Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips
Through Land Use Design
~~:I~
.' , . ~
Increasing Bicycling, Walking, and Transit Use
in the San Diego Region
San Diego Air Pollution Control District
IIPf.II1II_1S1II1
CDiITT If UI lUll
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips through Land Use Design
Prepared by
San Diego Air Pollution Control District
9150 Chesapeake Avenue
San Diego, CA 92123
(619) 694-3307
lanuary 1998
Acknowledgments
San Diego Air Pollution Control Board
Greg Cox
District 1
Dianne Jacob
District 2
Pam Slater
District 3
Ron Roberts
District 4
Bill Hom
District 5
San Diego Air Pollution Control District Staff
RichardJ.Sonunerville
Air Pollution Control Officer
Andrew Hamilton
Principal Author
Anita Tinsley
Production Assistant
The District gratefully acknowledges Studio E Architects, 615 J Street, San Diego,
for donating production services and providing many of the graphics.
rTable of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction
I. Introduction and Purpose 1-1
II. Why Vehicle Trips? 1-4
III. Origin and Content of the Tools 1-9
IV. Air Pollutants, Health Effects, and New Federal Standards 1-10
V. Managing Growth 1-12
VI. Potential Benefits of Implementing the Tools 1-15
Bibliography 1-18
Chapter 2. Suggested Land Use and Transportation Strategies
Introduction 2-1
Land Use Strategies 2-3
Integrated Planning: Public Education 2-3
Integrated Planning: Public Participation 2-4
Land Use: Project Planning and Review 2-7
Land Use: Development Pattern 2-9
Land Use: Public Facilities 2-35
Land Use: Site Designs 2-38
Transportation Strategies 2-45
Transportation: Multi-Modal System 2-45
Transportation: Transit 2-52
Transportation: Bicycling Facilities 2-57
Transportation: Pedestrian Facilities 2-63
Transportation: Parking 2-73
Bibliography 2-82
Chapter 3. Planning Processes and Resources
I. Key Policy Documents 3-1
II. Administrative Actions 3-4
III. Resource Tools 3-5
IV. Overcoming Barriers to Implementation 3-10
V. Monitoring Methods 3-13
IV. Fiscal and Financial Review in the Planning Process 3-13
Bibliography 3-17
Chapter 4. Where We Are Now
I. Introduction : 4-1
II. General Plan Evaluations 4-3
III. Observations and Conclusions .4-12
Appendix A. Land Use and Transportation Strategies
Fil:llfl'
Figure 1-1
Figure 1-2
Figure 1-3
Figure 1-4
Figure 1-S
Figure 1-6
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
Figure 2-3
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-5
Figure 2-6
Figure 2-7
Figure 2-8
Figure 2-9
Figure 2-10
Figure 2-11
Figure 2-12
Figure 2-13
Figure 2-14
Figure 2-15
Figure 2-16
Figure 2-17
Figure 2-18
Figure 2-19
Figure 2-20
Figure 2-21
Figure 2-22
Figure 2-23
Figure 2-24
Figure 2-25
Figure 2-26
Figure 2-27
Table 1-1
Table 1-2
Table 2·1
Table 4-1
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
List of Figures
Description ~
Emission Sources in San Diego County 1-2
Vehicle Emissions for a 5-MiIe Trip 1-5
Projected Vehicle Emissions in San Diego County 1990 to 2040 1-6
1996-2020 Projected Increase in Population, Vehicle Trips/Miles 1-7
Vehicle Speed vs. Traffic Volume on a Freeway Segrnent l-8
Existing and Proposed Transit Focus Areas 1-14
Public Participation Improves Land Use Plans 2-6
Modesto Village One, Village Center 2-13
Transit-oriented vs. Traditional Neighborhood Design 2-15
Uptown District, San Diego 2-16
Modesto Village One Plan 2-17
little Italy Multi-Use Project, San Diego 2-25
Storefront Rehabilitation: Before and After 2-27
Single Lot Mixed-Use Infill Project 2-32
Rosemere Infill Development 2-33
The Crossings, Mountain View, CA 2-34
Commuter Rail Station 2-41
Street-oriented Commercial Center 2-42
Carroll Canyon Plan, San Diego 2-43
Retrofit Cul-de-sacs for Pedestrian Access 2-49
Solana Beach Multi-Use Pathway 2-49
Planning for Transit in New Residential Areas 2-54
Pedestrian Details Near Transit 2-55
Commercial Streets Accommodating Transit 2-56
Bike Lanes Built vs. Percent Bike Commuting 2-58
Sidewalk Flares 2-64
Pedestrian-oriented Streetscape 2-67
Curb Radii 2-68
Integrated Street Layout, Coronado 2-70
Parking Supply vs. Parking Use 2-74
Modesto Village One Street Cross-Section 2-78
Surface Parking Lot Placement 2-79
Parking Structure Treatments 2-79
List of Tables
SANDAG'S Land Use Distribution Element Policies 1-13
Secondary Benefits of Applying the Tools 1-17
Comparison of Bicycle Parking Ordinances 2-61
Summary of General Plan Review for Selected Strategies 4-2
~ Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
I. Introduction and Purpose
Environmental quality in San Diego County stands at a crossroads. San
Diego's unique geography - hemmed in by an international border to the south,
the Pacific Ocean to the west, Camp Pendleton Marine Base to the north, and
mountains to the east -limits future expansion. Quite literally, San Diego is
nmning out of land on which to build. The San Diego Association of Governments
(SANDAG) estimates that no urban residential land will remain available - at
currently planned densities - after 2010. There is little doubt development
patterns in the region will change. However, the way they change will greatly
influence environmental quality, including air quality, for all future inhabitants.
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through lAnd Use Design (Tools) is a guidance
docwnent and resource for rnwricipalities, citizen groups, and plarming
practitioners to use in reducing vehicle trips - and preserve other scarce
resources - through the land use planning process. The Tools include strategies,
examples, and resources to make land uses more accessible to wallcing. bicycling
and transit. In the process, land, energy, building materials, public resources,
and natural habitats can also be conserved. Use of this document is voluntary and
the degree to which municipalities employ any of the strategies discussed is discretionary.
The Land Use - Transportation - Air Quality Link
During the last 50 years, new land uses have been arranged in a low-density
pattern, fostering almost complete dependence on automobiles for
transportation. This pattern has afforded many personal benefits: quieter
residential neighborhoods with greater space, privacy and security.
Unfortunately, these benefits have come at great cost including the erosion of the
benefits themselves:
•
•
High infrastructure investments required to serve thinly settled
areas inefficiently consume personal and public resources and raise
home prices.
Land, energy and personal time spent behind the wheei of a car are
consumed in unprecedented quantities.
1-1
••
Those unable to drive or to afford a car including seniors, children,
low-income groups, and the disabled have lost considerable
mobility.
Traffic congestion remains a problem throughout much of the county.
Most important to this discussion, air quality problems remain despite
advances in air pollution control technology. Indeed, unless radically different,
low-polluting automobile technologies come into common use, ever-increasing
automobile travel is expected to reverse decades ofprogress in improving air quality.
How this will eventually affect San Diego's compliance with federal air quality
standards isn't known, but it doesn't bode well.
Emissions from Motor Vehicles
Currently, air quality in San Diego County does not meet state and federal
health standards for ozone (smog) nor the state standard for particulate maller.
On-road motor vehicles (cars, trucks, and busses) are responsible for 60 percent
of regional smog-forming emissions (Figure 1-1).'
FICURE 1-1
Emission Sources in San Diego County
-CJ
• •
•
• IIIJ]
Cars, Trucks & Buses
60%
lAir Pollution Control District 1995 Annual Report
1-2
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
Since 1976, vehicle travel within the county has grown faster than the rate of
population growth.2 This phenomenon is observed nationally and is attributed
to several factors including population demographics, more women in the
workforce, travel preferences, tax policies, land markets, and other forces. The
outcome of these forces is the prevailing low-density development pattern and
strict separation of land uses seen in most modem U.S. suburbs, which result in
more vehicle trips and longer trip distances.3 Because motor vehicles are the
predominant source ofair pollutants, measures to reduce the number ofvehicle trips
constitute one of the few remaining opportunities for large emission reductions.
The state and federal governments have recognized these problems and
have placed stronger emphasis on programs to change travel behavior. For
example, since 1991, more state and federal funding has been designated for
pedestrian and bicycle facilities. States have been given discretion to use certain
federal highway funds for pedestrian, bicycle, and transit facilities. The 1990
Federal aean Air Act Amendments required employer-based ridesharing,
though these were later repealed as cost-ineffective. At the local level, municipal
governments, acting through the San Diego Association of Governments
(SANDAG), have created a regional system to address eroding"quality of life
factors" induding air quality and traffic congestion.
Coordination With Other Regional Initiatives
Land use and transportation strategies suggested in the next chapter are
consistent wiitt or build on initiatives pursued jointly by the region's 19
jurisdictions through the San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG):
• Land Use Distribution Element
A 1988 ballot initiative called for development of a Regional Growth
Management Strategy (RGMS) to reduce the impacts of growth. The
Land Use Distribution Element of the RGMS, adopted in 1995,
addresses the SANDAG finding that population growth by 2010
carmot be accommodated under current zoning and infrastructure
plans. As discussed further below, the Element recornmends 11
polides encouraging compact growth around transit stops,
transportation facilities accommodating bicycle and pedestrian
travel, and better access to transit.
• Congestion~Plan and Congestion Management System
Responding to state and federal law, respectively, these two
programs seek to slow the growth of traffic congestion in the region.
2San Diego Association of Governments 1996
3Kenworthy and Newman 1993
1-3
The 19% Congestion Management Plan relies primarily on local
adoption of the Land Use Distribution Element policies to shift
projected future vehicle trips to transit, bicycle, and pedestrian trips.
• RClPonal Energy Plan
As part of the RGMS, the Energy Plan seeks to reduce dependence
on outside energy sources, which supply 99 percent of the region's
energy needs, and increase operating efficiency for all energy users.
The plan calls for more efficient land use and transportation practices
including implementation of the Land Use Distribution Element.
II, Why Vehicle Trips?
Measures which aim merely to reduce the number of miles driven but don't
reduce actual vehicle trips have little effect on air quality. Examining the
different sources of vehicle emissions shows why. These sources include:
• Cold Start Emissions - Tailpipe emissions which occur during the
first few minutes of driving while the vehicle's pollution control
equipment reaches its required operating temperature; substantial
for most vehicles.
• Driving Emissions - Tailpipe emissions occurring once the vehicle
reaches optimum temperature; generally small for newer vehicles.
• Hot Soak Emissions - Evaporative emissions from various parts of
the engine which occur once a vehicle is turned off but before it has
cooled to ambient temperature; generally large for most vehicles.
• Cold Soak Emjssions - Evaporative emissions from the engine as a
vehicle sits turned off; increases with ambient temperature.
As Figure 1-2 shows, cold start plus hot soak emissions constitute most of
the emissions from a typical vehicle trip. For this reason, measures such as
designating bicycle routes, encouraging telecommuting. or building new transit
lines can have widely different effects on vehicle emissions, depending on how
they are implemented. For example, accessing transit by driving to a nearby
parking lot or driving to a carpool pick-up point would reduce driving emissions
but not cold start, hot soak, or cold soak emissions.
Because vehicles pollute significantly even while parked, the most effective
way to reduce vehicle emissions is to provide land use and transportation arrangements
that reduce the needJor vehicle ownership. For example, a two-worker household
might only need one car if one or both workers can commute by walking to
transit and conduct mid-day errands on foot. This would save the household
around $4000 per year on average, minus transit and/or taxi fares.
1-4
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
FIGURE 1-2
Vehicle Emissions for a 5-Mile Trip
(1992 vehicle meeting 49-state emission standards)
I
Cold Start
j
Driving
j
Hot Soak
Extended Cold Soak
o 1
~HC
DNOX
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Crams
Source: Federal Highway Administration 1996
Many households in older neighborhoods enjoying frequent transit service
already exhibit lower rates of vehicle ownership. Residents in these areas use
transit, walk, or bicycle to reach work, shopping, and entertainment. Occasionally,
they may take a taxi or rent a car, as the need arises. Perhaps this lifestyle is not
one that most San Diegans would choose. However, current land use practices
deny this lifestyle choice to virtually all inhabitants of new development
Homebuyers looking for a new house in a mixed-use neighborhood with good
transit access find few offerings. Day by day, in the unnoticed ebb and flow of
real estale transactions, opportunities to reduce future vehicle trips are being
missed.
Reason for Addressing Vehicle Trips Locally
Many measures to reduce motor vehicle use are best implemented locally
under the jurisdiction of cities and counties. TItis is because municipal
governments control factors critical in transportation mode choice such as the
land use pattern, site design, and transportation infrastructure.
1-5
During the past 20 years, air quality has improved despite growth in vehicle
travel, because vehicle emission rates have been greatly reduced. That is, new
vehicles are much cleaner; high-polluting older vehicles are being replaced.
However, when most of the older vehicles are gone, we will reach a point where
the increasing number of new vehicles will cause emissions to rise again.
Projections by the California Air Resources Board show this will occur some time
early in the next century (Figure 1-3). Controlling that increase to prevent new
violations of air quality standards will require reducing the rate of growth in
vehicle trips.
FIGURE 1-3
Projected Vehicle Emissions in San Diego County 1990 to 2040
?
•
250
200
~
~ 1500
£.
•0
•• 100•
••
.B
50
C Emissions
-.-Possible Emissions
- ..""'........--00__ _.
.-;- _. - ..-
o.l--+--_'-----''------l_~_ __+-_;..-........- ........___l
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
Source: California Air Resources Board 1996
The region is expected to meet the federal one-hour ozone standard by
1999.' However, the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently
adopted more stringent standards for both ozone and particulate matter. Of
greatest importance to San Diego is the new ozone standard, which will take
effect following attainment of the current standard in 1999. California has even
more restrictive standards for both ozone and particulate matter. No schedules
for meeting the state standards have been set, but the District is required to
implement "all feasible measures" until the state ozone standard is attained.5
~ Diego Air Pollution Control District 1994
'California Health and Safety Code §40914
1-6
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Freeway Congestion: Prepare to Stop
Nationally, traffic congestion is responsible for 4 percent of gasoline
consumption, resulting in higher emissions. A study examining 1993 data placed
San Diego among the top ten regions in severity of congestion.6 Although more
freeway lane-miles have been built, congestion continues to worsen, especially
during commuting hours. Given the high growth rate of vehicle travel (Figure 1-4),
and the high cost of road construction, the situation threatens to get much worse.
FIGURE 1-4
1996-2020 Projected Increase in San Diego Region
Population, Vehicle Trips and Vehicle Miles
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Population Average Weekday
Vehicle Trips
61.3 to 104.5 Million
Weekday Vehicle
Miles Traveled
Source: San Diego Association of Covernments 1996
Freeway congestion is, of course, related to traffic volume, but in a way that
makes congestion seem to appear almost overnight. Figure 1-5 shows that as the
volume of vehicles approaches a freeway segment's capacity, average vehicle
speed remains fairly high until about 90 percent of capacity is reached. Adding
a few additional vehicles to the roadway then causes average speed to plummet,
and severe congestion sets in, usually pennanently. TIris phenomenon allows
congestion to "sneak up' on transportation planners and the public.
'Texas Transportation Institute 1996
1-7
FIGURE 1-5
Vehicle Speed Vs. Traffic Volume on a Freeway Segment
10080604020
70 y------------------,
." 60 I --.--.~__
~50 ~~ -.,
en
..!! 40
.2
i 30
>t 20
10
O~-----'-------~------_
o
Traffle Volume as % of Roadway Capacity
Source: Modified from Institute of Transportation Engineers 1985
Freeway widening may alleviate the problem but only temporarily. 1his is
because the pattern of auto-dependent development which feeds ever higher
volumes onto the freeway system is allowed to continue. One cause of this is the
nature of environmental impact assessments, required under the California
Environmental Quality Act (CEQA). Under the law, transportation impacts of
new development must be examined and mitigated, if found to be serious.
However, this does not include impacts on freeways.
To avoid congestion on local streets, new developments are kept low
density, and land uses are spread apart. By design, this increases the number of
cars on regional arterials and freeways. Congestion management measures, also
required by state law, have, at best, postponed the inevitable gridlock, and, at
worst, have exacerbated the problem by further spreading developments apart.
Some California municipalities have addressed these problems by passing
anti-growth or slow growth ordinances, limiting the building rate or total
number of housing units. The effects are predictable - growth limited by one
area appears in another area, farther away. Freeways joining these areas then
become even more congested. The Tools strategies offer a very different approach -
accepting tlult growth will occur, and building in away tlult current and future residents
can make some oftheir trips by means other than automobile.
1-8
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
III. Origin and Content ofthe Tools
The 1988 California Oean Air Act requires Air Pollution Control Districts
with serious" severe, or moderate air pollution levels to include in their regional
attainment plans provisions to develop indirect source controls.' (Indirect
sources are land uses which attract vehicle trips.) In response, the San Diego Air
Pollution Control Board's 1991 Regional Air Quality Strategy and 1995 Strategy
Update commit to encouraging cities and the County to adopt General Plan
policies and strategies to reduce vehicle emissions. The Tools, in conjW1ction
with a teclmical assistance program to aid their implementation, are designed to
help fulfill that commitment.
The Technical Assistance Program
In addition to the Tools, the San Diego Air Pollution Control District offers
free technical assistance in the following areas, as staffing allows:
•
•
•
•
•
Determining the most effective ways to implement strategies
contained in this document;
Assisting municipalities wishing to revise planning documents, such
as the Zoning Ordinance (see Chapter 3), to implement selected
strategies;
Reviewing local plans, policies, and ordinances for future impacts on
pedestrian, bicycle, and transit access;
Informally reviewing development or transportation projects to offer
design suggestions for increasing access by pedestrians, bicycles,
and transit; and
Locating appropriate examples or case studies of design guidelines,
zoning ordinances, pedestrian-oriented development, etc.
Objective of the Tools
The Tools were designed as a resource for public officials, community
planning groups, developers, lenders, industry, businesses and the public.
Strategies suggested in this document can benefit everyone. The public will
benefit from a more pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use community, reduced traffic
congestion, and better air quality. Developers, businesses and municipalities will
realize efficiencies through reduced infrastructure costs. These benefits are
discussed more fully in Chapter 2.
'California Health and Safety Code §40918(d)
1-9
This document was adapted from the 1994 Air Quality Guidelines for General
Plans by the San Joaquin Valley Unified Air Pollution Control District, which
received an award from the California Chapter of the American Planning
Association for their efforts. The background, strategies and examples contained
in the San Joaquin Guidelines have been updated for use by municipalities and
community planning groups in the San Diego region.
Document Contents
The remainder of Chapter 1 discusses the urgency of modifying land use
and transportation planning in San Diego County, and the personal and public
benefits of doing so. Health effects of major air pollutants are also described.
Chapter 2 presents the recommended strategies and possible implementation
options. It also contains examples of where each strategy has been implemented,
and additional resources and contacts for obtaining more information. O1apter 3
discusses the tools and resources necessary to implement the strategies in Chapter 2.
It also describes how to overcome barriers to implementation and provides back-
ground information on the financing and fiscal review process for development
projects. Chapter 4 contains an analysis of current General Plans in the region.
IV. Air Pollutants, Health Effects, and New Federal Standards
Of the six air pollutants regulated by the federal Environmental Protection
Agency and eight regulated by the California Air Resources Board, only ozone
(smog) and particulate matter occur in concentrations sufficient to violate either
federal or state standards in San Diego County.
Ozone
Because the associated standards are not yet attained, the pollutant receiving
the most attention in San Diego County is ground-level ozone. Known to most
people as smog, ozone results from a complex chemical reaction involving
reactive organic gases (ROC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These chemicals are
emitted from such sources as motor vehicles, commercial operations, and
consumer products such as paint and cleaning solvents. In 1996, ozone
concentrations in San Diego exceeded federal standards on two days, compared
with 12 days in 1995' The stricter state standard was exceeded on 51 days, a
decrease from % days in 1995. No health advisories, which warn sensitive
members of the population to avoid outdoor activity, were issued in 1996,
compared with three days in 1995.
!$an Diego Air Pollution Control District 1997
1-10
I
I
I
I
I
•
•
4
4
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Unhealthful levels of smog can cause coughing, stinging eyes and
discomfort when taking a deep breath. Studies have identified a link between
smog and increased risk of lung cancer. Hospitals and physicians also report
significant increases in asthma attacks on days with high levels of smog.
Everyone faces some health risk from smog, but more than 1 million
residents - about half of the total population of the county - are more vulnerable
to its effects according to the American Lung Association.' They include 495,000
pre-teenagers whose lungs are still developing. 273,000 senior citizens whose
inunune systems are weakening. and 247,000 people with asthma and chronic
lung disease.
The New Ozone Standard
The ozone standard was revised by EPA in 1997. Ozone nonattainment
areas, like San Diego, will now be subject to a tighter standard once the previous
standard has been met. The previous standard of 12 parts per million (ppm)
measured during a one-hour period, is expected to be mel by 1999. Once this
occurs, the District will be subject to a standard of 8 ppm measured over eight
hours. The tighter standard reflects research suggesting significant health effects
from longer exposure to lower ozone concentrations.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas formed when fuels are
bumed. It robs the body of oxygen carrying capacity and is deadly at high
concentrations. Primarily from motor vehicle exhaust, the highest concentrations
are found in areas with congested or high volumes of traffic and during the winter
months. Since 1990, San Diego has not violated the federal or state CO standards.
Particulate Matter
Invisible, microscopic particles can cause serious health effects. In a 7-year
national study, researchers from Brigham Young University and Harvard
University reported a 17 percent increase in deaths from respiratory and heart
disease in polluted cities compared to clean-air cities.10 Each year, an estimated
60,000 U.S. residents die prematurely from exposure to particulate air pollution.
Depending on their size, these particles affect different parts of the respiratory
tract. Particles 2.5 to 10 microns tend to collect in the upper portion of the
respirato:ry system whereas those 2.5 microns and smaller can penetrate deeper
into the lungs and damage lung tissue. San Diego's air quality currently meets
the federal standard for particulate matter but exceeds the stricter state standard.
9American Lung Association 1994
lo[)ockery et. al. 1993
1-11
Particulate matter is formed in two ways: from direct emissions, such as
road dust, construction, wood smoke, vehicle exhaust, and other combustion
processes, and from the condensation and chemical reaction of sulfur dioxide
(SOx), nitrogen dioxide (NOx), and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere. As with
other pollutants, particulate pollution has been reduced significantly by new
technologies.
The New PM Standard
The 1997 revisions to the federal standards for particulate matter maintain
the 10 micron standards and add new standards addressing the 2.5 micron
fraction (PM,s). Since PM2.5 monitors will not be available until 1998 at the
earliest, the extent of controls needed to address the PM2.5 standards in San
Diego County is unknown. However, based on current low p~o concentrations,
chances are good we will meet the PM25 standards without additional controls
or with minimal new controls. This won't be known for several years.
V. Managing Growth
Year after year, San Diego remains a high growth region. Oties throughout
the county struggle with the impacts of growth, including air pollution. At the
regional level, SANDAG is responsible for coordinating transportation planning
and addressing growth management issues. In accordance with federal law,
SANDAG produces regular long-range forecasts of growth in population,
housing, employment, transportation, and other indicators.
Regional Crowth Forecast: Running Out of Room
In May 1995, SANDAG approved the most recent regional growth forecast,
known as Series 8. The Series 8 forecast projects the region will add nearly one
million residents between 1990 and 2015, an increase of 49 percen!." The
development pattern of the resulting housing and other development will
determine their contribution to future vehicle emissions.
The Series 8 forecast predicts that, under current low-density zoning, all
residential land zoned for more than one unit per acre will be exhausted between 2005
and 2010. The problem is not a lack of land, but a lack of density. To many, this
prediction represents an alarm signaling the need for new growth forms that will
reduce the environmental impact of development, including air emissions, and
leave room for future growth. One response to this challenge is SANDAG's
Land Use Distribution Element of the Regional Growth Management Strategy.
11 San Diego Association of Governments 1995
1-12
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
The land Use Distribution Element
In 1988, voters approved an advisory initiative calling for a regional strategy
to reduce the unwanted effects of growth. In response, sANDAG - made up of
all 19 jurisdictions - developed the Regional Growth Management Strategy. A
key part of the strategy is the Land Use Distribution Element, approved by
sANDAG in February 1995.
The Land Use Distribution Element proposes to simultaneously maintain
living standards and accommodate future growth by creating transit-oriented,
moderate-density development nodes along major transit corridors (Figure 1-6).
It proposes that city and county officials implement Uland use and transportation
policies allowing greater use of non-automobile transportation modes (fable 1-1).
(These policies are reiterated in Otapter 2 where similar or related strategies appear.)
TABLE 1-1
SAN DAC's Land Use Distribution Element Policies
1. Transportation facilities should be designed to meet the needs of pedestrians
and bicycle riders as well as automobile drivers.
2. Higher land use intensities should be located in transit access areas.
3. Mixed-use development should be encouraged. in community center areas,
including the areas surrounding rail transit stations and within the bus
transit corridors.
4. A mix of housing types and prices should be provided within walking
distance of transit stations and in transit corridors.
5. More intensively used public facilities should be located near transit stations
and stops, within walking or biking distance of the communities they serve.
6. Parking requirements should be reduced within transit focus areas with on-
street parking provided in the mixed-use community core areas, whenever
possible.
7. Residential uses should be incorporated into existing employment areas that
are located outside of the transit focus areas.
8. Public facility needs in transit station areas, regional bus corridors and major
employment centers should receive a high priority if the plans for these areas
meet the objectives of the Land Use Distribution Element.
9. A higher priority for the implementation of a high level of transit service
should be given to corridors where land use plans support transit services.
10. Design guidelines should be used. to encourage the development of transit-
and pedestrian-friendly communities.
11. Lower land use intensities should be located in areas with low levels of
transit services or no transit services.
1-13
FIGURE 1-6
Existing and Proposed Transit Focus Areas
r---,~
/-------;::::=~
---
--
--
,
RAIL TRANSIT FOCUS AREAS
• _4t.- ....... T.......e--.
o ........... ---...r_e-klon
1-14
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
The Land Use Distribution Element embodies a regional commitment to
more efficient and environmentally sustainable land use and transportation
planning. This document was created under a mandate separate from the Land
Use Distribution Element butl in part, provides a "menu" of strategies for
fulfilling that commitment. Development of this document was coordinated
with SANDAG.
VI. Potential Benefits of Implementing the Tools
Air Quality Benefits
Adoption and implementation of the Tools will reduce current vehicle
emissions to only a limited degree. However, their application to new and
existing development can reduce the growth in vehicle miles traveled and vehicle
trips. Resulting emission reductions would depend on numerous variables,
including automobile technology, the availability of developable land,
population growth rate, population demographics, household income, and
household size.
Despite the uncertainties involved, computer models and case studies of
other metropolitan areas successfully employing strategies similar to the Tools
have been used to project future vehicle travel and emissions. Neighborhoods
oriented around transit stations have been shown to generate about 20 percent
fewer vehicle trips than conventional suburban development.'2 This finding is
consistent across a variety of development types and residential populations.
Several such neighborhoods within a region may produce a lower but still
significant regional reduction in vehicle travel.
SANDAG found that modest densification of land uses in a pedestrian-
oriented configuration within one-quarter mile of the transit stations depicted in
Figure Hi would reduce regional vehicle travel by 4.3 percent or 4.0 million
vehicle miles traveled in 2015.13 Higher density development around these
stations would reduce travel by 10.5 percent in 2010.14 The latter scenario
requires residential densities of 30 units per acre, which may be unacceptably
high for most residents of this region. However, these studies do not account for
possible application of the Tools in locations other than the transit focus areas,
which would further reduce vehicle travel.
A study of the Portland, Oregon, area employing a similar transit-oriented
strategy projected a 14 percent reduction in vehicle miles traveled and an 8 percent
reduction in vehicle trips. Although similar in many ways to the San Diego area,
Portland has a more extensive transit system and has concentrated development
U California Air Resources Board 1995
llSan Diego Association of Governments 1993
14San Diego Association of Governments 1994
1-15
in urban core areas to a greater degree. As a model, the Portland example is
certainly attainable in San Diego but would require greater investment in regional
transit lines and a commitment to land use strategies supportive of walking,
bicycling, and transit.
By 2015 application of the Tools in the San Diego region to areas both close and
farther awayfrom transit stations could be expected to reduce regional travel on the order
of5-15 percent from that expected under existing plans. Even larger reductions could
be realized with each succeeding year as new development incorporates the
Tools strategies and as alternatives to the automobile become more feasible in
existing urbanized areas.
According to the California Air Resources Board's current motor vehicle
emissions model (BURDEN7F), in 2015, under current land use policies,
emissions from personal vehicles in San Diego County will likely emit more than
39 tons per day of ROG, 47 tons of NOx, and 355 tons of CO. A 5 percent
reduction in personal vehicle travel would provide emission reductions in 2015
of nearly 2.0 tons per day of ROG, 2.4 tons of NOx, and 17.8 tons of CO.
To put these numbers in perspective, a large stationary source such as a
plastics manufacturing plant with modem emission controls would emit about
1 ton of ROG per day. The region's electric power plants emit about 85 tons per
day of NOx, and 3 tons of CO. These and most other stationary sources have
made major investments in emission controls. Reductions achieved with the
implementation of the Tools strategies may help relieve some of the burden on
stationary sources and contribute to econoJ?ic growth in San Diego County.
Additional Benefits of Applying the Tools
The measures recommended in this document are not new and have been
adopted in various other forums with names such as Smart Growth, Sustainable
Development, and Livable Communities. Their growing popularity stems from
their numerous benefits in addition to improved air quality. For many people,
these other benefits, outlined in Table 1-2, are the prime motivation for adopting
more efficient land use and transportation policies.
Recent market studies show American home buyers' preferences are turning
from homogeneous suburbs to cOrrUnunities oriented around a town center.
Master-planned communities featuring meeting places, shared activities, bike-
walk paths and natural open space are preferred over unplanned subdivisions.15
Many of the features homebuyers say they want are consistent with more
efficient land use and transportation plarming. The sooner strategies are
implemented to make these types of communities easier to build, the sooner
benefits of all kinds can be realized.
L5Warrick and Alexander 1997
1-16
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
TABLE 1-2
Secondary Benefits of Applying the land Use Design Tools
Safety m.d Crime Pre'O"ention Energy Savings
• Streets are generally designed to accommodate
·
The San Diego region annually spends 53
speeders traveling 15 miles per hour faster than billion on energy resour«s, 99% of which is
the posted speed limit.1 A typical neighbor· imported.' HaH the energy consumed is for
hood street in the region is 40 feet wide, and transportation. Reducing vehicle trips benefits
encourages speeding. A narrower, pedestrian· the region economically.
oriented street can discourage speeding while
• Compact, mixed-use neighborhoods save
accommodating emergency vehicles. energy by reducing vehicle trips up to 30%.10
• "Traffic calming'" measures such as speed Street trees provided for pedestrians can
humps. and intersection planters slow traffic decrease the ambient temperature 10°,
and may deter crime by preventing a quick reducing cooling requirements,l1
get-away.1
·
Computer modeling of three development
• Pedestrian-oriented design principles place scenarios (Existing Zoning, Moderate
windows, porches. or storefronts, rather than Pedestrian Focus, and Aggressive Pedestrian
blank walls or garage doors, facing the street. Focus) shows energy savings by 2010 could be
Studies show these"eyes on the street" can between 10% and 62% depending on the
reduce property crimes.J availability of development parcels.
Reduced Infrutructure Costs Increued Mobility for Non-Drivers
• Developers of new subdivisions usually • Seniors who no longer drive can maintain
provide st::reets, utilities, police, and fixe independence in communities where stores and
protection. Allowing narrower streets, services are within easy walking distance,. and
clustered dwellings, and a mix of compatible the pedestrian envir'onment is safe and pleasant
uses can help reduce these costs.
• Children in auro.oriented communities must
• A Florida study showed that providing be driven to school, shopping.. sports activities,
infrastructure cost $24))00 at 12 residential and friends' homes. More compact neighbor-
units/acre and 548,(100 at 3 units/acre.· hoods allow children to walk or bike safely,
·
Many older, pedestI'ian-oriented areas such as ~ucing trips.
Coronado and Mission Hills require less asphalt. • Disabled citizens rely heavily on transit and
land, and utility expenditures per unit while pedestrian access. Compact, mixed·use
offering a high quality living environment. U communities provide opportunities for all
proposed today, these areas would be illegal in citizens to leave their cars behind, temporarily
most communities. or permanently.
Reduced Traffic Congestion Open Space Preservation
• A 1989 study placed San Diego among the
·
San Diego County's diverse habitats support
nation's 10 most congested metro areas.5 the largest number of species - and the most
Despite continued highway construction, the endangered species - in the continental US.
number of miles of highway bearing "'heavy The proposed Multiple Species Conservation
congestion" has increased 15% since that time.' Plan would preserve an estimated 164,000
• A proposed mixed·use, transit-oriented acres in 10 jurisdictions to mm fede:rallaw.
neighborhood in San Diego is expected to • A popular trend toward Mdown-zoning'"
generate 19% fewer vehicle trips/ typic:al for (reducing allowable building dmsity) is
such developments. putting further development~ on
• Widespread implementation of transit-oriented semitive habitats and open space. Promoting
design principles was projected to reduce pedestrian-accessible development in already
regional Portland traffic 8~ by 2010.- developed areas can reduce this pressure.
·
According to SANDAG growth forecasts, the
'VV'IeSSe lUngin BNStIin.lnc.1~ region is running out of vacant landY
_1965 Inevitably, compact, well~esigneddevelo~
'Brown and Altmml1983 ment will be a necessary option.
'~1992
'Schrank et at 1990
'SANDAG 1990,1994, 1996
1City ol San Diego 1994
'Cambridge Systematics et a1. 1992
'San Diego Association of Governments. 1994
IilCaIifomi.J. Air Resouras Boud. 1995
IICalifomia Energy Commis5ion. 1993
USan Diego Association of Governments. 1995
1-17
Bibliography
Brown, Barbara 5. and Irwin Altman. 1983. Territoriality, Dtifrnsible Space and Residential
Burglary: An Environmental Analysis, Journal of Environmental Psychology. Vol. 3.
California Air Resources Board. 1995. Land Use(fransportation Strategies to Minimize
Motor Vehicle Emissions: An Indirect Source Research Study. Report No. 92~348.
California Energy Commission. 1993. Energy Aware Planning Guide.
Cambridge Systematics Inc., Calthorpe Associates with Parsons Brinkerhoff Quade and
Douglas Inc. Oct. 1992. The LUTRAQ Alternative Interim Report, 1000 Friends of Oregon.
City of San Diego Planning Deparbnent. 1994. Carroll Canyon Community Plan
Amendment, (DEP No. 9Hl738).
Dockery, Douglas W., Arden Pope, Xiping Xu, John Spengler, James H. Ware, Martha E.
Fay, Benjamin G. Ferris, Jr., Frank E. Speizer. December 9, 1993. An Association
Between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities, New England Journal of
Medicine. Vol. 329, No. 24.
Greater San Diego Chamber of Commerce, Economic Research Bureau. Dec. 1995.
Economic Bulletin. Data supplied by San Diego Association of Governments.
Kassowski, Kevin, Sept. 1992. The Costs afSprawl, Revisited, Deyelopments.
Kenworthy, Jeff and Peter Newman. August 1993. Automobile Dependence: The Irresistible
Force? Institute of Science and Technology Policy, Murdoch University, Sydney,
Australia.
McKeever/Morris, Inc. and Criterion, Planners/Engineers. Oct. 1994. Pbmningfor
Cammunity Energy, EntJironmental & Econamic Sustainability (PLACEJS): San Diego Region
Case Studies Summary Report. Prepared for the California Energy Commission, under
contract to the San Diego Association of Governments.
San Diego Air Pollution Control District. 1994. 1994 Federal State Implementation Plan
Revision including the Attainment Demonstration, Rate-of-Progress Plan, and Revised 1990
Base Year Emission Inventory For the San Diego Air Basin.
San Diego Air Pollution Control District. 1995. Annual Report.
San Diego Air Pollution Control District. 1996. 1996 Scorecard.
San Diego Association of Governments. 1990. 1990 Regional Transportation Plan.
San Diego Association of Governments. 1993. Impacts on Quality ofLife Factors.
Unpublished data.
San Diego Association of Governments. 1994. 1994 Regional Transportation Plan.
San Diego Association of Governments. 1994. Regional Energy Plan.
San Diego Association of Governments. 1995. Series 8 Growth Forecast.
1-18
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
San Diego Association of Governments. 1996. 1996 Regional Transportation Plan.
San Diego Association of Governments. 1996. 1996 Regional Transportation Plan.
San Diego, Gty of, 1994. Carroll Canyon Community Plan Amendment, (DEP No. 91-=).
Schrank, D. 1990. Urban Freeway Congestion, Texas Transportation Institute.
Swartz, Robert D. October 1985. Mitigating Through Traffic in Residential Areas: Issues
and Perspectives, Transportation Ouarterly.
Vanesse Hangin Brustlin, Inc. 1994. Memorandum to Route 9/100 EIS Otizens
Advisory Group, August 29, 1994, cited in Conservation Law Foundation, Take Back your
Streets: Haw to Protect Communities from Asphalt and Traffic, May 1995.
Warrick, Brooke and Toni Alexander. February 1997. LookingJor Humetown America.
Urban Land.
1-19
_ ~ Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
CHAPTER 2
Suggested Land Use and Transportation Strategies
Introduction
This chapter addresses a range of plarming and air quality issues involving
land uses and transportation in San Diego County. It presents strategies having
direct and indirect air quality benefits. The list of strategies reflects the most
current research on minimizing automobile trips as well as the Land Use
Distribution Element of SANDAG's Regional Growth Management Strategy.
Local governments and neighborhood plarming groups are encouraged to
incorporate them into appropriate plarming documents as discussed in Chapter 3.
However, the strategies are in no way mandatory. The suggested strategies
should be viewed as a flexible resource upon which to justify and implement
planning goals. Natural1y, they should be considered in the context of
infrastructure, public safety, economic, and other public policy issues particular
to a given situation or community.
This chapter is divided into land use and transportation strategies. The
supporting information accompanying each strategy is provided under four
headings:
(1) Implementation Options - actions which may be taken to carry out
a strategy.
(2) Discussion - explanation of the intent of the strategy, issues of
implementation, or the potential benefits. This information has been
culled from technical reports, studies, surveys, and data published
by various public agencies and private researchers. No original
research was conducted for this report.
(3) Programs in Operation - examples of existing programs including
contacts, addresses, and phone numbers for obtaining more
information.
(4) Resources or Additional Resources - documents containing useful
information on implementing the strategy.'
Appendix A provides a separate list of each strategy.
lSee especially Metropolitan Transportation Commission 1996
2-1
The Importance of "Buy In" by All Municipal Departments
Implementation of any of the recommended strategies can bring up
unforeseen conflicts between city departments with differing mandates and
practices. As with any change, local government staff who must implement the
strategy, or accommodate it in other programs, should be consulted early in the
planning process. Conflicts with existing policies or practices are best addressed
at this stage, rather than during implementation. The experience of cities whose
programs are cited in this chapter suggest that commitment to a new approach to
land use and/or transportation planning must include ensuring all city departments have
"bought into" the new direction. Otherwise, each project proponent affected by the
new program can find himself acting as a mediator between departments. The
result is incomplete or inconsistent strategy implementation.
Principles for Land Use Planning
for Improved Air Quality
¢ Plan land use pallerns that will encourage people to walk, bicycle, or use
public transit for a significant number of their daily trips.
• Use comprehensive community plans and specific plans to ensure
development is cohesive and well connected by alternative transpor-
tation modes.
o Adopt transit-oriented or pedestrian-oriented design guidelines and
designate areas appropriate for these designs in the General Plan.
o Encourage higher density development in proximity to frequently
used services and transportation facilities.
c:> Develop areas in a compact, efficient form to minimize vehicle miles
traveled and to improve the effectiveness of alternatives to the automobile.
o Use the control of public infrastructure to direct growth to the most
appropriate locations.
• Encourage infill of vacant urban land.
¢ Promote project site designs and subdivision street and lot designs that
encourage walking. bicycling. and transit use.
o Adopt design guidelines and standards promoting designs that
encourage alternative transportation modes.
• Require certain sites to be designed to allow convenient access by
transit, bicycle, and walking.
2-2
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Land Use Strategies
Integrated Planning: Public Education
Virtually all of the planners, developers, transit providers, and others
reviewing this document emphasized the need for more public education
regarding the consequences of planning choices. Without the understanding,
support, and involvement of the general public, efforts to create more efficient
land use and transportation patterns may not be as successful. Programs to
educate the public on the link between transportation, land use, and air quality
should always accompany any comprehensive land use and/or transportation
planning process.
ISTRATEGYJ> Work to educate the public on the link between transportation,
land use, and air quality.
Implementation Options
¢ Hold public forums and address community meetings to
familiarize neighborhood groups, developers, and lenders with
transit-oriented design (TOO) and pedestrian-oriented design
(POD) principles.
¢ Participate in local and regional programs, such as SANDAG's
Regional Growth Management Strategy, that can reduce molor
vehicle trips and vehicle miles traveled (VM1).
¢ Provide developers, engineers, architects, schools, colleges, and
utilities with information that illustrates the community's
commitment to transit, pedestrian, and bicycle friendly designs.
¢ To keep abreast of educational tools, planning agencies can
participate in the professional development programs of
associations such as the California Council of Ovil Engineers, the
American Planning Association, and the Building Industry
Association.
Discussion
Many California cities conduct educational workshops centered on
particular planning problems. When significant planning issues are
being debated, the opportunity exists to provide information to the
community on the air quality and transportation consequences of
alternative proposals.
2-3
Programs in Operation
In the past few years, SANDAG has teamed with cities and
neighborhoods in the region to sponsor seminars and workshops
such as "Building Livable Communities." Similar workshops are
held on an occasional basis by the League of Women Voters and the
San Diego Section of the American Planning Association.
Resources
California Air Resources Board, 1996 The Land Use-Air Quality
Linkage, How Land Use and Transportation Affect Air Quality. Concise
presentation of data and concepts appropriate to lay audiences.
The following organizations make available books, videos, studies
and other infonnation on a variety of planning subjects:
• Local Government Commission, May 1995, 909 12th Street,
Suite 205, Sacramento, CA 95814, (916)448-1198.
• George Franck or Susan Baldwin, San Diego Association of
Governments, 401 BStreet, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)595-5300.
• League of Women Voters, (619)693-0903.
• Chris Morrow, Director, American Planning Association (APA),
San Diego Chapter, P.O. Box 1289, San Diego, CA 92112,
(619)222-1871.
• APA Planners Book Service, 122 S. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600,
Chicago, IL 60603, (312)786-6344. (E-mail: BookService
@planning.org.)
• Urban Land Institute, 625 Indiana Avenue, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20004-2930, (800)321-5011.
• California Energy Commission, 1516 Ninth Street, Sacramento,
CA 95814-5512, (916)654-3948.
INTEGRATED PLANNING: PUBLIC PARTIGIPATION
In the past, many transportation and land use planning decisions were made
without public input. This eventually lead to citizen revolts against
infrastructure projects and to an appreciation by planning officials for the
necessity and value of involving the public early in project planning.
ISTRAlIev;» Actively involve the public in all comprehensive planning processes
involving transportation infrastrocture and land use.
2-4
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
Implementation Options
¢ For a major planning initiative such as a multi-block revitalization
project, General Plan update, or Regional Transportation Plan
submittal, hold a well-publicized series of community workshops
inviting participants to offer and critique potential visions.
¢ For each planning process, alternative scenarios should be
presented that include the consequences for the community and
region as a whole.
¢ Planning agencies should keep abreast of available educational
tools, methods, and planning concepts by consulting the Local
Government Commission, SANDAG, and the District.
Discussion
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (1STEA) of
1990 mandates public participation for all federally-funded
transportation projects and encourages inclusive plaruling
processes for local projects as well. Two popular techniques for
stimulating ideas and illustrating the tradeoffs inherent in any
planning decision are community visioning and the visual
preference survey_
In a community visioning exercise, workshop participants are
asked to describe or sketch ideas for a planning area. Typically,
photos of the area with adjacent uses shown are distributed with a
transparent overlay for sketching ideas. Sophisticated computer
programs uti1izing near photographic-quality images are available
to demonstrate quickly how a particu1ar idea would appear in
context. A strong proponent of the technique, architect/planner
Ron Morgan, reports community consensus can be reached in a
matter of hours, where previously, months of meetings yielded no
agreement. Consultants are generally hired to apply this technique.
(Contact: Ron Morgan, 2019 Dilworth Road East, Charlotte, NC
(704)342-2510 or 169 El Camino Real, Berkeley, CA (510)601-1520.)
Another technique, the visual preference survey, helps establish
design principles prior to considering possible scenarios. A series
of photographs from throughout the community are shown, and
participants are asked to rate the desirability or appropriateness of
land use arrangement and transportation facilities shown. The
results are tabulated and discussed, and reasons for preferences are
examined. Community groups who participate in this exercise or
community visioning usually favor pedestrian-oriented streets and
compact neighborhoods rather than automobile-oriented sprawl
2-5
required by local zoning codes. (For information or assistance in
creating a visual preference survey., contact the Local Government
Commission, 90912th Street, Suite 205, Sacramento, CA 95814,
(916)448-1198.)
Including the public in the planning process from the beginning
requires more time and may require funding for an outside
facilitator. However, cities taking this approach have reported that
planning decisions meet more of the community's needs.
FIGURE 2-1
, ,
. ! \..!
l l I
Active participation by the community often results in a better
land use plan.
Source: Adapted from Studio EArchitects
Programs in Operation
The Oty of Oceanside conducted a series of community visioning
workshops to determine uses for a city-acquired 445-acre site
formerly used for sand mining. Participants were asked to offer
potential uses for the site, knoWn as El Corazon, and a team of
consultants and city staff helped shape suggested ideas into a
proposed plan. The plan was submitted to the City Council for
approval. (Contact: Elizabeth Graff, City of Oceanside Planning
Department, 300 N. Coast Highway, Oceanside, CA 92054,
(760)966-4772.)
2-6
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Additional Resources
Participation Tools for Better Land-Use Planning: Techniques and Case
Studies, Local Government Commission, May 1995, 90912th Street,
Suite 205, Sacramento, CA 95814, (916)448-1198.
Land Use: Project Planning and Review
In the past, transportation planning emphasized the construction of new
roadway capacity to reduce congestion and to meet the needs of planned
development. Since the late 1980's, both federal and state air quality legislation
has mandated that all transportation plans consider air quality in a meaningful
way. To facilitate both mobility and air quality improvements, land use and
transportation plans should create patterns of development and transportation
infrastructure that reduce the need for new capacity and improve air quality.
ISTRATEGyJ> Consider ways to increase non-automobile travel when planning
land uses or considering changes to the land use pattern of the
community.
Implementation Options
¢ Develop coordinated land use and transportation plans to improve
opportunities for non-automobile travel.
¢ Ensure that land uses proposed in General Plan updates and
General Plan amendments are supported by a multi-modal
transportation system and that the land uses themselves support
the development of the transportation system.
¢ Identify areas best suited to development in terms of transportation
efficiency and provide incentives for development in those areas.
¢ Require an air quality/transportation design analysis for projects
exceeding a specified threshold (such as 10 tons/year for ROG and
NOx). . .
¢ Require developers of large projects such as a new subdivision or
regional sports facility to submit a design analysis with the
commercial site plan or subdivision map. The analysis would
describe the design measures proposed for the site.
¢ Consult with transit providers, SANDAG, and the District during
General Plan or Community Plan updates to maximize
opportunities for non-automobile travel.
2-7
Discussion
Integrated planning leads to transportation systems that support
all modes of transportation and land use patterns that encourage
the use of alternative modes. Effective implementation of a fully
integrated plan can achieve trip reductions on the order of
10 to 23 percent2 and commensurate air quality benefits.
In addition to planning the community as a whole, special attention
should be given to large projects which, by themselves, can change the
development pattern of a community. As discussed in other
policies, design details of such projects detennine the modes by which
patrons or residents will reach a new subdivision, sports arena, or
other large development. A design analysis is, therefore, critical.
The design analysis should be prepared by a civil engineer,
architect, or urban designer familiar with design measures that can
reduce trips. It could be part of the traffic study normally required
for large development projects. Review could be expedited for
projects consistent with adopted design guidelines or with a
previously reviewed specific plan or community plan.
Programs in Operation
The State of Oregon Land, Conservation and Development
Commission adopted a Transportation Planning Rule that
mandates that local governments consider air quality and mobility
in land use decisions. This rule requires local jurisdictions to adopt
ordinances to make new development more bicycle, pedestrian,
and transit friendly.J California has relied on a voluntary strategy
to achieve the same aims. (Contact: Bob Cortright, Oregon
Department of Land Conservation and Development, 1175 Court
Street NE, Salem, OR, 97310, (503)373-0084.)
As part of the San Diego Air Pollution Control Board's Indirect
Source Program, jurisdictions are invited to request informal
District review of significant transportation or development
projects. Staff will be available, as time ailows, to comment on the
accessibility of new facilities and developments in early concept
stages to walking, bicycling, and transit use. This review will not
be regulatory in nature and will not increase the time necessary to
complete development review: (Contact: Andy Hamilton, San
Diego Air Pollution Control District, 9150 Chesapeake Drive, San
Diego CA, 92123, (619) 694-8965.)
2California Air Resources Board 1993
'American Planning Association 1993
2-8
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
~ Ensure all local government submittals of transportation projectsSTRATEGY 4 t b . I d d . . I tr rt n" to e tnc u e t.n regtona anspo a on tmprovemen programs
are consistent with local air quality goals and policies.
Implementation Options
¢ Analyze transportation project submittals for consistency with the
General Plan. Examples of inconsistent projects are a road
widening project that does not consider transit, bicycling, and
pedestrian needs or an intersection signalization project that does
not involve the installation of signal achJators that can be activated.
by bicyclists or pedestrians.
Discussion
Strategy 4 attempts to tie the regional transportation planning
process back to the General Plan. The concept behind this strategy
is that projects funded by the biennial Regional Transportation
Improvement Program managed by SANDAG have a profound
impact on where development will take place and what its
composition will be.
LAND USE: DEVELOPMENT PATTERN
Existing land use patterns in most urban areas in San Diego County are not
conducive to walking, cycling, and transit use. Many office developments have
low employment densities and are often isolated from commercial services,
forcing employees to drive to eat lunch or complete errands. High-density
residential projects (apartments or condominiums) often have little, if any,
commercial development nearby. Others discourage pedestrian access to
commercial uses with block walls, large parking lots, or lack of clear or
interesting pedestrian routes.
The most common single family lot size of 6,000 to 10,000 square feet leads
to population densities too low to support frequent and direct transit service.
The predominant suburban development patterns force all local trips onto the
arterial street system. 1b.is leads to ever wider, more congested arterial streets
which in turn discourage people from wallcing or cycling to even nearby
destinations. Infrastructure to support this land use pattern is expensive to build
and maintain.
ISTRATEGY~ Encourage greater mixing of land uses to reduce vehicle trips.
2-9
Implementation Options
¢ Provide materials on successful mixed-use developments to project
applicants in areas designated for commercial land uses.
¢ Amend the Zoning Ordinance to allow greater flexibility to mix
land uses, and housing types and prices. One example is allowing
accessory dwelling units (Strategy 10).
¢ Amend the Zoning Ordinance to grant density bonuses or
reductions in required parking for mixed-use development.
¢ Zone for mixed use development near transit stations and urban
and suburban centers.
¢ Zone for ground-level retail/office at new multi-story office and
residential developments.
¢ Integrate housing into existing and plarmed. commercial
developments by encouraging residential units alongside or above
shops and offices.
¢ Provide density bonuses to office and commercial projects that
include housing.
¢ Encourage new and expanding office development to include
commercial uses such as restaurants, banking, dry cleaners, or post
offices to reduce mid-day trips.
¢ Facilitate the conversion of suitable under-utilized industrial or
commercial areas to residential or live/work uses, provided that
surrounding uses do not pose health or nuisance threats.
¢ Zone for walkable neighborhoods and commercial centers
connected to each other by pedestrian paths and transit.
¢ Encourage neighborhood retail and service uses within walking
distance of residential areas.
¢ Encourage neighborhood work centers within residential areas.
¢ Encourage home-based work.
¢ Encourage school districts to integrate schools with parks, transit
services, health services, and other community uses when choosing
new locations.
Discussion
The original impetus for zoning codes, which first appeared in the
1920's, was to separate highly noxious uses from residences. Some
view modem suburbs as the outcome of this sound planning
2-10
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
concept taken too far. Indeed, virtually any mixing of land uses is
strictly forbidden by most zoning codes in newly developing areas.
This has resulted in extreme dependence on automobiles.
Greater mixing of land uses can reduce vehicle trips by allowing
walking and bicycling to nearby complementary uses. A review of
studies of existing communities by the California Air Resources
Board showed that providing a mix of uses in a suburban activity
center can reduce vehicle trips by 8 percent, while reducing trips in
a central business core by up to 61 percent.' The study also
concluded mixed-use and higher density strategies can achieve a
20 to 50 percent reduction in travel between neighborhoods and
4 to 11 percent regionally. The wide range of these results is due to
the large number of factors that can affect travel mode choice at
individual sites.
Conventional zoning creates separate zones for different land use
categories such as commercial~high-density residential, low-
density residential~or industrial. An alternative approach is to
separate uses on the basis of their compatibility with each other and
with pedestrian movement. For example, small scale office,
commercial~ and residential uses could be arranged together~while
zones for industrial uses, regional retail outlets, and other large
volume uses could be placed in automobile-oriented zones. The
resulting development pattern would allow a larger percentage of
residents to walk to work~ shopping, school~and other destinations.
lbis document advocates three fonns of mixed use development:
moderately dense, walkable neighborhoods (Strategy 6); higher
density business cores or "activity centers" (Strategy 7); and mixed-
uses concentrated linearly in transit corridors (Strategy 8).
Examples of each form can be found within the county and
constitute some of our most celebrated areas such as Mission Hills,
the Gaslamp Quarter, and La Jolla Village. Wider use of these
fOnTIS should reduce the rate of growth in vehicle travel.
For this approach to work, various municipal departments must
agree on practices and design philosophies to maintain pedestrian-
orientation in mixed-use areas. To help smooth the process~ this
intention should be stated explicitly in the General Plan,
Community Plan, and other planning documents.
4California Air Resources Board 1995
2-11
SANDAG Land Use Distribution
Element Policy *10:
NDesign guidelines should be
used to encourage the
development of transit- and
pedestrian-friendly
communities."
Programs in Operation
In the 1970's, the suburban city of Bellevue, Washington, decided to
change the growth pattern of its central business core from strip-
commercial to more compact, pedestrian-oriented and mixed use.
Today, downtown Bellevue is an attractive area commanding
premium rents. It also enjoys a relatively high share of transit trips
I,J percent vs. 1 percent for comparable areas) and mid-day walk
trips (25 percent vs. 16 percent).'
ISTRATECY~ Encourage the development of pedestrian-oriented communities,
both within and outside transitfocus areas.
Implementation Options
¢ Develop transit/pedestrian-oriented design guidelines. Identify
and designate appropriate sites for this development pattern
during General Plan or Community Plan updates and when
developers propose General Plan amendments.
¢ Incorporate design guidelines into an Qverlay zoning designation
such as "Transit Village" or "Pedestrian Pocket" that may be
invoked by a developer in proposing a transit
or pedestrian-oriented project.
¢Prepare a specific plan or community plan
for new development areas. Incorporate
design guidelines and standards into the
specific plan. Strearnline discretionary
permit approvals if these are mel.
¢Designate particular areas as Transit Focus
Areas and specify design features, densities,
and uses for these areas while allowing
flexibility in other characteristics.
Discussion
Implementation of Stralegy 6 would require actively planning the
build-oul of a neighborhood, community, or city, rather than
reacting to unrelated, developer-initiated proposals and piecemeal
requests to amend the General Plan. This stralegy would be a
major part of a comprehensive land use, transportation, and air
quality stralegy implemented in a coordinaled fashion by several
municipal departments. Most of the following land use policies
support the concepts and principles of transit and pedestrian-
oriented design.
SJHK & Associates and Hooper 1989
2-12
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
A village center (Figure 2-2) can be the focus of community activity,
providing a variety of complimentary destinations within walking
or cycling distance of village residences, reducing vehicle trips. For
example.. trip reductions of 30 percent were estimated in a Kern
County new town project utilizing the village concept. However,
early results of small-scale conunercial uses incorporated in new
transit-oriented developments such as San Diego's Uptown District
have shown some stores to be extremely successful while other
businesses are not. Care should be taken to encourage the
appropriate mix of businesses for the village center.
FIGURE 2-2
Modesto's Village One Specific Plan includes a Village Center
comprised of high-density housing, institutional uses, parks, and
retail shops.
Source: City of Modesto 1990
2-13
SANDAG estimates full implementation of the modest Land Use
Distribution Element of the Regional Growth Management Strategy
(20 dwelling units per acre around transit stations) would yield a
4 percent regionwide reduction in vehicle miles traveled in 2015
compared to a more traditional growth pattern.6 More intensive
development (30 units per acre) around transit stations would yield
a 10.5 percent reduction by 2010.'
Neighborhood developments of this type have taken various
names: urban village, livable neighborhood, new urbanism, transit-
oriented development, and neotraditional town planning. The
concept has resonated well with many homebuyers8 and can now
be found among off-the-shelf design catalogues for residences,
businesses, and subdivision layouts.9
Programs in Operation
The cities of San Diego, Sacramento, and Portland, Oregon, have all
prepared transit-oriented design guidelines that encourage and
enhance transit, pedestrian, and bicycle travel. The guidelines
provide design specifications for both land uses and transportation
infrastructure around a major transit node. (See Figure 2-3.) To
promote use of its guidelines, Transit-Driented Development Design
Guidelines, the City of San Diego has identified Transit Area
Overlay Zones suitable for their application and incorporated the
guidelines into other city development policies and standards.
(Contact: Community and Economic Development Department,
202 "C" Street, MS 5A, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)235-7195.)
The City of San Diego also included in its 1995 Draft Zoning Code
Update a "floating" Urban Village Overlay Zone by which project
proponents may propose to apply TOO principles to any site
adjacent to a planned or existing transit station. It may also be
applied where recommended by a community plan. The zone
supersedes existing zoning and specifies minimum percentages
of land devoted to a mixed-use core (10 percent), residential use
(20 percent), and public use (10 percent). Density bonuses are
granted for employing the Urban Village Zone. (Contact: Kelly
Broughton, City of San Diego Development Services Department,
1222 First Avenue, San Diego,.CA 92101, (619)236-5932.)
'San Diego Association of Governments 1993
75an Diego Association of Governments 1994
'Warrick and Alexander 1997
'Knack 1997
2-14
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
FIGURE 2-3
Transit-oriented Design vs. Traditional Neighborhood Design
..
. .
...
CORE •
COMMERCIAL -~~!!!!!!~~r--;~..., I""-r-...,
DTRANSIT STOP <~~~~~~t
OFFICE ---~2t;;;?,7'-~~tr;:::.o~~
Integrated
TRANSIT STOP
COMMERCIAL
OFFICE --~f'"-"'=:o::;
Isolated
Source: Calthorpe Associates, City of San Diego
2-15
FICURE2-4
San Diego's Uptown District integrates commercial and residential
uses and emphasizes the pedestrian environment.
Source: Oliver McMillan Development
The Uptown District development in the Hillcrest neighborhood of
San Diego is a pedestrian-oriented, mixed use development that
combines 320 attached multi-family residential Wlits, 140,000
square foot retail/ office center, and a 3,000 square foot comrnWlity
center (Figure 2-4). A Ralph's supermarket located at the site
features underground parking and is among the highest grossing
stores in the company's chain.
Village Homes in Davis, California.. provides an example of a
bicycle and pedestrian-oriented subdivision. Street access is
narrow and somewhat limited, and bicycle and pedestrian paths
offer the shortest routes to neighborhood destinations such as the
school and community center. Many of the houses face bike paths.
This provides a sense of saiety for the riders and keeps the public
spaces in view of the community to prevent crime and vandalism.to
(Contact: Judy Corbett, Local Government Commission. 1414 K
Street, Suite 250, Sacramento, CA 95814, (916)448-1198.)
The City of Modesto's Village One Specific Plan (Figure 2-5) specifies
a pedestrian-oriented, mixed ~se village focusing on community
life. Overall project density is 8.5 units per acre.n This award-
winning plan covers approximately 1,780 acres of rural land and
will provide about 7,400 dwelling Wlits at buildout. The plan provides
~"W=e"'is-s-m-a-n-:l:::99::::2=
lICalifomia Energy Commission 1992
2-16
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
FICURE2-5
Modesto Village One Plan
Source: City of Modesto 1990
goals, policies, design guidelines, and a detailed implementation
plan. (Contact: John Mayer, City of Modesto, Planning and Com-
munity Development Department, SOl 11th Street, Modesto, CA
95353, (209)577-5269.)
Otay Ranch, a developer-initiated pedestrian and transit-oriented
development, is proposed for eastern Chula Vista and the unincor-
porated area of San Diego County. U completed as envisioned, the
development will include up to 24,224 residential units grouped in
11 villages and nine planning areas. Each village will be supported
by a pedestrian-accessible communitylretail center. In several
respects, the developer was required to compromise pedestrian
qualities of the project. However, the approved design includes
two proposed trolley stations, a major retail center, and a possible
university, to which convenient automobile, pedestrian and bicycle
access will be provided. (Contact: Richard Rosaler, City of Chula
VISta Planning Department, (619}422-7314.)
Additional Resources
New Urban News is a bimonthly newsletter reporting on nea-
traditional, pedestrian-oriented development. $69/yr. New Urban
News, P.O. Box 6515, Ithaca, NY 14851, (670)275-3087.
Moving Toward More Community-Oriented Transportation Strategies
for The San Francisco Bay Area: A Resource Guide, Metropolitan
Transportation Commission (MTq, December 1996. Annotated
resource list of model development codes, case studies, design
guides, and other documents related to this strategy. MTC, Joseph
P. Bort MetroCenter, 101 Eighth Street, Oakland, CA 94607-4700.
Transit-Oriented Development Design Guidelines, Sacramento County
Planning and Community Development Department, 827 Seventh
5treet, Room 240, Sacramento, CA 95814.
County of San Bernardino, Land Use, Transportation and Air Quality,
A Mnnual for Planning Practitioners, San Bernardino Air Quality Plan,
Provides design examples and development principles for reducing
mobile source emissions, organized by development density. $50.
The Planning Center, 1300 Dove Street, Suite 100, Newport Beach,
CA 92660, (714)851-9444.
Mixed-use Develapment Handbook, Urban Land Institute, 1987.
Provides examples of mixed-use developments and discusses a full
range of development issues. ULI, 625 Indiana Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20004-2930, (800)321-5011.
Planning and Design for Transit, March 1993, Tri-County Metropolitan
Transit District of Oregon (TRI-MET) . A comprehensive guide to
designs and land use patterns supportive of transit. $10. TRI-MET,
4012 S.E. 17th Avenue, Portland, OR 97202, (503)238-4891.
Planning and Design for Transit Handbook, January 1996. Provides
more specific guidance for land use and transportation plans, site
designs, and transit facility designs. $10. TRI-MET, 4012 S.E. 17th
Avenue, Portland, OR 97202, (503)238-4891.
Energy Aware Planning Guide, January 1993, California Energy
Commission. Contains extensive sections on design measures to
reduce vehicle trips, miles traveled, and energy consumption.
CEC, 1516 Ninth Street, Sacrainento, CA 95814-5512, (916)654-3948.
Land Use Strategies for More Livable Places, Local Government
Commission, 1992, funded in part by the San Diego Air Pollution
Control Board. Contains numerous examples of design principles
discussed above. $19.75 Local Government Commission, 1414 K
Street, Suite 250, Sacramento, CA 95814, (916)448-1198.
2-18
SANDAG Land Use Distribution
Element Policy '3:
"Mixed-use development shauld
be encouraged in community
center areas..."
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
Designing For Transit, San Diego Metropolitan Development Board,
1993. Contains illustrated principles for designing new communities
and retrofitting existing suburbs for transit use. An accompanying
video, Cities in the Balance: Creating the Transit-Friendly Environment,
provides implementation examples. MTDB, 1255 Imperial Avenue,
Suite 1000, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)231-1466.
Transportation-Efficient Development, Lane Council of Governments
(Oregon), May 1996, describes new livable communities projects
including the cost of each project, how it was financed, its special
features, and lessons leamed. (Contact Peter Watt, (541)687-4283).
ISTRATECYJ> Establish one or more central business cores for high-density and
mu:ed-use dl!Oelopment.
1mplementation Options
¢ Provide financial incentives and density bonuses to encourage
development within the designated central core(s) of the city.
¢ Encourage residential development in existing employment areas,
except where industrial emissions or other safety or nuisance
concerns exist.
Discussion
A healthy downtown or satellite business
district provides a concentration of activities
that increase potential transit use for commute
trips and, in many cases, shopping trips. By
making the center walkable, transit riders
do not need an automobile. Thus, high
employment densities help support retail and
service businesses, allowing people working
in an activity center to walk for daytime
errands and lunch trips.
A survey of suburban office workers found that about half left their
building during the day. In an area with mixed-use high-density
develop-ment' and pedestrian facilities, 25 percent of the trips were
made on foatl compared to 6 percent in a more homogenous,
sprawling area.u
Today's automobile-oriented suburbs could include areas
developed on the activity center model to reduce vehicle trips,
fuIfill"fair share" affordable housing requirements in an attractive
UCalifomia Energy Commission 1993
2-19
•way, and reduce infrastructure costs. However, such areas must
achieve minimum density to support frequent transit services.
The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) suggests that
residential densities of at least seven to eight dwelling units per
acre and eight to 20 million square feet of non-residential
development are needed to support transit service of one bus every
half hourP However, one researcher found that transit use drops
off below 15 dwelling units per acre and 75 employees per acre
(roughly 23,000 square feet of employment development per acre)."
Programs in Operation
Horton Plaza, a super-regional shopping center located in
downtown San Diego, served as an anchor for restoring the
Gaslamp Quarter National Historic District. A 1993 Air Resources
Board study comparing ~ode shares at five California regional
shopping centers showed 65 percent of the patrons to Horton Plaza
arrived by modes other than automobile.15 Office workers made up
a substantial portion of the patrons. Eighty-six percent of this
group arrived on foot. (Contact: Terry Parker, California Air
Resources Board, 2020 L Street, P.O. Box 2815, Sacramento, CA
95812, (916)323-<;987.)
The village concept was the basis of the recently approved San
Emidio New Town Specific Plan in Kern County. The plan
provides electric golf carts with each residence and separate paths
leading from residences to the village center. Roadways are
designed to be shared with bicyclists. Traffic studies for the project
estimate about a 30 percent reduction in trips over conventional
development, although it is not yet known how reliable these
estimates are. (Contact: Kern County Department of Planning and
Development Services, 2700 "M" Street, Suite 100, Bakersfield, CA
93301, (805)861-2615.)
The Metropolitan Bakersfield 2010 General Plan promotes a centers
concept with downtown as the primary center and several
suburban centers anchored by educational institutions and large
businesses.
The Oty of Sacramento has plans to recycle an outmoded industrial
area adjacent to downtown with new office, commercial, and
public facilities. The area will be served by light rail.
13Califomia Air Resources Board 1993
14Frank 1994
15Califomia Air Resources Board 1993
2-20
SANDAG Land Use Distribution
Element Policy *2:
"Higher land use intrnsities
should be located in transit
access areas."
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
Additional Resources
Putting the Urb in the Suburbs: Many Places Are Deciding They Need A
Real Center After All, Planning, June 1997,
~ Encourage the location of large employment or shopping centers in
major bus transit corridors and within walking distance 01
planned or existing transit stations.
I~plementationOptions
¢ To the extent appropriate sites are available, encourage location of
regional shopping malls/ centers at sites capable of support by a
full range of transportation options and work with developers to
optimize access by all modes.
¢ Identify sites with access by freeway or major arterial and with
potential for light rail access,
¢ Zone for higher densities in transit corridors.
¢ Decrease parking requirements along major transit corridors.
¢ Consult with transit providers to determine which transit corridors
should be emphasized in planning surrounding land uses,
¢ Promote transit-accessible sites to potential employers whose
workers lack affordable housing options in the immediate area.
Discussion
Regional centers are retail uses that draw most
of their customers on a community wide or
regional basis as opposed to drawing them
from the immediate surrounding
neighborhoods, Regional malls and centers
are major traffic generators. Every effort must
be made to identify sites with good motor
vehicle access to avoid traffic congestion and
with good transit, bicycle, and pedestrian
access to reduce total vehicle trips.
Appropriate sites should be identified in the
General Plan or Community Plan,
To increase transit use and attract tax-generating businesses, transit
accessible sites may be advertised and promoted to potential
developers, Large employers (e,g, those employing 100 or more
employees) should be steered toward sites accessible to transit, In
some cities, good transit availability can offset the lack of local
affordable housing,
2-21
It is important to schedule regular consultation with transit
providers regarding future development plans. At little or no cost
to the jurisdiction or developers, plans can be modified to
accommodate and encourage future transit ridership.
Programs in Operation
The Metropolitan Transit Development Board (MTDB) recently
released a full-color brochure describing major projects developed
jointly by MTDB and real estate ventures. A companion brochure
describes sites available for development near transit stations
including details of location, zoning, and potential transit-oriented
uses. (Contact: Nancy Bragado, MTDB, 1255 Imperial Avenue,
Suite 1000, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)557-4533.)
San Diego's Horton Plaza is the region's best example of a regional
mall providing adequate access by all modes. Several factors
contribute to the mall's success, including the construction of two
parking structures operated to favor short-term parking and its
location near major transit lines, office buildings, and
entertainment. As a result of these factors, 65 percent of patrons
travel to the site by modes other than automobileY;
The Bay Area Rapid Transit's (BARl) Pleasant Hill station in
Walnut Creek was planned for high density mixed-use office and
residential uses. Developers quickly saw the benefits of locating in
the area. Hall of the residents living near the station use transit to
commute to work. Apartments in the area command 12 percent
higher rent than comparable apartments elsewhere.l1
ISTRATECY~ Preserve and enhance existing neighborhoods and commercial
districts having transit- and pedestrian-oriented designs.
Implementation Options
<:> Modify the Zoning Ordinance to distinguish between auto-oriented
and transit/pedeslrian-<>riented commercial zone districts. Define
uses that are appropriate for these areas.
<:> Designate neighborhood commercial and major/regional
commercial zone districts at appropriate locations.
¢ Locate competing commercial uses, especially in automobile-
oriented strip malls, more than one mile from the pedestrian or
transit-oriented commercial area.
16Qili.fomia Air Resources Board 1994
17Cervero 1994
2-22
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
¢ Locate drive-through services in automobile-oriented areas.
¢ Establish narrow street design standards in pedestrian areas and
allow future"calming" (Strategy 32) of existing neighborhood
streets to improve the security and comfort of pedestrians.
¢ Pursue revitalization projects to improve the image of existing
pedestrian-oriented neighborhoods and shopping districts
(pedestrian amenities, street trees, transit facilities, etc.).
¢ Establish a "Main Street Program" through the National Main
Street Center to enhance an older but declining commercial district.
¢ Cities with declining downtown areas should consider recycling
underutilized and abandoned uses with new uses that compliment
the area.
¢Offer incentives for quick rehabilitation of declining or boarded up
residential and commercial properties in older, pedestrian-oriented
neighborhoods.
¢ Enhance downtown retail establishments by funding an established
marketing consultant. Such services are routinely provided to
shopping mall tenants.
¢ Increase pedestrian activity in existing downtowns through the
following measures:
• Create special districts such as arts and entertainment
districts or historic shopping districts which can create a
vibrant downtown area.
o Develop vending programs establishing guidelines for
vending cart design and location and add newsstands in the
central core.
o Establish indoor or outdoor public markets, offering local
products and presenting opportunities for public interaction.
o Restaurants, cafes, specialty shops, educational facilities, and
commercial areas all encourage use of the town center.
o Create usable, inviting public spaces using seating, lighting,
public art, landscaping, small parks, attractive waste
receptacles, convenient phones, bicycle racks, and other
street furniture.
o Create transit amenities - clear, attractive, highly visible
signage systems and bus shelters with good lighting,
benches, protective canopies and easy visibility - to make
transit use more attractive.
2-23
• Schedule special events. Cultural, social and recreational
activities draw people to the center and enhance existing
uses.
• Establish management programs to oversee the above
components as well as security, sanitation, and other up-keep.
Discussion
Many older neighborhoods and commercial areas in the San Diego
region were developed when horses, streetcars, and walking were
the primary modes of transportation. Maintaining these areas as
desirable places to live, work, and shop can significantly reduce the
average number of vehicle trips per household in the city as a
whole.
A number of studies have found that a factor that leads to greater
transit use is the proximity of both the residence and employment
site to transit stations.18 For this reason, maintaining dense areas
served by transit is particularly valuable to the region, even to
those people who never use them. The decline of these areas may
push residents out to distant suburbs, further crowding congested
highways and increasing emissions.
Since funds for local infrastructure projects are increasingly scarce,
repair needs in many older developed areas have gone unmet,
although these areas tend to exhibit much higher transit use, lower
vehicle ownership rates, and fewer vehicle miles traveled.19 In
prioritizing capital projects, jurisdictions should consider the long-
term consequences of foregoing reinvestment in older
neighborhoods. Neglecting these areas encourages their
abandonment and increases development on the urban fringe. nus
in turn increases vehicle emissions.
Programs in Operation
As part of a long-term effort to revitalize its original downtown
area, the Gty of Carlsbad established the Carlsbad Village
Redevelopment Area and produced a Carlsbad Village Milster Plan
and Design Manual to guide redevelopment. Among many design
goals, the manual addresses pedestrian circulation, particularly
links between commercial, residential uses, and the commuter rail
station. (Contact: Evan Becker or Debbie Fountain, Carlsbad
Housing and Redevelopment Department, 2965 Roosevelt, Suite B,
Carlsbad, CA 92008, (760)434-2810.)
111Califomia Air Resources Board 1995
19J...ocal Government Commission 1995
2-24
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
During the 1980's, the City of San jose attracted reinvestment in its
downtown through its own extensive upgrading of sidewalks,
streets, street furnishings, and storefTonts near a major trolley
station. (Contact: Dennis Korabiak, The Redevelopment Agency of
the Oty of San jose, 50 W. San Fernando Street, #1500, San jose, CA
95113, (408)277-4744.)
The cities of Encinitas, Coronado, Escondido, Vista, and San Diego
have undertaken Main Street Projects through the National Main
Street Center. These projects revitalize older commercial areas by
capitalizing on attractive architecture and pedestrian accessibility
typical of such areas. More than 3,000 communities in the U.s.
have successfully applied the concept.
The Centre Oty Development Corporation of San Diego (CCDC)
has helped finance numerous projects to encourage private
reinvestment in areas well-served by transit. Since 1975, ceoc
investments totaling $219 million have leveraged $1.76 billion in
private investment. One recently approved project is in the Little
Italy neighborhood just north of downtown San Diego. (Figure 2~).
(Contact CCDC, (619)235-2200.)
FIGURE 2-6
Aforthcoming public-private project in San Diego's
little Italy neighborhood features rental units.
condos, live/work spaces, and ground floor retail
on a single block.
Source: Ted Smith
2-25
The Oty of San Diego's
1995 Draft Zoning Code
Update recognizes auto-
oriented and pedestrian-
oriented areas and
specifies uses, building
setbacks, and other
characteristics which
reinforce these modes. For
example, the Zoning Code
cites heavily traveled bus
routes and makes available
a variety of overlay zones
for both commercial and
residential uses along the
routes to continue
supporting bus services.
(Contact Kelly Broughton,
City of San Diego
Development Services
Department,
(619)236-5932.)
The Gty of San Diego's Vacant Properties Task Force is overseeing
implementation of measures to encourage rehabilitation or
demolition of boarded up residential and commercial properties.
Adopted measures include assistance in obtaining financin~
referral to appropriate contractors and real estate agencies, and
enforcement against continuing unattended properties. (Contact:
Anita Welker, City Manager's Office, (619)236-5594.)
The Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG) and
the Local Government Commission (LGq brought together leaders
from the building and real estate industries, environmental groups,
universities, plarmers, architects, and others to form the Livable
Communities Advisory Committee. The committee developed a
definition of a livable community in Southern California and then
recognized five neighborhoods as examples: Old Pasadena, Old
Town Monrovia, Whittier Boulevard in East Los Angeles,
downtown Redlands, and Huntington Beach. Each of the five had
undergone a decline in the 50's, 60's, and 70's, but civic leaders and
interested citizens worked to preserve and enhance the historical
centers rather than demolishing and replacing them with other
uses. (Contact: Nilon Seals atSCAG, (213)236-1810, or Rick Cole or
Judy Corbett at the LGC, (916)448-1198.)
The Gty of Imperial Beach prohibits drive-through services "and
other similar auto related business establishments" in areas zoned
as Neighborhood Commercial. To promote walking, the General
Plan also encourages the future narrowing of SO-foot wide streets
not designated as major collectors. Narrowing would occur block
by block as development occurs or when initiated by property
owners.
Additional Resources
National Main Street Center, a project of the National Trust for
Historic Preservation, 1785 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20036. Kennedy Smith, Director, (202) 673-4219.
In California, also contact the Main Street Program, California
Trade and Commerce Agency, (916)322-3520.
New Uses for Obsolete Buildings. Ideas, strategies and case studies of
eight"adaptive re-use" projects. Urban Land Institute, $64.95.
(800)321-5011. .
Revitalizing Low-Income Neighborhoods. Recommendations from the
Urban Land Institute's (ULI) Advisory Services Panels that studied
eight low-income neighborhoods. Stresses public/private/
community partnerships. ULI, $35.95. (800)321-5011.
2-26 I(
(
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
FIGURE 2-7
BEFORE ~
AFTER T
Rehabilitation of storefronts in older commercial areas can
maintain or increase transit usage.
Source: Studio EArchitects
2-27
Whi1t Main Street Can Learn From the Mall, Steven Lagerfeld, Atlantic
Monthly. November 1995. Discusses marketing principles that
make shopping malls successful and how they can be used in older,
street-oriented commercial districts.
Project for Public Spaces, a non-profit planning and design
organization, works with communities throughout the country and
internationally to improve the "livability" of urban and suburban
environments through site designs, economic analysis, open space
design, city management programs, transit improvements, etc.
Project for Public Spaces, Inc., 153 Waverly Place, New York, NY
10014, (212)620-5660.
Also see Strategy 10.
~ Encourage infill and neighborhood revitalization projects within
urban residential areas.
Implementation Options
¢ Encourage projects that increase pedestrian activity and provide a
variety of destinations.
.:=:> Encourage commercial uses that are complimentary to urban
employment centers.
¢ Encourage a mix of housing types and prices.
¢ Amend the Zoning Ordinance to allow accessory dwelling units on
existing residential lots.
¢ Encourage higher density housing in the central business district
and nearby areas where travel by transit, walking and biking tend
to be higher.
SANDAG Land UseDistribution
Element Policy #4
"A mix afhousing types and
prices should be pr011i.ded within
walking distance of transit
stations and in transit corridors."
¢ Support projects that infill vacant areas and
areas contiguous on at least one side to a
developed area.
¢ Create density bonus provisions in the
Zoning Ordinance for underutilized
infrastructure systems and revitalization
areas.
¢ Work·with nearby residents to re-designate
vacant or underutilized parcels suitable for
higher densities or for transitfpedestrian-
oriented developments during General
Plan updates and periodic reviews.
2-28
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
¢ Whenever feasible, designate high- and medium-<lensity housing
at sites within walking distance of transit or neighborhood
commercial services during General Plan updates and developer
initiated General Plan amendments.
¢ Establish minimum housing densities for areas around existing and
planned transit nodes.
¢ Reduce parking requirements for residential developments when it
can be shown that fewer vehicle spaces are needed due to lower
vehicle ownership for developments designed for transit and
pedestrian access. (See Strategy 37.)
¢ Adjust traffic Level of Service standards (see box) and/or provide
trip reduction credits for infill projects that encourage walking,
bicycling, and transit use.
¢ Inventory abandoned or tax delinquent properties and work with
neighborhood groups to create development guidelines and fee
subsidies to encourage rehabilitation or rebuilding.
¢ Work with non-profit housing corporations to build high-<juality
housing in appropriate infill areas.
Discussion
lnfill development takes advantage of existing urban systems and
maintains the quality of living in urban core areas, which tend to be
more dense than suburban areas. The density of a given
neighborhood is a key determinant of the number of automobile
trips taken by its residents. Rejuvenating older areas with strategic
infill developments can reduce the growth of vehicle trips within
the region.
A worldwide survey of travel patterns in 32 major cities found that
gasoline consumption was reduced 25 to 30 percent for each
doubling of population density.'" Another study found that transit
usage triples for each doubling in density." Follow-up studies
confirmed this finding, but a minimum threshold density is needed
before transit use becomes viable.22. For example, researchers found
that increases in density from 1,300 to 2,700 person/square mile
had no effect on travel behavior."
"Kenworthy and Newman 1990
nPushkarev and Zupan 1977
22California Air Resources Board 1995
"Dunphy and Fisher 1994
2-29
In recent decades, density has become synonymous with urban
decline. In fact, this perception is based more on stereotypes than
reality. As discussed under Strategy 5, some of the region's most
revered neighborhoods are also its most dense.
Whether deserved or not, high-density housing has gained a
negative reputation as a breeding ground for crime. More
important than density in detennining crime levels, however, are
Traffic Flow Standards: Unnecessary Obstacle to Infill?
One obstacle to infill development is a traffic flow or Level of Service
standard. Level of Service categories range from"A" (free-flowing) to "F"
(stop-and-go traffic). At Level of Service "c" (the regional standard),
motorists can drive at least half their normal speed at all times. While this
seems reasonable, insisting on minimal traffic delays even during commute
hours can easily increase the length and number of vehicle trips by forcing
development into low-density or fringe areas. Infill development is
discouraged. The result, evident in San Diego County, is overburdened
arterials, clogged highways, and limited transit coverage.
Level of Service standards are usually applied without acknowledgment
of this risk or of the beneficial effect of congestion on transit use, pedestrian
activity, and support of local businesses by nearby residents. Recognizing
this problem, several U.s. cities have adopted alternative standards."
Montgomery County, Maryland, and the Florida Department of Transportation
both relax Level of Service standards in areas oriented to pedestrians, bikes,
or transit. For example, Dade County permits roads to serve 150 percent of
plarmed capacity in corridors served by a rail line or express buses.
Other areas average Level of Service along a single arterial (Snohomish
County, Washington), across parallel roadways (Brevard County, Florida;
Orlando, Florida; and Montgomery County, Maryland), or within a defined
district rather than measuring Level of Service only at individual
intersections as is normally done. Still another approach has been to average
Level of Service for person-trips across all travel modes (roads and transit)
rather than simply examining vehicle trips (pierce County, Washington).
Each of these methods seeks to balance traffic congestion reductions
with other community goals, including air quality, pedestrian access, and
lower taxes. By contrast, strict Level of Service standards inherently assume
free flowing local traffic is worth any price necessary to achieve it, including
greater congestion on arterials and highways.
2'Savage 1993
2-30
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
the design and level of maintenance of a residential development.
There are proven designs and layouts that can make higher
densities safe and attractive. One way is to orient windowsr doors
and porches - rather than garages - to common areas and the
street. A study of residential burglaries showed that houses within
clear view of windows on adjacent houses are less likely to be
burglarized."
Strategies to increase residential density must be pursued in
partnership with the immediate neighborhood. For example,
apartment projects adjacent to existing residential development
frequently arouse fierce neighborhood opposition. Although traffic
generated per dwelling unit is significantly less, the greater number
of units may still have adverse traffic impacts. The ability of public
facilities to absorb increased demand for services must also be
considered. Strongdesign and building standards for multi-family
projects can help overcome neighborhood opposition. Requiring
project designs that fit into the neighborhood and are attractive
promotes acceptance.
An increasingly popular infill strategy is to allow accessory
dwelling units (ADU) on existing residential lots. A recent
American Planning Association report on ADD's states:26
JlVhen zoning does not permit ADU's legally, their illegal
installation in single-family zones, driven by unmet housing
needs, is frequent and inevitable. Although many neighbors and
their elected officials bristle at the thought oflegally allowing
ADU's in single-family zones, ADU's rarely have negative
impacts on neighborhoods and offer many unusual benefits. In
fact, after community officials and neighbors becomefamiliar
with ADU's by allowing them, they tend to loosen zoning
restrictions to allow them under more circumstances.
Most commonly, ADD ordinances restrict use of the units to
relatives of the primary unit or allow their occupancy only if the
owner lives in the primary unit.
Programs in Operation
The Model Zoning Regulations for the Tri-County Metropolitan
Transportation District of Oregon (portland metropolitan region)
provide good examples of zoning regulations that emphasize these
planning principles. Also see Strategy 6.
25Brown and Altman 1983
"Cobb 1997
2-31
FICURE 2-8
This infill project was designed for a narrow development site on
a major bus corridor. It combines first floor retail with second
floor office or residential units.
Source: Studio EArchitects
2-32
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
In the Vancouver, Washington, suburb of Rosemere, citizens had
blocked construction of a 20-unit residential infill development. A
consultant hired by the city assessed the likes and fears of nearby
residents, using visual images rather than focusing on density.
Using input from residents, prospective buyers, and brokers, a
draft site plan was then prepared (Figure 2-9). The new plan was
accepted unanimously by the City Council even though it included
37 units rather than the original 20. (Contact: Tom Phillips of
Community Planning & Research, 101 Stewart St., Suite 200,
Seattle, WA 98101, (206)441-7579.)
FICURE 2-9I I I I ,. 1 I I I]\ I I I \ I \ __ .... -' .L ->_
-' - ~---~----~---~----'---- --1 . R. STREET
--- -q; :0 ~ ','" . "~OO{;}-,I " :' ~H ! !
,. ' ':~"> I,.J
I m di .... ·m
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~---~---T---,----,---~----r---,-,--~---'
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~ I
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~,
,
,
'-,
,
,
,
r-
,
,
,
L.
r'
,
,
,
A community-negotiated infill project in Rosemere, Washington,
features rear garages with alley access and front porches, several
facing a common play area.
Source: Community Planning & Research, Seattle
2·33
The Oty of Mountain View, in Silicon Valley, effectively recycled a
failed shopping mall by converting the site to compact infill
residential development known as The Crossings (Figure 2-10).
The new, 540-unit neighborhood, oriented to take advantage of
adjacent commuter rail; was designed by the firm of Calthorpe
Associates, authors of Transit Oriented Design Guidelines for the
Oty of San Diego and other cities (Strategy 6). Housing types
include small-lot single-family, townhouse, and apartments with an
average net density of 30 units per acre. A strong pedestrian
FICURE 2-10
The Crossings, a new 540-unit neighborhood with a strong
pedestrian and transit orientation, replaced a 1960's auto-
oriented shopping mall.
Source: Calthorpe Associates, Berkeley
2-34
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
orientation, parks, and selling prices at 80 percent of the city
average helped sell out the project quickly. (Contact: Joe Scanga,
Calthorpe Associates, 739 Allston Way, Berkeley, CA 94710,
(510)548-6800.)
Many California cities allow accessory dwelling units to be
developed on lots with existing units. These include the City of San
Diego and San Diego County.
Additional Resources
Building Livable Communities: A Policynwker's Guide to Infill
Development, Local Government Corrunission, 1414 K Street, Suite
250, Sacramento, CA 95814, (916)448-1198. Suggests a number of
methods, funding sources, and case examples for creating
successfui infilI projects.
Urban Affairs: Good News! Alexander von Hoffman, Atlantic
Monthly. January 1997. Discusses the success of non-profit housing
corporations in supplying high-quality affordable housing.
LAND USE: PUBLIC FACILITIES
Municipalities shape land use through two primary mechanisms: zoning
and providing infrastructure/services (or not). To create more efficient development
patterns, governments can expand infrastructure and development rights more
strategically. The policies and strategies in this section can reduce development
costs for cities, developers, and utility companies. They can also reduce the
burden on taxpayers to supply essential services to residents and businesses.
STRATEGY 11 Provide public facilities and subsidize development fees to attract
investment to older areas exhibiting high transit ridership.
Implementation Options
<:> Give priority to transit focus areas and higher density areas when
allocating funds for infrastructure improvements and public
services.
<:>Exarnine high density areas for infrastructure deficits and target
improvements to encourage revitalization of older areas.
<:>Locate public facilities in areas where infilI development is desired.
(See Strategy 10 for more discussion of infilI development.)
¢ Assume or share the cost of infrastructure improvements for
desired projects.
2-35
¢ Using community development grants or other funds, subsidize
development fees for infill projects and transit-oriented projects.
Alternatively, delay development fees until the developer sees a
positive cash flow.
¢ Make developers and real estate firms aware of buildable sites for
which development fees are subsidized or delayed.
Discussion
Among the tools municipalities have to influence development
form are (1) strategically investing in new infrastructure and (2)
subsidizing development fees to attract desired projects. These two
strategies can be interrelated since development fees ostensibly go
to pay for city services and infrastructure required by the new
development.
Many cities have located new facilities such as police stations, office
buildings, and high-quality public housing projects in areas
needing new development. Public art, sidewalk, curb and gutter,
median landscaping, and other improvements also help beautify an
area. These in turn attract additional private development.
Subsidizing development fees is a more direct development
incentive. Development fees are typically assessed to recover the
costs of providing infrastructure, utilities, fire protection, and other
services. However, these service costs can be quite low for
development in areas already well-served by municipal service
departments. A Florida study showed that providing infrastructure
to a new residential area cost $24,000 per unit at 12 units/acre close
to the urban core and $48,000 at 3 units/acre in a new suburb.v
Development fees should be adjusted to reflect such differences in
municipal expenses. However, to ensure the legality of differential
development fees, it is important to measure actual costs of
representative infrastructure projects and establish cost formulas
for providing most types of infrastructure and municipal services.
Programs in Operation
The California cities of Mountain View and Cathedral Oty have
each invested millions of dollars in new facilities, redirected. routine
street enhancement funds to a single district and acquired private
and federal grants to enhance their downtown areas. Private
development has followed suit. (Contact for either project: Bruce
Liedstrand, (415)428-1700.)
27Kassowski 1992
2-36
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
The cities of Sacramento and San Jose have adopted special infiIl
site regulations that provide more flexibility than standard city
zoning and offer incentives to attract Will development. One
Sacramento housing complex paid no city water development fees,
while a condominium project in downtown San Jose qualified for
reduced building and park impact fees. (Contacts: Patricia
Mendoza, Gty of Sacramento, (916)264-5381; Dennis Korabiak,
Redevelopment Agency of San Jose, (408)277-4744.)
See also Strategy 10.
¢Prepare comprehensive community plans
or specific plans designating community
amenities at sites that are accessible by
walking and bicycling.
<:>Adopt zoning overlays, specific plans, or
other regulatory devices (see Chapter 3) to
allow public amenities to be located in
more pedestrian-accessible sites.
<:> Coordinate with various local agencies, school districts, etc., to
arrange joint use of facilities.
Additional Resources
Building Livable Communities: A Policymaker's Guide to lnfill
Development, Local Government Commission, 1414 K Street,
Suite 250, Sacramento, CA 95814, (916)448-1198. Suggests a
number of methods, funding sources, and case examples for
creating successful infill projects.
~ Encourage subdivision designs that are integrated with existing or
pu.nned parks, libraries, schools, and other public facilities within
walking distance ofresidential uses.
Implementation Options
<:>Designate park sites during General Plan
updates and when processing large
General Plan amendments.
SANDAG Lutd Use Distribution
Element Policy '8:
"Public facility needs in transit
station areas, regional bus
corridors and major employment
centers should receive Q high
priority if the plans for these
areas rm:et the objectives of the
lJmd Use Distribution
Element. "
Discussion
Locating public amenities within walking distance of one or more
residential neighborhoods not only reduces automobile trips but
increases social ties within the community, reducing recreational
trips to destinations outside the community. An example is public
parks.
2-37
Public parks are often the primary pedestrian amenity for a
community or neighborhood. The foot traffic and socializing
created by parks can carry over to nearby public and commercial
uses. The design and location of the park is very important to its
usefulness as a pedestrian destination and activity center. Parks
should be visually and directly accessible from the neighborhood
and frequently used to encourage a feeling of ownership." Often,
access to neighborhood parks is limited by adjacent dwellings or
cul-de-sacs1 imposing a circuitous walking route.
Programs in Operation
Projects that follow pedestrian-oriented design principles include
public facilities as important neighborhood amenities, reducing
vehicle trips. (See Strategy 6.)
LAND USE: SITE DESIGNS
Most places in the region are designed to provide the most direct and
convenient access by car at the exclusion of other modes of transportation. It is
possible to design sites in ways that encourage less polluting transportation
modes and still support conveitient access by motor vehicle.
For the purposes of this document, the term site design applies to individual
subdivisions, multi-family developments, and commercial and industrial site
plans. It also includes landscape and architectural features of buildings.
~TRATEGY~ Encourage developers to design project sites increasing the
1 convenience, safety and comfort ofpeople using transit, walking or
bicycling.
Implementation Options
¢ Adopt "pedestrian accessibility" standards and/or guidelines as
part of the Zoning Ordinance, such as sidewalk widths, maximum
building set-back, one entrance facing the sidewalk, and pedestrian
accessibility between buildings within a multi-building complex.
¢ Encourage the development and revitalization of transit, bicycling,
and pedestrian friendly projecis through commonly used planning
documents described in Chapter 3.
~eissman 1992
2-38
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
Discussion
Design standards must be general enough to apply under all but
the most unusual circumstances to avoid the need for numerous
zoning variances and modifications. Some design measures like
sidewalk widths, bicycle lanes, and landscaping requirements are
very appropriate for design standards. Design measures dealing
with parking lot designs and building facades may be better left
as guidelines because of site-ta-site differences, but the Zoning
Ordinance should refer to these guidelines. Appropriate measures
should apply to institutional (i.e., schools, municipal buildings, etc.)
as well as private developments.
Programs in Operation
The City of San Diego's 1995 Draft Zoning Code Update refers to
the City's Transit-0riented Design Guidelines, Street Design
Manual, and other guidance documents to explain and illustrate
specified design features.
Specific plans and other planning tools are used routinely to antici-
pate and plan mitigation of development impacts fo, a new neigh-
borhood or subdivision. (See Chapter 3.) In the San Diego region,
such documents generally propose to widen streets as mitigation
for traffic impacts. An alternative is to arrange the proposed land
uses to encourage walking, bicycling and transit. This avoids the
capilal and maintenance costs of the additional infrastructure.
@TRATEGY~ Encourage all development projects proposed within 2,000 feet of
an existing or planned light rail transit, commuter rail, express bus,
or transit corridor stop to incorporate site design measures that
enhance access to the transit system.
Implementation Options
¢ Identify future transit stations during General Plan updates and
designate the surrounding area for pedestrian or transit-oriented
development.
c:> Set aside land areas as future growth nodes and designate some of
these as transit-oriented development areas.
¢ Identify all transit facilities on the Circulation Element Map, part of
the General Plan. Analyze existing land use patterns and
constraints around transit facilities to identify appropriate design
measures.
¢ Acquire right-of-way for transit lines through the project review
process.
2-39
Discussion
Transit's effectiveness in reducing vehicle trips and miles traveled
is dependent on the level of commitment to a transit-oriented
development strategy. A study conducted in the Portland, Oregon,
metropolitan area estimates that individual transit-oriented
developments will generate 21 percent fewer vehicle trips than
conventional single-family developments and commercial uses.29
TIlis result depends on a high level of commitment to both the
convenience of transit and the development of residential and
commercial uses near transit stations.
This strategy may be applied to existing or planned station areas.
For existing stations, pedestrian amenities can be added and
desired densities created as development or revitalization occurs
over time.
Programs in Operation
The City of Oceanside is conducting a public planning process
for a potential pedestrian-oriented mixed-use development in the
lO-block section of downtown adjacent to The Coaster Commuter
Rail right-<>f-way. TIlis process will also help plan six station areas
along the planned Oceanside-to-Escondido rail corridor. The city
received a Vehicle Registration Fund grant from the Air Pollution
Control Board to inventory land uses, determine appropriate
transit-oriented uses for each area, and amend the General Plan
and Zoning Ordinance as necessary. (Contact: Elizabeth Graff, Gty
of Oceanside Planning Department, 300 N. Coast Highway,
Oceanside, CA 92054, (760)966-4772.)
The Gty of Chula Vista's General Plan calls for redeveloping the
land around its two existing trolley stations for compact,
pedestrian-<>riented, and mixed-use. (Contact: Duane Bassel, Chula
Vista Planning Department, 276 Fourth Avenue, Chula Vista, CA
91910, (619)691-5005.)
Dozens of potential transit station areas have been identified
throughout the San Diego region (Figure 1-2). These are based on
both existing and planned transit services. The City of San Diego
has proposed making available an optional Transit Village Zone
which could be implemented in an identified transit station area or
elsewhere. (See Strategy 6.) The Transit Village Zone would
supersede underlying zoning.
"1000 Friends 1993
2-40
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
FIGURE 2-11
New regional rail stations should include a mix of uses on adjacent parcels.
Source: Studio E Architects
~TRATECY~ Re1Jiew all plans for subdivision streets and lots, commercial sites,
public facilities, and multi-family residences to identify design
changes to improve access by transit, bicycle, and walking.
Note: This strategy siwuld be applied only to especiJUly laW and signifiamt
projects as defined by the municipality.
Implementation Options
¢ Modify design review procedures to cover features that affect street
treatments, building access, and internal circulation by alternative
transportation modes.
¢ Develop design guidelines that illustrate preferred designs.
Discussion
By providing destinations where people feel comfortable walking,
where access to transit is convenient, and where bicycles can be
safely ridden and parked, the effectiveness of all other programs to
reduce trips and improve air quality will be much greater. The two
mechanisms to ensure such destinations are created are design
guidelines and a review process to ensure the guidelines are used.
One planner has written, "Difficult as it is to have a review mechanism
and no guidelines, it's worse to have guidelines and no review
mechanism."30 Other policies in this document advocate adoption
of design guidelines, while this strategy promotes review of
projects to ensure compliance with those guidelines. The strategy
focuses on especially large projects to identify features that can
enhance the use of alternative modes.
"'Zotti 1991
2-41
------~
• Varied and articulated
building facades to provide
visual interest to pedestrians.
• Street trees spaced no further
than 30 feet in planter strips or
tree wells. Tree species selected
to create a unified image for the
street and provide a tree canopy.
FIGURE 2-12
Just a few examples of design measures that could be recom-
mended during design review include:
• Intra-development designs that incorporate integrated street
patterns rather than the "pod" design, which limits ingress and
egress options to the development and funnels traffic to a
limited number of congested arterials.
• Primary ground floor
commercial building entrances
orienting to plazas, parks, or
pedestrian-oriented streets, not
to interior blocks or parking lots
(Figure 2-12).
• Use of trees and plantings in
travelway landscaping and
surrounding residences.
Commercial buildings oriented to the
street rather than to a parking lot
encourage pedestrian and transit travel.
Source: Bay A1ea Air Quality
Management District 1994
• Sidewalks providing an unobstructed path at least five feet
wide. Larger sidewalk dimensions, up to 10 feet, in core
commercial areas where pedestrian activity will be greatest.
Programs in Operation
A Community Plan amendment approved by the Gty of San Diego
for the Carroll Canyon area of Mira Mesa follows the Gty's Transit-
Oriented Design Guidelines. (See Strategy 6.) The planned street
network, pedestrian/bicycle facilities, and mix of uses (Figure 2-13)
is expected to reduce vehicle trips by 19 percent over a conventional
development scheme. (Contact: Bernard Turgeon, Gty of San
Diego Development Services Department, (619)235-5225.)
~ Ensure, wherever possible, new commercial developments include
convenient, comfortable, and safe pedestrian/bicycle connections to
adjacent properties.
2-42
The transit-oriented Carroll Canyon Community Plan will generate 19 percent fewer vehicle trips
than conventional development.
c;i
o;;;
0-
~
:;Jj
(1)
Co
c:
~.
"
""~
::l"C;.
CD
~
."
'";l
a
c:
~
~
"Co
C
~
"~
ciCi'
"
'"
_.
.
,f
'!'" I
/--11 t:" \\j-
~
".- .-
',1 _
,.•\:l."'~:ll:~.::e=.=~__ f'"";'__;£_._~ -~i~iii'~='
._,,,~, \21:;/- - /. ,,,-, .':-:::':' "~',-7"-"-"P' " ' E /,',;,," ' . .-
,---," ,. ' .,; ...., .__..S~'>··'':··'' '. .\ -:::.,..:0::;' ~'......:,.:......
~).~~'?:/ .. '
Source: City of San Die20 1994.
"
\
.;:J/ '.- ,'.. ,"
....:.... ", ,
~ ,:,)
. -. "", ' ....
'".l.
w
Implementation Options
¢ Modify the Zoning Ordinance to require pedestrian/bicycle
connections and illustrate building configurations that
accommodate easy pedestrian access from adjacent properties and
transit stops.
¢ Emphasize entrances that front the street while providing
automobile parking on the side or rear and bicycle parking in front.
¢ Encourage barrier-protected walkways through large parking lots,
where feasible.
Discussion
In commercial #strip" developments, walking between adjacent
commercial properties is often difficult and frequently dangerous.
Sometimes, patrons must drive more than half a mile to reach a
store that is well within walking distance. Planning pedestrian
connections along an entire commercial street or within a shopping
district, rather than project by project, can ensure that each new
project begins to reverse the inaccessibility between adjacent
commercial properties. Shared parking agreements may need to be
negotiated so that shoppers can leave their cars in one store's
parking lot while shopping at a neighboring store.
Programs in Operation
Rio Vista West is a residential/commercial development located in
San Diego's Mission Valley, adjacent to a planned trolley stop. The
commercial portion includes a wide, barrier-protected, landscaped
sidewalk running through the parking lot and connecting two
anchor stores.
2-44
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES
The strategies in this section provide ways to plan for the transportation
needs of the community that can provide alternatives to automobile travel,
improving air quality.
Principles for Planning Transportation Systems for Improved Air Quality
¢ Plan and construct an innovative, multi-modal transportation
system to meet mobility needs and improve air quality.
¢ Plan for future transit connections to new developments not
currently envisioned for transit.
¢ Design new communities with bicyclists and pedestrians in mind.
.¢ Acquire appropriate rights-of-way for future light rail or other fixed
guideway systems.
¢ Support further improvements to intercity and commuter rail
service in the county.
Note: The type of transportation system is dependent on tlw size of the community. The
above principles are directed at communities currently or projected to be ofadequate size
to support tlwse systems.
TRANSPORTATION: MULTI-MODAL SYSTEM
The transportation infrastructure developed in San Diego County supports the
automobile at the expense of other modes of transportation. Placing new emphasis
on transit, bicycling, and pedestrian infrastructure is vital to relieve pressure
from the traditional roadway systems and improve air quality. (The region's
existing transit systems serve only about four percent of rush hour work trips.")
The keys to more efficient planning are appropriately arranged land use,
discussed previously, and planning transit systems for the eventual build-out
within the county. The alternative is to continue to address congestion mostly
through incremental roadway widening. Cities and states further along in the
growth process than the San Diego region are realizing that, in the long run, this
is not an effective or affordable strategy.
3lSan Diego Association of Governments 1994
2-45
~ Plan fOT a multi-modal transportation system that meets theTRATECY17 b·l· d" h .ty d· . l·tyrna , tty nee 5 0/ t e communi an tmproves arT qua t .
Note: For purposes of this document, the term "multimodol" includes
transit, pedestrian, bicycle and automobile modes.
Implementation Options
¢ IdenliIy obstacles to "mode-switching," e.g., walking to transit,
bicycling to a carpool parking area, or shuttle bus to commuter rail.
¢ Ensure that updates to the Circulation Element of the General Plan
and the design of regional transportation improvement projects
support a multi-modal system.
¢ Work with the appropriate transportation providers to develop a
complete range of innovative and cost-effective options. Some
options to consider are:
• Jitney services using smaller, efficient vehicles to serve low-
density areas Oitneys can run on fixed or flexible routes and
can use vehicles similar to airport shuttles or smaller).
• Improved and less costly taxi service to reduce drop off trips.
• High Occupancy Vehicle (HOY) lanes or bus-only lanes and
transitways.
• Congestion pricing measures such as toll roads with electronic
toll.collection and billing with rate structures favoring
multiple-occupant vehicles
• Providing incentives for the use of alternative fueled vehicles
(AFV), such as electric vehicle fueling stations at park and ride
lots.
Discussion
With federal transportation planning mandates and state
congestion management requirements, transportation plans must
support alternatives to the single occupant automobile. In
addition, most jurisdictions are unable to identify funding sources
to address all projected road and highway capacity needs. This
means that local jurisdictions must idenliIy ways of using existing
roadways more efficiently and reducing travel demand in order to
avoid gridlock and degraded air quality. Strategy 17 is an overall
commitment to developing an efficient transportation system,
rather than one which is responsive solely to automobiles. The
economic vitality and future air quality of the region will be
determined, in part, by current transportation planning efforts.
2-46
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Transit systems must be improved to provide shorter waits,
competitive trip speeds.. and better network coverage. Some
transportation experts suggest that, in low-density areas, the most
effective forms of transit are those most closely resembling the
convenience and size of the private automobile. Envisioned future
services could combine advances in both vehicles and
telecommunications to match riders with private drivers or shuttle
services through a computer and phone system One author
suggests such a service should be made available on a real-time
basis by dialing 711 to offer or obtain a ride." Congestion and air
pollution could be noticeably reduced if even 10 percent of
travelers from low-density areas used such services.
"Multimodal" can also include alternative fuel vehicles (AFV).
Many strategies promoting cleaner transportation fuels are
intertwined with transit services, vanpools, etc. AFV's have the
potential to significantly reduce air pollution from the mobile
source sector. San Diego Gas and Electric estimates that 107
compressed natural gas (CNG) transit and 55 CNG school buses
result in annual emission reductions of 80 tons of nitrogen oxides,
25 tons of non-methane hydrocarbons, and 560 tons of carbon
monoxide.
Programs in Operation
In the San Diego region, more than 50 entities participate in the
San Diego Regional Alternative Fuel Vehicle Coalition that as one
project, obtained federal designation of San Diego as a aean Cities
region. This designation makes the region eligible for competitive
federal and state funding for AFV incentives. Among other
projects, the coalition is also helping to site AFV fueling stations.
(Contact: Kim Cresencia, San Diego Gas and Electric, 8306 Center
Park Court, Suite 4200C, San Diego, CA 92123, (619)654-1107.)
~ Pursue and use local, state andfederal funds eannarkedforTRATECY 18 d trio bi I d ~ ·t . tpe es an, eye e an l-,anSJ lmprovemen s.
Implementation Options
¢ Ensure that Regional Transportation Improvement Plans include
cost-effective, alternative transportation mode projects best suited
to the community.
"Webber 1994
247
Discussion
Because of matching fund requirements for many state and federal
transportation funding programs, some jurisdictions do not pursue
these sources. The tendency so far has been for jurisdictions to
spend funds on roadway improvements such as signalization and
capacity expansion. In the long term, many of these projects may
actually increase vehicle travel, increasing air pollution.33 Without
a change in funding priorities to support alternative modes of
transportation, significant changes in mode shares are unlikely.
Municipalities should work with neighborhoods, merchants
associations, and transit providers to identify cost-effective projects
that would increase walking, bicycling, and transit use in the
community.
Programs in Operation
Each year, SANDAG coordinates the distribution of federal, state,
and regional transportation funds. Funding awards are based
primarily on the projects requested by local governments, who in
turn are responding to citizens, developers, and business owners.
Otizens interested in advocating the funding of pedestrian, bicycle,
and transit projects should contact their local Department of Public
Works or SANDAG. (Contact: George Franck, SANDAG, 401 B
Street, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)595-5378.)
~ Encourage transit, pedestrian and bicycle travel in existing
suburban neighbarhoods by constructing additional pathways
where appropriate.
Implementation Options
¢ Consult cornmunity groups and survey existing neighborhoods,
particularly those with winding and cul-de-sac street designs, for
cost-effective opportunities to improve pedestrian/bicycle
circulation by connecting nearby areas separated by barriers.
¢ Include these smaller scale pedestrian/bicycle improvements as
part of the Regional Transportation Plan and Regional Transportation
Improvement Program.
Discussion
Traditional transit services in low-density areas are generally
ineffective, not only because of low population densities, but also
because pedestrian routes to transit stops have been made difficult
33Conservation Law Foundation 1995
2-48
(
,
i
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
FICURE 2-14
Conventional suburban-;;-eighborhoods can sometimes
be "retrofitted'" to allow greater pedestrian circulation -
and therefore better access to transit
Source: San Bernardino County 1996
by the street layout.
These areas can some-
times be "retrofitted"
with new pedestrian/
bIcycle connections by
providing a break in a
sound wall, or by
constructing a sidewalk,
stairway, or footbridge
between adjacent but
unconnected streets
(Figure 2-14). 10 some
cases, it is necessary to
obtain easements from
property owners.
Programs in Operation
The City of Solana Beach is currently constructing a 1.8 mile multi-
use pathway within a linear park adjacent to the coastal rail right-
of-way (Figure 2-15). The pathway will reduce auto travel by
providing residents and visitors with direct bicycle and pedestrian
access to the North County Transit District's Regional Transit Center,
a hub for Amtrak, The Coaster (commuter rail), and numerous bus
routes. Additionally, the path will connect to local commercial
areas, eight bus stops, and six regional beach parks. (Contact: Andrew
O'leary, Solana Beach Planning Department, (619)755-2998.)
FICURE 2-15
-
_..
The Solana Beach Multi-use Pathway will tie pedestrian, bike,
and transit facilities to residential, retail, and recreational uses.
2-49
Many of the Bay Area Rapid Transit System (BART) stations are
cormected to a bus system and provide bicycle and pedestrian
amenities. The suburban cities of Walnut Creek and Pleasant Hill
have prepared a specific plan focusing development in a 125-acre
area around the Pleasaht Hill BART station. Residents of apart-
ments in the plan area use BART for as many as 40 percent of
their commute tripS.34
The City of Long Beach recently built a "commuter bicycle station"
in a transit mall. The station features on-duty security guards and
supporting facilities for bicyclists, valet parking, bike rentals, and a
coffee bar. Construction of the facility was funded by the federal
Department of Transportation, the Metropolitan Transportation
Authority, the City of Long Beach, and the Long Beach Redevelop-
ment Agency. (Contact: Tun Lee, City of Long Beach Planning
Department, (310) 570-6173, or Georgia Case, Bikestation, 105
Promenade North, Long Beach, CA 90802.)
Resources
The San Diego Metropolitan Transit Development Board (MTDB)
has produced a manual and accompanying videotape illustrating,
in part, the need and methods for "retrofitting" low-density suburbs
to support pedestrian and transit travel. The manual is entitled
Designing for Transit. The videotape is called Cities in the Balance:
Creating the Transit Friendly Environment. (Contact MTDB, 1255
Imperial Avenue, Suite 1000, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)241-1466.)
Also see Strategy 6.
~Work with transit providers to plan for multi-modal transfer sites
that incorporate bicycle paths, bicycle parking, transit, pedestrian
access, and Park and Ride lots.
Implementation Options
¢ Identify locations where transportation systems converge and
designate these areas as potential multi-modal transfer sites.
¢ If cost-effective, apply for funding to construct a multi-modal
transfer station. Sources for funding include ISTEA funds, transit
funds, and the Air Pollution Control District's Vehicle Registration
Fund Program.
34Weissman 1992
2-50
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
¢ Work with Caltrans, transit providers, and the Public Works
Department to identify suitable sites for Park and Ride lots.
Designate sites on the General Plan Land Use and Circulation
Elements.
¢ Zone Park and Ride lots to allow small commercial uses such as
charitable donation centers, food service facilities, and convenience
stores. Experience shows this increases activity at the Park and
Ride lots, creating"watchful eyes" to protect patrons and their cars.
-=:> Coordinate with owners of shopping centers, movie theater
complexes, special event facilities, and churches to designate
underutilized portions of commercial parking lots for weekday
Park and Ride purposes.
¢ Consider funding of Park and Ride lots as an offset for
conventional mitigation during CEQA review of land use projects.
¢ Coordinate with appropriate transportation agencies and major
employers to establish express buses and vanpools to increase the
patronage of Park and Ride lots.
Discussion
Providing multi-modal transfer sites increases transit's convenience
and eliminates the heavily polluting short trips when people are
able to walk or bicycle to the transit stop instead of driving. Re-
duced congestion is another benefit. One of the best transit systems
in North America, located in the City of Toronto, carries 31 percent
of travelers during commute hours.35 On the other hand, transit in
San Diego County attracts 4 percent of travelers during the peak
commute hour.36 Transfer sites are only one of many factors influ-
encing transit ridership, but can be a critical link.
Park and Ride facilities support transit and car/vanpooling but
generally do not eJirnJnate vehicle trips. Trips to the Park and Ride
lot from home and back generate substantial "cold start" emissions
(Chapter 1). Consequently, only relatively long shared-ride trips
appreciably reduce emissions. Thus, the maximum benefits from
this strategy are achieved by targeting long distance commuters.
Security-related problems are a major deterrent to Park and Ride
facility usage. The presence of on-site businesses has helped reduce
crime and increase patronage at the few Park and Ride sites on
which joint uses are permitted.
35Kenworthy 1991
~ Diego Association of Governments 1994
2-51
Programs in Operation
In 1996, there were 61 Park and Ride lots providing 3,440 spaces for
Park and Ride usage within San Diego County. Thirty-five of these
lots are located within Caltrans right-of-way. The remainder are
operated under long-term leases or month-to-month agreements on
city, county, or private property. Caltrans data indicate parking
utilization is 36 percent, and the predominate trip purpose is work-
related. (Contact: State of California Department of Transportation
District 11, Transportation Demand Management Branch, P.O. Box
85406, San Diego, CA 92186-5406.)
Callrans completed a San Diego Regional Park and Ride Study
in 1994 to coordinate current Park and Ride planning efforts into
one concerted effort. This study quantified existing and future
demand for Park and Ride facilities and identified and evaluated
appropriate candidate sites for future Park and Ride lot locations.
By the year 2015, projected demand could support up to 36 additional
Park and Ride facilities in the San Diego region.
Vandalism and theft of motor vehicles and bicycles left in Park and
Ride lots and concerns about personal safety have contributed to a
gradual but steady decline in patronage at many Park and Ride
facilities in the San Diego region. To address this concern, Caltrans
has implemented an "On-site Provider Program" to site
commercial activities at Park and Ride sites where joint uses are
permitted. A food service facility at the Interstate IS/State Route 76
lot and manned storage units installed by Goodwill Industries at
three sites have resulted in improved site conditions without the
loss of parking space.
To utilize sites not within its jurisdiction, Caltrans employs a
standard shared-use agreement. The agreement eliminates a
property owners' potential liability for Park and Ride activity and
provides for potential improvement and periodic maintenance of
the parking area.
TRANSPORTATION: TRANSIT
~TRATECY$> Coordinate with neighboring jurisdictions and. transit providers to
plan land uses supporting existing transIt servIces and to deSIgnate
future transit corridors.
2-52
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Implementation Options
¢ Work with transit providers to develop long-range transit plans
based on land use plans supportive of future transit service.
¢ Work with the regional transit agency to route new or existing
services on streets with the greatest land use densities.
¢ Consult neighboring jurisdictions during General Plan updates.
Discussion
SANDAG Land Use Disbibution
Element Policy .9:
Development that is sufficiently intensive to support frequent
transit service should be strongly considered, particularly in transit
corridors. Conversely, land planners should plan future land uses
with transit in mind. Transit providers should
be consulted early when new land use plans
are being considered.
As available residential land becomes more
scarce (Chapter 1), the market for higher
density housing will increase. Apartments,
condominiums, and small-lot detached houses
may be coupled with frequent transit service
(10 minutes or less between departures). Local
transportation departments should be working
with their planning department and transit
agencies to plan future transit corridors.
•A higher priorityfor the
implementation ofa high level of
transit service slwuld be given to
corridors where land use plans
support transit
services."
Resources
Planning and Design for Transit Handbook, 1995, contains design
guidelines and model zoning language addressing parking loti
parking structure design. Available for $10 from TriCounty
Metropolitan Transportation District of Oregon (Tri-Met), Transit
Development Department, Technical Services Division, 710 N.E.
Holladay Street, Portland, OR 97232, (503)239-6711.
Planning and Design fur Transit Handbook, January 1996. Also
available for $10 from Tri-Met. Provides more specific guidance for
land use and transportation plans, site designs, and transit facility
designs.
Limd Use, Transportation, and Air QlUIlity: A Manual for Planning
Practitioners, San Bernardino Air Quality Plan, 1993. Contains
specific design suggestions for encouraging alternative modes.
County of San Bernardino and The Planning Center. $50.
Available from The Planning Center, 1300 Dove Street, Suite 100,
Newport Beach, CA 92660.
2-53
••• +- Acid walkways here~••Future Bus 51
~TRATECY~ Specify site design and roadway features to enhance pedestrian and
bicycle access to transit in existing service corridors and those
designated for future transit service.
Implementation Options
¢ Prepare development guidelines specifying transit access features
for building sites in designated transit corridors.
¢ Identify transit improvement needs during CEQA review of new
development projects, and encourage dedication of sites and
improvements as offsets for CEQA mitigation.
¢ Revise street and road design standards to include appropriate
designs for pedestrian/bicycle access and passenger loading areas.
This should not be
FIGURE 2-16 interpreted to mean wider
streets. A narrow street
with no bike lanes is safer
than an 80 foot street width
which includes a bike lane.
¢ Include exclusive bus lanes
and signal prioritization
favoring transit vehicles
wherever appropriate to
improve pedestrian access
to transit.
Pedestrian routes to transit stops should
be marked by special paving, street trees,
and wider sidewalks.
Source: Metropolitan Transit Development Board 1993
¢ When building or rebuilding
streets and sidewalks,
include attractive and clear
pedestrian/bicycle routes to
transit stops (Figure 2-16).
Discussion
Transit improvements should be considered the same as other
roadway improvements such as curbs, gutters, and sidewalks now
provided by developers. In light of the multi-modal emphasis of
all new transportation plans, transit improvements should be
viewed by public works departments as an extension of roadway
improvements and by developers as an integral part of site
planning.
Typically, low-density residential development is not built with
transit access in mind. However, once a new neighborhood is
occupied, the residents may complain of lack of access to transit
2-54
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
services. Besides commuters, children, the elderly, and domestic
employees may benefit from transit.3?' New developments should
be designed to include pedestrian routes to existing or potential
future transit stops (Figure 2-17). To be certain this occurs, cities
should promulgate legal requirements or flexible but specific
guidelines for the design details they desire. Additional development
costs should be offset by allowing higher density, since this will
make travel by transit more viable for the transit provider.
FIGURE 2-17
CCJ CCJ CCJ CCJ
Wider sidewalk
this side of street
er
sidewalks
'!PProaching
Station
'-i-'t-Enhanced
paving on
crosswalk
New developments should be designed to include pedestrian
routes to existing or potential future transit stops.
Source: Metropolitan Transit Development Board 1993
lhis strategy provides a mechanism for municipalities to reserve
the road right-of-way and land needed to construct transit facilities
and pedestrian/bicycle routes to transit stops, assuming this is
determined to be a cost-€ffective strategy. By planning in advance
for transit stops and pedestrian routes to reach them, surrounding
development can be designed to benefit from proximity to transit
instead of being negatively impacted by the location of the facilities
(Figure 2-18).
Resources
Designingfvr Transit, MrDB (Contact: MrDB, (619)241-1466.)
See Strategy 14.
"North County Transit District 1996
2-55
FIGURE 2-18
In higher density areas, streets should be designed
to accommodate transit.
Source: San Diego Association of Governments 1995
~TRATECY~ Participate with regional transit agencies to identify potential
light rail or commuter rail corridors and take action to protect the
right-oj-way from incompatible development.
Implementation Options
<> During updates of all General and Community Plans, evaluate the
need to protect right-of-way for potential or planned transit
corridors.
Discussion
It is far easier to locate a rail line if rights-of-way have been
secured, and compatible land uses have been planned along the
corridor, than to attempt to add a line through existing streets and
neighborhoods. Some street rights-of-way remain undeveloped
and could serve as future rail rights-of-way. Cities should work
with transit agencies to determine the potential of these rights-of-
way for future transit development, such as light rail. Identified
corridors should then be incorporated in the General Plan or other
planning documents.
2-56
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
TRANSPORTATION: BICYCLINC FACILITIES
Jurisdictions in the San Diego region have made a strong commitment to
bicycling. Most of the region's General Plans call for a comprehensive system of
bikeways to provide an alternative to automobile travel, not just as a form of
recreation. Policies suggested in this section address remaining areas of need in
completing such systems in a way that cost-effectively replaces vehicles trips
with bicycling trips.
~TRATECY~ Identify and correct gaps and obstacles in current and planned
bzcycltng routes.
Implementation Options
¢ Conduct a survey of local bicycle commuters to identify gaps and
obstacles in the local and regional bicycling network.
¢ Where possible, provide separate bike paths in areas with high
potential for non-recreational use, but where motor vehicle speed
or volume make on-street bike lanes unsafe or unpleasant to use.
e::> Provide clear instructions for bicyclists at intersections, lane merges,
freeway transitions to surface streets and other problem areas.
e::> Use lower speed limits on roads cyclists will share with motorists.
¢ Provide automatic traffic signal actuators imbedded in the roadway
or provide manual signal actuators where cyclists may reach them
without leaving the roadway.
¢ Where strong potential exists to shift trips from car to bicycling
trips, provide convenient bicycle and pedestrian bridge crossings
for freeways and waterways.
¢ Educate bicyclists and motorists on the rights and responsibilities
of bicyclists and enforce traffic control laws applied to both.
Discussion
Bicycling is the most efficient fonn of transportation ever devised.
The amount of energy consumed per mile is less than any fann of
locomotion including walking. The congestion and air quality benefits
of bicycling are obvious_ The bicycle is a zero-emission vehicle.
Although many communities have systems of bikeways and bike
lanes, their current use is limited. Bicycling accounts for
approximately 2.5 percent of all trips and one percent of work trips
in San Diego County." The most important factors limiting greater
==...,--__ use are lack of continuity and safety considerations.
381990 Census
2-57
Bicycle routes in the San Diego region are often not continuous. Many
routes have unsafe bottlenecks at intersections to accommodate left
and right turn lanes. Some routes narrow to one foot in places or
periodically disappear and reappear. Many traffic signals cannot
be actuated by bicyclists without leaving the roadway to press the
pedestrian crossing actuator. All but the most experienced
bicyclists are discouraged by these conditions. Nevertheless, it
generally follows that the more bikelane miles provided, the more
non-recreational bicycling occurs (Figure 2-19).
The countywide emission reduction potential for just a one percent
increase in bicycling mode share for all trips is roughly one ton per
day each of ROG and NOx. This calculation is based on the 1996
Mobile Source Emissions Budget for ROG and NOx for the San
Diego region. The calculation assumes that a one percent shift from
vehicle mode share to bicycle mode share corresponds to a one percent
decrease in on-road mobile emissions.
5
10
15
~ Miles Bike Lane/Miles Arterial
1 % Bicycle Commute
0
'" ~ Q) c: 0 ~ "'C c: X ~ Q) -':J!. Q) '" c: 0 0 '"'S: c: 0 OIl Q) c: 0 'c .~ ~ ~ 0 "'C OIl ctl::E 0 ctlctl 'S: Q)
'" .~ ctl .:!1 Q) Q) >- "'C
0 ~ c: ctl0
'"
OIl '-' ::s t:: 0 ctl c.. ctl '-' ctl::s 0 "'C Q) ~ ctl c: 0Q) ::s 0 ctl ~ ctl :: Q) ~ ~c: L.U f- cc 0 c.. 0:' en "'C Q) ~ 0c: c.. 2 Q) c:
'"
Q
ctl ctl Z ::s c: ~0 en ctl....J 2
....
u..
FIGURE 2-19
Ratio of Bike Lane to Arterial Miles vs. Percent Bicycle Commuting
1 25
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
. 0
The provision of bicycle lanes correlates well with the level of bicycle commuting.
Source: Federal Highway Administration 1992a
2-58
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Programs in Operation
Regional bicycle facilities planning in San Diego County is guided
by SANDAG's Bicycle Facilities Committee. Sixteen of the 19
jurisdictions in the county have a Bicycling Masterplan. Currently,
847 miles of linear facilities are available for riding.39 In some
areas, secure bicycle parking, showers and locker rooms and bus
mounted carriers are available. The objective of the bicycle program is
to increase daily bicycle trips from approximately 250,000 currently
to 600,000 trips in the year 2015. That will increase the bicycle
mode share from its current 2.5 percent to 3.5 percent in the year
2015. An extensive educational and promotional program is also
underway. (Contact: Dennis Thompson, SANDAG, 401 B Street,
San Diego, CA 92101, (619)595-5325.)
The current seven year Bikeway Program includes construction of
an additional 1,013 miles. One of those projects is the Rail Trail, a
21-miIe bicycle path paralleling the proposed rail line between
Oceanside and Escondido. (Contact: North County Transit District,
(619)%7-2828.)
The Gty of Solana Beach is constructing a multi-purpose trail
connecting several modes of transportation and land use origins
and destinations (see Strategy 20). This is an example of how one
city can encourage alternative means of transportation while
enhancing its own desirability and vitality. (Contact: Andrew
O'Leary, Gty of Solana Beach, 63S S. Highway 101, Solana Beach,
CA 92075, (619)755-2998, ext. 140.)
Davis, California, is the most bicycle-oriented city in the state.
Twenty-five percent of Davis residents commute to work by
bicycle"and 10 percent of all trips are by bicycle." The city fully
integrates bicycles into the transportation system. The city offers
an extensive system of bike lanes and bicycle parking facilities, and
slow speed limits on most city streets.
Resources
Designating Bicycle Routes: A Handbook; $15 from the Bicycle
Federation of America, 1818 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009.
Guide to the Development ofBicycle Facilities, 1991; $11 from AASHfO,
444 N. Capitol Street NW, Suite 225, Washington, DC 20001.
39San Diego Association of Governments
"'Williams 1993
41American Society of Ovil Engineers 1992
2-59
National Bicycling and Walking Study, Federal Highway Administration,
available from The National Bicycle and Pedestrian Clearinghouse,
1506 21st Street, NW, Suite 210, Washington, DC 20036,
(800)760-NBPC or (202)463-8405. E-mail: nbpc@access.digex.net.
Includes 24 extensive studies, standards, and methods for constructing
bicycling and pedestrian infrastructure and projecting their use.
Bicycle Transportation: A Handbook for Cycling Transportation
Engineers, 1994, John Forester, MIT Press.
~TRATEGY~ Encourage the extension ofcommuter bikeways to serve new
development.
Implementation Options
¢ Apply for targeted state and federal funds to expand the bicycle
system to new areas if potential use is high.
Discussion
While most neighborhood streets are safe for bicycling, connections
are often lacking between neighborhoods or between residential
and commercial areas. This strategy provides a commitment to
extend bikeways to serve new development. In the process, these
inter-neighborhood connections can be made. Adoption of this
strategy should be followed up by developing funding sources.
Programs in Operation
Like most cities in the region, the City of San Diego maintains and
updates a Master Bikeway Plan. The city reviews development
proposals and specific community plans to make sure required
bicycle facilities are provided. (Contact: Bicycle Coordinator,
Engineering and Development Department, City of San Diego, 1222
First Avenue, M.s. 503, San Diego, CA 92101.)
~TRATECY~ ~nsure th~t upgrades to exis~ng.roads (widening, curb and gutt.er, etc.)
tnclude btcycle and pedestrian tmprovements where appropnate.
Implementation Options
¢ Survey bicycle use in the community to ensure that key bicycle
routes are identified and protected during road upgrades.
¢ Compare Public Works jRoads Department's improvement plans
with bikeway plans and ensure they match.
2-60
•
•
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Discussion
Roads that are good bicycle routes are frequently made unusable
when the road is widened, lanes repainted, or when intersections
are modified. This strategy encourages cities and the county to
design roadway improvements that include bicycle use. 'This is where
adequate long range transportation pla.nnmg is critical. Roadways
should be planned to their ultimate width from the start. Retrofitting
to add bicycle lanes sometimes results in less than ideal driving
conditions and less safe bicycling. Since bicycling benefits the whole
community by reducing traffic, bike lanes should be publicly funded.
~ Encourage new major activity centers, office, and commercial
development to provide secure bicycle storage and bicycle parking
facilities.
Note: Consider the type ofuse when establishing bicycle parking standards.
Some uses have limited potential for bicycle use and should have lower
bicycle parking requirements (Table 2-1).
TABLE 2-1
Comparison of Bicycle Parking Ordinances
City Mulit-Family Hotel/Motel Schools Commercial Manufacturing Recreation ExemptionsResidences
Agriculture,
Pet Services,
Auto Services,
Austin, Campgrouds,
TX None 1% 5% 5% s% 5% Airports,
Equipment
Sales & Service,
Funeral,
Cemetery
Eugene, Drive-in Theatres,
OR 1-2 per unit 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% Horticulture,
Mining
K-8: Warehouse &
1 per 3 Distribution,
Palo Alto, students, Mortuaries,
CA 1 per unit 10% 9-12: 10% 10% 30% Auto Services,
1 per 2 Day Care,
students Drive-up
Windows
High density K·12:Portland,
only; 5% lperlO 5% 5% 5% Cemeteries,OR 1 per 5 units min: 5 students, min: 3-5 min: 2-5 min:10 Billboards
college:10%
All percentlJges refer to percentlJges of lJuto plJrkmg.
Source: Federal Highway Administration 1992b
2-61
Implementation Options
c:> Encourage inclusion of bicycle storage facilities in new
development.
c:> On-site improvements that can increase bicycle use include:
• Providing bike racks or enclosed and locked bicycle storage at
major activity centers and office/commercial establishments.
• Providing employee showers, lockers, and dressing areas at
employment sites.
• Offering a guaranteed ride home to regular bicycle commuters.
c:> Consider reducing motor vehicle parking standards to
acknowledge development with good multi-modal access and
facilities, including bicycle facilities.
Discussion
Providing adequate, secure bicycle parking and bicycle commuting
amenities such as showers eliminates more obstacles to bicycle use.
Programs in Operation
Dozens of cities have bicycle parking requirements. Some of these
are described in Table 2-1.
~TRATECY~ Consider unused portions of rights-of-way for use as bikeways
and pedestrian paths.
Implementation Options
c:> Evaluate the potential for bikeway development alongside active
rail lines.
c:> Identify potential paths during General Plan updates.
SANDAG Land Use Dishibution
Element Policy #1:
"Transportation facilities
should be designed to meet the
needs ofpedestrians and bicycle
riders as well as automobile
drivers."
Discussion
Under some conditions, separate bikeways are
preferable to sharing the road with motor
vehicles. This strategy encourages the use of
rail rights-of-way to provide a low-cost place
to construct separate bikeways. The right-of-
way should connect with commuter
destinations or other segments of the
comprehensive bikeway system.
2-62
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Programs in Operation
Bicycle paths are planned alongside both the Oceanside to
Escondido rail line and the Coaster rail line running from
Oceanside to Downtown San Diego. (See Strategy 24.)
Resources
Converting Rmls to Trails: A Citizen's Manual for Transforming
Abandoned Rail Corridors into Multipurpose Public Paths; $19.95 from
Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 1400 16th Street NW, Washington, DC
20036.
TRANSPORTATION: PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
Historically, transportation planners have not accommodated pedestrian
trips, even though we all make them every day. Policies in this section are
intended to provide accessible pedestrian facilities for all residents and visitors,
including the mobility-impaired.
~TRATECY~ Provide pedestrian facilities and amenities in new and existing
areas of development.
Implementation Options
¢ Offer density bonuses, reduced parking requirements, or other
incentives to developers installing more than the minimum
required facilities and amenities in new mixed-use areas.
e:> Examine and correct roadway construction standards and other
ordinances for unintended bias against walking and bicycling.
¢ Create design guidelines and standards for pedestrian facilities
(sidewalks, crosswalks, etc.) and amenities (landscaping, lighting,
trash receptacles, benches, etc.).
¢ Seek the cooperation of existing property owners to improve
pedestrian facilities and amenities in developed areas. For
example:
• Develop detailed planning for areas needing special
coordination such as a downtownl older shopping area,
transit station, shopping mall, or office park.
• Examine pedestrian accident records to identify areas
needing safety improvements.
• Install amenities and close gaps in sidewalk links.
2-63
• Construct sidewalk flares
or "bulbs" that reduce
crossing distance at
intersections (Figure 2-20).
• Install crossing signals at
traffic lights lacking them.
• Plant trees next to
sidewalks to provide
shade and a sense of
protection to pedestrians.
8
-----:;:..1 c:Jd c:J
..
[l]rn
Sidewalk flares can cut crossing distance in half
and slow traffic, increasing safety.
Source: California Energy Commission 1993
Discussion
PrOViding or rehabilitating pedestrian facilities and amenities is one
of the best ways to reduce cold start emissions. Vehicle emissions
in the first mile of travel are typically around six times higher than
those from a warmed engine. The California Energy Commission
estimates that regional emissions can be reduced one percent if
20 percent of vehicle trips below half a mile were converted to
walking tripS.42
Oosing gaps in the pedestrian network can suddenly increase
pedestrian and bicycle travel where none existed before and can
revitalize older neighborhood commercial areas. The cost of installing
pedestrian facilities and amenities in existing areas varies by location.
Large parking lots, wide streets, berms, fences, dead-end sidewalks,
landscaping, and other features routinely prohibit access to
adjacent uses by any mode other than automobile. A careful
42California Energy Commission 1993
2-64
-Community Plarming Division, Maryland-National Capital Park
and Plarming Commission, 8787 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, MD
20910-3760, (301)495-4555.)
The City of Toronto's StTeetseape Manual specifies amenities and
treatments (paving, lighting, etc.) for difierent kinds of streets.
Special emphasis is placed on making pedestrians feel safe and
comfortable on most streets. (Contact: Amy Falkner, Toronto
Plarming and Development Department, (416)392-1138.)
Additional Resources
Planning-and Implementing Pedestrian Facilities in Suburban and
Developing Rural Areas, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program Reporl294A and 294B, S.ASmith, et al, 1987. The
standard reference in the field of pedestrian facility design.
Available from Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, 2101 Constitution Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418,
(202)334-3214.
National Bicycling and Walking Study, Case Study 24: Current Planning
Guidelines and Design Standards Being Used By State and Local
Agencies for Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities, Federal Highway
Administration, Publication No. FHWA-PD-93-006, 1992. One of
24 case studies comprising the extensive National Bicycling and
Walking Study. (See Strategy 24.)
Revise street design standards to deter speeding and encourage
pedestrian and bicycle access.
Implementation Options
¢ Reduce street widths in existing commercial and residential areas
by enlarging sidewalks and planting strips, providing bike lanes,
and/or allowing on-street parking if none exists.
e:> Reduce standards for curb radii to decrease the crossing distance
for pedestrians at comers (Figure 2-22). Consult transit providers
to determine necessary radii for transit vehicle turns.
¢ Amend the Zoning Ordinance to permit narrower streets in
residential areas of low-to-medium density.
¢ Define streets according to residential, neighborhood commercial,
retail commerciaL and other uses. Regulations, design speeds, and the
amount of traffic intended for the street can better reflect its purpose.
2-66
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
examination of city ordinances can identify whether this
unintended bias exists. Attention to potential barriers during
development approvals can decrease future vehicle trips. This is
particularly true of land uses located in strip development corridors.
Additional pedestrian amenities increase development costs.
However, the increased mobility can also be a significant selling
point. A survey of almost 4,000 people in five urban and suburban
areas found 20 percent of respondents now driving to work would
walk if provided adequate facilities.43
A study of American walking behavior found that a pleasant and
interesting pedestrian environment can double the distance people
are willing to walk.44 A study of neighborhoods near transit stations
in the Bay Area found that 12 percent walked to supermarkets in
pedestrian-oriented areas.45 Presumably, services not requiring
carrying of purchases would attract an even higher proportion of
walkers in these areas.
Programs in Operation
In 1991, the County of San Diego's Department of Planning and
Land Use conducted a study of existing ordinances to identify
development requirements that discourage walking and bicycling.
The study identified numerous requirements that result in such
barriers. (Contact: Bob Asher, San Diego County Department of
Planning and Land Use, (619)694-3722.)
The City of San Diego installed sidewalk flares (Figure 2-20) and
light-colored and textured crosswalk pavement in commercial
areas of North Park, Normal Heights, Kensington, and other
neighborhoods. In 1994, the City completed a pedestrian/bicycle
bridge connecting a pedestrian-oriented residential neighborhood
with the Uptown District, a pedestrian-oriented commercial and
residential development. (See Strategy 6.) The bridge spans
Washington Street, a major arterial.
The suburban cities of Bellevue, Washington, and Bethesda,
Maryland, have created more walkable commercial areas by
requiring certain pedestrian amenities of developers and offering
density bonuses if additional amenities are provided. (Contacts:
Dan Stroh, City of Bellevue Planning Department, P.O. Box 90012,
Bellevue, WA 98009-9012, (206)455-6880; and Donald A. Downing,
43Robinson et aI. 1980
44Untermann and Lewicki 1984
45Bacon et aI. 1993
2-65
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
FICURE 2-21
Narrow residential streets, ample sidewalks, a planting strip and
street trees give pedestrians a greater sense of safety.
Source: Studio EArchitects
Discussion
Human perception of the pedestrian environment is greatly
influenced by the ratio of building height to street width. The
lower building heights that prevail in Southern California mean
streets should be relatively narrow for pedestrians to feel
comfortable. Narrower streets than those typically found in San
Diego County would encourage more walking (Figure 2-21). Wide,
IIoverengineered" streets encourage speeding, waste public
resources, and discourage and endanger pedestrians. Lowering
speed limits is rarely an effective deterrent.
A major obstacle to revising street standards is objection from public
works departments and emergency response services, which argue
wide streets are necessary to accommodate traffic and emergency
vehicles. However, many cities with narrower, pedestrian-friendly
streets have not found them to be a problem. (See Programs in
Operation.) Tests of maneuverability by emergency vehicles,
buses, and service vehicles in older neighborhoods with narrow
streets can sometimes overcome these objections.
2-67
Significantly, the more car-oriented
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
has released a draft report, Traditional
Neighborhood Develapment Street Design
Guidelines, that recognizes the need for
narrower streets in new developments
based on traditional neighborhood
designs (TND). (See Strategy 6.) While
failing to recommend particular street
widths, the report states "the desired
upper limit of actual motor vehicle speeds
on TND streets is approximately 20 mph."
Five-foot sidewalks and six-foot planting
strips between the sidewalk and curb are
also recommended.
Crossing
Distance
Another frequently cited concern is liability for unconventional
street design features. However, the author of a recent review of
accident liability cases contends that "legal obstacles to narrow
streets are a red herring." He concluded that lawsuits over street
design "invariably have'to do with high speed, not street width."46
Motorists instinctively drive more cautiously on narrower streets.
Pavement widths recommended by the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), the National Association of Home Builders
(NAHB), and the Urban Land Institute (ULI)47 are:
Access streets: 22 to 24 feet
Subcollector: 26 to 28 feet
Collector: 36 feet if homes front street
24 to 26 feet if not
Curb radii (Figure 2-22) recommended
by ASCE, NAHB, and ULI are 15-20 feet,
but architects of transit-oriented design
developments advocate radii of 8-10 feet.
Curb
Radii
tStreet width(26 feet)
--_:....
FIGURE 2-22
Crossing
distance
25 feet, , , , , , , ,41 feet
15 feet. ' , , , .. ' 35 feet
10 feet, , , , , , , , 32 feet
Relationship of curb radii to
crossing distance.
Source: Adapted from California Energy
Commission 1993
Programs in Operation
In Portland, as in many Oregon cities and towns, the Fire Bureau
supported"skinny street" zoning in residential neighborhoods
having a density not exceeding R-5 (five detached home lots per
acre). The new street standard is 26 feet with parking on both sides
or 20 feet with parking on one side. The resulting 13-foot clearance
46Femandez 1994
47American Society of Civil Engineers et al. 1990
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
and presence of driveways to break up the parking lane provides
adequate access for fire trucks. (Contact: Terry Bray, Portland
Bureau of Transportation Engineering, 1120 SW Fifth Street, Room
846, Portland, OR 97204, (503)823-5058.)
By staging a parking lot simulation using traffic cones, developers
of the pedestrian-oriented Village Homes development in Davis,
California, satisfied local agencies that 20-24 foot street widths
could accommodate police and fire vehicles. The narrower widths
are credited with preventing speeding, accidents, and crime. Crime
is thought to be lower because house dwellers can better observe a
narrower street, pedestrian activity is increased, and narrower
streets prevent a speedy retreat from the neighborhood.
The Oly of Chico established a standard range for street widths of
24 to 40 feet, which allows a reduction from the typical40-foot
standard used throughout much of the state.
The rapidly growing Oly of Fort Collins, Colorado, adopted a new
zoning which reduces minimum street widths from 36 to 24 feet
(with parking on one side).
Also see Policies 6 and 32.
Additional Resources
Take Back Your Streets: Haw To Protect Communihes from Asphalt and
Traffic, Conservation Law Foundation, 62 Summer Street, Boston,
MA 02110, (617)350-0990. $10. Excellent citizen-oriented guide to
street design issues and how residents can influence the outcome of
roadway projects that sacrifice pedestrian movement and aesthetics
to increase traffic speeds.
Report on New Standards for Residential Streets in Portland, Oregon,
available from Terry Bray, Oly of Portland Oregon, Office of
Transportation (see above).
Traditional Neighborhood Development Street Design Guidelines,
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE), 525 School Street SW,
Washington, D.C., (202)554-8050. Draft report. Final version is due
out January 1998. $35 for non-members, $20 for members, plus $5
for shipping and handling.
Milking Streets That Work, Cily of Seattle, Washington. A how-to
primer for residents to advocate street designs or retrofits of
existing streets to enable use by vehicles, pedestrians, and
bicyclists. Available for $20 through the Local Government
Commission, 1414 K Street, Suite 250, Sacramento, CA 95814-3929,
(916)448-1198.
2-69
STRATEGY 31 Encourage the development of interconnected street networks,
where topography allows. .
Implementation Options
¢ Encourage the use of a grid pattern network when reviewing street
layouts for large residential subdivisions.
¢ Maintain two-way travel on all streets.
Discussion
The basic premise underlying this strategy is that the grid pattern
provides the most easily navigated and safest route for bicyclists
and pedestrians. No single street is overburdened with automobile
traffic as in the standard hierarchical street pattern.
FICURE 2-23
.-~
..-
PACIFIC OCEAN
The City of Coronado's integrated street pattern encourages
walking and bicycling, relieves some of the pressure on its main
arterials, and adds to the community's appeal.
Source: Studio EArchitects
2-70
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
A modeling study of a grid versus cul-de-sac system in Florida
estimated 43 percent fewer vehicle miles traveled within the grid
system.48
The grid pattern was abandoned in the 1950's to improve safety.
While curvilinear streets with cul-de-sacs discourage through-
traffic, accidents involving automobiles and pedestrians in grid
patterns can be reduced by proper signage (stop signs, yield signs,
and pedestrian crossing areas) and by revising street standards to
discourage speeding. (See Strategy 30.)
Some older cities with grid patterns have made extensive use of
one-way streets to speed traffic. The tradeoff is a more hazardous
environment for pedestrians. One-way streets invite additional
traffic and create extra trips by necessitating driving around blocks
to reach destinations.
Programs in Operation
Most older neighborhoods in California cities and towns are laid
out in a grid pattern (Figure 2-23). New developments
incorporating pedestrian-oriented design also employ a grid or
modified grid pattern. (See Strategy 6.)
~TRATECY~ Institute a program to prioritize and implement "traffic calming"
measures where appropriate to reduce traffic speeds and enhance
pedestrian and bicycle safety.
Implementation Options
¢ Traffic calming involves installing physical impediments such as
speed humps, street narrowing, and sidewalk "bulbs" at
intersections to slow traffic on neighborhood streets. Other
techniques include introducing gentle turns, landscaping, textured
paving, and on-street parking.
¢ Institute an ongoing city service offering traffic calming measures
designed in conjunction with residents, businesses, and emergency
service providers.
Discussion
Many lightly traveled neighborhood streets, and even busy
commercial areas, may benefit from reduced traffic speeds and
increased comfort and safety for pedestrians without sacrificing
mobility. Traffic calming originated in Europe to promote walking
while allowing vehicle movement. Traffic calming reduces
UKulash 1990
2-71
speeding far more effectively than posting low speed limits on
streets engineered for higher speeds. Calmed streets reduce accidents
and replace some vehicle trips with pedestrian or bicycle trips.
Retailers sometimes fear traffic calming will reduce business
volume. However, anecdotal evidence suggests the resulting
increase in pedestrian circulation increases business as long as
reasonably close parking remains available.
Fire departments sometimes object to the implementation of traffic
calming measures. However, Menlo Park, California, found the
average emergency response time before and after implementing
traffic calming measures was virtually the same.
Programs in Operation
The City of San Diego's Traffic Engineering Department responds
to requests for neighborhood traffic calming. Traffic circles in
intersections, "median chokers" at mid-block, speed humps, and
other measures can be employed - with the agreement of at least
75 percent of affected residents - to reduce cut-through commuting
and speeding. (Contact: Traffic Engineering Division, 1010 Second
Avenue, M.s. 609, San Diego, CA 92101, (619)533-3126.)
Portland, Oregon's Traffic Calming Program also responds to
neighborhood requests, working with residents and the fire
department to implement traffic calming measures, neighborhood
by neighborhood. (Contact: Mike Coleman, Acting Manager of the
Traffic Calming Program, (503)624-6083.)
The town of Greenville, South Carolina, observed an increase in the
number of businesses downtown after the primary retail street was
narrowed from four lanes to two, and streetscape improvements
were added.
Traffic calming has been shown to deter crime where, for example,
street-eomer drug transactions can be curtailed when motorists are
forced to drive more slowly. Two examples demonstrate the
special application of traffic calming measures to high crime areas.
A traffic calming program in a high crime neighborhood in Dayton,
Ohio, reduced violent crime by 50 percent. A similar program and
the opening of a new sheriff's station in the Fair Oaks!Atherton area
of San Mateo County, California, decreased crime by 49 percent.
Additional Resources
Traffic Calming, American Planning Association, (312)786-6344.
Traffic Calming, available from Sensible Transportation Options for
People, Tigard, OR, (503)624-6083.
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TRANSPORTATION: PARKING
Parking is an extremely important feature of the urban landscape. While
sufficient parking is critical for commercial uses, off-street parking can dis<:ourage
pedestrian circulation by creating a physical barrier to movement and increasing
the distance between destinations. Required but unused parking has been
described by one expert as a legacy of "planners' choices [that] are tragically, and
often absurdly, misinfonned."" Oversupplied parking decreases land values
(typically by 30 percent) and local tax revenues, while increasing emissions and
congestion. In short, parking supply must be carefully balanced with parking's
negative effects. Strategies in this section encourage transit use and minimize
barriers to walking by managing the supply, location, and cost of parking.
~TRATEGY~ Ensure parking requirements do not significantly exceed demand,
while addressing spillover parking in local neighborhoods.
Implementation
¢ Reduce parking requirements within transit focus areas.
¢ Allow shared parking arrangements between uses with
complementary hours of operation.
SANDAG Land Use Distribution
Element Policy #6:
¢ Conduct parking lot surveys to determine
the percentage of spaces used in a typical
day and on high-demand days. Then
reexamine the Zoning Ordinance to
determine whether parking requirements
reasonably reflect demand.
¢ Modify the Zoning Ordinance to reduce
parking requirements where unique site
characteristics, on-street parking,
commercial parking, and other factors
reduce parking demand.
¢ Reduce or eliminate parking requirements for certain supporting
commercial uses, such as restaurants, locating in pedestrian-
oriented commercial districts.
"Parking requirements should
be reduced within transitJacus
"areas...
¢ If spillover parking occurs in nearby neighborhoods, consider
establishing "parking benefit districts" to fund neighborhood
improvements. (See Discussion section.)
"Shoup 1996
2-73
Discussion
A recent study of the history of parking regulationsso shows that, in
almost every case, minimum parking requirements are based on
national average requirements, requirements in neighboring cities,
or guesswork, rather than on measurements of parking demand. As
a result, requirements often far exceed the highest demand
experienced. Strategy 33 addresses direct and indirect impacts of
unused parking on transit and pedestrian travel.
In a study of Southern California suburban office buildings,
supplied parking was found to be double the actual parking use on
the busiest day of the year (Figure 2_25).51 The consequences of
oversupplied parking tend to go unnoticed unless focus is shifted
from serving automobiles to serving all modes of travel. Some of
these consequences are:
• Development costs are significantly higher, reducing funds
that might otherwise be used for better design, landscaping,
a childcare facility, etc.
FIGURE 2-24
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
o-'I£------J==== '----,---=
Parking Required Parking Supplied Peak Parking Use
Parking requirements, supply, and peak utilization at suburban
office buildings in Southern California.
Source: Willson 1995
SOShoup 1995
51WilIson 1995
2-74
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• Because of land and design requirements, oversupply of
parking virtually guarantees dependence on the automobile,
limiting work opportunities for those who cannot afford a
car or who are unable to drive.
• Development is unintentionally driven to low-density areas
with cheaper land, where trips are more likely to be by
automobile.
• Local tax revenues are lost when land is wasted on unused
parking rather than revenue-generating uses.
• Environmental impacts including air pollution, stormwater
runoff.. traffic congestion, and consumption of open space
are greatly increased.
To reduce these impacts, parking requirements should be more
carefully tailored to demand, especially in areas in which active
pedestrian circulation is desired.
Recognizing the impact of excessive parking, some cities have
reduced or eliminated parking requirements, allowing developers
to determine the appropriate level. However, neighbors of large
traffic generators often favor retaining high off-street parking
requirements to avoid spillover parking. To deal with this
problem, Donald Shoup at the UCLA School of Public Policy and
Social Research advocates working with the local neighborhood or
merchant's association to establish a #parking benefit district".52
A parking benefit district relies on parking meters or other
payment system to collect parking fees from spillover parkers. Net
parking revenues are returned to the neighborhood in the form of
street or sidewalk repairs, building rehabilitation, low~interest
business loans, etc. The price of parking can be adjusted to ensure
the parking turns over frequently, maximizing revenue and
ensuring spaces are always available. By handling spillover
parking in this way, parking demand can be met, while locally-
impacted residents or businesses can be compensated for spillover
effects.
Part of the difficulty of setting parking requirements is accounting
for changes in parking demand when the use of a particular parcel
changes. Some cities have addressed this problem by prohibiting
uses which produce a higher parking demand than the available
parking supply can accommodate.
"Shoup 1994, 1995
2-75
Programs in Operation
The City of San Diego's Draft Zoning Code Update establishes
parking ratio maximums as well as minimums for many uses. The
new code also lowers, by 15 percent, parking requirements in areas
near trolley stations and for certified Very-Low-Income dwelling
units. The code allows shared parking but requires the parties to
file an agreement with the City. (Contact: Kelly Broughton, City of
San Diego Development Services Department, (619)236-5932.)
Resources
Don't Even Think ofParking Here: Are We Building Too Many Spaces?
Lisa Wormser, Planning. June 1997.
Shared Parking Planning Guidelines, Institute of Transportation
Engineers, $30. (202)554-8050, ext. 130.
Project for Public Spaces, a: non-profit planning and design
organization, works with communities to improve the "livability"
of urban and suburban environments through parking management,
site designs, economic analysis, etc. Project for Public Spaces, Inc.,
153 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10014, (212)620-5660.
~ Support pedestrian-oriented commercial areas in major activityTRATECY 34 t by . t I .. th .. I k' Icen ers appropna e y pncmg e mumctpa par mg supp y.
Implementation Options
¢ In major activity centers, ensure there is an adequate, but not
excessive, supply of on-street and/or off-street short-term parking
in commercial areas.
¢ "Short-term parking" means that parking rates or time limits are
set to favor use for two hours or less. Intrinsically, all commercial
areas have an optimal parking space turnover rate that maximizes
the number of patrons who can visit the area without over-
supplying the number of spaces. Ideally, parking should be priced
to encourage the optimum turnover rate. Appropriately priced
meters are more effective than time limits in maintaining the
optimum space turnover rate.
Discussion
The most successful pedestrian-oriented activity centers typically
rely on three kinds of customers: nearby residents, transit riders
arriving from outside the area, and automobile drivers arriving
from either nearby or outside the area. To meet the needs of all
three market segments, the area's pedestrian orientation is carefully
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SANDAG Land Use Distribution
Element Policy #6:
"...on-street parking {should be]
provided in the mixed-use
community core areas,
whenever possible."
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
protected, transit service is frequent, and short-term parking is kept
relatively available. A price penalty for long-term parking is
generally imposed to encourage parking space turnover.
Major activity centers with thriving commercial uses reduce vehicle
trips by allowing nearby residents and transit riders to access a
variety of products and services on foot. Households taking
advantage of such centers can manage with one rather than two
vehicles, reducing their impact on air quality.
Programs in Operation
The Gty of Portland has a well<oordinated short-term parking
program, aimed at supporting downtown businesses. Parking
rates for both on-street and off-street facilities favor short-term use.
As a result of this and other measures, the city boasts one of the
highest grossing center city retail markets in the country. (Contact:
City of Portland, Bureau of Traffic Management, 730 The Portland
Building, 1120 SW Fifth, Portland, OR 97204.)
~ Allow on-street parking, where compatible with existing land uses,
to buffer pedestrians from vehicle traffic.
Implementation Options
¢ Allow on-street parking anywhere sidewalks are provided,
especially in community center areas.
e:> Consult with existing residents and/ or merchants to ensure on-
street parking is acceptable to the community.
Discussion
The walking environment is made more comfortable by providing
an adequate buffer between sidewalks and street traffic (Figure 2-25).
This is most easily accomplished by allowing on-street parking. In
commercial areas, on-street parking - priced
for short-term use - also adds to the
pedestrian population.
This strategy might appear to conflict with
policies promoting narrower streets, since
street widths would presumably need to be
wider to accommodate parked vehicles.
However, parking lanes need not be more
than six feet wide. As noted in the discussion
of Strategy 30, Portland's street standards for
2-77
FIGURE 2-25
15'10'
TURNING
LANe
78' R.O. v..
12'
Outdoor co e
I encourcged inJthis zone
15'
'---.;.-'--_'---=----J~~~~
1
On-street parking provides a buffer between pedestrians and the street.
Source: City of Modesto 1990
medium-density residential neighborhoods is 26 feet with parking on
both sides. This is 35 percent narrower than the typical40-foot
width for similar streets in the San Diego region. Accommodating
on-street parking need not conflict with a narrow street standard.
Resources
See Strategy 6.
~TRATECY~ Enc?urage parkingfacility designs that enhance the pedestrian
envIronment.
Implementation Options
¢ Surface parking lots should be as small as possible and scattered
throughout an area. Unless crime is a particular problem, large lots
should be screened from view by solid walls, fences, or dense
landscaping (Figure 2-26).
¢ Design features such as street trees, landscaping, street furniture,
fenestration, other facade treatments, and driveway placement may
be employed to reduce the impact of off-street parking on
pedestrians (Figure 2-27).
¢ Establish a maximum parking structure footprint on commercial
streets with heavy pedestrian traffic.
2-78
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
FIGURE 2-26
ON-STREET
PARKING
BYCICLE
PARKING
SMALL
PARKING
LOTS -
lESS THAN
20 SPACES
WELL-DEFINED
PEDESTRIAN WALKS·
CANOPY TREES, LIGHTING
AND SP CIAL PAVING
rtH)L<'Yj'0-< OFFICE
MIXED USE
DEVELOPMENT
In commercial districts, surface parking should be
placed off the main road, in small, scattered lots.
Source: County of San Bernardino & The Planning Center 1993
Discussion
U the quality of the pedestrian environment is maintained,
shoppers will be encouraged to visit more stores in a single area
rather than making multiple vehicle trips. Parking lot design and
location can have a strong impact on the pedestrian environment.
Parking garages with uninterrupted blank walls and large surface
FIGURE 2-27
OFFICE
~~~:!J.1~:::RETAI L
,WINDOWI OPENINGSCORNICE
OFFICE OR RETAIL
ON FIRST FLOOR URBAN STREETS
STREET FRONTAGES
LANDS~ATED ~OFFICE
SCREEN PARKING STRUCTURE
NON- URBAN STREETS
Parking structures should be designed
to enhance the pedestrian environment.
Source: County of San Bernardino & The Planning Center 1993
2-79
lots separated from the sidewalk only by a chain are examples of
designs that create a hostile pedestrian enviromnent. In the case of
parking garages, first floor retail, landscaping, or wall treatments
should be required in pedestrian-oriented commercial areas. If at
all possible, large surface lots should be located away from streets
with frequent pedestrian traffic.
Resources
Planning and Design for Transit Handbook, 1995, contains design
guidelines and model zoning language addressing parking lotj
structure design. Available for $10 from TriCounty Metropolitan
Transportation District of Oregon (Tri-Met), Transit Development
Department, Technical Services Division, 710 N.E. Holladay Street,
Portland, OR 97232, (503)239-6711.
Planning and Design for Transit Handbook, January 1996. Also
available for $10 from Tri-Met. Provides more specific guidance for
land use and transportation plans, site designs, and transit facility
designs.
Land Use, Transportation, and Air Quality: A Manual for Planning
Practitioners, San Bernardino Air Quality Plan, 1993. Contains
specific design suggestions for encouraging alternative modes.
County of San Bernardino and The Planning Center. $50.
Available from The Planning Center, 1300 Dove Street, Suite 100,
Newport Beach, CA 92660.
@TRATECY~ Redu~e rarking requir'!"'ents where walkin~ bicycling, and transit
amentties reduce parktng demand.
Implementation Options
¢ Recognize in the Zoning Ordinance thriving pedestrian and transit
oriented districts, and reduce parking requirements in these areas.
(See Strategy 29.)
¢ Use vehicle registration data to determine vehicle ownership
patterns throughout the city. Reduce parking requirements for
new residential developments in neighborhoods with low vehicle
ownership, either as-of-right, or in exchange for providing
pedestrian/bicycle amenities.·
¢ Where appropriate, allow on-street parking to substitute for off-
street parking spaces if specified amenities are provided, and if the
safety of bicyclists is not compromised.
2-80
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
¢ Reduce parking requirements for new residential housing reserved
for transit-dependent populations, such as low-income, elderly,
students.. and disabled residents, in areas well served by transit.
¢- Reduce parking requirements for employment sites locating along
transit corridors if convenient transit access is included in the site
design.
¢- For new projects in older areas, maintain the historical ratio of
parking spaces to dwelling units or commercial space rather than
applying parking standards developed for suburban locations.
Discussion
Parking can cost from $10,000 per space for a surface lot to $30,000
or more per space in a parking structure. Offering to reduce
parking requirements in exchange for desired design features and
amenities to promote pedestrian, bicycle, and transit access can be a
strong incentive. Opportunities to apply this incentive abound
because the match between parking requirements and parking
demand is often quite poor. As discussed under Strategy 33,
jurisdictions who commit resources to measuring parking demand
may be able to obtain a better match between demand and supply.
The main obstacle to this approach, other than the cost of
measuring demand, is the reluctance of nearby property owners or
tenants to accept reduced parking requirements for fear of spillover
parking. A jurisdiction can address this problem by establishing
clear guidelines for what design features of new development and
pedestrian/bicycle/ transit amenities will reduce parking demand.
Establishing a parking benefit district may also alleviate some
concerns. (See Strategy 33.)
Programs in Operation
The City of Coronado and the California Coastal Commission
recently approved reduced parking standards for a mixed-use
affordable housing zone located on a bus line. For housing
intended for low income or elderly residents, the parking standard
is one-half to one parking space per dwelling unit. (Contact: Ed
Kleeman, City of Coronado Planning Department, 1825 Strand
Way, Coronado, CA 92118, (619)522-7329.)
The City of San Diego's Draft Zoning Code Update lowers, by 15
percent, parking requirements near trolley stations and for certified
Very-Law-Income dwelling units. (Contact: Kelly Broughton, City
of San Diego Development Services Department, (619)236-5932.)
2-81
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American Planning Association, Transportation Rule Working Group, Oregon O1.apter.
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.Working Draft.
American Society of Civil Engineers. 1993. Transportation Planning and Air Quality
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Currents. April 1993.
Bacon, Vinton, Carolyn Radisch, Tom Wieczorek. 1993. Trip Reduction Potential of
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Brown, Barbara B. and Irwin Altman. 1983. Territoriality, Defensible Space and Residential
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California Air Resources Board. 1993. Analysis ofIndirect Source Trip Activity at Regional
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California Air Resources Board. 1995. Land Use/Transportation Strategies to Minimize
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California Energy Commission. 1993. Energy Aware Planning Guide.
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Cobb, Rodney L. 1997. Zoning for Accessory Dwelling Units, Zoning News. American
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North County Transit District. September 1996, Personal communication.
Olay Ranch Joint Planning Project, City of Chula Vista. 1993 Otay Ranch General
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Robinson, Ferrcl 0., Jerry L. Edwards, and Carl E. Ohm. 1980. Strategies for Increasing
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Shoup, Donald. 1995. An Opportunity to Reduce Minimum Parking Requirements, Journal
of the American Planning: Association. Volume 61, Number 1.
Shoup, Donald. 1997. The High Cost ofFree Parking, forthcoming in Journal of Planning
Education and Research.
Untermann, Richard with Lynn Lewicki. 1984. Accommodating the Pedestrian: Adapting
Neighborhoods for Walking and Bicycling.
Urban Land Institute. 1983. Shared Parking.
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Warrick, Brooke and Toni Alexander. February 1997. Looking for Hometown America..
Urban Land.
Webber, Melvin M. 1994. The Marriage ofAutos and Transit: How to Make Transit Popular
Again, ACCESS. NO.5. University of California (Berkeley) Transportation Center.
Weissman, Steve and Judy Corbett. 1992. Land Use Strategies for More Livable Places, for
The Local Government Commission, Sacramento.
Williams, John. 1993. The Bicycle Advocate's Action Kit, Bicycle Federation of America.
Willson, Richard. 1995. Suburban Parking Requirements: A Tacit Policy for Automobile Use
and Sprawl, Journal of the American Planning Association. Volume 61, Number 1.
Zotti, Ed. 1991. A Primer for Writing Design Guidelines, Planning. Volume 57, Number 5.
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§& Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
CHAPTER 3
Planning Processes and Resources
This chapter discusses planning processes and resources to address vehicle
trips/air quality through the local planning process. It also addresses typical
barriers to implementation of desired policies or projects and how to overcome
them. Finally, it provides an overview of the financing and fiscal review process
for development projects.
Planning processes refer to execution of legal documents (such as the
General Plan), development approvals, etc., that can be used to promote more
efficient planning to improve air quality by reducing vehicle trips. Resources are
funding mechanisms and specific funding sources that may be available for
community improvements to enhance non-automobile modes of travel. Barriers
to implementation of desired strategies include entrenched institutional
practices, high implementation costs, and initial neighborhood opposition to
different forms of development or transportation facilities.
Most of this chapter is adapted from a 1995 Calilornia Air Resources Board
report, Land Use/Transportation Strategies to Minimize Motor Vehicle Emissions: An
Indirect Source Research Study,' for which the San Diego Air Pollution Control
District served as an advisor.
I. Key Policy Documents
All of the policies recommended in Chapter 2 can be implemented through
existing planning processes. To do so, it is important to identify the appropriate
policy document in which to create or change policies.
Document #1: General Plan or Community Plan
The strategies presented in Chapter 2 were designed for insertion in the
General Plan as one of several possible planning documents. The General Plan is
a particularly effective mechanism for adopting new planning approaches
because its policies are usually adopted only after lengthy public involvement
and because it is a legally enforceable document.
State law requires each General Plan to include seven elements: land use,
circulation, housing, conservation, open space, noise, and safety. Some
jurisdictions have also adopted a separate air quality element. In large
jurisdictions, individual neighborhoods may adopt Communlty Plans which are
similar to the General Plan but more specific.
lCalifornia Air Resources Board 1995
3-1
Each jurisdiction is required to update its General Plan at least every five
years, although many have not done so. A comprehensive update can be
extremely expensive and time consuming, but it establishes a clear set of
priorities and goals for future growth. When amending the General Plan, care
must be taken to ensure the new policies are consistent throughout the various
elements. Implementing ordinances such as the Zoning Ordinance or
Subdivision Ordinance must also be amended to reflect new policies.
Document #2: Zoning Ordinance
The Zoning Ordinance provides the specific regulations that implement
policies contained in the General Plan but often go beyond the General Plan.
The Zoning Ordinance is the code that can specify higher densities around
transit stations, flexible parking standards, pedestrian-scale streetscapes, mixed
uses, and most of the other strategies recommended in Chapter 2.
Document #3: Subdivision Regulations
Subdivision regulations are authorized under the California Subdivision
Map Act to regulate the division of land. A part of the Municipal Code,
subdivision regulations set standards for the size and shapes of lots, conditions
for condominium formation, and design and dedication requirements for public
facilities including streets. Jurisdictions are allowed to require design features
and dedications (collectively known as exactions) necessary to bring the
subdivision into conformance with the General Plan. For example, the Chula
Vista Subdivision Regulations authorize the Planning Commission to require
pedestrian ways where necessary for access to schools, parks, shopping centers,
transportation facilities, other community facilities, or unusually long blocks.
Subdivision regulations also include street standards for streets for
subdivisions. The subdivision regulation can be revised to relax lot shape and
minimum lot sizes; increase requirements for pedestrian, bicycle and transit
facilities; and reduce required street widths and turning radii in order to support
transit- and pedestrian-oriented development.
Document #4: Design Guidelines
Design guidelines set standards for building placement and orientation,
facade and roof materials, parking locations and form, landscaping, streetscape
improvements, and virtually any other charaderistic of development. Design
guidelines can be mandatory or flexible. They can apply to entire cities or a
single block. They can be part of the Zoning Ordinance, in a separate document,
or integrated into a specific plan for a single subdivision project. Strategy 6 of
Chapter 2 describes the use of Transit-Oriented Design Guidelines.
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Document #5: Master EIRs
By preparing a Master Environmental Impact Report (EIR) for a specific plan
or for a group of policy changes (such as a set of amendments to the General
Plan, Zoning Ordinance, or Subdivision Ordinance), a jurisdiction can streamline
the development application process for developers who comply with the new
plan and regulations. A Master EIR assesses the impacts of a plan, a program, or
a set of policy changes and recommends mitigation measures.
Once a Master EIR is prepared for a group of policy documents, any project
that is allowed "by right" in those and other documents and that complies with
all regulations does not require a separate environmental document. For
example, the San Diego Centre Gty Development Corporation has prepared a
Master EIR for a 12o-block area of downtown. Future developers meeting the
conditions evaluated in the EIR can proceed with development after filing a
"Negative Declaration" stating that all environmental impacts have been
addressed. TIlis eliminates the time and expense of meeting environmental
review requirements.
Document 1#6: Specific Plans
A specific plan includes regulations similar to those of a Zoning Ordinance
for a particular focus area. It must be consistent with the General Plan. A
specific plan could be prepared for a transit corridor, station area, downtown,
business district or neighborhood. An EIR would need to be prepared for the
specific plan; development projects that are consistent with the specific plan
would not necessarily require discretionary approvals nor project EIRs.
Sacramento County has developed a number of specific plans for transit-oriented
areas.
Document #7: Planned Development Ordinances
Planned Development Ordinance (POO) provisions of the Zoning Ordinance
allow flexibility, to a lesser or greater degree, in applying the base zoning. A
POO is similar to a specific plan but the types of developments allowed and the
range of variation from the base zoning are specified in the Zoning Ordinance. A
POO may cover a newly developing area or an existing area undergoing
revitalization.
Document *8: Capital Improvement Program
Gties regularly prepare Capital Improvement Programs to plan
infrastructure projects. Priorities within the program can be ordered to
emphasize transportation, lighting and landscaping projects that support
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alternative means of transportation; civic and cultural projects located in areas
that are targeted for increased pedestrian activity; infrastructure upgrades for
business centers or areas near transit; and projects that would improve the
mixture of uses. For example, Glendale, California's Capital Improvement
Program includes funding for a shuttle system and an intermodal transfer
facility. Federal law requires a Major Investment Study for any major
metropolitan transportation investment that uses federal funds and affects
existing or planned housing. Relocation and replacement housing can be located
near transit, employment, civic uses, shopping, and services.
II. Administrative Actions
Administrative actions are processes, operations, or negotiations that city or
county agencies can initiate. The day-to-day administration of planning
regulations and other development processes determine to what extent land uses
will support alternative travel modes. Streamlining the permit process for
projects that promote walking, cycling, and riding transit is the most important
administrative action a city or county can take in this direction.
Action #1: Streamline the Permit Process for Desired Projects
The current permit process in most jurisdictions is simpler for a single-use,
automobile-oriented project that covers an entire parcel with private lots than it
is for a clustered or mixed-use project. The permit process could be changed to
reward mixed-use, transit-oriented projects and projects in certain areas. For
example, approval criteria could enable staff to approve pedestrian-accessible
projects up to a certain size without a public hearing, while a hearing could be
required for projects that do not meet pedestrian-oriented design criteria. In
Washington, D.C., for example, the Pennsylvania Avenue Development
Corporation centralized the permit process for projects in a particular target area
and in some cases cut permitting time in half.2
Action #2: Negotiate Development Agreements
State law allows cities and counties to negotiate developer agreements for
proposed projects that require use permits or changes to adopted policies and for
other reasons.3 (projects meeting the use and density requirements under the
zoning code and other ordinances do not require such approvals.) An agreement
can specify a mix of uses, grant density bonuses (if consistent with the General
Plan and ordinances), and require land for pedestrian, bicycle and transit facilities.
2McBee et al. 1992
3Califomia Government Code §§65864-65869.5
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
A jurisdiction may be able to exact improvements in transit, bicycle or other
facilities in excess of the need created by the individual project. In exchange, the
jurisdiction loses the right to apply new ordinances to the project. A developer
agreement can be an important mechanism to ensure the design quality of high-
density and mixed-use projects.
Action #3: Modify Impact Fees and Exactions
Many-cities and counties require developers to pay impact fees or provide
land, facilities, or services (exactions) to meet the needs generated by their
projects. Unfortunately, infill projects are often charged higher fees even though
the infrastructure costs to serve them may be lower than for outlying development.
Where this occurs, a community may attract development to areas near transit,
downtowns, and activity centers by reducing certain fees or exactions.
Action #4 Establish Enterprise Zones in Older Activity Centers
An enterprise zone provides tax breaks and infrastructure upgrades for
employers locating in the zone. A local government can apply to the U.s.
Department of Housing and Urban Development to have an economically
depressed area designated as a federal Enterprise Zone. Or a local govenunent
can create its own enterprise zone, giving local tax breaks to businesses in the
zone. An enterprise zone can help to increase the density of business areas
where there is not presently a strong real estate market.
If the goal is to create a central area that can attract ~ large enough number
of workers to support transit, the type of jobs created is unimportant. If,
however, the goal is to locate jobs near existing housing, it is important to specify
that the subsidized uses would employ the types of workers who reside nearby.
For example, Richmond has a federal Enterprise Zone. San Bernardino
established its own enterprise zone, placing tax incentives in its municipal code.
The incentives are available to new and expanding businesses in the zone, and
for housing rehabilitation and infill housing construction.
III. Resource Tools
A resource tool is a source of funding, services, or land. Funds are available
for developing and implementing policies and programs and for designing and
building facilities in support of the Chapter 2 strategies. Many of the sources can
fund multi-purpose projects and programs, such as those designed to strengthen
downtowns and other activity centers.
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Resource Tool #1: Apply Through SANDAG for ISTEA Funding
As the region's Metropolitan Plarming Organization (see Chapter 1),
SANDAG applies for federal transportation funds. Currently, some federal
transportation funds can be spent on facilities for travel modes other than
automobiles. Federal programs also include funding for scenic byways,
recreational trails, and transportation plarming. So-called Congestion
Mitigation/Air Quality (CMAQ) funds are intended to help local governments
reduce emissions from motor vehicles and reduce traffic congestion. SANDAG's
most recent allocation of the $66.3 million available to the region for CMAQ
included funding for transit, highway carpool lanes, traffic signals, major
bikeways, and promotion of ridesharing.
Another federal program, the Transportation Enhancement Activities (TEA)
fund, is also available for landscaping, biking/walking paths, historic
preservation, scenic viewsheds, and non-traditional transportation projects.
SANDAG has slated two bicycle path projects, the 42-rnile Coastal Rail Trail and
the North Shore Lake Hodges Bike and Hiking Path, to receive TEA funds
totaling $980,000.
Citizen groups or cities interested in applying for federal transportation
funds should contact their local Department of Public Works or SANDAG for
more information.
Resource Tool #2: Use Housing and Community Development Funds
The California Department of Housing and Community Development
(HCD) administers state and federal housing assistance programs. Prevalent
financing programs available to local governments from the U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development (BUD) and HCD include the federal
Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) and Home Investment
Partnership (HOME) programs, Housing Opportunities for People with AIDS
(HOPWA), and Emergency Shelter Grants (ESC).
To apply for these funds, a city or county must submit a Consolidated Plan
to BUD. This plan must address housing and community issues in a
coordinated way and is part of a combined application for all four funding
programs. These four types of grants can fund staff and other expenses to
increase densities in transit corridors and around stations, improve central
business districts, and promote infill projects. Rancho Cucamonga is using HCD
funds for rehabilitation of existing buildings and for sidewalks and street lights.
Information about funding sources for housing is available from HCD's
Clearinghouse for Affordable Housing Finance in Sacramento.4
4Wheaton 1994
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Resource Tool #3: Establish a Main Street Program
The National Trust for Historic Preservation initiated the Main Street
Program in 1986, and states are responsible for administering it. Main Street
programs are used to revitalize the downtowns of small cities or distinct
neighborhoods (3,000 to 50,000 people) through economic restructuring,
pedestrian-oriented design and improvements, promotion, and organization.
(See Strategy 9 in Chapter 2.)
Under California'5 program, communities may become a demonstration
community by hiring a full-time coordinator; thus, the program has a matching
requirement. Even if a community does not become a demonstration city, it can
use program videotapes and literature for help in revitalizing its downtown. A
Main Street Program can help to revive a downtown so it functions more
effectively as a transit hub and activity center. The cities of Coronado and El
Monle have used the Main Street Program to revitalize downtowns. Ontario has
used it to rehabilitate commercial structures and improve facades.
Resource Tool #4: Apply for Historic Preservation Tax Credits
A city or county can designate an area that has historic significance as a
Historic District. Once this is done, building owners can receive Historic
Preservation Tax Credits for renovation of historic buildings. The jurisdiction
can use these tax credits to revitalize older areas that have a pedestrian
environment and to strengthen downtowns. The city of Pomona, for example,
established a mixed use Historic District as part of its Downtown Pomona
Specific Plan.
Resource Tool #5: Motor Vehicle Surcharge Fund Grants
In 1990, Assembly Bill 2766 was signed into law' This legislation authorizes
regional air quality management districts to impose an additional fee of up to
four dollars on local annual motor vehicle registration fees. The proceeds may be
used to implement programs to reduce air pollution from mobile sources,
pursuant to air quality management plans and the Call1ornia Oean Air Act. Air
pollution control districts distribute a portion of the funds to local governments
and private enterprises for proposed projects.
In San Diego, the San Diego Air Pollution Control District's $2 surcharge
generates approximately $3.8 million dollars per year. These funds have been
used to fund a wide range of projects including buying/scrapping of older cars,
clean-fueled buses, bikepaths, and planning for transit-oriented developments.
'Callfornia Health and Safety Code §44220
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Resource Tool #6: Establish a Business Improvement District
A Business Improvement District (BID) is a funding mechanism wherein
businesses within a single commercial district agree to tax themselves to fund area-
wide improvements. These might include improved lighting, security services,
rebuilt sidewalks, a centrally located sign, public art, or a gateway marker. The
City of San Diego has established several BIDs in older commercial areas.
Resource Tool #7: Set Up a Public-Private Partnership
Many revitalization_projects in central business districts are funded by
multiple organizations. For example, funding sources for the renovation of the
historic Denver Dry Goods Building for mixed uses included developer equity
and union pension funds as well as state multi-family housing bond issues, city
loans, a federal grant, sales of low-income housing units, and historic
preservation tax credits. Transit agencies often partner with private developers
to develop around transit stations on land owned by the transit agency.6
Resource Tool #8: Build on Public and Tax-Delinquent land
Jurisdictions can use surplus property such as an unneeded school or sites
that have been acquired through non-payment of taxes to develop transit stations
and infill projects.
Resource Tool #9: Establish Special Assessment Districts
A special assessment district is used to fund public improvements in an area
of a city or county. It requires property owners to pay according to the benefit
they receive, which is not necessarily the same for each property owner. State
law expressly authorizes several types of assessment districts. One of these is a
Lighting and Landscaping District, which could be used to make transit,
pedestrian, and bicycle facilities safer and more attractive. Downtown merchants
sometimes use assessment districts to fund amenities designed to attract
customers to the downtown. The city of Pasadena established a special
assessment district comprised of the facades of shops on the main boulevard of
its downtown historic district and transformed the area into a vibrant
commercial core.
Resource Tool #10: Establish Mello-Roos Special Tax Districts
A law enabling cities and counties to set up Mello-Roos districts was passed
in response to Proposition 13, which requires a two-thirds vote for most tax
increases but only a simple majority for special, single-purpose taxes.
6post 1996
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
A Mello-RoDs district sets up a special tax to pay for a single-purpose set of
improvements and must be approved by a majority of the residents of the
district. If projects in the district have not yet been built, the developer
constitutes the majority of owners and the tax is passed on to future residents
who buy land from the developer. The district can sell tax-exempt bonds to fund
the public improvements.
In a Mello-RoDs district, each parcel owner pays the same tax, and the
payments may be used for operations and maintenance costs as well as capital
improvements. A Mello-Roos district could be used to pay for transit, pedestrian,
and bicycle improvements or for infrastructure, civic buildings, or beautification
intended to draw people into an area. Long Beach is using a Mello-RoDs disITiet
to revive Pine Avenue downtown, one block from the Blue Line light rail transit?
Resource Tool #11: Use the General Fund
If money is available in the General Fund, and a planning or capital project
is expected to result in changes that will increase revenues in the long run, it
could be worthwhile to allocate money from the General Fund for plan
preparation and implementation. General funds are used for day-to-day in-
house planning work and for most General Plan update projects.
Resource Tool #12: Issue Bonds
There are two types of bonds: general obligation bonds and revenue bonds.
General obligation bonds are sold to pay for capital improvements that do not
generate income, such as schools. These bonds must be paid back from the
General Fund; therefore, issuing general obligation bonds generally requires a
tax increase. Under Proposition 13, a tax increase requires a two-thirds majority
vote of the people. If a proposed effort is popular enough to gamer a two-thirds
vote, this could be an option.
Revenue bonds are issued to fund projects that will generate income such as
civic centers, utilities, and housing. The federal Tax Reform Act of 1986 severely
limits the issuance of revenue bonds. However, if the local government can
secure a portion of the state's small allocation, it can issue revenue bonds. For
example, mortgage revenue bonds issued locally or by the California Housing
Finance Agency are still a major source of financing for affordable housing in
Califomia.8
'Humphrey 1995
8Wheaton 1994
3-9
IV. Overcoming Barriers to Implementation
Local jurisdictions are likely to encounter a number of local barriers and
difficulties in implementing transportation or land use strategies aimed at
encouraging alternative modes of travel. This section outlines some of these
potential problems, and it briefly suggests solutions to them. The barriers
referred to in this section are generally related to caution on the part of
institutions and citizens who are not certain that transit- and pedestrian-oriented
development will be profitable or desirable. Solutions include education and
guarantees designed to increase the sense of security to those who are in a
position to take risks regarding the form of development.
Barrier and Solution #1
Public Opposition: Education and Public Improvements
Residential neighbors of land proposed for change may believe the changes
will ruin their community's appearance. For example, many people equate
higher densities with high-rise apartment buildings surrounded by dirty parking
lots commandeered by criminals. Planning with residents is the key to successful
change. Some effective methods for discerning local preferences and
communicating a plan's layout are suggested under Policy 2 of Chapter 2.
Usually, residents see that the places they prefer are well-designed, pedestrian-
accessible, mixed-use, and even higher density environments.
Citizens may also believe that high-density residential projects will reduce
their property values or increase crime. The cities of Fremont and San Jose and
the County of Santa Cruz have prepared presentations to show neighbors the
design and population characteristics of affordable housing, along with statistics
on adjacent property values. Some available resources that showcase high-
quality, higher-density development are a video from the American Institute of
Architects and a slide show from the highly successful BRIDGE Housing
Corporation. Also, the Local Government Commission maintains a video library
including these and other videos.
Residents may oppose high-density commercial or residential development
because of anticipated increased traffic and associated noise and air pollution.
Site-specific impacts can be mitigated to some extent or compensated for with
public improvements such as those listed above. Residents and merchants may
oppose removal of parking to make way for bicycle lanes; replacement parking
may have to be developed to compensate for this loss. The public may object to the
cost of alternative transportation facilities; publicizing the high cost of building
and maintaining vehicular roadways can counter this objection. Objections to the
cost of improvements in commercial areas can be overcome by a unified effort to
improve the area. In Denver, a group of civic, neighborhood, business and
government leaders campaigned for a bond issue for downtown infrastructure
improvements. The bond measure passed and the downtown prospered.
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Barrier and Solytion #2
Capital Reluctance: Education, loan Guarantees, and local Funding
Banks and other financial institutions that make construction loans tend to
be very conservative. Their loan policies are based on "tried and true"
developments and may lead to denied loans or higher interest rates for
"experimental" projects. There is information about dense, mixed-use, and
limited-parking projects that have been financially successful, which the lenders
may not have. For types of projects where this is the case, educating the lenders
can at least lead them to make a loan, even if it is at a higher rate than for a
"conventional" project. For pioneering projects, a loan guarantee from a local
agency or entity could be the only way to induce institutions to finance a project.
Local lenders may be more likely to support local renewal efforts than larger
institutions whose central offices are outside the area, because they benefit from
local renewal. In Shelby, North Carolina, the local banks formed a tax exempt
loan pool for Uptown renovation.
The California Home Energy Efficiency Rating System, Inc. (0iEERS)
encourages Energy Efficient Mortgage Programs. Under energy efficient
mortgages, utility savings on energy efficient homes are subtracted from the
principal, interest, and taxes in calculating the amount a homebuyer can borrow.
A recent study9 quantifies how neighborhood characteristics can reduce vehicle
use and associated household costs. The neighborhood characteristics are
residential density, transit and pedestrian accessibility, and neighborhood
shopping. OiEERS is considering factoring these characteristics into the
mortgage qmilification formula for Energy Efficient Mortgage programs.
Barrier and Solution #3
Uncertain Market: Market Studies and Marketing
Developers may be concerned as to whether there is a market for infill,
mixed uses or pedestrian-oriented design. They may also be uncertain about the
market for projects in central cities and near transit stations. Density incentives
only elicit development if there is a perceived market for higher density projects.
Market Studies: Each area is in a unique market position. Its location,
existing uses, surrounding uses, and access all help determine what type of
development and transportation tools would attract people to that location. It is
important to conduct a market study before embarking on improvements to an
area or a transportation system. A market study not only helps to determine
whether there is a demand for the type of development and transportation
facilities a jurisdiction is considering, but it can also identify what types of uses
and facilities are likely to draw people.
'Holtzclaw 1994
3-11
Marketing: A marketing program developed along with improvements in
an area can inform potential residents, businesses, customers, walkers and riders
about the improvements. A marketing coordinator can also advise businesses in
targeted activity centers on how to improve their marketing.
Market Experience: Because many downtown, pedestrian-oriented, transit-
oriented and mixed-use development projects are just being completed, the
market evidence is anecdotal. Computer firms have located in downtown San Jose
and at Laguna West, a pedestrian-oriented development near Sacramento. In a
joint development project on land owned by the MTDB in La Mesa, 100 apartments
and a day care center built next to a trolley station are full. The mixed-use
Uptown District in San Diego enjoys success, but some of the upper floor office
and retail spaces remain empty. Residents of new traditional neighborhoods,
where most houses have front porches and are within a five to ten minute walk
of a commercial-office center, reported high satisfaction; 84 percent preferred this
type of community in a 1992 survey.10
The Disney Company is building Celebration, a pedestrian-oriented community
based on its popular Main Street attraction. Located on 49,000 acres near Disney
World in Florida, the community will eventually house 20,000 people. More than
4,500 people entered a lottery to be among the town's first 350 homeowners.u
Outreach to Developers: Luring developers to a downtown can take a
concerted effort. The city of Columbus, Ohio, directed an educational effort
toward the development community regarding the market for high-density
housing downtown. After conducting a market study, the city identified 350
suitable parcels, mailed a survey to owners, and provided technical assistance in
assessing the feasibility of potential projects and in cutting costs. A conference
held downtown attracted 150 developers, lenders, architects, builders and
realtors. Market data, a computer to run pro forrnas, and sessions on adaptive
reuse, design and construction techniques, financing and marketing strategies,
mixed-use development, and moderate-income housing were available at the
conference.
The city has continued to update development community members
through a newsletter. These efforts, together with one-stop permitting for
downtown housing, longer inspector hours, federally assisted loans, tax deferral,
and capital improvements resulted in a fourfold increase in developer interest.
The 321 residential units that were built between 1987 and 1992 may not seem
like a high number for the effort, but their value has appreciated 190 percent.12
10Schleimer 1993
llLocal Government Commission 1996
12McBee, et. al. 1992
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Barrier and SQlution #4
Developers Building Elsewhere: Multi-Jurisdictional Cooperation
If a jurisdiction places substantial requirements and restrictions on
developers and employers, and these requirements are not offset by the
advantages of locating within the jurisdiction's boundaries, developers may
locate outside the boundary. A multi-jurisdictional area may have unique assets
such as a labor pool with unusual skills or a natural feature. If all the
jurisdictions within the area adopt the same ordinance, most firms will not base
their location decisions based on the ordinance's requirements. The Golden
Triangle trip reduction ordinance, which was a forerunner of Congestion
Management Programs, is an example of this kind of cooperation.
V. Monitoring Methods
It is important to measure the effectiveness of policies, planning documents,
programs, and administrative actions in achieving desired goals. Specifically, a
jurisdiction should monitor land uses, infrastructure development, and travel
patterns to determine the direction and magnitude of changes.
The simplest way to monitor program effectiveness is to compare
development or transportation projects implemented before and after policies
affecting them were adopted. This can be done by looking for various attributes
such as block size, street widths, density, sidewalk characteristics, lot sizes, etc.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are now available to help quantify the
variables Wlder study.
VI. Fiscal and Financial Review in the Planning Process
Most of the transportation and land use planning concepts advocated in
Chapter 2 not only reduce emissions from motor vehicles but also produce more
efficient communities requiring lower public and personal expenditures over
time. However, sound financial planning must accompany plans for new land
use and transportation approaches. The following discussion, excerpted from an
article appearing in the California Energy Commission's Energy Aware Planning
Guide,13 describes the fiscal and financial planning process used to evaluate a
project. nus discussion is intended to assist commwtity groups and others
unfamiliar with the planning process who may wish to propose more efficient
planning scenarios.
13Califomia Energy Commission 1993
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In the past, land use and environmental planning took place with very little
attention paid to fiscal or financial constraints. A typical planning process would
occur as follows:
(1) A General Plan is adopted or amended, setting forth land use plans
for the jurisdiction and evaluating the infrastructure required to
serve these land uses.
(2) Specific plans or community plans, consistent with the General Plan,
are approved. Infrastructure requirements are identified in more
detail and a short discussion of financing options is provided.
(3) When the project proponent is ready to proceed with development,
the public agency evaluates the fiscal impacts and financial burdens
associated with the land use plans previously approved.
Often, by the time the process is in the third and final step, substantial
resources have been invested in the land use plan. Unfortunately, it is at this
third step that the true feasibility of the land use plan is first evaluated. If the
proposed plan is determined to be a fiscal or financial loser, the first two steps
may have to be revised or completely redone. This is the harsh reality facing
public agencies and developers throughout the state; new development must be
more than environmentally sound - it must also be fiscally and financially
sound.
What Has Changed?
The planning process developed in a financial environment quite different
from that currently found in California. When plans were developed and
infrastructure designs completed, federal and state agencies would often provide
substantial funding assistance through grants and revenue sharing programs.
What was not provided at the federal and state levels could be funded at the
local level through an increase in ad valorem property taxes.
As federal and state contributions began to dwindle, local government
attempted to fill the gaps by increasing ad valorem property taxes. These
increases continued until the California taxpayers responded in 1978 with the
passage of Proposition 13, which limits ad valorem property taxes to one percent
of the assessed value of property (with cer.tain exceptions) and allows a
maximum arumal increase in assessed value of two percent until the property is sold or
ownership is transferred.
As local governments continue to feel the revenue pinch from Proposition
13, the state continues to balance its budget by transferring mandated services to
the local level. As a result, local revenues must be used to pay the cost of public
3-14
I'
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
services~ and funding of public infrastructure has become almost entirely the
responsibility of new developments. Because the state's school facilities program
has a substantial funding backlog, the total cost of school mitigation also has
been transferred to new development. In addition, the cost of providing
environmental mitigation continues to rise.
The cumulative impacts of the changes discussed above have resulted in
projects throughout the state that were ready to develop and are now considered
to be fiscally or financially infeasible. Although General Plan law does not
require a financing element, many public agencies recognize that a financial
evaluation is crucial to the overall success of a land use plan, and that this
evaluation should occur during the early planning stages to avoid proceeding with
a plan that may be infeasible.
Fiscal Vs. Financial Evaluation
The tenns "fiscal" and "financial" are often used interchangeably, however
there are actually two separate evaluations to be considered. A fiscal analysis
evaluates the recurring surplus or deficit that accrues to the public agency in
each year of development and at buildout of a project. A "fiscal impact report"
compares the recurring annual revenues (Le., property tax, sales tax, motor
vehicle in-lieu tax) to the recurring annual costs of services (i.e., police protection,
fire protection, road maintenance).
If the fiscal impact report projects a deficit, the public agency must consider
policies to avoid or mitigate the shortfall. If the deficit is only in the initial years
of development, the agency may consider temporary mitigations such as
assessments, special taxes, or fees to cover the shortfall. If, however, the fiscal
analysis determines that the project will always produce a fiscal deficit, the land
use plan may have to be revised or the required level of service reduced.
For instance, a residential development may result in a fiscal deficit because
the property tax revenues are insufficient to cover the costs of services required
by the new residents. However, by revising the plan and allowing a mixed-use
project, the sales tax revenues generated from the commercial or industrial
development may more than offset the deficit produced by the residenlialland
uses. In this case, if a fiscal analysis were conducted at the early planning stages,
the public agency and developer would save considerable time and money by
assuring that land use plans and environmental impact reports consider the
feasible mixed-use development alternative.
3-15
Financial Analysis
A financial analysis evaluates the burden on the homeowners, property
owners, and developers that will result after the infrastructure required to serve
.the project has been financed. This analysis, summarized in a "public facilities
financing plan," should include an evaluation of available funding sources and
the tax, assessment, or fee amount that would result after all infrastructure has
been financed. Various alternatives to be considered include the following:
benefit assessment districts, Mello-Roos community facilities districts,
community services districts, county service areas, development impact fees, etc.
The financial feasibility of a project will be directly related to the land use
plans proposed for the area. If a large portion of the infrastructure must be in
place prior to the development, a public agency must consider the absorption
potential of the proposed land uses and the ability of the landowners to carry the
cost of funding the infrastructure before development occurs. In addition, the
amount of public financing that can be supported in a certain area will be limited
by the value of the land uses being developed.
For example, an industrial development may require that water and sewer
improvements are provided to an area that has no existing infrastructure
network. Although it is determined that the value of the industrial property can
support the special taxes or assessments at buildout of the project, a 20-year
absorption estimate may make the carrying costs of the project prohibitive.
However, if a mixed-use development were proposed for the same area, the
accelerated absorption of the residential land uses may make the project viable.
A financial evaluation at an early planning stage can identify these potential
pitfalls.
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Bibliography
California Air Resources Board. 1995. Land Use/Transportation Strategies to Minimize
Motor Vehicle Emissions: An Indired Source Research Study. Report No. 95-18.
California Energy Commission. 1993. Energy Aware Planning Guide, Susan Goodwin,
"Fiscal and Financial Review as a Component of the Planning Process."
Holtzclaw, John. 1994. Using Residential Patterns and Transit to Decrease Auto Dependence
and Costs, Sierra Club.
Humphrey, Jack. January 1996. Personal communication, cited in California Air Resources
Board 1995.
Local Government Commission. Livable Places Update. January 1996.
McBee, Susanna, et. al., 1992, Downtown Development Handbook, Urban Land.
Post, Nadine M. May 1996. NTransit-Driented Development: Putting the Car in its
Place," Engineering News-Record.
Schleimer, John. March 7, 1993. A Skeptic's Conversion: Doubter's Own Study Backs Neo-
Traditional Developmrnt, cited in Sacramento Bee.
Wheato", Linda. September 2, 1994. California Department of Housing and
Community Development, Memorandum.
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- 4f2tp Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
CHAPTER 4
Where We Are Now
I. Introduction
As discussed in the previous chapter, General Plans represent one
mechanism to pursue the recommended strategies. This chapter discusses the
District'5 review of 18 of the 19 current General Plans in San Diego County as
one indicator of whether cities are currently employing the strategies discussed
in Chapter 2. This review was Wldertaken for two reasons: first, to highlight
those jurisdictions which lead the region in removing barriers to alternative
travel modes, and second, to show where opportunities exist for improvement.
Each General Plan was examined for its treatment of a representative sample
of the recommended strategies. The strategies chosen for examination address a
range of overall land use/transportation concepts and details of design. The
discussion of each strategy includes:
•
•
•
The number of the strategy, a paraphrased version of it, and the
number and percentage of General Plans in which it was found;
A general finding of the strategy's treatment within the General
Plans, including trends identified and limitations implied by the
wording found;
A description or quotation of the best example found in the county;
and
• Ways the General Plans could be strengthened with respect to the
strategy.
The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 4-1 and discussed in
detail in the next section. It is important to note that the City of San Diego is a
national leader in promoting development accessible to pedestrians, bicycling,
and transit. Since San Diegd5 General Plan was not reviewed,l this chapter
focuses on trends among other jurisdictions in the region.
iThe City of San Diego General Plan was not examined for three reasons: (1) the City is
revising its zoning code; (2) a comprehensive General Plan revision is being consideredi
and (3) each San Diego neighborhood has completed a supplemental Community Plan.
4-1
TABLE 4-1
Summary of General Plan Review for Selected Strategies2
Strategy Promote mixed-use development 12 Plans5 (67%)
Strategy Develop/preserve pedestrian-oriented neighborhoods 9 Plans
6/9 (50%)
Strategy Designate central business cores for higher density 12 Plans
7 and mixed-uses (67%)
Strategy Encourage large employment/shopping centers to locate 1 Plan
8 in transit corridors (6%)
Strategy Encourage residential infill development 8 Plans
10 and revitalization (44%)
Strategy Site designs to enhance transit use 10 Plans13 (55%)
Strategy Designate future transit corridors oPlans21 (0%)
Strategy Extend bikeways to new development 11 Plans25 (55%)
Strategy Revise street standards oPlans30 (0%)
Strategy Encourage interconnected street networks oPlans31 (0%)
Strategy Encourage on-street parking 1 Plan35 (6%)
Strategy Encourage pedestrian-friendly parking facility designs oPlans36 (0%)
2General Plans were considered to include policies even where limited in scope or
application. See text for more detail.
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
II. General Plan Evaluations
IQ&HII~STRATEGY 5~12 Plans (67%)
Promote Mixed Use Development
Finding
A majority of the plans promote mixed-use development in some form.
However, only a few address the building and street design details that make
mixing of uses an advantage to pedestrians. For example, many plans fondly
acknowledge the mixed-use, pedestrian pattern of an older commercial district
or town center but require separation of uses for any new development, thus
preventing development of new pedestrian-oriented neighborhoods.
Best local Policy
The Chula Vista General Plan contains a general mixed-use objective:
Encourage planned developments with a coordinated mix ofurban uses,
open spaces, and amenities (Land Use Element, p. 1-9).
As important as the policy itself, the plan discusses where and how this
policy will be applied (p. 1-19). The plan indicates the city understands the
precision of design details required to provide pedestrian accessibility between uses.
Not coincidentally, Chula Vista is also the site (overlapping with the County of
San Diego) of the transit-oriented Otay Ranch development discussed in Chapter 2
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
To some degree, all development can be shown to be # mixed-use" if examined
on a large enough scale, such as one square mile. The critical factor in a mixed-use
development proposal is whether a pedestrian can easily move between uses and
is drawn to do so by interesting routes. Plans promoting mixed-use development
should emphasize the need to address both the scale of development and
pedestrian amenities needed to encourage movement behveen uses.
1QlQ]1II~STRATEGY 6/9
~9 Plans (50%)
Develop/Preserve Pedestrian-Oriented Neighborhoods
Finding
Most of the General Plan policies promoting pedestrian access focus on
constructing sidewalks or pedestrian pathways. While walkways are important,
4-3
,.
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
pedestrians will venture out in large numbers only if there are close destinations
between land uses, whether a neighboring office building, a coffee shop, or a
neighbor's house. As with policies promoting mixed uses, some plans
acknowledge, even celebrate, the pedestrian accessibility of an older commercial
center while prohibiting such areas elsewhere.
Best local Policy
The Imperial Beach General Plan goes beyond general statements promoting
pedestrian accessibility. It provides policies illustrating what features are needed,
specifically in residential neighborhoods, to accomplish this goal (p. L-4):
•
•
•
•
•
Safe and pleasant pedestrian ways with numerous street trees.
Front doors and windows facing the street whenever feasible.
Ground level front porches, patios, bay windows, and balconies
facing the street wherever feasible.
Minimum front yard set-backs.
Garages and parking accessed from an alley or set back and recessed
behind the front facade of the residential unit.
Imperial Beach capitalizes on a well-established and permanent pedestrian
orientation. Indeed, its stated goal is to retain "the quality of life and atmosphere
of a small beach-oriented town," which is "not overcrowded or exclusive like
many California beach communities" (p. L-3).
Another example is the Oceanside General Plan, which states:
[TJhe City shall strive to implement the policies contained in the Land Use
Distribution Element (SANDAG, February 1995) related to enhancing
opportunities for mixed-use development in transit focus areas as
appropriate (Circulation Element, p. 51).
Oceanside has followed this commitment with an evaluation of seven
commuter rail stations and surrounding areas with the intention of rezoning for
transit-oriented development.
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
The neighborhood features specified in the Imperial Beach plan have been
successfully employed in a variety of communities throughout the country and
could be adopted for new building areas in the San Diego region. Similar
features could be specified for commercial areas.
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
~STRATEGY7~b!I~12 Plans (67%)
Designate Central Business Cores for Higher Density and Mixed-Uses
Finding
A majority of plans recognize existing business core areas. Some of these
areas are decades old and have been through cycles of boom and decay. Most of
the plans include policies aimed at maintaining and enhancing these older areas.
However, only two plans establish or contemplate new core areas with design
parameters to minimize vehicle trips.
Best local Policy
Both the Oceanside and Chula Vista General Plans call for new mixed-use
core areas around existing and planned rail transit stops. For example, as part of
Otay Ranch, the Chula Vista General Plan considers the need for a new
university and other regional uses surrounded by transit-oriented residential
neighborhoods. This Eastern Urban Center would be connected to the existing
Urban Core by express bus service (p. 0-2). To accomplish the goal of transit and
pedestrian orientation, the developers of Otay Ranch were allowed to depart
from many of the zoning standards applied to the rest of the city.
Ways Plans Gould Be Strengthened
Jurisdictions should examine prospects for new business development and
designate one or more centralized locations with an emphasis on pedestrian
circulation. However, parking ordinances can make designing for pedestrians
difficult. Strict parking supply requirements favor massive parking lots that
discourage pedestrians. This problem can be overcome by encouraging shared
parking and sequestering parking underground, in a separate structure, or
behind buildings.
=m~STRATEGY 8
~I;&j~ 1 Plan (6%)
Encourage Large Employment/Shopping Centers
to Locate in Traffic Corridors
Finding
All of the plans reflect careful zoning. but most do not suggest an active role
for the jurisdiction in influencing where particular types of businesses locate.
Because of the specialized nature of commercial siting decisions, cities generally
4-5
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
leave location evaluation to businesses. The resulting land use pattern is a
patchwork of individual projects, forming a disjointed commercial"strip" or a
series of disconnected malls. Typically, the coordination required to ensure
transit can work well between developments is lacking.
Best local Policy
Only the City of Oceanside included a form of this policy, stating:
The City shall encourage the reduction ofvehicle miles, reduction of the
total number ofdaily and peak hour vehicle trips and provide better
utilization of the circulation system through...increased development of
employment centers where transit usage is highly viable (Circulation
Element, p. 49).
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
General Plans could commit the jurisdiction to a more active role assembling
and promoting properties along appropriate transit corridors. Plans could also
commit the jurisdiction to work with appropriate transit providers to determine
site characteristics necessary to ensure transit compatibility of new commercial
areas.
~STRATEGY101Q&I!!J~8 Plans (44%)
Encourage Residentiallnfill Development and Revitalization
Finding
Several plans encourage infill development and/or neighborhood
revitalization. However, different goals are emphasized. Some plans seek to
increase the stock of affordable housing by allowing accessory apartments or
"granny flats" in areas zoned for single family houses. Occupants of these
accessory units are sometimes limited to family members of occupants of the
primary dwelling.
Other plans focus on replacing or rehabilitating buildings in blighted areas.
One plan promotes infill and revitalization as a way to increase the efficiency of
delivery of public services. However, no plans specifically acknowledge the
potential improvement to transit efficiency. The plans of cities contemplating
transit-oriented development call for compatible mixed-use development,
including residential uses, near transit stations.
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through land Use Design
Best local Policy
Even though 16 plans committed to increasing opportunities for pedestrian,
bicycle, and transit travel, none recognized infill development as an effective
transportation strategy. Often, infill development is seen as an additional burden
on the inunediate street system without recognizing its benefits to the regional
system.
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
With long-term transit corridor planning, the additional traffic burden of
infill development can be addressed, and in£ill can be evaluated as a possible
remedy to the travel inefficiency of fringe development. Neighborhoods accepting
additional development should be those targeted for future transit services.
~[;!I~STRATECY13
~10 Plans (55%)
Site Designs to Enhance Transit Use
Finding
Several plans require only minimal transit improvements such as bus shelters,
pull out areas on arterial streets, and transit signs. More site-specific improvements
are generally not discussed. These include building setback, orientation to the street,
convenience of building entrances to bus stops, and pedestrian accessibility between
adjacent buildings (since transit riders are without a car).
Best local Policy
One General Plan, which goes further than others, is that of La Mesa:
The City will develop and apply public and private design standards
applicable to new developments which will improve access to public
transit (Circulation Element, p. 23).
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
Transit officials frequently report that cities and developers pay little
attention to the transit compatibility of a new development during design and
construction, only later to request transit service. General Plan policies requiring
or encouraging appropriate transit access features would help transit providers
working to persuade developers to include such features. Most of these features
can be provided at little or no additional cost.
4-7
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design ----=-~
~!II~STRATEGY 21
~O Plans (0%)
Designate Future Transit Corridors
Finding
Nine plans call for long-range transit planning. However, none take the
important next step of designating travel corridors for future transit service. One
General Plan states /I [t]he city shall support establishment of transit aperations when
demand levels are sufficient to warrant such service /I (emphasis added). This
passive approach is common among the plans and largely reflects current
practice and the resultant lack of efficient transit service in most areas. Transit
demand does not emerge without careful planning by jurisdictions, in
cooperation with transit providers.
Best Local Policy
The General Plans for Escondido (p. II-75) and Oceanside (Circulation
Element, p. 51) include identical policies representing the most active approach
to public transit planning among the plans:
The city shall coaperate with the North County Transit District (NCTD)
to attain a balance of transportation opportunities. This shall include the
establishment ofcriteria to implement transit improvements, short/long-
range seroice plans, corridor improvements, transit centers, and the
preseroation ofrights-of-way for commuter-rail lines.
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
Demand for transit must be created by designating future transit corridors
and then requiring or encouraging access standards applicable to new
development in those corridors. Plans could commit cities to work with transit
proViders and the public to designate future corridors and commit to providing
appropriate guidelines for transit access improvements in those areas.
~!II~STRATEGY25
~11 Plans (55%)
Extend Bikeways to New Development
Finding
Most of the plans emphasize bicycling facilities. This includes planning and
maintaining a bikeway system (15 plans) and extending the system to new
development (10 plans). A few plans commit to providing more exclusive (Oass I)
bicycle lanes rather than relying on designated street lanes (Oass II).
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Best Local Policy
La Mesa's General Plan addresses most aspects of improving bicycling
facilities including bicycle lane design criteria, street improvements and main-
tenance, parking and storage, bike racks on transit vehicles, and coordinating
with other cities on facility plarming (Circulation Element, pp. 23-28).
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
The plans could be improved by addressing the barrier to bicycling of low-
density development, which frequently spreads destinations beyond bicycling
range. They could also acknowledge and address deficiencies of current
bicycling facilities including the placement of bicycle lanes on high speed
arterials, poor signage for bicyclists.. and disappearing/reappearing lanes.
~[t]~STRATEGY 30
~O Plans (0%)
Revise Street Standards
Finding
No plans discussed the revision of street width standards. These standards
are a source of controversy because of the competing interests of traffic engineers,
pedestrians" bicyclists, emergency services, garbage collection agencies, and
residents. In most plans, accommodating through-traffic is given explicit priority
over other uses of the street. Discussions of street widening as a traffic solution
or street width standards typically do not consider negative impacts on other users.
Best Local Policy
Two of the most recently adopted plans reflect newer thinking about the
multiple functions of streets. La Mesa's Circulation Element states:
Streets are not just curbs, gutters, and sidewalks to meet engineering
standards. Streets are "places" which define the s,",pe and c,",racter of the
community. Streets have a lot to do with detennining the values of the
community that are not measured in tenns of traffic flow or level of
service. The design and maintenance ofLa Mesa's streets also detennines
the livability ofthe City (p. 24).
While no plans call for reducing street width standards, the Imperial Beach
plan contains a policy contemplating reducing the width of one category of
existing streets:
The City should consider reducing the existing 80 foot street right-oj-ways
for streets that are not shown as prime, major, or collector streets on the
Street Classification Plan (p. C-l7).
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
Chapter 2 discusses cities and developments successfully utilizing narrower
streets, and the benefits to pedestrian circulation, reduced speeding, and neighbor-
hood aesthetics. Many professional organizations advocate narrower street
standards and ways to overcome officials' fears of liability. Plans could commit
to investigate and propose revised standards for new neighborhood streets.
~STRATEGY 311QtQI[!J~0 Plans (0%)
Encourage Interconnected Street Networks
Finding
Most areas of the county populated before World War II are laid out in a
grid street pattern. During the last 50 years, curvilinear and cul-de-sac streets
have been the predominant form. Only those cities planning limited transit-
oriented developments contemplate new communities with a grid or other street
integration pattern that allows easy pedestrian and bicycle access between
destinations.
Poway has taken a unique approach, offering separate "pathways" as an
alternative to a traditional sidewalk (p. Transportation-40). The Poway
Transportation Element declares that sidewalks do not sufficiently separate
pedestrians from roadway traffic and are not direct since the city's streets are not
laid out in a grid pattern. The plan recognizes the potential for commuting and
shopping on foot and calls for a Master Plan to create pathways linking
residential, commercial, school, business, and other land uses. Since land uses
are themselves located on streets, it is not yet clear whether this approach will
prove successful. However, it may be more compatible with the plan's emphasis
on rural character.
Best local Policy
While not part of its current General Plan, the City of San Diego's Draft
Zoning Code Update includes an Urban Village Overlay Zone that can be
overlaid on existing zones, under certain conditions. Regarding street pattern,
the Urban Village Overlay Zone prQvision states:
The layout of the street system shall be in a grid pattern or modified grid
pattern, emphasizing interconnected streets and the ability to reach local
destinations without crossing major or arterial streets. It is desirable to
have streets with block faces 400 feet in length or less. The use ofalleys is
encouraged. Where possible, streets should frame.vistas of the mixed-use
core, public buildings, parks and natural features (§132.1308a).
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
Plans could encourage developers building new communities to utilize a
grid street pattern. Supporting measures should also be encouraged. For
example, the San Diego provision quoted above is coupled with street tree, street
width, and building orientation provisions that together create a highly favorable
pedestrian environment without sacrificing vehicle movement.
=m~STRATEGY 35
~~~1 Plan (6%)
Encourage On-Street Parking
Finding
Some plans specifically discourage on-street parking to minimize impedance
to traffic-flow. Only the La Mesa General Plan discusses the tangential benefits
of on-street parking.
Best Local Policy
La Mesa's Circulation Element specifically acknowledges the benefits of on-
street parking to pedestrians:
Increasing sidewalk widths, landscaping, street furniture and parking in
commercial areas all work to help separate pedestrian and vehicular
traffic while impraving the appearance of the community (emphasis
added, p. 29).
It includes a policy specifically addressing on-street parking:
On-street parking is recognized as an important use ofpublic streets
serving the needs afboth residential and commercial areas. On-street
parking also serves as a traffic control function, yet it can represent a
traffic safety issue in specifiC locations. The City will establish standards
and review procedures to balance the benefits ofon-street parking with the
concerns for amgestion management and traffic safety in determining its
proper use and location (p. 10).
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
Plans should commit to improving pedestrian circulation in commercial
areas. Policies such as La Mesa's could be one of several strategies for
implementing this commitment.
4-11
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
CZ1l71~STRATEGY 36~~~OPlans (0%)
Encourage Pedestrian-Friendly Parking Facility Designs
Finding
A few plans - including those of Coronado, Imperial Beach, La Mesa, and
Lemon Grove - discuss the negative impact of off-street parking on the
pedestrian environment. These plans encourage reductions in parking facilities
through shared parking arrangements, off-site parking, and other techniques.
However, no plans address the design of parking facilities as a factor in
improving the pedestrian environment.
Best local Policy
No local example of this policy exists.
Ways Plans Could Be Strengthened
Plans could require or encourage attention to the impact of parking facilities
on pedestrians and suggest particular design features.
III. Observations and Conclusions
Observations
Cities everywhere are recognizing the need to re-establish walking,
bicyclin~ and transit as viable transportation modes. However, the means to do
so are controversial and uncertain since this requires changes in long-standing
practices. The same is true for the San Diego region as reflected by these
observations of the region's General Plans:
• The newer General Plans reflect a willingness by traditionally low-
density suburban communities to allow limited, compact, mixed-use
developments oriented to regional transit systems. These plans
effectively emphasize the design details necessary to encourage
alternative modes. However, jurisdictions appear less willing to
retrofit existing communities or to change long-standing
development and transportation standards for all new development.
Low-density development continues to be seen as the most desirable
building form.
4-12
Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design _ ~
-t
•
•t
•
t
t
•,
•
•,
p
•
•
•
•
•
•
Planning for future transit service is almost completely absent from
the General Plans. No future service is envisioned in new
development areas. This is probably due in part to the ways transit
is funded in the United States - justification of public expenditures
for transit requires demonstrating the demand for services first. This
contrasts with the European practice where transit lines are
conceived first and often built ahead of development.
The plans are striking in their lack of discussion on regional growth
trends and the growing scarcity of land as discussed in Chapter 1.
Many cities have recently reacted to growth pressure by reducing
allowable building density. This is an understandable reaction,
which may solve a very localized problem but which creates a larger
regional problem by pushing development to the outer fringe. If
faithful to their purpose, future General Plans will grapple with the
tension between continued growth, the consumption of land, and
the challenge of providing acceptable living situations and
municipal services to new residents.
The most innovative General Plans - Oceanside, Chula Vista, La
Mesa, and Imperial Beach - are also among the most recently
revised. Because every jurisdiction approved SANDAG's Land Use
Distribution Element.. it is assumed each community will adopt
more policies favoring alternative transportation modes as General
Plans are revised.
General Plan policies do not necessarily translate into reduced
emissions from automobiles. Some of the most innovative General
Plans were written by cities with extensive areas of low-density,
auto-oriented development. Creating new opportunities for
traveling without a car takes time as new development occurs.
General Plan policies favoring alternative modes often conflict with
policies favoring automobiles. For example, all jurisdictions have
adopted the regional traffic flow standard of Level of Service "C".
One ironic result of this standard is to spread uses out more, thus
increasing vehicle trips, travel distances, and congestion on
highways and arterials. What is required to address this problem is
more situation-specific application of traffic flow standards as
discussed in Chapter 2 (Strategy 10).
Almost every jurisdiction has one neighborhood that is pedestrian-
accessible since most have a town center or neighborhood developed
prior to World War II. Some of these have deteriorated with age.
Others have been fully restored and provide identity and pride to
the jurisdiction.
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Conclusion
The most recently revised General Plans suggest the region's jurisdictions
are cautiously considering allowing more compact development accessible to all
transportation modes. However, zoning and transportation standards applied
inflexibly will thwart the attempts of innovative developers to reduce vehicle
trips through pedestrian- and transit-oriented design principles. Particularly
where standards are well established or resulted from intense negotiations
between local interests, wholesale changes are not likely to occur quickly, if at all.
To resolve this dilemma, jurisdictions may wish to adopt the approach taken
by the City of San Diego. The City started by creating Transit-Oriented Design
guidelines. The basic parts of the Guidelines were incorporated in the zoning
code as a "floating" Urban Village Overlay Zone, discussed throughout this
document. This optional zone can be used by developers in designated areas to
develop more compact, pedestrian accessible neighborhoods with preset
standards. Suburban areas could utilize the same technique, applied to defined
areas. Once attractive neighborhoods built on these principles are available as
models, more can be built. Likewise, strategies applicable to existing areas can
be more Widely used once successful examples of their application exist and are
publicized.
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4f?tv Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
APPENDIX A
Land Use and Transportation Strategies
This section reprints the strategies presented in Chapter 2 without the
implementation options and discussion. It is a comprehensive "menu" of
strategies which could be incorporated into local projects, planning documents,
or growth strategies to reduce future vehicle trips.
land Use Strategies
Integrated Planning: Public Education/Participation
Strategy 1 Work to educate the public on the link between transportation,
land use, and air quality.
Strategy 2 Actively involve the public in all comprehensive planning
processes involving transportation infrastructure and land use.
Integrated Planning: Project Planning And Review
Strategy 3 Consider ways to increase non-automobile travel when planning
land uses or considering changes to the land use pattern of this
community.
Strategy 4 Ensure all local government submittals of transportation projects to
be included in regional transportation improvement programs are
consistent with local air quality goals and policies.
land Use: Development Pattern
Strategy 5 Encourage greater mixing of land uses to increase walking and
bicycling trips.
Strategy 6 Encourage the development of pedestrian-oriented communities,
both within and outside transit focus areas.
Strategy 7 Establish one or more central business cores for high-density and
mixed-use development.
Strategy 8 Encourage the location of large employment or shopping centers in
major bus transit corridors and within walking distance of planned
or existing transit stations.
Strategy 9 Preserve and enhance existing neighborhoods and commercial
districts having transit and pedestrian-oriented designs.
Strategy 10 Encourage infill and revitalization projects within urban residential
areas.
A-l
land Use: Public Facilities
Strategy 11 Provide public facilities and subsidize development fees to attract
investment to older areas exhibiting high transit ridership.
.Strategy 12 Encourage subdivision designs that are integrated with existing or
planned parks, libraries, schools, and other public facilities within
walking distance of residential uses.
land Use: Site Designs
Strategy 13 Encourage developers to design project sites to increase the
convenience, safety, and comfort of people using transit, walking,
or bicycling.
Strategy 14 Encourage all development projects proposed within 2,000 feet of
an existing or planned light rail transit, commuter rail, express bus,
or transit corridor stop to incorporate site design measures that
enhance access to the transit system.
Strategy 15 Review all plans for subdivision streets and lots, commercial sites,
public facilities, and multi-family residences to identify design
changes to improve access by transit, bicycle, and walking.
Strategy 16 Ensure that, wherever possible, new commercial developments
include convenient, comfortable, and safe pedestrian/bicycle
connections to adjacent properties.
Transportation Strategies
Transportation: Multi-Modal System
Strategy 17 Plan for a multi-modal transportation system that meets the
mobility needs of the community and improves air quality.
Strategy 18 Pursue and use local, state, and federal funds earmarked for
pedestrian, bicycle, and transit improvements.
Strategy 19 Encourage transit, pedestrian, and bicycle travel in existing
suburban neighborhoods by constructing additional pathways
where appropriate.
Strategy 20 Work with transit providers to plan for multi-modal transfer sites
that incorporate bicycle paths, bicycle parking, transit, pedestrian
access, and Park and Ride lots.
Transportation: Transit
Strategy 21 Coordinate with neighboring jurisdictions and transit providers to
plan land uses supporting existing transit services and to designate
future transit corridors.
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Tools for Reducing Vehicle Trips Through Land Use Design
Strategy 22 Specify site design and roadway features to enhance pedestrian and
bicycle access to transit in existing service corridors and those
designated for future transit service.
Strategy 23 Participate with regional transit agencies to identify potential light
rail or commuter rail corridors during General Plan updates and take
action to protect the right-of-way from incompatible development
Transportation: Bicycle Facilities
Strategy 24 Identify and correct gaps and obstacles in current and planned
bicycling routes.
Strategy 25 Encourage the extension of commuter bikeways to serve new
development.
Strategy 26 Ensure that upgrades to existing roads (widening, curbs, gutters, etc.)
include bicycle and pedestrian improvements where appropriate.
Strategy 27 Encourage new major activity centers, office, and commercial develop-
ment to provide secure bicycle storage and bicycle parking facilities.
Strategy 28 Consider unused portions of rights-of-way for use as bikeways and
pedestrian paths.
Transportation: Pedestrian Facilities
Strategy 29 Provide pedestrian facilities and amenities in new and existing
areas of development.
Strategy 30 Revise street design standards to deter speeding and encourage
pedestrian and bicycle access.
Strategy 31 Encourage the development of interconnected street networks,
where topography allows.
Strategy 32 Institute a program to prioritize and implement "traffic calming"
measures where appropriate to reduce traffic speeds and enhance
pedestrian and bicycle safety.
Transportation: Parking
Strategy 33 Ensure parking requirements do not significantly exceed demand,
while addressing spillover parking in local neighborhoods.
Strategy 34 Support pedestrian-oriented commercial areas in major activity
centers by appropriately pricing the municipal parking supply.
Strategy 35 Allow on-street parking, where compatible with existing land uses,
to buffer pedestrians from vehicle traffic.
Strategy 36 Encourage parking facility designs that enhance the pedestrian
environment.
Strategy 37 Reduce parking requirements where walking, bicycling, and transit
amenities reduce parking demand.
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