in cinematic depictions of character of Edward Curtis’s work is important to 
Indigenous peoples. The work of Rollins and note because some argue that his work 
O’Connor underscores the longstanding presence influenced early cinema and how Native 
of such harmful stereotypes in the film industry Americans were presented (Block & Red Corn 
and emphasizes the need for critical examination 2011). And yet, though this stereotype 
and revision of these portrayals to foster more misrepresents Native Americans, its usage 
authentic and respectful representations of persists.  
Indigenous cultures. Opposing the images of the Bloodthirsty 
Contrasting the idea of the Bloodthirsty Warrior, Native Americans are elsewhere 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  33 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
presented as weak and inferior human beings militia. This further perpetuates the distinct 
with limited resources with which to support attitude in the American film industry that Native 
themselves. Through a sympathetic view, the Americans are inferior to white colonizers. 
White Savior is frequently utilized as a form of Another aspect of this stereotype is realized when 
protection from other white colonizers. Aligning the tribespeople aid their new white member in 
themself with Native tribes, the White Savior attacking and/or repelling the advances of their 
comes to their aid when other colonizers previous society, usually to their own demise, 
determine that these tribes must be moved or highlighting the expendability of Indigenous 
eradicated. Furthermore, as previously discussed, characters. 
the White Savior engages in an intimate The Half-Breed character constitutes another 
relationship with the Celluloid Princess. In this significant stereotype worth exploring. Typically 
way, the White Savior is entrusted by the depicted as an individual grappling with the 
tribespeople to bridge the gap between the challenge of reconciling their dual identities—
imperial colonizers and the Native American being both white and Indigenous—the Half-Breed 
tribes. character faces animosity from both cultural 
The Nabb Research Center's online exhibit on groups due to their association with the other. 
Native American Representation in Visual Media They are often viewed with suspicion and 
posits that the concept of the "White Savior distrust, considered untrustworthy, thieves, or 
Complex" asserts that in scenarios where non- disloyal by both communities. 
white groups face oppression or perilous threats, On the other hand, some narratives also 
the narrative depicts a white individual as the present the notion that these characters possess 
only figure capable of rescuing them from their the finest qualities of both races, potentially 
adversities. This perpetuates the notion of white embodying a blend of noble attributes. In the 
superiority and benevolence, positioning white book "There Must Be a Lone Ranger," Jenni 
characters as the ultimate saviors and reinforcing Calder encapsulates this stereotype by asserting 
racial hierarchies. Such portrayals have been that being a Half-Breed confers a distinct 
criticized for their reductionist and patronizing advantage over both Indigenous and white 
approach, as they marginalize and undermine the individuals. This implies that such characters are 
agency and resilience of marginalized somehow positioned within an advantageous 
communities, including Native Americans.  middle ground, suggesting that they possess 
Another prevailing stereotype related to the unique strengths arising from both sides of their 
white colonizer is the idea known as “going dual heritage. 
native.” This term represents the idea of a white This selection of Native American stereotypes 
character leaving the safety of their community commonly utilized in the American film industry 
to completely assimilate into tribal life. Upon was chosen for inclusion due to its connection to 
their assimilation into the tribe, characters who the films Dances with Wolves and Montford: The 
have “gone native” commonly believe they are Chickasaw Rancher. This does not constitute an 
experiencing a more divine or wholesome life. exhaustive list or description of the existing 
While many of the films that employ this stereotypes associated with Indigeneity; however, 
stereotype depict the white character as it provides vital framing and context for the films’ 
consciously making this decision, outsiders are analysis. From here, I will build upon these ideas 
often convinced that characters who “went in order to explain how they are employed in 
native” were kidnapped or forced into joining the cinema. 
tribe. As a result, the tribe is often attacked by 
outside forces, usually the U.S. Army or a white 4. Dances with Wolves (1990) 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  34 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
Dances with Wolves, a 1990 film directed by Kevin America. We have finally expelled from our 
Costner and based on Michael Blake’s literary imagery the traditional Hollywood Indian—the 
work of the same name, tells the story of shiftless savage who can't hold his liquor—and 
Lieutenant John Dunbar, a decorated Civil War replaced him with the more complex and 
veteran who is sent to Fort Sedgewick at the edge authentic characters of Costner's story.” And yet, 
of the North American frontier. Upon his arrival, while both Matthews and Valentine argue that the 
Dunbar discovers the post abandoned. However, film distances itself from historically inaccurate 
as he rehabilitates the fort, Dunbar encounters stereotypes of the day, it remains filled with and 
several members of the Lakota and remains built around these ideas, even if they ostensibly 
cautious of their interactions. After Dunbar meets appear more “sympathetic.” The remainder of 
Stands With A Fist, a white woman who was this section will explore the generic stereotypes 
raised by the Lakota, Kicking Bird, her adoptive connected with each character in the film.  
father and a spiritual tribal leader, guides Dunbar With few exceptions, Dances with Wolves is 
on his journey to become fully embraced by the primarily presented through the perspective of 
tribe. Dunbar's newfound freedom is threatened Lieutenant John Dunbar—played by Kevin 
when new soldiers arrive and he is taken into Costner—who is renamed Dances with Wolves once 
custody for abandoning his post at Fort Sedgwick. the tribe embraces him as a member. This use of 
The Lakota tribe comes to Dunbar’s aid and perspective is noteworthy because it represents 
rescues him, upon which Dunbar and Stands an invitation for the audience members to 
With A Fist decide to leave before the army become spectators, if not participants, in the 
arrives to avoid any further conflict. depicted representations. That said, Dunbar’s 
After its release in 1990, Dances with Wolves character correlates with several previously 
rapidly became one of the best-known films of discussed stereotypes; namely, Dunbar is 
the period. Nominated for 12 Academy Awards, representative of the White Savior. After working 
the film ultimately received seven, including best to open lines of communication with the Lakota 
picture, and was the first Western to receive the tribe, Dunbar pursues the Lakota way of life. As 
honor since Cimarron (1931). At the time, film the White Savior, Dunbar embraces the Lakota 
critic Tom Matthews wrote in Boxoffice lifestyle, weds Stands With A Fist, and nearly 
magazine, “No doubt destined to do for the Native abandons Fort Sedgwick altogether to live full-
American what ‘Roots’ did for the African time with the Lakota tribe. By the end of the film, 
American slave, this movie is determined to Dunbar speaks almost exclusively in the Lakota 
challenge the cruel Indian stereotypes from language and incorporates traditional Native 
Ford’s day, and in the end, it gives us a rare, American regalia into his daily dress. After 
sympathetic look at a culture about to [be] returning to Fort Sedgwick to reclaim his journal, 
annihilated.” The film’s so-called “sympathetic which narrativizes his entire experience, Dunbar 
look” at Indigenous characters may even have is mistaken for a tribal member and attacked by 
gone as far as influencing national policy: on the occupying U.S. soldiers. Upon regaining 
December 10, 1990, U.S. President George H.W. consciousness, Dunbar speaks to the soldiers in 
Bush renamed the former Custer National the Lakota language, representing his deeper 
Monument as Little Bighorn National Monument transition into the Indigenous culture, or his 
in recognition of both the U.S. Army soldiers and “going native.”  
Native Americans that fought at the battle of Dunbar, having secured his place within the 
Little Bighorn. In The Washington Post, Paul tribe—as indicated by their willingness to send a 
Valentine wrote, “‘Dances with Wolves’ has become war party to release him—believes the US military 
an important psychological purgative for white will continue to track him and hold him 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  35 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
responsible for the military crime of abandoning Stands With A Fist's willingness to embrace her 
his post. Believing it is in the best interest of the newly learned culture and the tribe’s subsequent 
tribe, Dunbar and Stands With A Fist leave the acceptance of her as a member of Kicking Bird 
tribe behind in hopes of rejoining white society and Black Shawl’s family and of the tribe, in 
and convincing other colonizers to build a numerous ways, though she is racially white, 
relationship with Native Americans. Dunbar’s act Stands With A Fist represents a Lakota woman. In 
of sacrifice, the utilization of his privileged addition to representing the “going native” 
position within white society, and his vehement stereotype, her sympathy for and alignment with 
desire to convince other white settlers to alter John Dunbar dually defines her character as the 
their view of Native Americans are further Celluloid Princess.  
representative of the White Savior stereotype. During the sequence of shots where Stands 
Through adopting the perspective of John With A Fist’s white family is murdered by Pawnee 
Dunbar, the audience is invited to participate in warriors, the stereotypical representation of the 
the “going native” process and celebrate Dunbar’s Bloodthirsty Warrior is placed on display. As a 
“selfless” deeds as the White Savior.  significant plot point, this attack represents the 
Stands With A Fist, as portrayed by Mary principal reason as to why Stands With A Fist 
McDonell, represents at least two of the becomes dispersed and is later discovered by 
previously mentioned stereotypes: the Celluloid Kicking Bird and raised as a member of the 
Princess and “going native.” Viewers watch as Lakota tribe. After telling the Pawnee warriors to 
Stands With A Fist, originally the child of white flee the area, a warrior gathers a tomahawk from 
settlers, runs away during an attack on her his waist and hurls it into the back of a fleeing 
family's settlement; it is assumed that all other settler. Subsequently, the warriors assault the 
family members are murdered during the attack. remaining settlers, and it is assumed that all 
After surviving the attack, Stands With A Fist is other remaining family members are killed. 
discovered by Kicking Bird and taken in as a Later, the Pawnee warriors make four unique 
member of his family. As she begins to accept her appearances throughout the film, with the central 
dramatically changed living situation, Stands focus placed on Toughest Pawnee, portrayed by 
With A Fist adapts to her new family and the Wes Studi. These warriors are responsible for the 
Lakota way of life. This adaptation includes the attack and murder of Stands With A Fist’s white 
use of the Lakota language and limited use of the family, the attack and murder of Timmons, the 
English language, as indicated by her struggle to attack on the Lakota tribe, and the tracking of 
communicate with John Dunbar during his first Native Americans as enlisted soldiers in the U.S. 
verbally communicative meeting with Kicking Army. Comparing the presentation of the Pawnee 
Bird. From the Euro-American perspective, warriors with that of the Lakota tribe, the 
Stands With A Fist also represents the “going difference is substantial. The distinction between 
native” stereotype. While this argument may these two tribes allows the audience to maintain a 
receive opposition because it is assumed that sympathetic view of the Lakota and merciless 
Stands With A Fist does not actively elect to leave anger toward the Pawnee warriors. Presenting 
behind her white identity and join the Lakota for these warriors in such a manner draws a 
a more wholesome life, it can be reciprocally connection to the Bloodthirsty Warrior 
argued, then, that her character equally stereotype; even if it is not levied toward the 
represents the Celluloid Princess. Through her “primary” tribe in the film, the archetype still 
juvenile defiance of an elderly tribe member, exists.  
Stands With A Fist gained the respect of tribal Kicking Bird, portrayed by Graham Greene, 
members and earned her Lakota name. Through represents the inquisitive spiritual leader that 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  36 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
remains hopeful of opening lines of These variations present the opportunity for 
communication with the invading white settlers. additional conversations about how variant 
Throughout the film—initially with the aid of attributes—such as the character’s race—may aid 
Stands With A Fist —Kicking Bird meaningfully the overall subversion of stereotypes. However, 
communicates with John Dunbar. After some although the identified characters do not fit 
time, the interactions between Kicking Bird and neatly into each of the connected stereotypes, 
John Dunbar grow beyond their formal these representations, I argue, remain examples 
relationship and, after the marriage of Dunbar of these character types. 
and Stands With A Fist, develop into a family 
bond. Serving the role of convincing the rest of 5. Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher 
the tribespeople of Dunbar’s perceived (2021) 
significance, Kicking Bird’s character remains a 
representation of the spiritual Medicine Man. Inspired by the literary work of Neil Johnson and 
Throughout the film, Kicking Bird focuses almost C. Neil Kingsly and based on the life of Montford 
exclusively on his relationship with Dunbar and Thomas Johnson, a Chickasaw cattle 
accompanies him throughout his journey, which entrepreneur, Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher is 
ultimately leads to Dunbar’s inclusion in the a film adaptation of a book of the same name. 
Lakota tribe.   The film focuses on several key periods during 
Portrayed by Rodney Grant, Wind In His Hair Montford’s life and explores how each impacts 
makes a significant character transition the arc of his story. Initially, the film begins 
throughout the story. Early in the film, Wind In during a period of considerable hardship for 
His Hair is reluctant about the idea of Montford, his family, and his Indigenous 
communicating with the white soldier and neighbors during the civil war. With only a sole 
coordinates an attack on Fort Sedgwick to steal head of cattle left to his name, Montford must 
Cisco, Dunbar’s horse. About 47 minutes into the find a way to take care of his family. Following 
film, Wind In His Hair represents the stoic the downfall of the Confederate States of 
warrior archetype as he confronts Dunbar in an America, Montford, the protagonist, finds 
act of intimidation. Thrusting his weapon into the himself largely unscathed by the U.S. Army and is 
ground at Dunbar’s feet, he yells “I am not afraid afforded the opportunity to expand his cattle 
of you!” As the film progresses, the stoicism of empire. Although the state of Kansas did 
Wind In His Hair wavers as he eventually contribute troops to the Union cause, the film 
embraces Dunbar as a member of the tribe. This indicates that the Chickasaw Nation has chosen to 
transition causes Wind In His Hair to lead a war align with the Confederacy as a consequence of a 
party against the U.S. Army soldiers as they prior Union record of broken treaties. 
transport Dunbar to stand trial for abandoning Throughout the film, there are several key 
his post. moments when various attacks on Montford’s 
Lastly, it is significant to identify the balance home and ranch take place, including one by 
is created by the portrayal of these stereotypes. hired outlaws directed to complete the dirty work 
Each discussed stereotype is either unequivocally of Sargent Richter. After the capture of a beloved 
representative of the idea, as with the Pawnee, Indigenous friend, along with many others, 
who are portrayed as bloodthirsty and ruthless Montford is faced with a mission of traveling to 
warriors, or attempts to undermine the Florida in hopes of arguing for their release. 
stereotype through minor variations, as with Before his departure—and after the arrival of his 
Stands With A Fist, who takes on the role of English biological father, who had remained 
Celluloid Princess, even though she is white. 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  37 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
absent for most of his life—Montford is forced to Johnson was inducted into the National Cowboy 
grapple with a paternal relationship he ardently and Western Heritage Museum’s Hall of Great 
opposes. Recognizing the value of his father’s Westerners, and the film was released a year 
presence at the Florida fort, Montford allows his later.  
father to accompany him on his journey and In Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher, my 
embraces their newfound relationship. analysis of the cinematic portrayal of Native 
Here, I identify and draw connections to Americans indicates that some of the previously 
several observable stereotypes in Montford: The mentioned stereotypical representations are 
Chickasaw Rancher. These include that of the Half- utilized. However, it also appears that the 
Breed, the White Savior, the Stoic Indian, and the filmmakers were conscious of these forms of 
Plains Indian. The remaining stereotypes representation and addressed these stereotypes 
explored in this essay—those of the Celluloid by calling them out directly. One such stereotype 
Princess, “going native,” the Bloodthirsty is that of the Half-Breed. While this stereotype is 
Warrior, and the spiritual Medicine Man—are not historically prevalent in many American films, in 
portrayed within this film. Rather, filmmakers Montford, the Half-Breed identity accurately 
utilized available screen time to develop the represents an aspect of Montford Johnson’s 
presented characters and avoided one- identity, and filmmakers explicitly draw attention 
dimensional representations. to its existence. Approximately 13 minutes into 
Having been passed down from generation to the movie, filmmakers directly acknowledge the 
generation, the story of Montford Thomas Half-Breed stereotype through an interaction 
Johnson, through the interpretation of Chickasaw between Montford and Sargent Richter. Speaking 
Nation Productions, has now gained visual to Lieutenant Richard Pratt, Sargent Richter 
representation. This film represents a indicates Montford, “This is the Half-Breed I told 
contemporary example of Native American you about.” While Montford exhibits disgust for 
filmmaking and appeared apt for comparative his English father, his character is not fraught 
analysis due to the similarities it shares with with inner turmoil about his multicultural 
Dances with Wolves. For example, both films are of background. He embraces this identity, as it 
the Western genre, situated within the Central allows him to navigate both cultures effectively. 
Great Plains, and include significant interactions These characteristics are observed through 
between U.S. soldiers and the Indigenous Montford’s interactions with Lt. Pratt and Sgt. 
population. Furthermore, both films are set in Richter at Fort Sill, and during his meeting with 
similar periods, with Montford set in the 1840s the Native American Chiefs before the cattle 
and Dances with Wolves set in the 1860s. However, drive. 
unlike Dances with Wolves, Montford: The Next, an examination of Montford’s father, 
Chickasaw Rancher is primarily told from the Charles “Boggy” Johnson, reveals the White 
Native American point of view. The story of Savior stereotype. As the story goes, Charles 
Montford Johnson is one that is regionally Johnson abandoned his family while Montford 
recognized and shared widely. The literary and his sister Adelaide were still young. Despite 
narrative upon which the film was based was this situation, Montford survived his youth and 
initially published by Neil R. Johnson, Montford’s built a substantial cattle empire. Upon Boggy’s 
grandson, in 1960, and a mere 1,000 copies of the controversial return to Kansas, the reunion 
book were printed at the time. Neil Johnson’s between Boggy and his son is bitter, as Montford 
grandson, C. Neil Kingsly, expanded on his elected to merely regard him as the person who 
grandfather's work and published a revised copy abandoned his family. Following the 
that has since been widely circulated. In 2020, imprisonment of several Cheyenne men, 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  38 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
Montford, Boggy, and Montford’s son, Edward Throughout the movie, filmmakers were 
Bryant Johnson, set out for Fort Marion in Saint successful in their presentation of multi-
Augustine, Florida in hopes of aiding in the dimensional Native American characters, 
release of the prisoners. During a conversation incorporating an impressive level of emotional 
between Montford and Boggy prior to their depth through both the script and the acting 
departure, Boggy mentions a personal direction. There is a reasonable argument that 
relationship with a U.S. Senator and the fact that the sternness Montford displays is representative 
the Senator “owes him substantially.” To of the Stoic Indian stereotype. However, I argue 
Montford’s disgust, Boggy raises this notion again that the depth of his character withdraws him 
while aboard a train bound for Blue Springs. from this category. Montford’s display of 
Upon their arrival to Fort Marion, Boggy takes sternness is primarily shown during his 
over the conversation with Lt. Pratt and informs interactions with those he views as disrespectful, 
him of his relationship with both U.S. Senator perceived or otherwise. The two primary 
Augustus Hill Garland of Arkansas and President examples of Montford’s stoicism are his 
Rutherford B. Hayes. After pleading their case to interactions with Sargent Richter and those with 
Lt. Pratt and receiving an empathetic rejection, his father. However, Montford’s sternness is 
the Johnsons walk beyond the gates of Fort subverted by the inclusion of stories about his 
Marion to find a local building in flames. With charitable giving and heroic deeds. When an 
flames erupting, Montford, Boggy, and Sargent unknown cousin shows up to the Johnson ranch 
Richter run inside to help evacuate those in need. with seven children in tow, Montford and his wife 
During this scene, Sargent Richter lures Montford welcome the family into their home. Additionally, 
into an enclosed room, locking him inside as the Montford travels to Florida in hopes of releasing 
building continues to burn. Upon the realization his friends from a military prison and, while 
that Montford remained in the burning building, there, narrowly survives a fire after pulling 
Boggy dashes into the flames in hopes of people to safety. These examples show 
retrieving his son. After locating Montford in the Montford’s emotional depth and are the basis for 
sealed room, Boggy throws him over his shoulder the argument that invoking the Stoic Indian 
and transports him out, effectively saving his life. stereotype is an inaccurate—or, at least, 
The following morning, after the building fire is incomplete—way to describe Montford’s 
safely distinguished with the aid of the characterization in this film.  
imprisoned Cheyenne men, Senator Garland At the 45-minute mark, however, the film 
arrives at Fort Marion and works to release the reintroduces the Stoic Indian stereotype during 
prisoners. While it is unclear as to whether Montford's interaction with tribal Chiefs. In this 
Senator Garland’s presence affects the prisoners’ particular 33-second shot sequence, one of the 
status, Boggy utilizes all viable options to assist assembled Chiefs stoically responds to Montford's 
them. These two examples—saving Montford’s request to guide his cattle through their lands. 
life and the utilization of personal privilege in an Throughout the meeting, all seven Chiefs 
attempt to free the Native American prisoners— maintain the appearance of the Stoic Indian, 
are representative characteristics of the White reinforcing this stereotype. The rhythmic pace of 
Savior. While there is an argument in opposition the verbal communication of the responding 
to this idea—namely that Boggy is not a principal Chief further accentuates the stoic demeanor. 
character—during his presence onscreen, he Although this approach may have been intended 
makes a concerted effort to symbolize the White to streamline the narrative for clarity, it 
Savior.   nevertheless perpetuates the Stoic Indian 
stereotype. This reductionist portrayal 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  39 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
oversimplifies the multifaceted nature of 6. Employment Practices and the 
Indigenous cultures and communication styles, 
reducing it to a single, static representation. Line 
While the filmmakers may have intended to 
facilitate storytelling efficiency, the usage of the Through the evaluation of each film’s cinematic 
Stoic Indian stereotype in this sequence evokes portrayal of Native Americans, there is reason to 
an oversimplified depiction of Indigenous believe that some change has occurred within the 
peoples, warranting critical examination and American film industry over the intermediate 31-
discussion. year period. One circumstance that may have 
Chickasaw, Cheyenne, Comanche, and Kiowa influenced this shift is off-screen representation, 
are just a few of the numerous Native American as representation matters in all aspects of media 
tribes filmmakers draw from throughout the film. production.  
In addition to Montford, a member of the To this end, Dances with Wolves employed no 
Chickasaw, another noteworthy representation is Indigenous crew members to fill the above-the-
that of his Cheyenne friend, Rising Wolf. line positions. However, in front of the camera, 
Common to many films that utilize Native half of all principal roles in Dances with Wolves 
American representations is the Plains Indian were portrayed by Native American or First 
stereotype. This aspect of the story is significant Nation actors. In total, 31.25 percent of the above-
to recognize because, as Wishart states, “the the-line positions in this film were filled by Native 
Hollywood Indian from the 1920s through the American and First Nation actors, though they 
1980s was more likely to resemble a Plains Indian remained limited to on-screen positions. 
than any other, largely because the American Meanwhile, 100 percent of creative direction 
audience quickly grew accustomed to the exotic roles and 68.75 percent of total roles went to non-
look of Plains headdresses and breastplates” native cast and crew members (Figure 1). 
(Wishart 2011). Hailing from another tribe of the 
Great Plains, Rising Wolf makes several 
appearances throughout the film, wearing 
clothing like Montford, sans headdresses and 
breastplates. 
While the Plains Indian approach will 
generate interest from viewers, its usage, like that 
of the Half-Breed stereotype, is historically 
accurate in the case of Montford: The Chickasaw 
Rancher. The current Chickasaw Nation 
reservation—located south of Oklahoma City, 
Oklahoma—and Johnson’s primary home—
located in Council Grove, Kansas—fall within the  
Great Plains region of the United States. Figure 1. Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher, creative directing 
Furthermore, all tribes depicted in this film, and acting roles. 
whether directly or through dialogue, are Comparatively, in Montford: The Chickasaw 
understood to have lived within the Great Plains Rancher, half of all creative directing positions 
area. The historical accuracy of these inclusions were filled by Native American and First Nation 
is thus important to the subversion of the Plains filmmakers. These include authors Neil R. 
Indian stereotype.  Johnson and C. Neil Kingsley, both direct 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  40 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
descendants of Montford T. Johnson, and analysis of stereotypes and employment practices 
executive producer Robyn Elliott. Of the top 10 within the American film industry has yielded 
listed performers, four of the on-screen positions illustrative instances of how representation is 
were filled by Native American actors. In total, 41 shaped and manifested. Moreover, it is crucial to 
percent of all above-the-line positions were filled underscore that attaining positive and authentic 
by Native Americans, with 53 percent filled by forms of representation holds equal significance 
non-Native people (Figure 1). to, if not more significance than, simply 
While this analysis is limited to that of two achieving a numerical increase in representation 
films, it lays the groundwork for further alone. The endeavor to portray diverse and 
conversation and examination of industry hiring multifaceted perspectives in the realm of cinema 
practices. If we accept the claim made by goes beyond mere numerical representation—
Chickasaw Nation Production about their rather, the quality and authenticity of these 
inclusion of more than 200 Native American cast portrayals play a pivotal role in dispelling 
and crew members coupled with the previous harmful stereotypes and fostering an inclusive 
examination of creative production roles, the and culturally enriched cinematic landscape. In a 
numbers indicate a shift in off-screen communication research experiment, Dr. Markus 
representation. However, there is more research Appel and Dr. Silvana Weber examined how 
to be completed on how off-screen representation participants responded after observing 
influences a film and the portrayal of Native stereotypical characters in movies. Their study 
Americans within.  "Do Mass Mediated Stereotypes Harm Members 
of Negatively Stereotyped Groups? A Meta-
7. The Significance of Identifying Analytical Review on Media-Generated 
with Portrayed Representations Stereotype Threat and Stereotype Lift" delved into 
the impact of media-generated stereotype threat 
Representation in all stages of media matters, and stereotype lift on individuals (Appel & Weber 
according to numerous scholars from various 2017). The researchers explored the potential 
backgrounds. Dr. Kevin Leo Yabut Nadal, a harm that mass-mediated stereotypes may inflict 
distinguished psychology professor and a leading on members of negatively stereotyped groups, 
researcher in microaggressions and traumatic shedding light on the crucial issue of 
stress, is one such scholar. In Nadal’s article stereotypical representations in media and their 
“Why Representation Matters and Why It’s Still effects on perceptions and attitudes. Stereotype 
Not Enough,” published in the online media threat theory is the idea that an individual’s 
outlet Psychology Today, Nadal states that actions are influenced by known stereotypes 
“representation can be helpful in reducing about their race or ethnic background. This 
negative stereotypes about other groups.” With means that those identifying with the presented 
an emphasis on the material conditions of social stereotypical representations are more likely to 
life, representation is a means of understanding alter their behavior to avoid any association. 
one’s place in the world (Aitken & Zonn 1994, 6). While the American film industry includes all 
Representation in film matters because, as a states and production companies, this section will 
factor influencing how children view their racial examine the 2022 Hollywood Diversity Report, 
makeup, it provides visual examples of which summarizes the statistics from 2021. 
individuals with characteristics similar to or the Published on an annual basis by the University of 
same as their own.  California, Los Angeles Sociology Department, 
Throughout this paper, the comprehensive this comprehensive report examines the 
demographic breakdown of those working within 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  41 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
the Hollywood industry and utilizes different production worldwide. Others include Native 
master class statuses and job functions for American Media Alliance (2004), InterTribal 
categorization. While the following statistics Entertainment (2000), Vision Maker Media (1997), 
represent an examination of the Hollywood and Red Nation Celebration Institute (1995). As 
system and do not reflect the entire American with Chickasaw Nation Productions and Camel 
film industry, Hollywood is the most Rock Studios, these companies perform a vast 
comprehensive system of film production variety of roles within the American film 
companies in the world and thus makes for a industry. 
strong case study. Of the 252 lead acting roles 
listed in the report, only one Native American 8. Conclusion 
actor made the list. When the analysis is 
expanded to include all acting roles—increasing When considering the two selected films, Dances 
the combined number of positions to 1,944—a with Wolves and Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher, 
total of 21 positions (14 male, seven female) went I identify a considerable difference in the usage 
to Native American actors. Of the 252 films and employment of Native American stereotypes 
examined for the 2021 year, 143 of the film between the two. However, the filmmakers of 
directors were white men, compared with just both movies utilized a subset of the discussed 
two Native American directors (one male, one stereotypes within their character 
female). Lastly, for the total year, 67.7 percent of representations. The story of Dances with Wolves 
all credited film writers were white, compared centers around the idea of the White Savior, 
with only two Native American film writers, or supported by the stories of the Celluloid Princess 
0.8 percent. and the noble Medicine Man. Comparatively, in 
Within the broader American film industry, Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher, filmmakers 
there remains another observable phenomenon employed character types like the Stoic Indian 
related to Native American representation in and the White Savior, amongst others. This 
film. Before the 1990 release of Dances with research identifies areas in both films where the 
Wolves, there were three operating Native employment of stereotypes is a direct attempt to 
American film production companies. These subvert these representations. For example, the 
were Shenandoah Film and Video, Na Maka O Ka exploration of the Half-Breed in Montford and the 
Aina, and Turtle Island Productions L.L.C. Since significant transition Wind In His Hair undergoes 
1990, the total number of Native American as he bonds with Dunbar in Dances with Wolves 
production companies has increased by 225 are both representative of stereotype subversion. 
percent; one such emerging enterprise is In considering the on-screen presentation of 
Chickasaw Nation Productions, which opened in Indigenous characters, it becomes evident that 
2009. More recently, Camel Rock Studios surfaced neither film is clean from featuring stereotypical 
in the year 2020. Following the transformation of portrayals. However, Montford: The Chickasaw 
the antiquated and disused Camel Rock Casino, Rancher appears to adopt a more deliberate and 
the Tesuque Pueblo successfully inaugurated a thoughtful approach to the utilization of these 
vast 75,000-square-foot movie studio, stereotypes. Feier (2011, 160) aptly summarizes 
complemented by an extensive 17,000 acres of the efforts of Native American filmmakers in 
backlot production space. Notably, Camel Rock challenging and subverting the long-standing 
Studios distinguishes itself not solely as the images that have plagued America's original 
pioneering Native American studio but also as inhabitants for centuries. Through their 
one of the most substantial companies cinematic endeavors, these filmmakers strive to 
exclusively committed to the pursuit of cinema introduce complex and multifaceted on-screen 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  42 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
characters that authentically represent the difference, while subtle, is significant because, 
diversity inherent within Native American while authentic Indigenous perspectives are 
communities. The aforementioned filmmakers increasingly incorporated, stereotypical 
intentionally draw attention to the existence of portrayals are still utilized in America’s most 
these stereotypes and, in so doing, endeavor to prominent film productions in Hollywood. An 
dismantle and dissolve these limiting ideas illustrative case in point can be observed in 
through the careful development of characters. Disney's 2013 film The Lone Ranger, wherein 
The approach taken towards the portrayal of Johnny Depp's costume involves the contentious 
character types in films is often influenced by the practice of "redface" to embody a character 
individuals entrusted with the task of storytelling. purportedly representing the Crow and Cree 
A comprehensive assessment of the employment nationalities. Such instances exemplify the 
practices within production companies, both persistence of harmful practices that undermine 
above- and below-the-line, reveals a notable the strides towards authentic and respectful 
racial disparity among the professionals involved representation of Indigenous cultures within the 
in the creation of these cinematic works. For film industry. 
instance, Dances with Wolves did not employ any Through an examination of UCLA’s 2022 
Native Americans in above-the-line positions Hollywood Diversity Report, it is clear that Native 
outside of acting roles. It is worth mentioning American actors, writers, and directors remain 
that, while the Native American characters were significantly underrepresented as compared to 
depicted by Native American and First Nation their white counterparts. As an alternative to the 
actors, their absence from the creative decision- Hollywood system, Native American filmmakers 
making princess limits the scope and authenticity have created numerous film production 
of their voices. Comparatively, in Montford: The companies and taken on various roles in the film 
Chickasaw Rancher, many behind-the-scenes production process. Furthermore, through the 
positions were also filled by non-Native crew creation of these organizations, Indigenous 
members. However, the film was inspired by a people can increasingly control who works on 
Chickasaw author, created by Chickasaw Nation their productions and how their demographic is 
Productions, and overseen by executive producer represented onscreen, as in the instance of 
Robyn Elliott, Cabinet Secretary of the Chickasaw Chickasaw Nation Productions.  
Nation Department of Communication and Therefore, over the 31 years elapsed between 
Community Development. Additionally, if we Dances with Wolves and Montford: The Chickasaw 
accept the claim made by Chickasaw Nation Rancher, there lies a measurable change in Native 
Productions about the inclusion of over 200 American representation within the American 
Native American cast and crew members in the film industry. While I have consistently 
Montford: The Chickasaw Rancher’s production maintained that this work is a limited case study, 
process, the nexus of control over the telling of I also argue that there is sufficient evidence to 
these Indigenous stories has shifted when signify a shift in representation. Whether looking 
compared with Dances with Wolves. to Chickasaw Nation Productions’ calculated 
It is important to note that the inclusion of decision to employ and subvert the on-screen 
storytellers and filmmakers is not a perfect utilization of over-simplified, stereotypical 
counterbalance for those sections of the industry Indigenous representations or the considerable 
that engage in the continued misrepresentation industry growth in Indigenous-owned and 
of Native Americans. Rather, this inclusion is a operated film production companies, the shift of 
separate addition to the American film industry, narrative control away from white Hollywood and 
allowing for the voices of others to be heard. This into the hands of Indigenous filmmakers signals 
Indigenous Voices Reshaping Cinema  43 
Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal: McNair Special Issue  Farrenkopf 
that the American film industry has altered its Journals, July 12, 2017. 
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span, it becomes imperative to persistently Preferences in Movies: The Impact of Mere-
monitor the unfolding transformations within the Exposure and Social Identity Theory." 
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