Mattie Ecklund University of Oregon Masters Candidate AFTER THE FLOOD: Integrating ecology, history, and narrative in recreation site planning on the Snake River after dam removal ACKNOWLEDGMENTS THANK YOU TO: The master’s project clinic instructors Ellee Stapleton Noah Kerr Yekang Ko Other faculty members Ignacio Lopez Buson David Buckley Borden Gwynne Mhuireach Laurie Matthews Mark Eischeid Mary Polites Katelyn McDonough Professionals Dick Kenton, Owner, Plantworks Nursery Sandy Roth, Owner, Plantworks Nursery Dylan Anslow, Landscape Architect, Herrera Environmental Rebekah Levine, Fluvial Geologist Will Gregg, Manuscripts Librarian, Washington State University Alex Otero, Archivist, Whitman County Historical Society MLA cohort Anna Epstein Steven Garcia Jenny Ginn Dorae Hankin Trevor Hattabaugh Eva Kahn Momo Kelley Day Shelvy BLA cohort Kailee Baumgardner Janessa Beltrane Carson Butler Amalia Garzon Zachary King Emma LoCicero Carlos Lopez Toscano Miriel Orhai Mia Owen Tellez Tellez Santaella Keith Stanley Tayler Uesato Cultural Landscapes Research Group Robert Melnick Hannah Six Noah Kerr Ted Meyer Sarah Phillips Student Sustainability Center’s Just Futures Institute Environmental Justice Fellowship Advocates for the Snake River including: Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission Nimiipuu Protecting The Enviroment Save Our Wild Salmon American Rivers TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND Introduction Tribal acknowledgment Dam removals Lower four Snake River dams Stakeholders Concepts II. RESEARCH & ANALYSIS Concepts & methods Geographic context Site introduction Geomorphology Ecosystems Site character analysis Site history Wawawai County Park layout Site uses and stakeholder analysis III. PLANNING Concepts Proposed plan Plan elements Seasonal activities Phasing Revegetation Salmon habitat restoration Bird watching blind Flood markers Community gathering area Orchard IV. CONCLUSION V. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 2 4 5 7 8 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 22 24 27 28 29 30 31 34 38 40 43 46 50 54 55 I. INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND 1 “River restoration can be envisioned both as a biophysical intervention in a social system and a social intervention in a biophysical setting.” (Magilligan 2018, 271) Large dam removals are highly complex logistically, ecologically, and culturally, and include many stakeholders. Given how few projects there are as examples, the models for these types of projects are being formed now. In this project, I researched the ecological and cultural impacts of large dams and their removal, specifically looking at the Snake River and the potential removal of its lower four dams, and landscape architecture’s place in the process of restoration and redesign after removal. How can landscape architects confront the legacy of dams and address layered natural and cultural history through site planning? Grounded in the perspective that ecology and culture are inextricably tied, this project addresses stakeholders and the layered cultural and natural history. It creates a narrative of place through site planning of a recreation area below a dam on the Snake River. The selected site is Wawawai County park in Washington State. It sits on a reservoir created by the Little Granite dam, one of the dams proposed for removal on the Snake River. The site is a part of the region that I consider home. I am from Northeast Oregon and grew up in a family that would be considered part of a stakeholder group, as our family business was a rafting and fly-fishing guide service on the Snake River and the Grande Ronde River, one of the main tributaries of the Snake River. With that background, I bring a baseline of care and knowledge of the landscape, history, and cultures of the region and understanding of the complexity of stakeholder needs. Through boating, you learn to read water and currents to know how best to navigate a river. In this project, through a close reading of the river, I hope to impart a narrative of place based on my research and experience. INTRODUCTION 2 TRIBAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT Ideally, this project would be a collaboration with Nez Perce and Palouse people, the traditional inhabitants of my chosen site, however, this project is operating on academic time, not landscape time. Forming the relationships needed for that collaboration requires landscape time. I’m not a tribal member and this is not a collaborative project, so I do not speak for the tribes. I have done my best to represent their history and culture with due respect and sensitivity. In order to do so, I have researched the history of the tribes and their current public statements and actions in regards to the dams and their removal. Additionally, I have consulted with non-tribal members who frequently work with tribes on their experience and perspectives on best practices for addressing topics that involve tribes. Tribal canoeists on the Memorial Bridge in Lewiston, Idaho, on the Clearwater River just before the confluence with the Snake River. The group joined the larger Free the Snake “flotilla” demonstration, Sept. 7-8, 2018. Mike Beiser/AP 3 PALOUSE AND NEZ PERCE DIASPORA Washington Columbia River Sn ak e R iv er Nez Perce Reservation Colville Reservation Yakama Reservation Umatilla Reservation Wawawai Oregon Idaho Traditionally, the Nez Perce and Palouse people lived closely with each other and were often intertwined. In the forced removal and treaty process, many Nez Perce people settled on the Nez Perce reservation, which is 77 miles from Wawawai in Idaho. The Palouse people, however, did not get their own reservation. Their diaspora is scattered across the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation and the Colville Reservation in Washington, as well as the Umatilla Indian Reservation in Oregon, and the Nez Perce reservation in Idaho. While the Nez Perce and Palouse peoples are of equal importance, at times in this project, I will be sharing more information about the Nez Perce because there is more historical and current public information about them than the Palouse people. Data: ESRI 4 THE AGE OF DAMS MAJOR DAM REMOVALS Dams constructed per year in the US 1850-2022 87,359 dams in the United States 85% of dams in the United States are past their useful lifespan White Salmon River, WA 1912-2011 Condit Dam Elwha River, WA 1913-2011 Elwha Dam 1925-2014 Glines Canyon Dam Klamath River, CA/OR 1918-2024 Copco No. 1 1925-2023 Copco No. 2 1958-2024 J.C. Boyle Dam 1964-2024 Iron Gate Dam White Salmon Restored. Sept. 2012. https://whitesalmontimelapse.wordpress.com/ Data from National Inventory of Dams Deconstruction of the Elwha Dam proceeded in September (left) and November (right) 2011 Photos: Left, Ben Cody (CC BY-SA 3.0); right, Paul Cooper (CC BY-NC 2.0) https://www.eopugetsound.org/magazine/elwha-series-introduction Copco No. 1 Dam Test Blast. Swift Water Films. 2024 https://www.activenorcal.com after-successful-test-blast-removal-of-klamath-rivers-copco-1-dam- moving-forward/ 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 18 50 18 54 18 58 18 62 18 66 18 70 18 74 18 78 18 82 18 86 18 90 18 94 18 98 19 02 19 06 19 10 19 14 19 18 19 22 19 26 19 30 19 34 19 38 19 42 19 46 19 50 19 54 19 58 19 62 19 66 19 70 19 74 19 78 19 82 19 86 19 90 19 94 19 98 20 02 20 06 20 10 20 14 20 18 20 22 On September 17, 2011, the removal of the Glines Canyon Dam, on the Elwha River in the Olympic National Park in Washington began, which set the precedent for large dam removals, a trend that we will continue to see in the coming decades. In North America, more dams are now being removed than built. It is estimated that by 2050 4,000-36,000 dams in the US will be removed (Mechkin et all. 2020). In 2023 the largest dam removal in history began on the Klamath River, where four dams were removed in California and Oregon. 1930 through the 1960s was considered the golden age of dam construction in the United States (Lee. 2023), which means many of the countries dams are over 50 years old. It is estimated that 85 percent of America’s 87,359 dams will past their useful lives in 2020. As the licenses for dams come up for review, as happened on the Elwha and Klamath, it has become clear that in many cases keeping the dams is more expensive than breaching them, due to the need for repair, seismic retrofitting, and fish passage. In the Pacific Northwest, the primary driver for advocates of dam removals is the health of salmon fisheries. Salmon populations are threatened and in some cases are approaching extinction. Removal of their barriers (dams) to spawning is likely their only hope for survival. In addition to the physical barriers of the dams, the slowing and warming of the water in the dams’ reservoirs also presents significant challenges for their survival. Dam Construction in the United States Over Time 5 LOWER FOUR SNAKE RIVER DAMS Ice Harbor Dam Steve Ringman / The Seattle Times. 2020. https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/ environment/washington-state-aims-to-regulate-water-temperature-at-federal-dams-wading-into-controversy/ Ice Harbor Lock & Dam 1961 Little Goose Lock & Dam 1970 Lower Granite Lock & Dam 1975 Lower Monumental Lock & Dam 1969 Little Goose Lock & Dam. Noe Gonzalez 2020. https://www.nww.usace.army.mil/Media/Images/ igphoto/2002814799/ Lower Monumental Dam. Bonneville Power Administration. https://washingtonstatestandard.com/2023/11/30/ feds-consider-removing-snake-river-dams-in-leaked-agreement-with-plaintiffs-in-lawsuit/ Lower Granite Lock & Dam. Hannah Mitchell https://www.nww.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Stories/ Article/3505917/the-end-of-a-long-journey-a-history-of-lower-granite-lock-and-dam/ A growing number of dams in the United States have been proposed for removal including The Rindge and Matilija Dams in Southern California, the Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona, O’Shaughnessy (Hetch Hetchy) Dam in California, and the Kinnickinnic River Dams in Wisconsin. Among those are the lower four dams on the Snake River: Ice Harbor Dam, Little Goose Dam, Lower Monumental Dam, and Lower Granite Dam. In December of 2023, the Biden administration announced their commitment to work with the Six Sovereigns (The Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, The Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs, The Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, The Nez Perce Tribe, The State of Oregon, and The State of Washington) to restore Columbia Basin salmon and to work towards the breaching of the four lower Snake River dams. Washington state committed $7 million of its budget in 2023 to begin the process of planning the transition for dam removal (Tegethoff 2023). The lower four Snake River dams were built between 1962 and 1975 for transportation, irrigation, and hydroelectricity (Hilbert-Wold, Gerlak 2022). In spite of existing rail infrastructure, they were built primarily for transportation. They only produce 4% of the power in the region and do not provide flood protection. Additionally, recent studies show that the reservoirs below the Lower Snake River dams emit 1.8 metric tons of carbon annually (Baumhardt 2024), contradicting the common belief that dams provide clean energy. These dams make up four of the eight dams spanning 900 miles that the Salmon on the Snake River have to cross to reach their spawning grounds. Currently, 1% of their historic population remains. Dams are the largest factor in that decline (AFS. 2024). The impact of the dams on the health of the fisheries in the river, in addition to loss of traditional fishing spots, breaks treaty rights that guarantee the tribes’ usual and accustomed fishing access. 6 Columbia River Snake R iver Ice Harbor Dam Little Goose Dam Lower Granite Dam Lower Monumental Dam SNAKE RIVER WATERSHED MAP Draining water from 6 states, the Snake River watershed covers over 100,000 sq. miles. The river crosses 1,080 miles from Wyoming to the Columbia River in Washington. . Dams Snake River Columbia River Snake River tributaries Data: National Inventory of Dams, ESRI The construction of the lower four Snake River dams in the 1960s and 1970s flooded 90,000 acres (Bowler. 2024), including over 350 sites of cultural, archaeological, historical, recreational, ecological, and geological value (Orgill. 2020). In addition to farms, ranches and settlements, construction of the dams also inundated approximately 140 river miles of land that had been traditionally used or occupied by tribes of the region (Meyer Resources Inc.). Wawawai, the focal site for this project, and the rest of the inundated land along the river is a landscape of loss. 7 Tourism Recreators Boaters Lower Snake River Dams Marine Nutrient Deposition Inland Orcas Mammals Birds Fish Riparian and Forest Health 138 Species Insects Food Source Collaborative Dam Removal Advocacy w/ Tribes, Fishing Groups, and Recreators Environmental Organizations Fishermen Indigenous People Commercial Restaurants/ Service Industry Consumers Health and Wellness Food Security/ Insecurity Treaty Right Violations and Loss of Homeland Cultural Identity and traditions Yakama Nation Nez Perce TribeConfederated Tribes of the Warms Springs Reservation Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Environmental Impacts Carbon Toxic Algae Blooms Slower and Warmer Water Increased Predation Increased Mortality Increased Invasive Species Salmon Keystone Species Climate Change Irrigation Energy Users Bonneville Power Department of Fish and Wildlife Army Corps of Engineers NOAA Bureau of Reclamation Farmers & Ranchers Transportation Government Agencies STAKEHOLDERS The Biden administration’s commitment to work with the Six Sovereigns to restore Columbia Basin salmon and to work towards the breaching of the four lower Snake River dams represents the partnership of diverse stakeholders invested in the removal of the dams on the lower Snake River. Tribes and other groups like commercial fishermen, who share concern for the health of salmon fisheries in the river, have become allies advocating for the removal of the dams (Grossman 2017). However, there are diverse stakeholders with varying needs and views involved in the potential breaching of dams on the river. In 2022, Washington Governor Jay Inslee’s office released the Lower Snake River Dams: Benefit Replacement Report, the report offers solutions to many stakeholder concerns, including issues of irrigation and energy production. Those potential solutions include replacing hydroelectricity with wind or solar and expanding federal farm payments to make up for the increased cost of transportation. The Nez Perce tribe has been transitioning to solar power on the Nez Perce Reservation to remove reliance on hydropower from the dams (Senkosky 2024). Stakeholders involved in the Snake River dams include: • The tribes of the region, whose traditional lifeways and well being are tied to the river • Government agencies including the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, which oversees hydroelectric projects. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Walla Walla district, which owns and operates the lower four Snake River dams, The Bureau of Reclamation, The Department of Fish and Wildlife, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. • Bonneville Power Administration • Although the dams only provide 4% of the power in the region, energy users are among the stakeholders. • The farmers of the region who rely on the river for irrigation of their crops. • The transportation industry, which uses the barge system provided by the dam. Wheat is one of the primary exports from the region. • Fishermen, which includes the tribes of Columbia Plateau region, commercial fishermen, and sport anglers. Fishing groups across commercial, tribal, and to a lesser extent sport anglers, have been among the loudest and most active advocates for the removal of the Snake River dams. • The tourism industry. Tourists come to fish, boat, and recreate on the Snake River and support local businesses. • Environmental advocacy agencies such as American Rivers and Save Our Wild Salmon • Salmon and their associated species and ecosystems as a keystone species • Salmon provide sustenance for a vast array of species, including the resident orcas off the coast of Oregon and Washington (Southern Resident Orcas), which are in danger of extinction due to their reliance on Chinook salmon. 8 CONCEPTS R E C R EA T IO N A R EA P LA N N A T U R AL S YSTEMS HISTORY N AR R AT IV E Geomorphology Ecology The story of the site and its context Cultural history of the site Traditional land uses of the site 9 One of the selling points for the construction of the dams was the improvement of recreation opportunities along the river. In the book Of Yesterday and The River June Crithfield said. “With the completion of Lower Granite Dam...past and present will be covered with water... One can only speculate on the changes which the future holds, but certainly there is every possibility of developing a fine recreation and tourist area. (Crithfield, 1964). Crithfield grew up Wawawai and wrote her book on the history of Wawawai in anticipation of the construction of the dam that flooded it. Now, one of the selling points among advocates for the removal of the lower Snake River dams is the improvement of recreation opportunities along the river. Sport fishermen desire the improved health of fisheries that the dam removals would bring to improve fishing. Many non-motorized boaters desire the return of a free flowing river and the rapids and currents that were flooded by the dams. Goverment agencies such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have been assessing the stakeholder needs and determining replacement benefits for issues such as irrigation, transportation and power. Currently, in that process, along with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, The Washington State Recreation and Conservation Office have been studying the existing recreation opportunities and infrastructure along the Snake River from Lewiston, Idaho to the confluence at Richland, Washington. The intention of the study is to gain a better understanding of recreation infrastructure that would need to be replaced and what opportunities there would be to enhance recreation along the river, if the lower four Snake River dams were to be removed. 2,100 responded to the survey. “Rich Alldredge, who lives near Lower Granite Dam, said he has taken friends hiking on cattle trails near the river. He said he would enjoy it if lowering river levels opened up more trails parallel to the river, where he could hike and get closer to natural vegetation” (Flatt 2025). Alldredge and the others who responded to the survey provide key insights into the current recreator needs along the river. Due to the scale of large dam removals, so far, the majority of the work on their removals and the restoration that follows has been done by engineers and large restoration agencies. The planning and redesign of recreation areas is a natural place for landscape architects to fit into the removal and restoration process. Landscape architects are uniquely qualified for this due to their abilities to address stakeholder needs as well as the cultural and ecological issues involved in a site. The removal of large dams presents opportunites for rethinking and improving recreation along the river. Within the vessel of a recreation area plan, this project focuses on natural systems, history and narrative. The removal of the dams provides an incredible opportunity to improve the ecological health along the river. The history of Wawawai is emblematic of the history of the American West, from its usage by Native Americans, its settlement and conversion to agricultural land, to the boom of dam building in the 1900s and the environmental and cultural conflict and activism that ensued. By examining history, this site presents the opportunity to create a model for honoring the cultural and ecological challenges, opportunities and narratives presented by the removal of the dams. After dam removal, what is the story that we want to tell and how can that story be conveyed through site planning? In the book Stories, Community, and Place: Narratives From Middle America, Barbara Johnstone says “It is not just that ‘places’ serve to remind us of stories that are associated with them. But once they have acquired this story-based existence, the landscape itself acquires the power of ‘telling the story” (Johnstone, 1996, pg. 120), conveying the power and place of narrative in landscapes. In Landscape Narratives, Design Practices for Telling Stories, Potteiger and Purinton identify several types of landscape narratives. The types that are relevant to this project are: Memory Landscapes, Processes, and Interpretive Landscapes. Memory Landscapes are places that are a locus of public and personal memory. Processes relates to actions that have incurred change such as succession, restoration, and demolition. Interpretive Landscapes include elements and programs that share the story and information about the place. (Potteiger, Purinton 1998, 11) Through colonization and the construction of the dam, the physical remains of the story of human connection to Wawawai has been washed away. Through site planning, this project makes visible layers of history, and aims to renew connection to place. CONCEPTS II. RESEARCH & ANALYSIS 11 CONCEPTS & METHODS Site analysis was conducted through research into the regional ecology, geomorphology, and site history. I visited the site in August of 2024 and took extensive photos, notes, and sketches, which informed my understanding of the current conditions of the site. I was able to see how visitors to the site are using it and how the existing infrastructure is functioning. Additionally, I assessed the site using cultural landscapes frameworks. Wawawai County Park is unusual from a cultural landscapes perspective. It would not typically be considered a cultural landscape because all of the relevant historical landscape characteristics have been lost or altered due to the flooding from the construction of the Lower Granite Dam. However, by assessing what remains of these characteristics and the historical documentation of them, we can gain a greater understanding of the site and its historical context. I examined the landscape characteristics, which is one of the cultural landscapes assessment methods. Landscape characteristics elements are: natural systems and features, spatial organization, land use, cultural traditions, cluster arrangements, circulation, topography, vegetation, buildings and structures views and vistas, constructed water features, small-scale features, and archaeological sites. In this project, I address the natural systems, land use, cultural traditions, circulation, topography, vegetation, and archaeological sites of the site. R E C R EA T IO N A R EA P LA N E C O LO G Y/ NATURAL SYSTEMS HISTORY N AR R AT IV E REGIONAL ECOLOGY RESEARCH CURRENT AND HISTORICAL TOPOGRAPHY SITE OBSERVATIONS STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS SITE OBSERVATIONS ARCHIVAL RESEARCH CULTURAL LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS INTERPRETIVE STRATEGIES RESEARCH 12 Washington Columbia River Sn ak e R iv er Boise Moscow Lewiston Oregon Idaho Wawawai Wawawai Lower Granite Dam Lower Granite Reservoir Lower Granite Dam Little Goose Dam Lower Monumental Dam Ice Harbor Dam GEOGRAPHIC CONTEXT 13 Wawawai County Park in Whitman County, Washington is a 49- acre park three miles downstream of the Lower Granite Dam, the uppermost dam proposed for removal on the Snake River. This site provides opportunities for ecological restoration, cultural landscape investigation, and amenities for stakeholders including recreators, and tribal members. It has a trail with a bay and wetland, a picnic area, and a campground. Currently, access to the river is cut off by railroad tracks, but access to the river could be restored post-dam removal. It is situated in the Palouse geographic region. The Palouse lies in the greater Columbia Plateau and includes parts of Southeast Washington and North Central Idaho. The Palouse is a primarily rural and agricultural area, known for wheat, legumes, rolling hills and prairies. University towns Moscow, Idaho, and Pullman, Washington straddle the state line to the northeast while Lewiston, Idaho, and Clarkston, Washington, straddle the state line to the southeast. Lewiston/Clarkston lie along the Snake River and are a popular destination for recreators who fish and boat on the reservoir created by the Lower Granite Dam upstream. This area lies in the rain shadow of the Cascade mountains to the west, creating a climate that is the hottest in the state and prone to drought. The typical annual precipitation is 25 inches. The primary habitat and plant community of the area is shrubsteppe. Drought tolerant shrubs like rabbitbrush and sage, grasses, and forbs are typical of the shrubsteppe. Volcanic ash created deep, fertile soils. Deep canyons were carved through basalt by glaciers in the ice age. (Ecoregions, WDFW, February 15, 2025) Water from six states and diverse bioregions like deserts and alpine areas drains to the Snake River and carries salmon and other anadromous fish to the ocean. In returning to the mountains and valleys of the inland west, they deposit vital marine nutrients along the way and feed hundreds of species. SITE INTRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHIC CONTEXT Wawawai County Park looking Southeast, 2024, Author 14 1953 1975 Lower Granite Dam Lo w er G ra ni te R es er vo ir Wawawai County Park Wawawai Settlement GEOMORPHOLOGY River channel before and after the construction of the Lower Granite Dam 15 One of the largest challenges in site design after dam removal is anticipating the new topography. Dams cause downstream river channels to be incised. Once the dams are removed the build- up of sediment above the dam is released downstream. The sediment that would be released would likely be composed of silt and sand. Although there was a great deal of concern about the release of sediment downstream and potential negative effects, it has been found that streams and rivers can restore healthy structures within a matter of months or years, rather than decades (Majors, et all. 2017). Although there’s a growing understanding of the after-effects of dams after they’ve been removed, due to the complexity of the process, there currently is not an accurate way to model what the landform changes will be once the dams are breached. PRE 1975 Historical Wawawai landform Replicated using historical topography lines and aerial imagery from 1961 1975-PRESENT Current Wawawai landform Widened river channelWide, flat bench Wide, flat bench and narrower river channel restored Wetland flooded by river, creating a bay Waterline abuts railroad The bay is drained and the wetland is no longer flooded POST DAM REMOVAL Proposed Wawawai landform Using the historical topographic information as reference GEOMORPHOLOGY Landform changes However, to gain a better understanding of the landform changes I modeled the existing topography using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration data. I reconstructed the historical landform using historical topography lines from a map from 1964 and an aerial photograph from 1961. Using the historical landform as precedent, I modeled a post speculative dam removal landform that could be formed using grading. Something to note in these models is the bay seen in the current landform, which was created from the flooding from the dam. Once the flooding recedes after dam removal, that bay will no longer be there. Based on my research, I determined that a wetland would remain in that spot. There is a natural seep there and its the natural water collection spot from the surrounding hills. However, due to the dry climate, it may be a seasonal wetland. 16 Columbia Spotted Frog Rana luteiventris Listed as Priority Species in Washington state Western Toad Anaxyrus boreas Listed as Priority Species in Washington state Palouse Aster Symphyotrichum jessicae Listed as Endangered in Washington state Endemic to Washington and Idaho WETLAND Plant species examples: White Alder Alnus rhombifolia Coyote Willow Salix exigua Stinging Nettle Urtica gracilis Hemp Dogbane Apocynum cannabinum Nevada rush Juncus nevadensis Slender Beak Sedge Carex athrostachya SHRUBSTEPPE Sagebrush Lizard Sceloporous graciosus Listed as Priority Species in Washington state Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus Listed as a Priority Species in Washington State Woodyroot Milkvetch Astragalus riparius Listed as Threatened in Washington State. Has been identified on the site Plant species examples: Stiff Sagebrush Artemisa rigida Rubber Rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa var. speciosa Arrowleaf Balsamroot Balsamorhiza sagittata Parsnip-flowered Buckwheat Eriogonum heracleoides Blue wild-rye Elymus glaucus Cusick’s bluegrass Poa cusickii RIPARIAN Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Listed as a Priority Species in Washington state Culturally important food source Northwest Raspberry Rubus nigerrimus Listed as Threatened in Washington state Endemic to the Snake River in Whitman County Plant species examples: White Alder Alnus rhombifolia Coyote Willow Salix exigua Hackberry Celtis reticulata Black Hawthorn Crataegus douglasii Douglas’s Sedge Carex douglasii Liddon’s Sedge Carex petasata Each of the three primary ecosystem types found on this site provide critical habitat, but have been heavily impacted by land use changes over time, including dams, agriculture and development. This site provides habitat in an area dominated by agricultural use. 80% of Shrubsteppe habitat has been lost or degraded in Washington 50-90% of Riparian habitat has been lost or degraded in Washington 31% of Wetland habitat has been lost in Washington Pacific Lamprey Entosphenus tridentatus Listed as a Priority Species in Washington state Culturally important food source SITE ECOSYSTEMS 17 SITE CHARACTER ANALYSIS August shrubsteppe color and texture study Photos: Wawawai County Park, 2024, Author 18 “I was told there is a single human track on a loose rock above Wawawai...Of course we naturally regard [this] as of Nez Perce origin” (Native linguist and interpreter Camille Williams quoted in (McWhorter, 1952) Since time immemorial Site of Palouse (Palus) and Nez Perce (Nimiipuu) villages Home of the Wawawai band of the Palouse people as well as Nez Perce people. Wawawai would likely have been used as a permanent village that they would have traveled away from seasonally to hunt and gather in higher elevation areas. 1875 Wawawai was homesteaded. The first orchard, which was apple, was planted. Orchards expanded quickly and a settlement formed soon after. By the late 1800s a school was established. 1885 The post office and Wawawai Ferry were established. The ferry was used to transport fruit and grains that were grown in the area. Wawawai was a crossroads for people traveling throughout the region. 12/31/1967 The post office closed. In the late 1960s the community dispersed and the orchards and buildings were removed in anticipation of inundation from the construction of the Lower Granite Dam. 1979 Whitman County Parks and Recreation opened Wawawai County Park. 1940s The orchard business dwindled after World War II. Most of the fruit was no longer picked and sent to market. Instead, the orchards were opened to the public when the fruit was ripe. Families came and picnicked, and picked and bought fruit to can for the winter. 1920s Up until the 1920s tribal members came annually and set up camps to work in the orchards. “Half a hundred Indians or more set up their teepees along the creek... They came to harvest the strawberries in early spring and stayed to fish and pick the wild blackberries growing along the creeks, waiting until the prunes were ready to harvest later in the season...” (Crithfield, 1964) 1907 Railroad reached Wawawai. 1975 Construction of Lower Granite Dam was completed and Wawawai was inundated with 80 feet of water. 1968 & 1971 In anticipation of the inundation from the construction of the Lower Granite Dam, archaeologists working with the National Park Service and Washington State University excavated the site and removed Nimiipuu and Palus cultural artifacts. 1880s/90s Orchards were worked in part by Chinese laborers who had come to the area to work on the railroads. In the late 1880 the Chinese were the largest portion of the foreign born population in SE WA, but were largely run out of the area by the 1900s due to anti-Asian sentiments. Lower Granite Dam 1979 University of Idaho Digital Collection Railway in Wawawai 1938 June Crithfield Collection Washington State University Steamboat at Wawawai 1898 Washington State University Digital Collection Washington Railroad Workers Washington State University Libraries Harvest Crew at Wawawai 1898 Washington State University Digital Collection An Indian Camp at Wawawai June Crithfield Collection Washington State University Wawawai County Park 2004 David Dugan Nez Perce Canoe 1910. Library of Congress WAWAWAI HISTORY 19 Since time immemorial Wawawai has been the home to Nez Perce and the Wawawai band of the Palouse people. Artifacts have been found in Idaho showing human settlement dates back at least 16,000 years in the area. The Missoula floods likely wiped away evidence of humans that may have been in the area before that. Some say that the Wawawai means Council Grounds, while other sources say that the site is named Mosquito Creek for the mosquitoes that were common on the site. A well-known village site, Wawawai would likely have been used as a permanent village that they would have traveled away from seasonally to hunt and gather in higher elevation areas. Winters were typically spent along the Snake River (Wawawai) where the climate was milder and they would travel to higher elevation areas, like the Blue Mountains, in the warmer seasons to hunt and gather roots and berries. They likely would have fished for salmon, lamprey, and sturgeon, among other fish, and dug roots at the site. This information is based on general research on the tribes. I was unable to find specific or spatial information about their use of the site. However, there are archaeological records of the site. Artifacts like mortars and pestles, projectile points, and burial sites were found at the site. (Yent 1976) In 1968 Wawawai was excavated by a team with the National Park Service and Washington State University to collect and analyze the archeological remains of the site before it was flooded by the Lower Granite Dam, removing Nez Perce and Palouse artifacts and belongings. In 1875 Wawawai was settled by Isiah Matheny, who planted the first apple orchard. Early settlers focused on grazing livestock, but the mild winters and early springs that had attracted the original inhabitants of the site, Nez Perce and Palouse, proved to be fruitful for orchards. The town of Wawawai was platted in 1878. In 1884 residents petitioned the Whitman County Board of Commissioners to vacate the town, determining that the fertile land was better used agriculturally. (Doughtery 2006) In the late 1880s Wawawai established a school, post office, and Wawawai ferry, which transported people, and wheat and fruit that were grown on the site. In the 1880s, Chinese laborers, who had come to the area to work on the railroads, were among the people that worked the orchards. In the late 1800s the Chinese were the largest portion of the foreign-born population in SE Washington, but were largely run out of the area by the 1900s due to anti-Asian sentiments. (Scheuerman 1992, 6) “Chinese were employed to tend the gardens; the foreman of this crew was Old Fong. These people were housed in the old Jesee Burgess house which became known as the China House.” (Crithfield 1964, 35 ) Although the time that Chinese people worked on the site was relatively brief, the history bears examination and acknowledgment. due to the massive contribution of the Chinese to the formation of the West and the erasure of their history. The orchard business dwindled after World War II. Most of the fruit was no longer picked and sent to market. Instead, the orchards were opened to the public when the fruit was ripe. Families came and picnicked and picked and bought fruit to can for the winter. On December 31, 1967 the post office closed. In the late 1960s, along with the post office, the orchards and other buildings were removed and the community dispersed in anticipation of inundation from the construction of the Lower Granite Dam. The construction of the dam was completed in 1975, burying Wawawai under 80 feet of water. In 1979 Whitman County Parks and Recreation opened Wawawai County Park to improve recreation opportunities after the construction of the dam. WAWAWAI HISTORY 20 1897 1945 ORCHARDS OF WAWAWAI Apples, peaches, cherries, prunes, apricots, and pears Washington State’s current status as the country’s largest apple producer has its roots in the boom of orchard establishment in the state from the late 1880s to 1930. Aided by the federal government and the construction of railroads, orchards played a major role in the settlement of Washington (Zaragoza, 2007). The panorama photo was taken looking east from approximately where the waterline is now at Wawawai County park. Photos: Wawawai Orchards Washington Clifford M. Ott Collection, University of Idaho Library Special Collections and Archives, http://www.lib.uidaho.edu/special-collections/ Sylvan Dreifus, Peach Orchard at Wawawai, circa 1945 Washington Rural Heritage https:// cdm17176.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/whitman/id/5562/rec/4 21 HISTORICAL WAWAWAI LAYOUT Photos: Marion B. Meyers Harvest Crew, Wawawai, WA 1897 Washington State University Digital Collection Post Office 1917. June Crithfield Collection, Washington State University Wawawai Washington [02], Ott Historical Photograph Collection, University of Idaho Library Digital Collections, https://www.lib.uidaho.edu/digital/ott/items/ott1740.html This aerial photograph is from 1961, which is after the heyday of the settlement. Many of the orchards had already been removed by the time this photo was taken. Roads and orchard plots are highlighted because they influenced the spatial arrangement of the proposed site plan. 22 CURRENT WAWAWAI LAYOUT Photos: Wawawai County Park, 2024, Author 23 CURRENT WAWAWAI LAYOUT & THE INUNDATED LAND Although the Wawawai settlement and the landform that supported it no longer exist as they did, this plan shows the current conditions with the land that was flooded to provide an understanding of the spatial context and the scale of the flooding. 24 Although the populations and landform have changed over time, the mild winters, early springs, and river access have attracted people to Wawawai across time. SITE USES OVER TIME Nez Perce and Palouse pre-settlement Settlement era 1875-1967 Wawawai County Park 1979-Present Settlement Fruit cultivation Ferry location Livestock grazing Fishing Bird watching Picnicking Community gathering Walking Village site Fishing Canoeing Edible and medicinal plant gathering Fishing Picnicking Boating Walking Bird watching Access to culturally significant plants Community gathering area CURRENT STAKEHOLDER NEEDS: Nez Perce and Palouse people, and recreators James Wilson Fishing out of a Dugout Canoe. 1916-1923. Nez Perce National Historical Park Two Men Holding Buckets of Peaches. 1928. University of Idaho Digital Collection SITE USES & STAKEHOLDER NEEDS Stakeholder needs for the proposed site plan were determined based on the historical land uses and current recreation opportunities. Those stakeholder needs include maintaining and enhancing existing recreation opportunities, many of which are tied to historical land uses of the site, and re-establishing access to culturally significant plants. Although the populations and landform have changed over time, the mild winters, early springs, and river access have attracted people to Wawawai across time. III. PLANNING 26 PLANNING Given the analysis, what do we want to foster on the land that is revealed as the water recedes after dam removal? 27 PLAN CONCEPTS & ELEMENTS Plan elements were selected based on analysis and the plan concepts. Interpretive elements are the educational manifestation and visualization of the natural systems and history of the site. 28 Orchard in alignment with one of the historical orchard plots. Blocks of apple, apricot, peach, and cherry trees. Picnic and gathering spots planted with native grasses, forbs, shrubs and trees. Shade structures designed to be stylistcally compatible with existing park shade structures Fishing platform for ADA accessible fishing Space reserved for collaboration with Nez Perce and Palouse tribal members for interpretive/ commemorative element, prioritizing the opportunity for self-representation Boat launch in historical ferry landing location Revegetated riparian area and re-establishment of salmon habitat Road in historical alignment Interpretive element: flood markers E xte n d e d w alkin g trail R ailro ad tracks P arkin g Parking Picnic area Campground Existing w alking trail Wawawai road Benches cut from recycled concrete from the Lower Granite dam Covered picnic area for large groups, with grills Revegetated shrubsteppe, including re- establishment of culturally significant plants Redesigned birdwatching platform Drained bay with enhanced wetlands, possibly seasonal 0’ 25’ 50’ 100’ 200’ N Existing Walking Trail Proposed Walking Trail Proposed Road Interpretive wayside panel topics 1 Salmon and riparian ecology 2 History and continued presence of Nez Perce and Palouse people on the site and in the area 3 Euro-American Wawawai settlement and its orchards 4 History and acknowledgment of Chinese orchard laborers 5 Wetland ecology 6 Shrubsteppe ecology 7 Landform changes PROPOSED PLAN 29 Plan elements Revegetation Restoration of salmon habitat Picnic area Boat launch Road onto the new park area Bird watching blind Orchards Waterline marker installation Walking trail Interpretive panels Fishing platform Inclusion of culturally significant plants for the Nez Perce and Palouse people Reconnection to culturally significant plants for the Nez Perce and Palouse Improved fishery health benefits sport and subsistence fishermen Fruit picking Point of interest Walking, running, and birdwatching, connects existing park with new area Educational Picnicking, community gathering Provides boating access Park access Bird watching Provides ADA access for fishermen Minimal, but provides food source for wildlife Increases ecological awareness Connects people to natural systems Connects people to natural systems Highlights natural systems Highlights the history of the damIncreases ecological awareness Increases ecological awareness Planting plan of native plants. Focus on edibles supports wildlife Re-establishes native vegetation Improves health of salmon fishery Connects to the orchards of the Euro-American settlement. In historical alignment- provides connection to settlement layout Ties to the Nez Perce and Palouse tradition of using canoes and the presence of the ferry launch in the Euro-American settlement Road is in alignment with Euro-American settlement roads Historic fishing area, the Nez Perce have a history of building and using fishing platforms Fishing area for the Nez Perce, Palouse, and Euro-American settlers Continuing the legacy of this being a site where people gather. The history of the dam. Contributes to the narrative of the cultural and ecological importance of salmon See historic land use Connects visitors to a fragment of the settlement circulation Provides connection to the ecology of the site See historic land use, provides connection to the cycle of seasons Allows visits to better understand the scale of the flood by visualizing its depth Vehicle for information and storytelling about the history and ecology of the site Connects visitors to shrubsteppe Recycled concrete benches from the dam connects the history of the dam to the site See historic land use Contributes to the historic character of the site and the story of restoration after dam removal X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Ecology Recreation/contemporary stakeholder use History Narrative 30 SEASONAL ACTIVITIES Human connection to land has been tied to the seasonal cycles for millenia. This chart visualizes the relationship between seasonal cycles of activities that have been included in the plan. The chart includes a few examples of migratory and resident birds that may be seen on the site. 31 PHASING 32 PHASING ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION 34 Wetland Revegetated Shrubsteppe R ev eg et at ed R ip ar ia n A re a In phase one soil stabilization and weed suppression are priority. Biodiversity will be increased over time with successive plantings. R IP A R IA N SH R U B S T E P P E W E T L A N D Dagger-leaf Rush Juncus ensifolius Awned Sedge Carex atherodes Tufted Hairgrass Deschampsia cespitosa Canadian Milkvetch Astragalus canadensiscespitosa Slender-beak Sedge Carex athrostachyaCoyote Willow Salix exigua Willows and sedges will establish quickly and provide stabilization and improve riparian habitat. Recommendation: seed willow rather than planting cuttings for better genetic diversity. Consider covercropping the upland and transition areas for the first 1-2 years. Cover cropping provides weed suppression, and stabilization. After dam removal the soil will be primarily composed of silt and sand from the sediment release. Covercropping will improve growing conditions for future plantings. The raised waterline due to the dam is flooding the wetland and has formed a bay. Once flooding recedes after dam removal, the formerly flooded land will need to be replanted. There is a natural seep in that area and it’s a collection point for water, but it may be a seasonal wetland due to the dry climate. Triticale REVEGETATION PHASE ONE Because of the magnitude of disturbance from dam removal, plantings will need to start with pioneer species. Phase one will last one to three years. In the subsequent phases, as vegetation is re-established, and the hydrology and specific growing conditions are better understood, biodiversity will in increased through additional plantings. Later succession species would be included in that process. The revegetation method was determined by analyzing the revegetation methods used in the Elwha and Klamath restoration processes. Additionally, I consulted with regional restoration experts, and researched the regional ecology and the regional restoration standards. Photos: Coyote Willow. 2009. http://science.halleyhosting.com/nature/gorge/tree/broadlf/salix/exigua.html Carex atherodes. Peter M. Dzuik. 2006. Minnesota Wildflowers Carex athrostachya. Steve Matson. 2004. Calflora Triticale. https://greatbasinseeds.com/product/trical-131-triticale/ Dagger-leaf Rush. https://satinflower.ca/products/juncus-ensifolius Deschampsia cespitosa. https://www.midwestgroundcovers.com/plant/ deschampsia-cespitosa-ngn/ Canadian Milkvetch. https://www.prairiemoon.com/astragalus-canadensis-canada-milk-vetch 35 REVEGETATION PLANT LIST Grasses: Tufted Hairgrass Deschampsia cespitosa Slender hairgrass Deschampsia elongata Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis Canadian Wild Rye Elymus canadensis Blue Wild-Rye Elymus glaucus Small Fescue Festuca idahoensis Cusicks’s Bluegrass Vulpia microstachys Idaho Fescue Festuca idahoensis Sedges Hardstem Bull Rush Schoenoplectus acutus Awned Sedge Carex Atherodes Slender-Beak Sedge Carex athrostachya Beaked Sedge Carex utriculata Starry Sedge Carex pachystachya Douglas’s Sedge Carex douglasii Liddon’s Sedge Carex petasata Thread-Leaved Sedge Carex filifolia Rushes: Baltic Rush Juncus balticus Nevada Rush Juncus nevadensis Toad Rush Juncus bufonius Dudley’s Rush Juncus dedleyi Dagger Rush Juncus Ensifolius Long-styled Rush Juncus longistylis Torrey’s Rush Juncus torreyi Forbs Stinging Nettles Urtica gracilis Bigleaf Lupine Lupinus polyphyllus PLANT NAME NotesWet Moist Dry Stabilizer PollinatorFast establisherEarly seral X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Remediator Remediator Disturbed sites Disturbed sites Drying shores Disturbed sites, remediator Note: While edible berries have been noted, other culturally significant plants are not labeled due to potentially sensitive cultural knowledge and plant communities. 36 Forbs cont. Dogbane Apocynum cannabinum Showy Milkweed Asclepias speciosa Canadian Milkvetch Astragalus canadensis Wild Licorice Root Glycyrrhiza lepidota Common Sunflower Helianthus annuus Fernleaf Biscuitroot Lomatium dissectum Velvet Lupine Lupinus leucophyllus Yarrow Achillea millefolium Blanket Flower Gaillardia aristata Piper’s Milkvetch Astragalus riparius Bitterroot Lewisia rediviva Blue Mountain Prairie Clover Dalea ornata Deer Horn Clarkia Clarkia pulchella Royal Penstemon Penstemon speciosus Parsnip-Flowered Buckwheat Eriogonum heracleoides Oregon Sunshine Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon Checker Mallow Sidalcea oregana Shrubs Nootka Rose Rosa nutkana Red-Osier Dogwwod Cornus occidentalis Coyote Willow Salix exigua Geyer’s Willow Salix geyeriana Scouler’s Willow Salix scouleriana Black Hawthorn Crataegus douglasii Blackcap Raspberry Rubus leucodermis Northwest Raspberry Rubus nigerrimus Blue Elderberry Sambucus cerulea Serviceberry Amelanchier alnifolia Lewis’ Mock Orange Philadelphus lewisii Chokecherry Prunus virginiana PLANT NAME NotesWet Moist Dry Stabilizer PollinatorFast establisherEarly seral X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Disturbed sites Nitrogen fixer Nitrogen fixer Remediator Wildlife forage Nitrogen fixer Threatened species Forage, nitrogen fixer Provides habitat Provides habitat and forage Provides habitat and forage Provides habitat and forage Wildlife food and habitat Edible berries Rare, endemic Wildlife food and habitat Edilble berries, Wildlife food and habitat Wildlife habitat Edilble berries, Wildlife food and habitat 37 Shrubs cont. Wax Currant Ribes cereum Golden Currant Ribes aureum Rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa Stiff Sagebrush Artemisia rigida Trees Peachleaf Willow Salix amygdaloides White Alder Alnus rhombifolia River Birch Betula occidentalis Hackberry Celtis reticulata PLANT NAME NotesWet Moist Dry Stabilizer PollinatorFast establisher X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Edilble berries, Wildlife food and habitat Edilble berries, Wildlife food and habitat Winter forage Habitat, winter forage Wildlife food and habitat Wildlife food and habitat Wildlife food and habitat Riparian, tolerates harsh conditions Early seral 38 Shallow pea gravel beds for spawning Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), listed as endangered since 1991, considered to be on the brink of extinction Improved river health benefits other fish populations like Pacific Lamprey (Entosphenus tridentatus) and White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) Shade from riparian vegetation like Coyote Willow (Salix exigua) cools the water and creates habitat for insects like Mayflies (Ephemeroptera sp.) that are an important food source for salmon Added boulders create stream complexity and resting spots for salmon SALMON HABITAT RESTORATION INTERPRETIVE ELEMENTS 40 Bent rebar bird blind inspired by Nez Perce basketry and the nests of the songbirds of the site, like Cedar Waxwing. Basket. Columbia Plateau. https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/ nepe/exb/special%20feature_textiles/nepe34222_basket.html A Cedar Waxwing Nestling. Cam Mannino. https://oaklandnaturalareas. com/2018/03/26/nestwatch-being-citizen-scientists-in-our-backyards- and-parks/ BIRD WATCHING BLIND Enhancing the wetland experience 41 CURRENT CONDITIONS 42 Cedar Waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) Yellow Warbler (Setophaga petechia) Bay is drained leaving wetlands Redesigned bird watching blind enhances existing recreation and provides connection to the new park area Black-headed Grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus) Western Toad (Anaxyrus boreas) Bobcat (Lynx rufus) BIRD WATCHING BLIND Enhancing the wetland experience 43 FLOOD MARKERS Remembering the impacts of the dam 44 CURRENT CONDITIONS 45 FLOOD MARKERS Remembering the impacts of the dam 46 The Lower Granite Dam. AP Images. 2002. https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/snake-river-dams-biden-administration-supports-removal Copco 2 dam removal on the Klamath River, California. Swiftwater Films. 2024. https://www.americanrivers.org/2024/05/four-things-to-know-about-the- impacts-of-dam-removal-on-the-klamath-river/ Community gathering area benches made from concrete recycled from the Lower Granite Dam COMMUNITY GATHERING AREA BENCHES Transforming the legacy of the Lower Granite Dam The circular design alludes to the circular history of the site. 47 CURRENT CONDITIONS 48 COMMUNITY GATHERING AREA BENCHES Transforming the legacy of the Lower Granite Dam 49 COMMUNITY GATHERING AREA PLANTING PALETTE Photos: Serviceberry. 2004. https://www.swcoloradowildflowers.com/White%20 Enlarged%20Photo%20Pages/amelanchier.htm Elderberry. Slichter. 2011. http://science.halleyhosting.com/nature/ plants/5petal/honey/sambucus/mexicana/mexicana6c.jpg Chokecherry. 2009. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prunus_ virginiana_flowers.jpg Ribes cereum var cereum. Stan Shebs. 2006. https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ribes_cereum_var_cereum_2.jpg Ribes aureum. Julie Kane. 2011 https://burkeherbarium.org/ imagecollection/photo.php?Photo=wtu034490&Taxon=Ribes%20 aureum&SourcePage=taxon Arrowleaf Balsamroot https://www.etsy.com/listing/1496746152/50- arrowleaf-balsamroot-seeds-native?gpla=1&gao=1& Blanketflower https://www.joyfulbutterfly.com/product/ indian-blanket-plant-gaillardia-pulchella/ Dalea ornata. Adam Schneider. 2024 https://burkeherbarium.org/ imagecollection/photo php?Photo=wtu130680&Taxon=Dalea%20 ornata&SourcePage=taxon Fernleaf Biscuitroot https://northwestmeadowscapes.com/products/ fernleaf-biscuit-root-seeds-lomatium-dissectum Munro’s Globemallow. https://www.cachevalleynativeplants.com/ product-page/munro-s-globemallow Showy Penstemon. Bob Gibbons. Science Photo Library. https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/59607/view/ showy-penstemon-penstemon-speciosus- Showy Phlox https://southwestdesertflora.com/WebsiteFolders/All_ Species/Polemoniaceae/Phlox%20speciosa,%20Showy%20Phlox.html Tolmie’s Onion. Mark Turner. https://www.pnwflowers.com/flower/ allium-tolmiei Perideridia gairdneri. Ann Kelliott. https://www.nomadseed.com/2017/07/ yampah-perideridia-americana-more/ Yarrow https://www.gardenersworld.com/plants/achillea-millefolium/ Yellow Bell https://fourthcornernurseries.com/plant/fritillaria-pudica/ Yellow Paintbrush https://alclanativeplants.com/product/ castilleja-lutescens/ Bluebunch Wheatgrass. Bruce N. Newhouse. https://oregonflora.org/ taxa/garden.php?taxon=7699 Carex filifolia var. erostrata. 2007. Steve Matson. https://calphotos. berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0707+0998 Poa cusickii 14246356. Jim Morefield. 2016. https://www.inaturalist.org/ photos/14246356 Idaho Fescue. 2009. Stickpen. https://calscape.org/plant/ Festuca-idahoensis-(Idaho-Fescue)/gallery# 50 ORCHARD The past bearing fruit into the future The inclusion of an orchard in the plan makes visible the history of the settlement. I was unable to find a record of the specific fruit varieties that were grown on site. Fruit selection was based on the most commonly grown fruit varieties of the era. That information came from Susan Dolan’s book Fruitful Legacy: A Historic Context of Orchards in the United States. Those varieties were cross referenced with varieties that are currently viable in Southeast Washington. The layout and tree spacing are in alignment with one of the historical orchard plots. The trees would be pruned in the central leader style, which was commonly used in the era that the site was orcharded. The orchard is not intended as a memorial to the settlement history. It is an acknowledgment of the site’s history and would provide connection to former seasonal cycles on the site. They would bear fruit into the future that could be accessed with greater equity than in the past. Wawawai Orchards Washington Clifford M. Ott Collection, University of Idaho Library Special Collections and Archives Marion B. 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