HISTORY AND PRESERVATION OF STAINED GLASS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST: THE POVEY BROS. GLASSCO. OFPORTLAND, OREGON by LESLIE S. HEALD A THESIS Presented to the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Historic Preservation and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science December 1999 ll "History and Preservation of Stained Glass in the Pacific Northwest: The Povey Bros. Glass Co. of Portland, Oregon," a master's thesis prepared by Leslie S. Heald in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science degree in the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Historic Preservation. This thesis has been approved and accepted by: Date Committee in charge: Donald Peting, Chair Fred Walters David Schlicker Accepted by: • ill © 1999 Leslie S. Heald lV An Abstract of the Thesis of Leslie S. Heald for the degree of Master of Science in the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Historic Preservation to be taken December 1999 Title: HISTORY AND PRESERVATION OF STAINED GLASS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST: THE POVEY BROS. GLASS CO. OF PORTLAND, OREGON Approved: ---- f------ This thesis examines the operations of the Povey Bros. stained glass studio, active in Portland, Oregon from 1888 to 1929, within the context of historic American stained glass. The design and manufacturing processes used by Povey Bros. are described in detail through the analysis of period texts, historic photographs and a probate inventory compiled in 1924. The thesis concludes with a case study of the First Christian Church in Eugene, Oregon, a 1911 church containing many Povey windows. The case study includes a condition assessment of the windows at the First Christian Church and recommendations for the preservation of historic stained glass windows. V CURRJCULUM VITA NAME OF AUTHOR: Leslie S. Heald PLACE OF BIRTH: La Jolla, California DATE OF BIRTH: August 21, 1971 GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon Williams College DEGREES AW ARD ED: Master of Science in Historic Preservation, 1999, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts in Anthropology and History, 1993, Williams College AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Historic Preservation Western History Historic American Stained Glass PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Preservation Consultant, Heald & Wright, Eugene, Oregon, 1998-present Preservation Consultant, Pinyerd & Associates, Eugene, Oregon, 1997-98 Stained Glass Intern, Historic Preservation Program, University of Oregon, Eugene,Oregon, 1997 Staff Archaeologist, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , Los Angeles, California 1994-95 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My thanks go out to the many people who helped me to complete this thesis. Committee members Don Peting, Fred Walters and David Schlicker gave valuable advice, answered many questions and reviewed draft chapters. Churches, museums and preservation organizations supplied me with information about their windows and/or the Povey Bros. company. They are too many to list here, but I would particularly like to thank the Oregon State Historic Preservation Office, the Bosco-Milligan Foundation, the Deepwood Museum, Cooper Union Institute Library, University of Oregon Special Collections and the Oregon Historical Society. For my case study, the staff at the First Christian Church in Eugene granted me access to their building and records and allowed me to examine their many windows. Most importantly, the Povey family supported and aided . me in my research, permitting me to interview them and sharing their memories of the family business. Special thanks go to Kermit Thompson for allowing me to review his mother's invaluable papers and extensive slide collection. Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Rene Vellanoweth, for seeing me through this project and for all his help and support. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ................ . ... ...... ... . .... . ................ ............ . ... . ....... 1 Research Questions ... .............. . .. . ... .. . .... ... .. ................ .. .................. 4 Methods . . .. ..... ..... ... . . .................. ... . . ... . ..... . .. . .......... .. . .. .. . .. ... .. . .... 6 II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ......................... .... ................. .... .. .. . ... 8 European Stained Glass ......................... .. ............ ....... ... .. ...... .......... 9 American Stained Glass ... .. .... ....... ............. ....... ... ............ ...... ..... ... 18 III. THE POVEY BROS. GLASS CO. OF PORTLAND, OREGON ... ...... .. .... ... .40 The Povey's Portland ................ ... ... ..... ................ .... .... .. ..... . ........ .40 The Povey Family .... ........ ......... .. .................................... . ...... ... ... 45 The Poveys Establish Themselves in Portland ................ ... ........... .. ...... .49 Ad verti sing ............... . ...................... .. ................. . . ..... . ... .. ........ .. 5 2 Community Ties .............. .. ........................................ . ..... . ......... . . 54 Spirituality ..... .. .. .. .. ... ........... ... . ....... ... .................... ... ..... . ..... ..... 56 Company History ...... .... . .... . ... . ........ . ... . ............. ... ..... . ................. 57 The Competition .... . ..... . ....... .. .. ... .. .. .... .... .. ...... .. ... .. ... .... ......... . ..... 61 The Final Years ..... ..... .. .. .... ..... . .... . ..... .. ........ . ..... .... . .. ......... .. .. ..... 65 IV. THE DESIGN PROCESS AT POVEY BROS. GLASS CO ....... .................. 70 Artistic Influences ............................ .... ......... ... ...... . ... ... .. . .... ... .. ... 70 Design Sources . .. . ........... .. ....... ... .. . .. .. . ........... .. . ... ... .. ............. . .... 76 Design Criteria . ... ... ... ... .... ... ...... .. ............ ..... . .. ... .... .. ................... 83 Design Process .. ........ .. ... .. ... . ... . ................................. .. .. . ... . ........ 93 V. THE POVEY WORKSHOP ............... ...................... .... ... ..... .. .... ...... 105 The Povey Building ................... ... .... ... ....................... ... ... .. ....... . 105 The Fabrication Process ... ... .................. .... ... ..... .... ..... .. .. .. ... ......... 116 Other Products .. ... ..... ...... ...... ... . . .. ......................... .... . .. . ... ... .. ... . 121 VI. PRESERVING POVEY GLASS .. ................... ..... .. .... ....................... 132 The State of Povey Windows .. ... .... .. ... .. .... ...... .. ............... ..... ....... .. 132 The First Christian Church in Eugene, Oregon - A Preservation Case Study ... 134 Preserving the Pacific Northwest's Legacy of Povey Glass ...................... 181 VII . CONCLUSION ................ .... . ............ ....... . ...... .. .... . .. .. . . .. . . . . ........ . 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ .... ... ...... ............. . . ...... .. ..... . . .. ......... .. . 189 Vlll LIST OFTA BLES Table Page 1. Books Found rn the Povey Studio ..... .................................................. 78 2. Povey Bros. Glass Inventory ........ . ....... ......... ..... ... ............................ 99 3. Inventory of Glass Paints and Stains ........................................ ........... 101 lX LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Model Home by Palliser, Palliser & Co .... ...... ..... ... .. .. ......... ........ .......... 28 2. Window Made of Opalescent Glass ........................ .............................. 31 3. Povey Bros. Landscape Window .. ........................................... ........... 33 4. Natural and Classical Elements ........................ .... .............. .............. ... 34 5. Art Nouveau Elements .......... ..... ........ ....... ....... ................................ 36 6. Portrait of George Povey ............................ ............ ................... ...... .48 7. The First Povey Studio ..................... .............. ................................ .49 8. The Portland Hotel.. .................. ... .. ..... .... .. ............. ... ................... .. 51 9. An Early Ad for Povey Bros .............................................................. 53 10. The John Povey House .................................................................... 55 11. The David Povey Memorial Window .................... ........ ... ................ .... . 56 12. The Second Povey Studio .................... ........ ..................................... 58 13. The Honor Rose Window ............ .... ............. .... ........ ........................ 61 14. David and Hannah Povey with Their Children .. ...... ............. .................... 67 15 . Portrait of David Povey .................................................................... 71 16. Holman Hunt's Light of the World ...................................................... 80 17. David Povey's Interpretation of Hunt's Painting ....................................... 80 18. The Governor Hotel. ............................... ... .. . ..... ... .. .. ... ..... .... .... ...... 82 19. Skylight at the Governor Hotel ........................... .. .............................. 82 20. Fish Transom from the John Povey House .............. .......... ..................... 85 21. Five Large Windows from the First Congregational Church in Portland ............ 86 22. The Mended Effect. ........ .. ..... ........ ... ..... ... ... ........ ...... ..... ..... ...... ..... 88 X Figure Page 23. Painted Bird at the Deepwood Museum .................... .. ... ............. ... ...... .. 89 24. Portrait of Christ. ............................... ...................... ...... ... .. .. ......... 90 25 . Povey Window from the Hoyt Hotel. .. ...... .......... ................... .... ... .. ... .. 91 26. Povey Bros. Watercolor. ...... .. ... .. .... ...... ................... ... ... .................. 95 27. Povey Bros. Cartoon .......................... . ........................................... 96 28 . Self Portrait by David Povey .. ....... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... ........ ... ... ..... ......... 103 29. Portrait of John Povey ... ................. ... ... .. ... ... .... ... ...... ... .. ... .... .. .... .. 106 30. The Third Povey Studio ....... .. .... .. ..... .. ......... .... .... .. ............ .. .. ... .... .. 107 31. The Povey Building .... ..... ... ... .. .. ....... ... ... ... ..... .. ... ... ....... .. ... ..... .. ... 108 32. Floor Plans for the Povey Building ........ ... ..... .. .. ..... .... ..... .. ...... ... ... .... . 110 33 . Employees Outside the Povey Building .......... .......... .. ..... ..................... 112 34. Interior of the Povey Office ... ............ ................ ....... ........ ..... .. ... ...... 114 35. Interior of the Design Studio ..... ................ ....... .. ... .. .................. ...... . 115 36. Interior of the Po vey Workshop ................. ...... ......... ......... ..... ..... ..... 115 37. Sheet Meta l Birds ..... .. ............. ... ..... ... . .. . ......... .. .. ... ...................... 119 38. Beveled Glass Windows .................. ........ .. ............................. ........ 122 39. One of the Largest Pieces of Beveled Glass Ever Made ......................... ..... 124 40. Stained Glass Lamp ........ .. ...... ....... ..... ........ .. ... ......... .. ... .... . ........ .. 128 41. Music Cabi net with Povey Glass .. .. ....... ....... ...... .... .. .. .. ........ .. ... ....... . 130 42. Povey Windows from Johnson Hall.. ..... ..................... ..... ... ..... .... ...... 13 3 43. The Firs t, First Christian Church .................... ...... .. .... ...... ....... .......... 138 44. The Second, First Christian Church .................. ..... ....... .... ........... .. .. ... 138 45 . The Current First Christian Church ....... .................. .... .. .... .. ............. ... 140 46. 1897 Window ...................... . ......... . . . .. . .. .. ..... ..... . ... . .... .. .............. 142 47. Povey Bros . Signature .. ... ......... ..... .............. ... ......... .. .... .. ... ... ........ 143 R~ P~ 48. Map of the First Christian Church ...................................................... 144 49. Christ with John the Baptist. ....................... ... .......... .......... ... .. ......... 146 50. Arts and Crafts Window ......... ............................ ... ... ......... .... .. ....... 147 51. The Woman at the Well. .. ....... ... ... .......... ... ...... .. ......... .... ................ 148 52. One of the Opalescent Badge Windows ................................................ 149 53. Damage to One of the 1897 Windows .......................... ...... ............... ... 151 54. Projectile Damage ......................................................................... 151 55. Cracked Inscription Plate ................................ ................................ 152 56. Cracked Putty ..... .......... .. .. . ............. ........................ . ..... . ............ . 154 57. Repaired Area in "We Adore Thee" .. ..... .... ................ .... ...... ......... ..... .. 155 58. Damaged Paint. .......... .. .... ... ... . .. ..... ... . .... .. ................................... 157 59. Frying ......................... ...... ................................ . .... . ... .......... . ... 15 8 60. Peeling Paint at the Elsinore Theater. ................. .. .. ... ........................... 158 61. Nameplate Bowing .. .. .... ... ... . .... . .... .......... .. ......... . .......... . .. .. ... . ..... . 160 62. Historic View Looking North on Oak Street. .. ............ ..... .. ...... .. ....... ..... 162 63. The Same View in 1999 .. .... ........ ....... ... ... .... .......................... .... ... .. 162 64. Protective Glazing Covers Sanctuary Windows ................... .. ............ ... .. 165 65. Acrylic Glazing Screwed into Frame ................................................... 165 66. Old Repairs .. .. . .... . .. ............ . ..... .... ................................... . ... .. .. ... 169 67. Povey Windows Reused at the First Christian Church in Corvallis .. .. .... .. ...... 175 68 . The First Baptist Church .... .. .... ....... .. ... ............... ....... .. .......... .. ... .. .. 184 69. Painting of Mt. Hood ..... ... ..... ......... ... ......... ............. . .. ... ...... . .. .... ... 185 70. Maritime Scene in the Pacific Northwest.. ........ ... ....... .. ... .. .... ..... ... ... ..... 186 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The term stained glass brings to mind cathedrals and castles, medieval saints and angels. Yet while stained glass is certainly an ancient art form, practiced for many thousands of years in Europe and the near East, it is also an art form which continued to develop over the centuries, changing in style and technique and waxing and waning in popularity. Most people automatically associate stained glass with Europe and particularly medieval Europe, but stained glass is also an important American art. Beginning in colonial times, when sheet glass itself was scarce in the American colonies, American artists were creating stained glass windows. Although the manufacture of stained glass remained fairly limited until after the Civil War, some very significant works were created during this early time period, and the framework was laid for the boom in American stained glass which began in the 1870s and 1880s. This period of popularity lasted well into the 1920s and saw the inclusion of stained glass in many thousands of homes, churches, public buildings and businesses throughout the country. Not only did stained glass become very popular with architects and the general public during this period, but the increased use of stained glass was also accompanied by uniquely American innovations in its design and manufacture. The scarcities of the war years and Great Depression, as well as the advent of modernism, brought about an end to this great era of American stained glass. Most stained glass that has been created since World War II has been in either the European Gothic or International Modern tradition. Therefore, the period from 1880 to 1920 represents a unique and significant period in the history of American stained glass, a time in which distinctive styles and technologies were developed and in which stained glass 2 assumed a particularly important role within the built environment of most American cities and towns. This thesis will examine the design and manufacture of turn of the century stained glass windows in the United States, using the Povey Bros. Glass Co. (Povey Bros.) of Portland, Oregon as a case study. While thousands of stained glass windows were produced in the United States, particularly during the period from 1880 to 1920, very little scholarly study has focused on this important American art form. What work has been done has tended to focus on stained glass studios located in the eastern United States, and virtually no work has addressed the development of stained glass in the American west. By examining the Povey Bros. studio, one of the earliest and most successful studios in the Pacific Northwest, I will address this data gap. Study of the Povey Bros. studio will include in-depth analysis of the methods the Poveys employed to design and manufacture stained glass windows. Understanding the ideas and techniques that went into the creation of a stained glass window in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and the social context in which they were created is key to our appreciation of these historic windows today. Attempts to analyze or preserve historic windows, like those made by Povey Bros., must first focus on their historic context and the aesthetic and technical issues that influenced their creators. With the exception of Cleota Reed's study of the Henry Keck stained glass studio of Syracuse, New York (1985), I could find no texts which examine the design and manufacture of windows in American studios. Analysis of the Povey Bros. studio, which opened 25 years earlier than the Keck studio, will supplement Reed's work by describing the techniques of stained glass as they occurred in a different time period and a different part of the country. In addition, I will also outline preservation concerns and methods as they apply to the types of stained glass windows made by Povey Bros. The windows made during the heyday of American stained glass are quickly reaching or already have reached 100 years of 3 age. Although stained glass, made primarily of glass and metal, may seem like a permanent, maintenance free material, it actually requires vigilant assessment and periodic repair. The 100 year mark is a sort of benchmark for stained glass. Windows reaching this age may experience deteriorating cames, failing putty or structural stress, and they require attention to ensure that they do not deteriorate and can last for another century. Preserving stained glass windows of this type is a crucial component of the overall preservation of late 19th and early 20th century architecture, particularly historic interiors. Stained glass is a highly visible and aesthetically important feature of any building, and it cannot be replaced or removed without significant impacts to the historic nature of a building. Whereas decorative stained glass plays an important architectural role in its own right, pictorial stained glass, or stained glass that is meant to tell a story, is even more overtly integral to conveying the message intended by the builders in the creation of a particular space. Losing the stained glass means losing a large part of this message and stifling the ability of the past to speak to the present. Although several excellent texts on the preservation of American stained glass exist (Sloan 1993; The Census of Stained Glass Windows in America 1988; Weber 1979; Vogel and Achilles 1993), none of these works have prefaced their discussion of stained glass conservation with examination of a particular studio or geographic area. Studying stained glass conservation within this regional context will bring out issues of meaning and place that are absent from more general works. Particularly in Portland, Oregon, where the Povey studio was active for 41 years, these windows constitute an important part of the city ' s architectural heritage and have unique .si gnificance because of their use throughout many of the city's most visible buildings. Historic preservation, in addition to being concerned with conservation of materials, focuses on preserving integrity, or the meaning of a building or object within a particular site. Examining stained glass preservation as it 4 relates to a particular studio, within a particular region, will allow this thesis to address these more elusive issues of integrity. Povey glass remains extremely popular in the Pacific Northwest, where the gray weather makes the beautifully colored light of stained glass particularly appealing. Public interest in the work of the Povey studio also seems to be strong. A large number of regional museums, public buildings, houses of worship and historic homes contain Povey windows, and the people who live in and visit these places are interested in knowing more about them. By presenting a history of Povey windows, artifacts that touch the lives of many Portlanders and other people in the Northwest, I hope to interest the public in preserving this important local architectural legacy. -This study will be useful to churches, business owners, public agencies and people who have Povey glass in their homes. While it will primarily have a regional appeal, the work may also provide a point of comparison for research on other studios or other areas of the country. Sharing data makes research valuable, and the results of this study will be presented to the Census of Stained Glass Windows in America and the Stained Glass Association of America, in hopes that it will contribute a Northwest perspective to national studies of American stained glass . Research Questions The introductory portion of this thesis will provide a background of the stained glass industry in the United States. Research questions central to this section will be: When and how did the stained glass industry develop in the United States, and how did it change over time? How did American stained glass differ from European stained glass? What was the social context for the production of American stained glass windows? And, what technologies and cultural attitudes brought about the boom in American stained glass that occurred from approximately 1880 to 1930? 5 Once this background has been established, the case study of the Povey Bros. Glass Co. will seek to describe in detail the operation of a tum of the century stained glass studio. First, a brief history of the studio will describe the arrival of David and John Povey in Portland, the establishment of the studio in 1888 and outline the function of the studio until its closure in 1924. Next, I will seek to establish how the Poveys created their window designs. What were the major influences on Povey Bros. stained glass? How did David Povey' s education at the Cooper Union Institute in New York City and his travels in Europe influence the designs he created? Were the Poveys influenced by, or work directly with, architects and/or window patrons? Did they turn to books of design or art to find inspiration? How often were designs re-used? Finally, the methods that the Poveys used to realize these designs will be described. What tools and techniques were used in making these stained glass windows? Who worked on the windows, and how was personnel organized within the workshop? Where did materials and supplies come from, and how were they used? All of these questions will seek to explain the inner workings of the studio and the qualities that made the Povey Bros. Glass Co. such a successful operation in its day. The preservation component of the thesis will be a guide for owners of Povey Bros. windows. It will seek to describe the special qualities of Povey windows and how they can best be preserved. In addition to examining the important physical aspects of preservation, such as bowing, cracking and paint deterioration, this thesis will attempt to address some of the more theoretical issues in stained glass preservation. How can the integrity of a stained glass window, within a building and site, best be preserved? Has the meaning of the window within its context changed over time, and how has this impacted the window? This section should provide stained glass owners with the knowledge necessary to make practical and thoughtful decisions about their windows. 6 Methods Development of an historical context will be based on a thorough review of the available literature. While the study of American stained glass has been somewhat limited up to this point in time, adequate sources exist to provide the background necessary for this thesis (Sloan 1993; Sturm 1982; Farnsworth 1995; Lloyd 1963; Wilson 1986; Frueh and Frueh 1998). These books provide information on the general history of the American stained glass industry (Lloyd, Sloan, Farnsworth), particular types of American windows (Wilson) and on the stained glass of comparative regions (Sturm, Frueh and Frueh). Analysis of the Povey Bros. studio will be based largely on Probate Records dating from 1924, the year David Povey died. These records provide a detailed inventory of everything that was in the studio at the time of his death. In addition they include several months worth of the studio's accounts, including names of clients, employees and suppliers. It is extremely fortunate that these Probate Records exist, as the studio's own records and drawings were reportedly discarded by the W.P. Fuller Co., which bought out the studio a few years after David Povey's death. Additional invaluable information about the studio comes from interviews with the Povey's grandchildren, who have been most gracious about sharing their family's heritage. I have had the good fortune to be granted access to the papers of Polly Povey Thompson, David Povey's youngest daughter. Polly Povey Thompson, who became a successful Portland architect, worked in the studio during her youth and served as the custodian of the studio's history all her life. She was planning to write a book about the history of the studio when she passed away in 1994. Her notes and papers have been extremely helpful in conducting this research. Preservation recommendations have been based in part upon established guidelines, including the Secretary of Interior's Standards and the Standards and Guidelines for the Preservation of Historic Stained Glass Windows, published by the Stained Glass 7 Association of America (1995). Additional information has come from a review of the literature on stained glass preservation, particularly Julie Sloan's excellent book, Conservation of Stained Glass in America (1993). Valuable input has also come from consultation with stained glass restoration professionals, most especially, David Schlicker, a Portland stained glass restorer and artist and member of my thesis committee. The discussion of stained glass preservation will center around an illustrative case study which will provide concrete examples of the issues discussed. I have chosen to focus on the First Christian Church, located at 1166 Oak Street in Eugene, Oregon for the purpose of this case study. This American Renaissance style church was designed by New York architect George W. Kramer in 1911. It contains numerous windows made by Povey Bros., as well as some 19th century windows from a previous church. The Povey windows at the First Christian Church are generally in good condition, but they are facing some of the issues typical of aging stained glass. In addition, they are an integral part of a landmark downtown building which is surrounded by a changing environment. The preservation analysis of the Povey windows at the First Christian Church will provide the final component of this thesis. 8 CHAPTER II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The craft of stained glass has existed for many thousands of years. Although generally associated with the rise of Christianity, stained glass was being produced far earlier than the time of Christ. Many books have addressed the ancient origins of stained glass and its rise in medieval Europe (Lee et al 1976; Lee 1977; Armitage 1959). This thesis does not attempt to restate the complete history of stained glass as presented in these works; the topic has already been adequately covered, and it is not the focus of this text. A brief summary of the origins and European history of stained glass is included, however, as a preface to the discussion of stained glass in America, which, at least in the beginning, was highly influenced by European trends. Understanding stained glass as it was practiced in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries necessi- tates a knowledge of stained glass as it first came to exist on the African and European continents. The term "stained glass" can cause some confusion. Some windows contain colored glass, but are not painted or "stained." Others are composed only of clear glass, but are laid out in a decorative pattern. For the purpose of this thesis, the term will be used in the most common sense in which it is understood today: that is, all windows composed of colored and/or painted glass and held together by a framework made of metal (called cames). This definition includes the "art glass" windows made in Victorian America, which contained colored and clear glasses with little or no paint, as well as the more heavily painted works typical of the Renaissance. It does not include "Queen Anne" sash, or colored glass set into a wooden frame, usually with small colored squares 9 surrounding a larger clear square. The term is also not applicable to the sorts of clear glass leaded windows found in many Tudor or English Cottage style homes, although some of these windows, particularly if they were beveled, would have been made in stained glass studios. European Stained Glass Ancient Origins Glass was first used by the Egyptians, Babylonians and Phoenicians around 3000 B.C. It is believed that the discovery of glass making evolved from the use of glass-like pottery glazes which melt and fuse when exposed to high temperatures. Glass was first used to make decorative and practical objects. This early glass was always colored because of impurities present in the raw materials: silica (sand, quartz or flint), flux (soda, potash) and a stabilizer (limestone). Glass was first used in window openings in the Near East, where small pieces of glass were set in alabaster, which was then carved to reveal these sparkling inserts. The Romans may have been the first to use stained glass as we understand it today, a network of glass held together by metal. Using glass imported from Egypt, they built small windows of glass and bronze in the first century B.C. The Rise of Christianity The Edict of Nantes, proclaimed by Constantine in A.D. 313, allowed the Chris- tian religion to be practiced freely. With this new tolerance, church buildings were constructed, and stained glass began to be incorporated into and associated with these Christian houses of worship. One of the earliest records describing stained glass win- dows dates to circa A.D. 337 and refers to the first church of Saint Paul in Rome; "in the windows are displayed glass of varied colors, as brilliant as the field of flowers in 10 Spring" (in Lloyd 1963: 17). As Christianity spread north and westward, so did stained glass. Descriptions from the 600s and 700s describe cathedrals with stained glass win- dows in England and France (Sloan 1995 :36). "With the elevation of church architecture to one of the highest forms of art and worship in the Romanesque age (the tenth and eleventh centuries), stained glass became increasingly more important" (Sloan 1995:36). Archaeologists have excavated fragments of stained glass which date back to the ninth and tenth centuries at Jarrow, England and Lorsch, Germany (Sloan 1995:35). The earliest surviving stained glass windows date from A.D. 1065 and are found in Germany at the Augsburg Cathedral. These five windows, depicting five prophets , are sufficiently advanced in design and manufacture to indicate that the craft of stained glass must have been well established for some years by the time that they were made. Gothic Stained Glass In circa 1140, Abbot Suger began construction of the Abbey Church of Saint Denis in France. This church was one of the very first Gothic buildings, and Abbot Suger is in large part credited with the transformation from Romanesque to Gothic architecture that occurred at this time. The Abbey Church of Saint Denis contained stained glass windows depicting a number of Biblical stories, including the discovery of the infant Moses in the rushes and Moses with the Brazen Serpent. By this time, the Catholic church had recognized light as a powerful theological symbol, and stained glass was used to transform and manifest light. Windows came to serve a didactic role, portraying the lessons of the catechism in powerful, visual forms; as Abbot Suger put it, the windows served "to direct thought by material means toward that which is immaterial" (in Hill et al. 1976: 15). The brilliant windows displayed biblical scenes and images in a dramatic way easily legible to the largely illiterate medieval population. 11 The use of the Gothic arch opened up large expanses of wall to stained glass. Rounded Romanesque arched windows had been relatively small. The pointed Gothic arch allowed for a much greater window opening, and stained glass was quickly enlarged and elaborated to fit the new size and shape. The new possibilities created by the Gothic arch in part account for the splendor of the stained glass what was created in the 12th and 13th centuries. Several important revolu tions in stained glass technology occurred during the Gothic era. Silver stain, a staining method originally invented in Egypt, began to be used by European stained glass artists at the beginning of the 14th century. This material, derived from a silver salt, colored glass a bright golden yellow when it was fired, while maintaining the transparency of the glass. Colored glass could also be changed from blue to green or red to orange by the use of silver stain, making a much wider range of colors available. Toward the end of the Gothic period, the technology of glass blowing was improved, allowing for the creation of larger pieces of glass. Larger pieces made fewer lead lines necessary in window construction. The invention of flashed glass, white glass coated with a thin layer of colored glass, also decreased the necessity of lead lines. Flashed glass was etched to reveal the white glass under the colored layer, creating two colors on one piece of glass. As paper making technology spread into Italy from Moorish Spain, several as- pects of stained glass design were revolutionized. Cartoons, or the drawings which were used as templates for stained glass windows, had previously been drawn on whitewashed boards. The paper patterns were much more easily stored, transported and re-used. The growing use of paper and the invention of printing presses also had a tremendous impact on stained glass. Early books like the Biblia Pauperum (Poor Man's Bible) and Specu- lum Humanae Salvationis (Mirror of Human Salvation) contained many woodcut illustra- 12 tions which came to serve as sources for stained glass designs (Lee et al. 1976). These books and preserved patterns created a more standardized set of sources for stained glass designs. Renaissance Stained Glass Many artists and art historians are of the opinion that the quality of stained glass design and manufacture suffered a great decline from the mid 1300s through the period of the Renaissance. Several factors contributed to this supposed decline, including the rise of nation states, the weakening power of the church, the decimation caused by the Black Death and, beginning in the 15th century, the advent of the Renaissance. Renaissance art stressed realism, in contrast to the abstract qualities of Gothic art. During this period, stained glass evolved to reflect this new proclivity. Rather than the small, brightly col- ored pieces of glass used in Gothic windows, Renaissance windows used larger, clearer pieces which were much more heavily painted. Painting the glass allowed artists to create the more realistic sort of pictures which were becoming the standard. Stained glass became closely linked to portrait painting, and many windows were produced by artists who were primarily painters instead of by glaziers who worked only in glass. Art historians generally feel that the works created by these painters were ill suited to the medium of glass. The transmission and transformation of light is a large part of the special beauty of stained glass, and these heavily painted windows were designed, like any painting, to be viewed in reflected light rather than transmitted light. This transformation of stained glass was made possible by the invention of col- ored enamel paints in the 16th century. While medieval craftsmen had used a sort of glass paint made of iron filings, this came in only a blackish brown color and had prima- rily been used to outline facial details . The new enamels, made with iron sulfate or 13 sienna earth mixed with ground glass, produced a wider range of colors. These paints could be applied to glass like oil paints, and then fired to fuse the paint to the glass. The use of enamel paints made much greater detail possible, contributing to the trend toward realism. Glaziers gradually moved away from the use of the brilliant Gothic glass colors and opaque stains as enamel paints became popular. With enamel paints, lead lines were also less critical to the design (Sloan 1995:38). The 16th century invention of the dia- mond glass cutter further decreased the necessity for lead lines by allowing for the easy cutting of large pieces of glass. Prior to this invention, glass had been cut by laying a hot piece of metal across a line of water on the glass. The water conducted the heat into the glass, and the temperature change caused a fracture. This method was highly unreliable and more often than not resulted in small, shattered pieces. The diamond cutter was much more accurate, and windows were increasingly constructed of a smaller number of larger pieces of glass. "As an entire scene could be painted in colors on a single piece of glass, all the old techniques of flashing, abrading, cutting and leading were rendered unnecessary" (Sturm 1982: 11). This trend towards an emphasis on paint rather than glass continued into the Baroque era of the 17th and early 18th centuries, a time berated as "the complete demise of the stained glass craft" (Lloyd 1963:29). Other factors contributed to this "demise," namely, the rise of Protestantism and the Reformation. Many Protestant groups associ- ated stained glass with papism and decadence. Not only did the manufacture of new windows slow during this time, but many older windows were destroyed by religious reformers. In England in 1646, Oliver Cromwell ordered troops to destroy church win- dows and stopped the production of any new stained glass. In 1636, during the course of the Thirty Years War, Cardinal Richelieu ordered the destruction of the palaces of Lorraine, including the glass shops where most of Europe's glass was produced. The 14 resulting lack of materials greatly contributed to the continuing decline in the stained glass craft. Nineteenth Century Stained Glass: The Gothic Revival Not until the 19th century would stained glass be revived. In the intervening centuries, the craft was largely unpracticed and forgotten. However, in the beginning decades of the nineteenth century a growing interest in Gothic architecture, coupled with a trend toward the romantic and picturesque and away from the classical and realistic, would lead to a renewed interest in stained glass. The architectural style known as the Gothic Revival became popular throughout Europe, championed by theorists and artists like John Ruskin, William Morris, A.W.N. Pugin and Eugene Viollet-le-Duc. These thinkers generally favored a return to what they saw as their country's native architecture, the Gothic architecture of the middle ages. They criticized the classically inspired archi- tecture which was so popular in the 18th century as coldly rational and ill suited to northern climates and architectural needs. Great debates raged amongst proponents of the different styles, with very seriously written texts like Heinrich Hubsch's (1828) In What Style Should We Build? arguing the advantages and disadvantages of Gothic versus Greek. Advocates of the Gothic, like Hubsch, felt that it could more flexibly meet mod- em needs for larger buildings and that its steeply gabled roofs and large pointed window openings were more suitable to northern Europe's rainy and dark climate. A.W.N. Pugin's (1836)Contrasts: or a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, and Similar Buildings of the Present Day: Shewing the Present Decay of Taste: Accompanied by Appropriate Text was an even more biting attack on the classical. Pugin, a devout Catholic, equated Gothic architecture with Christianity and morality and used the term "Christian Architecture" to describe the Gothic. Classical 15 architecture, in addition to being pagan, was imported and foreign. Gothic architecture, on the other hand, was considered to be a native art form (White 1962:31). An organization known as the Cambridge Camden Society was extremely influen- tial in popularizing the revival of Gothic architecture. Founded in 1836 by a group of Cambridge undergraduates, the Cambridge Camden Society dedicated itself to "ecclesiology," or the study of church architecture. As the Society was a devoted propo- I nent of Gothic architecture, this primarily meant the study of Gothic church architecture. Despite its humble beginnings, the Society grew rapidly and could boast over 500 mem- bers by the middle of the century. Members were encouraged to visit medieval churches and record them using special inventory forms call "Church Schemes" which required descriptions of all church features , including windows; the results were then compiled and analyzed for common trends and unique features. The Society operated a successful journal, The Ecclesiologist, which published the results of these studies. This publication and others put forth by the Society, including A Few Words to Church Wardens on Churches and Church Ornaments, described the Society's highly opinionated view of church building and church restoration. The Gothic, of course, was recommended above all other styles, and, in particular, the Society's version of Gothic architecture was pro- moted. The Cambridge Camden Society equated this version of building with morality and Christianity and was quite successful in promulgating this view to the clergy and the public. The Society was also concerned with the decorative arts used within churches and devoted some of their studies to stained glass. Glaziers were encouraged to turn to ancient windows for models and to recreate their work as exactingly as possible (White 1962:188-189). The influence of the Cambridge Camden Society quickly spread to other countries, and in the United States, where it came to be known as the Ecclesiological Society, it would have a similar but less overwhelming influence on 19th century archi- tecture and arts (White 1962). 16 At the same time that the renewed interest in Gothic architecture was focusing attention on stained glass, the birth of the restoration movement was creating further interest in this art form. Prior to the 19th century, old buildings had for the most part been altered or destroyed as needs demanded. In the 19th century, the romantic move- ment had a strong current of antiquarianism. Popular authors like Sir Walter Scott, John Britton and Thomas Rickman created interest in the medieval churches and castles • scattered across England. Newly created organizations like the Cambridge Camden Society and the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Buildings, which was founded by William Morris, advocated for the preservation and restoration of these monuments. In France, the architect, artist and writer, Eugene Viollet-le-Duc began studying and restor- ing medieval cathedrals during the 1840s. His Dictionnaire raisonne de l 'architecture francaise, published in 1868, included a lengthy discussion of stained glass, and French stained glass artists like Thomas Francois Gerent, who worked with Viollet-le-Duc, soon began attempting to recreate the stained glass windows of the medieval period. While the 19th century concept of restoration was somewhat less careful than the modem under- standing of the term, the idea of respecting the original intentions of ancient builders was a new and important trend in architecture, and it had a significant impact upon the pro- duction of Gothic Revival stained glass. The Arts and Crafts movement was an important 19th century development in architecture and decorative arts that grew in part out of the Gothic Revival. In addition to being fascinated with ancient buildings, artists and architects were increasingly interested in medieval craft practices. In reaction to the growing industrialization and mechaniza- tion of Europe, members of the Arts and Crafts movement resolved to revive handcrafting. William Morris has been recognized as one of the key leaders of this movement. In addition to being a painter and graphic designer, Morris was very inter- 17 ested in stained glass, and his studio, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co., later Morris and Co., produced some of the most important and influential glass of the 19th century. Many of Morris' windows were designed by the Pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Bume- Jones. Burne-Jones' elegant and linear style drew on Gothic forms but used them in a most innovative way, and the windows that he produced founded an original 19th century manner. While Morris' large and successful studio sometimes employed the mass pro- • duction techniques abhorred by the Arts and Crafts movement, "it was mostly due to Morris that the importance of the glazier in the creation of a stained glass window was once more recognized, and under his influence leading became once more part of the design" (Armitage 1959:60). As Gothic-inspired architecture became increasingly popular in the 19th century, interest in other arts and crafts associated with the medieval period grew as well. Natu- rally, as one of the most visually prominent architectural arts, stained glass became necessary to the creation of Gothic Revival buildings. Initially, this renewed interest in stained glass was met with a number of problems. Virtually no artists were practicing the craft, and even fewer remembered the techniques of medieval stained glass manufacture. In addition, glass that matched the deep and beautiful colors of the medieval pot metal glass no longer existed. Fortunately, a British lawyer and amateur archaeologist named Charles Winston applied himself to this difficulty. Winston became intrigued with the idea of reproducing medieval glass exactly. In the early 1850s, he submitted samples taken from English cathedrals to the Royal College of Chemistry for chemical analysis. Then, he had the Whitefriars Glass Works use these chemical formulas to recreate the medieval recipe. By 1853, he was producing and selling "antique glass," and the prob- lem of appropriate materials had been solved (Harrison 1980:22-23). While many 20th century critics have dismissed Victorian stained glass as vapid and sentimental, the windows created in the 19th century represented very important 18 changes in stained glass design and manufacture. The renewed interest in Gothic archi- tecture, the restoration movement and the production of pot metal glass all contributed to the revival of stained glass as a significant art form. The popular idea that the secrets of medieval glass had been lost and that equally good contemporary glass could not be produced might have been true of the beginning, but it was certainly not so by the end of the nine- teenth century, and in fact today the range of colour and quality of glass far exceeds anything that the medieval craftsman was able to produce. It must in fairness be emphasized that the greatest advance was achieved in the despised Victorian era. (Armitage 1959:60) The innovations of the 19th century allowed stained glass to grow and flourish. While in the period from 1800 to 1830 there were fewer than a dozen glass artists working in Britain, the 1841 census recorded 108 and the 1851 census 531 (Harrison 1980: 12). The growth of the industry peaked around 1870, but it continued in popularity and success until the 1920s. The large numbers of windows produced during this time period of course vary in quality, but many could be considered great works of art, and all are representative of an extremely important period in the history of the craft of stained glass. American Stained Glass While the American stained glass industry took some time to become established, by the 19th century American glass makers were producing large numbers of stained glass windows which rivaled European windows in quality of design. The American industry was initially highly influenced by European stained glass trends, and in fact many windows were imported from Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. But by the end of the 19th century, U.S. studios were producing stained glass windows that were uniquely American in inspiration and were supplying the majority of windows for the domestic market. 19 Early Glass Industry in the United States While glassmaking was one of the earliest enterprises undertaken in the American colonies, it took several centuries for a successful stained glass industry to become established. Glassworks were founded at Jamestown and by the Spanish friars at Puebla de los Angeles, Mexico in the 16th and early 17th centuries (Lloyd 1963:29). The Ameri- can Revolution disrupted the industry, but, once freed from British restrictions, glassmaking and other American busine ses began to grow. The War of 1812 further reduced foreign influence and encouraged native industry, allowing glassmaking centers to grow up around the Monongahila River near Pittsburgh, and in New Jersey, Maryland and New England. By the 1830s and 40s, many different types of glass were being produced domestically, creating the supplies necessary for stained glass (Wilson 1986). Although glass was being produced in limited quantities during the colonial era, almost none of it was used to make stained glass. The time period in which the Americas were colonized occurred largely before the revival of stained glass on the European continent, so naturally settlers coming from Europe were not especially interested in stained glass. Settlers were more concerned with producing bottles and other utilitarian objects. In addition, many of the early colonists were Puritans or members of other Protestant sects, groups that favored austerity in church design. Not until the economic and social changes of the 19th century would stained glass become an important Ameri- can art form. Origins of the American Stained Glass Trade While colonists from England were largely uninterested in stained glass, Dutch settlers did bring with them a tradition of stained glass manufacture which they maintain in the New World. Unlike most of the other countries in Europe, the Netherlands had 20 continued to produce stained glass during the 16th and 17th centuries, mainly in the form of heraldic crests. In 1638, a Dutch settler named Evert Duycbnck came to New Amsterdam and set up a stained glass business producing these family crests. This is the earliest known stained glass made in the colonies. A few other glass makers set up glass shops near the original one established by Duyckinck in an area that came to be called "Glassmakers Street." Most of this colonial-era stained glass, virtually none of which still exists today, consisted of painted heraldic crests in the European mode or more vernacular windows which were usually geometric and contained many heavy roundels (Lloyd 1963). Even though the American Revolution disrupted the glass industry, the elimina- tion of the British Trade Acts allowed glass manufactures to expand and thrive after the war. Most churches still imported stained glass windows from Europe, and American craftsmen were primarily responsible for installing this imported glass or creating small leaded pieces of clear and colored glass. However, as the glass manufacturing industry grew, providing the necessary materials for stained glass mabng, and as the influence of the Gothic Revival began to be felt in the United States, American glaziers began produc- ing more and larger works in stained glass (Lloyd 1963). William Jay Bolton is generally recognized as the first significant American stained glass designer. A self taught stained glass artist, Bolton's first windows were made for his family's chapel in Pelham, New York in 1843. This was just 14 years after English artists began experimenting with the revival of medieval styles. Possibly as early as 1844, Bolton received a commission to design and build 50 windows for the Church of the Holy Trinity in Brooklyn. The architect of this church, Minard Lafever, was known for both his classical and medieval designs and chose to build the Church of the Holy Trinity in the Perpendicular Gothic style. Bolton's windows used elaborate medieval 21 tracery and pot metal glass, but the figures were designed in the 16th century "Cinque Cento" style. As James Sturm points out, "Bolton helped synthesize the Gothic Revival style in glass, which consists basically of a combination of late medieval and Renaissance techniques and styles" (1982:21). The subjects spanned Biblical history and included a number of "Jesse Tree" windows which depict the ancestors of Christ seated in a large tree. Bolton probably completed this commission around 1848, a remarkably short period of time considering the number of windows and the fact that he and his brother John probably built all of the windows themselves. Bolton accepted only a few other commission before he decided to enter the clergy and end his career in stained glass (Clark 1992). Stained Glass and American Eclecticism, 1880 to 1930 The period from 1880 to 1930 has been referred to as the American Renaissance, a term implying both historicism and artistic creativity, nationalism and freedom of thought. It was a time of growing wealth and increasing interest in art and architecture. Designers continued to draw from historical styles but did so with a new breadth and freedom, which resulted in the creation of a multiplicity of unique styles. This period has also been referred to as the age of eclecticism. While some 20th century critics, fixated on the modem ideal of originality, have looked down upon this time as overly romantic and historicist, at the time "to choose the best from all cultures, even our own, was seen as a way to create a great American civi}jzation" (Pilgrim 1979:111) During this time period, the American stained glass industry blossomed. With the invention of a unique type of multi-colored glass, called opalescent glass, in the late 1870s, stained glass artists began creating completely new types of stained glass win- dows, windows which were distinctly American. Stained glass became immensely 22 popular with builders and with the public, and as Julie Sloan says, "between 1880 and about 1910, opalescent windows were ubiquitous in American architecture, found in virtually every building from the tenement to the mansion, from the courthouse to the cathedral" (1990:42). The windows that were created during this time period, many of which are still in their original locations, constitute a highly significant historic resource. Unfortunately, until very recently very little study of these windows has been done • (Wilson 1986; Farnsworth 1995; Frueh and Frueh 1998). As noted by the Census of Stained Glass Windows in America, an organization devoted to recording historic Ameri- can stained glass, "it is primarily from the years 1870 to 1930 that thousands of windows need to be surveyed, as these are the windows that are most endangered and for which we have the least documentation" (Farnsworth 1995: 8). A Philadelphia pilot study con- ducted for the Census found 43 pre-1870 windows, 2,808 windows dating from 1870 to 1930, 260 windows dating from 1931 to 1945, and 543 windows dating from 1946 to 1994 (Farnsworth 1995). As illustrated by this study, the period from 1870 to 1930 was the most prolific era of American stained glass. Windows built during this time span by artists like Louis Comfort Tiffany, John La Farge, J.R. Lamb Studios, Povey Bros. and many other American glassmakers, are not only numerous, but they are also unique art forms reflecting a distinctive cultural and architectural period, one especially rich in historic allusions and creative interpretations of the past and the present. Society and Culture at the Tum of the Century Certain changes in the American economy as well as changes in culture and artistic tastes facilitated the enormous growth of the American stained glass industry during the late 19th century. This was a time of rapid societal and demographic change. The closing frontier and the growth of industry brought about a shift in the character of 23 the United States, which until this time had still been largely rural. Cities grew fivefold between 1870 and 1910, reflecting the rising population and growing urbanism. Numer- ous inventions, including the telephone, electricity, and indoor plumbing, dramatically changed the way people lived. During this time, the U.S. was recognized as a world power as growing industrialism and the appearance of large corporations made the U.S. a wealthy and powerful nation. I The American public became increasingly cosmopolitan during this time. City living and growing wealth created interest in cultural events, and institutions like librar- ies, museums and universities all flourished. World travel became more possible, and the elite members of society who were able to voyage to Europe and other parts of the globe returned with an admiration for European and Oriental art and an interest in the Italian Renaissance. Artists also traveled to France, Italy and England to study the works of old masters and contemporaries. Architecture became increasingly professional, with stu- dents traveling to the Ecole des Beaux Artes in Paris and attending the first architectural schools in the U.S. The very wealthy, "robber baron" class which arose during this time was the most able to patronize artists and architects, but the general public was also becoming more educated about architecture and interior design as pattern books and other popular publi- cations became available. As H. Weber Wilson points out of the late 19th century, "it was a time that saw the formation of that most American of concepts: consumerism" ( 1986: 18-19). The rise of a fairly well off middle class made the construction of family homes a more realistic dream for many Americans. New methods of construction like the balloon frame and the use of materials like iron, glass and terra cotta made building less expensive and increased the array of decorative materials from which people could choose. "The desire to have all the appurtenances of the extremely wealthy and to imitate 24 the new styles of decorative art filtered down to all levels of society" (Pilgrim 1979:144). Stained glass was clearly one of those appurtenances. At this time, "colored glass be- came an affordable commodity rather than an expensive luxury" (Wilson 1986:4). More and more people began to include stained glass in their homes, and stained glass studios and even mail order companies expanded to accommodate this demand. An increase in demand for stained glass was also fueled by a surge in church • building that occurred after the Civil War. Memorial windows became fashionable, and wealthy donors contributed money for their installation in churches (Farnsworth 1995:7). "The more liturgical denominations - Catholic, Episcopalian, Lutheran - lead the way and religious art came into its own" (Lloyd 1962:54 ). The Ecclesiological Society, like the Cambridge Camden Society in England, advocated particular types of church architecture and art, including stained glass. Churches built during this period, while still influenced by European trends, were clearly within the eclectic American tradition that was then being established. Economic factors clearly also had an impact upon the production of stained glass. Growing American wealth, both in the upper and middle class allowed consumers to purchase stained glass. At the same time, rising tariffs on imported European stained glass, which had previously dominated the market, allowed American studios to compete more successfully. A tariff of 45% on imported stained glass was instituted in 1883, substantially raising the 30% tariff established in 1861 (Lloyd 1962:102-103). The building boom which occurred in the 1880s-90s, in combination with these tariffs, al- lowed the American stained glass industry to become firmly established. All of these changing economic and cultural conditions resulted in a climate that was highly conducive to the production of popular architectural art. It was a period "when an abundance of money, manpower, and materials resulted in spectacular national 25 growth;" this abundance in turn contributed to creation of "delightful, brilliant glass- work" which was a "manifestation of the uninhibited, eclectic American spirit of the last half of the nineteenth century" (Wilson 1986:1). Stained Glass in Victorian and Eclectic Architecture The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the production of some of the most diverse expressions of American art and architecture ever created. Buildings were con- structed in a myriad of different styles, greatly diversifying and enriching American streetscapes. During this time, architecture became increasingly professionalized, with more architects traveling to Europe for training. The American Architect and Building News was first published in 1876 and provided a means for American architects to share ideas. Of course many structures were still being built by more vernacular builders or even by owners with the help of architectural pattern books. The houses and buildings they constructed ranged from interpretations of historical styles to more modem im- pulses. What are referred to as the Victorian styles, Stick, Shingle, and especially Queen Anne, were characterized by a free use of a variety of different styles. A Queen Anne house might have contained colonial, Gothic and Italianate elements, creatively synthe- sized into an unique building type. "To be Gothic, to be classical , to be authentic at all was not the point. Rather, it was to create something comfortable and charming, using anything and everything that served the purpose" (Kidney 1974:6). The Victorian styles remained popular from about 1860 until 1900, but around 1880, a more exacting type of revival architecture began gaining popularity. These so called "Eclectic" styles included revivals of Anglo-American, English, French and Medi- terranean period houses. While a multiplicity of styles might be referenced, dwellings no 26 longer tended to combine styles. Rather, variety was manifested on a neighborhood level where a Tudor Revival might be built next to a Colonial Revival or a Pueblo Revival house. Beginning with large houses built by European trained architects for wealthy clients, Eclecticism gained momentum with the Columbian Exposition of 1893, and was soon being used in middle class houses (McAlester and McAlester 1984). Yet another important architectural trend began around 1900 with the introduction of Prairie and Arts and Crafts styles. While philosophically based upon medieval archi- tecture, these styles represented a more modern shift towards modestly sized, well de- signed homes built with natural materials (McAlester and McAlester 1984). Strangely enough, all of these styles, with the possible exception of the Colonial Revival, proved to be compatible with stained glass. Beginning with the high style mansions built for the very wealthy, stained glass would be increasingly included in domestic architecture, until even very modest houses constructed by local builders or from pattern books featured stained glass. One particular type of building that emerged during this time period was the "urban palace," enormous mansions which were home only to the very wealthy, but which clearly influenced the construction of more modest dwellings . Enormous wealth, the identification with the Renaissance, and the 'new art idea' combined to create a new type of American domestic structure at the end of the 1870s - the urban palace. These large mansions offered new opportunities for the architect, artist, decorator and patron to explore freely, without concern for cost, the new directions in art and design. (Pilgrim 1979: 117) These urban palaces were not only immensely grand in exterior appearance, they also contained the most sumptuous ornament available, including stained glass. The W.H. Vanderbilt mansion, commissioned in 1878, contained La Farge windows described by Edward Strahan, biographer of the palace, as 27 ... unique in the house as a specimen of designing contributed from Ameri- can soil, in the strict taste of the best Renaissance models, but springing from native industry instead of being a trophy gathered from some old centre of foreign art. In such examples does the house justify itself as a sort of educational force, a college for the development of the higher crafts. (in Pilgrim 1979: 123) The use of stained glass in fabulous palaces like the W.H. Vanderbilt mansion inspired more modest builders to use it as well. The growing number of architectural pattern books published during the 1870s and 1880s helped to interest the public in architecture and home building. These books, usually written by an architect or designer, included house plans and descriptions of needed materials and costs. The plans primarily focused on modestly priced but stylish middle class homes, although sometimes plans for churches or outbuildings were also included. Books like Bicknell'.S' Victorian Buildings published by A.J. Bicknell & Co. (1878) and Palliser's Model Homes by Palliser, Palliser & Co. (1878) include plans for a variety of Second Empire, Italianate and Queen Anne homes, reflecting the democratiza- tion of house styles that occurred with the rise of the American middle class. Many of these plans suggested the use of stained glass. A typical Palliser design for a large two and a half story Queen Anne/Eastlake house (Figure 1), which could be built for a cost of $2,500, includes the following window treatment: The upper sashes are filled with stained glass, all round the sash being very small lights of different colored glass, and the center light has the figure of a flower in white on blue ground. This manner of treating win- dows must be seen to be appreciated, and no blinds are used except on the lower sash, and when the blinds are closed it gives a mellow tone to the light of the interior. (Palliser, Palliser & Co. 1878:40) Pattern book descriptions such as this reflect, and helped to inspire, the growing popular- ity of stained glass and its increased use in domestic structures during the 1870s and 1880s. 28 • • ' ,.:. _ ..· . .. ~>- ·J-•- .~. . • ·.·-·· {{ . .{ ~. ,-:. f ??.~-.:~~ \ f;~. 7£:t~--::"- ~til} - -_J;.?;i.. '' "' _r ~~~..!- ~~~ .. ~~=<~-":. - . - ---- Figure 1. This model home, by Palliser, Palliser and Co. featured numerous colored glass windows including Queen Anne sash and etched flashed glass (Palliser, Palliser & Co. 1878:40). Stained glass was also promoted by popular home decorating publications. In October of 1879, Harpers New Monthly magazine published a lengthy article advocating the use of stained glass in the home: Among these efforts for obtaining lasting rather than ephemeral embellish- ment, and for rendering "ornament conducive to instruction," it need occasion no surprise to learn that the ancient and long-approved method of decoration furnished by painted glass is again taking its proper rank. Certainly the translucence of glass enables the art collector, if he carefully and fittingly uses it, to surpass all the other decorations of his room in special attractiveness. The window being the opening to admit light, is always the first attraction to catch the eye. The deep warmth of the ruby, the tender contentment of the sapphire, the glow and coruscation of the amethyst, the brilliance and cheerfulness of the emerald, the glitter and 29 distinctiveness of the diamond, may all be summoned to the satisfaction of the least cultivated eye by the infinite wealth of the glass stainers art. (in Lloyd 1962:56) Articles like this one reflect the growing popularity of stained glass for domestic, rather than just church architecture. The domestic architecture of the period, with its rich surfaces, historical allusions and whimsical and romantic character was particularly suited to stained glass. Commercial buildings also began to include stained glass. As H. Weber Wilson says, "it soon became apparent to both builders and merchants that the selective installa- tion of mosaic or other decorative glass represented an excellent opportunity to advertise to a large audience in a very urbane manner" (1986:94). By 1900, almost any type of American building, built in any one of the multiple popular styles could, and often did, contain stained glass. The Emergence of Opalescent Glass The developments in stained glass that began in the 1870s have been viewed as one of the greatest American contributions to art (Pilgrim 1979: 128). During this time period, materials, manufacturing techniques and methods of design were all revolution- ized, leading to the creation of entirely new types of stained glass windows. The catalyst for this revolution was the invention of opalescent glass by John La Farge and Louis Comfort Tiffany. Thanks to these two men, stained glass not only underwent a dramatic change in style, but it also moved out of the realm of church art to become an extremely popular secular art form. As Julie Sloan says, During the late nineteenth century in America, the art of stained glass underwent the most sensational technical and aesthetic revolution it has ever experienced: the discovery of opalescent glass and its use through plating in stained glass windows. The change was so far reaching that it made one man's name a household word and allowed stained glass win- 30 dows to become part of virtually every building constructed in the last twenty years of the nineteenth century. (1990:39) Although opalescent glass was very rarely used by European artists, American studios rapidly took up this new invention. Beginning its reign in the early 1880s, opalescent glass would continue to rule the American stained glass scene for 30 to 40 years. While Louis Comfort Tiffany is certainly the best known figure associated with opalescent glass, and probably with American stained glass is general, an artist named John La Farge also greatly contributed to the creation of opalescent glass. Like Tiffany, La Farge was a successful painter who later turned to stained glass work. The work of both artists has been termed American Impressionism, a school of painting which particu- larly focused on expressing light and color. In 1873, La Farge traveled to Europe and became interested in the stained glass being made by the Pre-Raphaelites in England. He felt that their designs had reached their creative limit, and he began to think of new methods for creating stained glass. By 1875, he was making his own windows and experimenting with different varieties of glass. The opalescent glass he created blended colored and milky white glass to create a translucent glass with many subtle color varia- tions. Opalescent glass had been used previously in glass objects, but it had never before been used in stained glass. La Farge applied for a patent in 1879 for his new methods "to obtain opalescent and translucent effects in windows" (in Sturm 1982:38). At the same time, Louis Comfort Tiffany was also working on creating new types of glass for stained glass windows. Tiffany began making glass tiles in the mid-1870s, using them for wall mosaics and decorative lamps. In 1876 he made his first stained glass windows for Sacred Heart Church in Manhattan, using large pieces of bull's-eye glass. A window he built in 1878 for the St. Mark's Church in Islip Long Island was the first to contain opalescent glass. Tiffany went on to form a large studio and produce thousands of stained glass windows. As the son of successful jeweler Charles Lewis 31 • Figure 2. This window, designed by Povey Bros. for the United Presbyterian Church in Albany, Oregon, is made almost entirely of milky, opales- cent glass. Tiffany, L.C. Tiffany had large amounts of capital at his disposable, perhaps accounting for his commercial success over the less wealthy La Farge. Both because of his business acumen and the ingenuity of his designs, Tiffany "probably had more influence on art and stained glass in particular than anyone else during the late Victorian period" (Lloyd 1962:56). The glass created by Tiffany and La Farge had unique characteristics which made it very different from traditional antique or pot metal glasses. Opalescent glass is semi- opaque rather than translucent and presents quite a different appearance in both reflected and refracted light. It also contains gradations of color which allowed for the elimination of paint from the design (Figure 2). Subtle changes of color within the glass itself were 32 used to create all sorts of impressions, and paint was generally used only for facial fea- tures and hands. Samuel Bing, champion of Art Nouveau, gave a beautiful description of Tiffany's opalescent glass in 1898: For years Tiffany gave himself up to these engrossing researches, and gradually succeeded in making a glass which answered the requirements to a wonderful degree. By the blending of colour he causes the sheet of glass to convey the effect of a cloudy sky, or of rippling water, or again the delicate shades of flowers and foliage, for drapery, in all its truth of suppleness and outline, he operates in a most ingenious manner upon the material whjle it is cooling, pulling into it an infinite variety of folds and wrinkles. (1898 :210) The folded glass to which Bing refers is called drapery glass, and it was another 19th century innovation in glass . This type of glass, usually made of opalescent glass, was bent and wrinkled to produce a highly textured glass that looked much like fabric. La Farge and Tiffany also created depth and color variation by adding multiple layers of glass to their compositions. Called "plating," this technique helped to create the unique look of opalescent windows. Not only did Tiffany and La Farge revolutionize the materials and techniques used to make stained glass, but they also dramatically changed the subject matter and intent of stained glass windows. Stained glass had previously been almost entirely ecumenical, and with the exception of heraldic crests and simple geometric windows, almost no windows had been made for private residences, businesses or public buildings other than churches (Figure 3). However, "Tiffany and La Farge brought stained glass into the home, drawing on the subject matter favored by painters of the period. Landscapes, flowers, fruit, peacocks, nymphs and beautiful women were captured in glass to great effect" (Sloan 1990:41). Tiffany in particular is recognized as the inventor of the land- scape window, windows which drew on the tradition of landscape painting and portrayed natural scenes and broad expanses. Landscapes had been entirely absent in stained glass 33 Figure 3. This window by Povey Bros. falls clearly in the landscape window tradition. The birds fly down from a flowering tree with hills and mountains in the background (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). 34 up to this point. Figures typically floated in space or were surrounded with stylized architectural ornament. The landscape window, which had little overt religious imagery, appealed to Protestant and Jewish congregations, and was also suitable for secular use. By expressing the beauty of nature, a popular theme in all late 19th century art, stained glass began to appeal to a much wider segment of society and to be used in many differ- ent types of buildings (Figure 4 ). The trend begun by Tiffany and La Farge became immensely popular throughout the United States. Studios across the country began to produce opalescent windows, and many new studios opened as the demand for these windows soared. "Opalescent glass was so popular in this country that by the end of the century few domestic studios made windows of any other material" (Sturm 1982:59). Opalescent glass became popular during a time of national expansion and growth, and as a consequence it was included in vast numbers of buildings. "As neighborhoods and cities expanded, the quality and variety of decorative windows observable from the street became like a permanent, Figure 4. This Povey window contains the type of natural and stylized classical elements which were so popular in latel9th century stained glass (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). 35 public pattern book" (Wilson 1986: 10). The increased acceptance of stained glass as a secular art form, and the technical innovations of Tiffany and La Farge resulted in a booming American stained glass industry. Opalescent glass would remain en vogue well into the 191 Os and even the 1920s, when the Great Depression and changing tastes would reverse the fortunes of American stained glass. Stained Glass Styles in America 1880-1930 "Unquestionably, the late 1800s represent the Great American Stained Glass Revival, a period that was a wonder both for the creations that emerged and for the artistic barriers which were broken" (Wilson 1986:64). The invention of opalescent glass and revolutions in subject matter and design instituted an era of great creativity in stained glass. Glass artists worked with a wide variety of materials and in a wide variety of styles, in keeping with the range of eclectic architectural styles popular at the time. Artists began creating opalescent windows in the spirit of Tiffany and La Farge, but they also used opalescent glass, often in combination with other types of glass, to create many different types of windows. Stained glass began to reflect the American preference for color and drama and became a major domestic art form. As there was no established church to insist on a canon of taste or subject matter, ecclesiastical win- dows followed domestic windows toward the emancipation from Gothic traditions. The new styles were more French than English, but eventually became a uniquely American contribution to glass. (Sturm 1982:34) According to H. Weber Wilson, "the special qualities of American windows are the juxtaposition of glass color and texture, the imaginative use of a variety of cames, the inclusion of special decorative inserts, and the frequent adaptation of subtle or inventive fabrication techniques" (1986:65). Creative use of materials was the norm, with few other rules or standards to follow, and stained glass windows were built in Aesthetic, 36 Figure 5. This window, probably by Povey Bros., contains strong Art Nouveau elements (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). Renaissance, Art Nouveau, Arts and Crafts, Prairie and even Neo-classical styles (Figure 5). While stained glass had never previously been used in classically inspired buildings, the renewed popularity of classical styles brought about by the Columbian Exposition of 1893 did not slow the growth of stained glass. Architects had established relationships with stained glass makers, and the material remained consistently popular with the public, so stained glass was adapted and used in many Neo-classical buildings (Sturm 1982:49). Industry Problems Although the period from 1880 to 1930 was a very profitable and successful time for American stained glass, internally the industry was plagued by personnel problems 37 and issues of quality control. Events that took place in Chicago in the early 1900s prob- ably mirrored nationwide labor relations. By 1900, employees of Chicago stained glass firms were working long hours with no job security. Older, higher-paid workers were frequently laid off in favor of cheaper, less experienced employees. In response to these conditions, the workers formed the Amalgamated Glass Workers Association in 1900. Studio owners countered in 1903 by forming the National Glass Manufacturers' Associa- tion, which later became the Stained Glass Association of America. The workers went on strike in 1905, and the dispute lasted into 1907 when a contract providing fixed hours and better employment stability was signed. However, tensions still existed between manage- ment and labor. The groups decided to initiate a publication to facilitate communication. This publication, originally called The Ornamental Glass Bulletin, did succeed in this purpose and is still being published today as Stained Glass (Frueh and Frueh 1998:52- 53). The National Glass Manufacturers' Association also attempted to deal with the issue of price-cutting, a problem which plagued the industry for many years . They standardized prices and created The International Art Glass Catalogue , which was published from 1909 to 1914 and mailed to architects, builders and millwork supply houses. These catalogues reflected the industry's attempts to mass market low priced stained glass and are generally filled with low quality, easily produced designs. Other catalogues were published by the Wholesale Sash, Door and Blind Manufacturers' Asso- ciation and included sand blasted, beveled and stained glass. These catalogue windows are generally simple geometric designs in opalescent glass. The mass marketing of these low quality windows has at times been blamed for the decline in opalescent glass. As John Gilbert Lloyd says, "the trouble lay in the over preponderance of tawdry commer- cial stuff that poured out of shops with no thought given to artistic merit or feeling. Although commonly known as 'art glass' there was little art connected with it" (1962:59). 38 War Years And Depression The years between the First and Second World Wars would see the end of the florescence of American stained glass art. In part this was caused by the economic hard times of the Great Depression and scarcities of the war years, but changing tastes also played a significant role. Stained glass studios began to disappear as demand for their services decreased. According to John Gilbert Lloyd (1961 :106), there were 900 glass studios in operation in the United States in 1929, but within 30 years this number was reduced by 75%. Both wars hurt the stained glass industry by decreasing the availability of neces- sary supplies like lead, although they did help to eliminate European competition. The Depression also had a crushing effect on stained glass. Many studios were not able to survive these years of economic want, and those that did were generally forced to expand their business into other, more basic areas of glazing. Public relief efforts did little to help stained glass workers until 1935 when the Works Progress Administration Federal Art Project funded several commissions (Lloyd 1962: 107). The impact of modernism began to be felt in the United States after World War II. This architectural style, in contrast to the richly decorative eclectic styles, stressed func- tionality and simplicity of form and abhorred historicism and abundant decoration. A revival of Colonial styles was also occurring at this time, and while this was clearly a historicist style, it referred to a period in which stained glass had not been used. With the growing popularity of these two architectural styles, stained glass use waned, particularly in non-church buildings. Churches remained as the traditional, and increasingly the only, provenance for stained glass. Church architecture has always been more conservative, trailing general architectural trends by at least a decade or two, and the Gothic style continued to be used for churches long after it lost favor for other types of buildings. The 39 stained glass that was used in these churches was also highly traditional. The trend in stained glass became a return to the Gothic, mosaic methods of stained glass. This trend began as early as 1900 with artists like Otto Heinigke, William Willet and especially Charles Connick turning out neo-Gothic pot metal glass windows, but it accelerated after opalescent glass fell out of favor. Charles Connick, a former newspaper cartoonist, was one of the chief advocates for the return to the Gothic style. His influential book, Adven- tures in Light and Color, was published in 1937; the pro-pot metal, anti-opalescent opinions it promulgated came to be shared by art historians, glass artists and the public, and the creations of the opalescent era were increasingly despised. American Glass Industry Post World War II The building boom that occurred after the war, as well as later movements for urban renewal, often resulted in the destruction of historic buildings. Opalescent stained glass was no longer valued; Tiffany lamps were sold at garage sales and church windows were melted down for the value of their lead. Not until the 1970s did a revival of interest in Victorian architecture and in stained glass occur, in large part due to the rise of the historic preservation movement. Since that time, historic stained glass has soared in popularity, and now many efforts are being made to preserve it. The new stained glass that has been produced since World War II has been largely modern in influence. Innovative techniques like dalle de ver have allowed artists to create new sorts of designs. The trend has been toward abstraction and an emphasis on integrating stained glass and modern architecture. James Sturm described modern stained glass as "the disparate body of stained glass that rejects medieval and Renaissance mod- els and reflects artistic and architectural trends of the last half century" (Sturm 1982:76). 40 CHAPTER III THE POVEY BROS. GLASS CO. OF PORTLAND, OREGON In 1888, two young brothers, John Edward Grant Povey, age 20, and David Lincoln Povey, age 22, arrived in Portland, Oregon. In that same year they founded Povey Bros. Glass Co., a stained glass studio that would grow to become one of the most prolific and successful in the Pacific Northwest. Povey Bros. Glass Co. remained in operation for over three decades and produced thousands of windows which can be found in buildings all across the Pacific Northwest. This chapter will give an overview of the Povey Bros. business within the context of the history of Portland as well as provide information about the Povey family. The Povey's Portland The city in which John and David Povey arrived had been founded just 43 years previously, in 1845, as a rough frontier outpost. However, in its first four decades, Portland grew tremendously quickly, and by the 1880s it had been transformed into a burgeoning metropolis. Many factors account for this transformation, including the city's favorable position for travel and trade on the Willamette River, the arrival of the railroads connecting Portland with the rest of the country and the growth of Oregon's logging and agricultural industries. Portland would continue to grow and flourish as it entered the 20th century. Its rapid growth and expanding economy made Portland an ideal city for founding any business, including a stained glass studio. Founded by William Overton and F.W. Pettygrove in 1845, Portland was origi- nally known as Stumptown because of the multitudes of freshly cut stumps that could be 41 seen everywhere in the town. It was incorporated in 1851, at which time about 800 people, 75 % of whom were male, resided in the town (DeMarco 1990:38). By 1860, the population had risen to 2,800, and by 1864 it had doubled again (DeMarco 1990:43). Steamship travel to San Francisco and Sacramento became available in the 1860s, and in this same decade telegraph lines arrived in Portland, allowing for rapid communication with the rest of the country. By 1870, mail could be sent to and received from California within one week. The period between 1880 and 1890 would continue to see fantastic growth as well as the expansion of transportation and communication networks. By 1880, 17,000 people lived in Portland and by 1890, 46,385 people (DeMarco 1990:58) . According to Gordon DeMarco, a Portland hi storian, this rapid growth was accounted for by the steady expan- sion of local business and the creation of transportation networks that allowed Portland to grow and suburbanize. This contrasts with the type of growth seen in boom towns like Seattle and San Francisco, where the impact of the gold rush, a single event, was largely responsible for the enormous population growth. The arrival of the railroad in 1883 allowed Portland to develop an export economy for wheat produced in the Willamette Valley and lumber cut from nearby forests. Examining economic activities in the period from 1885 to 1891 gives some idea of the types of businesses and industries that were beginning to flourish in Portland at the time the Poveys arrived. In this short time period, ten banks and two insurance compa- nies were incorporated, the Port of Portland Commission was established, and two elec- trical utility and street paving concerns were organized. City services grew as well. The water system was expanded to serve more homes, and electric street lights were installed. Two bridges were built across the Willamette River, the Morrison Bridge in 1887 and the Steel Bridge in 1888. In 1889, the first electric trolley ran across the Steel Bridge to 42 Williams Avenue. By the mid 1890s, more than 100 miles of public transit lines had been laid throughout the city of Portland. The bridges and trolley lines created the opportunity for building east of the Willamette, and real estate speculators quickly divided and sold off lots and newly built homes (DeMarco 1990:67). East Portland, Sellwood and Albina were annexed into the city in 1891, expanding the city's area from 6.14 to 36.9 square miles (McFadden 1993:53-54). By 1915, half of Portland's population would live on the east side of the river. From an early time, Portland was distinguished from other western cities by its reputation for wealth and culture. West Side magazine reported in 1888 "Portland leads all the cities of the coast in the number of elegant and costly dwellings as compared to her population" (in DeMarco 1990:66). One national study found that Portland ranked second behind Hartford, Connecticut as the richest city in America in proportion to population (DeMarco 1990:66). Many Portlanders came from the northeast United States and wanted to replicate the cultural institutions they had enjoyed in their home states. They were quick to found churches and schools as well as musical, literary and art societ- ies . The Portland Art Association was created in 1892 and maintained a room in the city's public library until it erected a museum and art school in 1905 (Dodds 1986:155). Another important Portland cultural institution, the Oregon Historical Society, began publishing its quarterly journal in the 1890s. In 1889, the first annual rose show was held, establishing Portland as the City of Roses . While today's Portland is generally viewed as having a fairly homogenous popu- lation, in 1890, 37.4% of the population was foreign-born, and 20% of this group was non-English speaking (DeMarco 1990:58). Many different ethnic groups made their way to the city including Chinese, Japanese, African Americans, Irish, Italians, Jews, Germans and Scandinavians. These ethnic groups sometimes formed their own neighborhoods 43 within Portland, complete with their own businesses and churches, and brought with them Judaism and Catholicism to a largely Protestant city. In 1888, when David and John Povey arrived in Portland, virtually no one in the city was making stained glass, with the exception of one company which crafted simple Queen Anne sash and sandblasted panes. No one was beveling glass, using metal cames, or painting and firing glass. According to Polly Povey Thompson, daughter of David Povey, "nobody else had training, the equipment or the fine quality glass as Povey Broth- ers' did" (ca. 1980s). The American glass trade was becoming firmly established in the east at this time, but few glassmakers had yet to migrate to the newly prosperous cities of the west. With the skills they had gained working in eastern studios, the Poveys were able to quickly corner the Portland stained glass market. The combination of economic growth, expanding population and the desire to create buildings that exhibited culture and prestige all contributed to a need for the services that the Poveys were offering. As noted earlier, during this time period stained glass was associated with wealth and good taste. It would have been an important element in transforming the appearance of Portland from frontier town to cosmopolitan city. Portland was firmly established as a regional center and shipping capitol by the early 20th century. Portlanders were proud of their city and celebrated its success with a boosterism typical of the time period. One manifestation of this pride was the Lewis and Clark World Exposition. Held in 1905, it was the first large commercial fair to be orga- nized on the west coast. The Povey Bros. studio was one of many Portland businesses to have an exhibit at the Lewis and Clark Exposition. The fact that the fair was held in Portland highlighted Portland's place as "headquarters of an entire region" (Abbott 1981:39). Organized by Portland businessmen and politicians, the fair promoted Portland's commercial success and in particular emphasized its position as a gateway for 44 trade in Asia and all along the Pacific Rim. The fair brought more than a million visitors to Portland and infused approximately eight million dollars into the local economy (Abbott 1981:64). The Poveys were awarded a medal for the work they exhibited at the Lewis and Clark Exposition, and the fair no doubt brought them increased exposure throughout the region. The fair also marked the beginning of another economic and building boom for Portland. New skyscrapers began to be built downtown, and residential neighborhoods expanded as well, particularly on the eastern side of the Willamette. Between 1900 and 1916, westside neighborhoods grew from 58,000 to 96,000 and eastside neighborhoods grew from 32,000 to 178,000. The city replaced the old Morrison, Hawthorn and Steel Bridges between 1905 and 1912 and opened the new Broadway Bridge in 1913 (Abbott 1981:72). Street car lines also continued to expand. The boom peaked around 1910, a year in which 30 churches were built, probably providing Povey Bros. with a great deal of business. However, the economic boom had begun to fade by 1912 or 1913. The year 1914 would mark a period of unemployment in the Northwest, and a march of the unemployed from Portland to Eugene took place in January 1914. The depression created an interest in Progressive politics. David Povey was very involved in the Progressive Party, taking part in several party meetings in 1912. He also served as the Oregon Progressive del- egate to the national convention held in Chicago in 1912 (John Gimbel to Mrs. Raymond Mooeks (sic), letter, 5 March 1952, Mooers family, Seattle Washington). The fortunes of the Povey business were largely based upon the Portland economy. When Povey Bros. finally failed in 1929, Portland was on the eve of the Great Depression. 45 The Povey Family The three Povey brothers were trained in the art of stained glass by their father, Joseph Povey, an English immigrant. Joseph Povey was born in Kent, England in 1820 and worked as a stained glass maker as, according to family tradition, did his ancestors before him. He married Hannah Neale on December 25, 1848 at the Union Chapel in the District of West Bromwich, County of Stafford, England. At the time of their marriage, Joseph Povey's profession was listed as "glass flattener" and his father's (David Povey) profession as "holloware turner." Hannah Neale's father, George Neale, was listed on the marriage certificate as a "moulder." Both Hannah and Joseph were living in West Bromwich at the time that they wed. Immediately after the marriage, the young couple immigrated to the United States, living first in Philadelphia, then New York City, and later in Newark, New Jersey. The family was living in Philadelphia in 1850 when their son George was born and stayed there until at least 1863, but by 1865, the year David was born, had moved to Newark. The Poveys had three daughters (Eliza-Jane, Emma Harriet, Ida May) and three sons (George William, David Lincoln, John Edward Grant) who lived to adulthood. It is not known precisely where Joseph Povey worked during his time in England, but he may have had his own studio or worked for a larger glassmaker. It is possible that he was affiliated with John Hardman and Co., one of the leading makers of Victorian stained glass . John Hardman and Co. was founded in 1838 in Birmingham, only a few miles from West Bromwich where Joseph Povey lived. The business was originally oriented towards the manufacture of ecclesiastic metalworking, but A. W.N. Pugin con- vinced Hardman to begin designing stained glass around 1845. A large collection of papers from the Hardman firm is located at the City of Birmingham Central Reference Library, so further research might confirm Joseph Povey's possible affiliation with this 46 firm (Harrison 1980:78). However, where ever he worked, he was no doubt involved with the Gothic Revival rebirth of stained glass that was blossoming during the 1830s and 1840s. Although Joseph Povey worked in England before the rediscovery of "antique glass," he most likely practiced the Gothic Revival style popularized by Pugin and Viollet-le-Duc. Joseph Povey's occupation when he arrived in the United States is also unclear. According to one source, an 1889 publication entitled Portland: Her Trade, Commerce, &Industries, Joseph Povey "was the first manufacturer of Plate-glass in this country" (Thompson & Co. 1889:73). Although no other sources can be found to confirm this claim, it is possible that Joseph Povey helped to bring this technology to the United States. Plate glass was first made in England and France and was imported into the United States until American glassmakers began to experiment with the technology in the 1850s. Early plate glass manufacturers included the Cheshire Glass Company in Cheshire, Massachusetts and the Lenox Plate Glass Company in Berkshire County, Massachusetts (Konrad et al 1995:182). Joseph Povey cannot definitely be associated with any of these enterprises, but it seems clear from the Portland trade journal reference and his earlier listing as a "glass flattener" that he was somehow involved with the manu- facture of plate glass, and he did arrive in the United States at the time this technology was first imported from Europe. According to family tradition, all three Povey sons, David, John and George, were taught the art of stained glass by Joseph Povey. They supplemented this background with additional training and experience that allowed them to specialize in different areas of the craft. For instance, David Povey spent five years studying art and design at the Cooper Union Institute in New York City. He applied to the school in 1878 and graduated in 1884 with a degree in Cast Drawing and Perspective. According to Polly Povey Thomp- 47 son (ca. 1980s), her father, David Povey, was an excellent student who lost his chance to win a school medal only because he had to leave the university for a time in 1883 to attend the funerals of his father and an aunt. David would go on to become the main designer for Povey Bros., establishing himself as the creative leader. The oldest brother, George Povey, gained experience in the business end of operating a stained glass studio before joining his brothers in their stained glass venture as the financial manager. George Povey was a partner in Belcher and Povey, a stained glass studio in Newark, from 1875 to 1885. Shortly before George Povey left the firm, Henry F. Belcher filed a patent for a unique type of mosaic stained glass technology sometimes called mercury mosaic (Krueger 1994:20-30). Interestingly, although George Povey must have been aware of this process, Povey Bros. does not appear to have made any of these type of mosaic windows. John Povey, the youngest, specialized in glazing and iron work and worked in a number of studios before becoming the head of the Povey Bros. workshop. Both John and David worked in studios in Newark, Philadelphia, New York City and St. Louis before coming to Portland and opening their own business (Thompson ca. 1980s). Several family members later came to Portland to join John and David Povey in this enterprise, including their older brother George (Figure 6). The three brothers would run the business together until George Povey died February 24, 1905, while serving in the Philippines as a member of the Oregon National Guard. George Povey was a second lieutenant with Company "L," Second Regiment of the Oregon U.S. Volunteer Infantry. He was recognized as a hero for taking critical supplies across a bay during an attack on Manilla. Povey was lauded for this achievement by being appointed the Army represen- tative at the flag raising over the Capitol at Manilla and by being promoted to captain. After this promotion, Povey stayed in the Philippines, and died there of an unknown disease. His wife and son kept his stock in Povey Bros. until David and John purchased it from them. 48 A second generation of Poveys also became involved in the business as the broth- ers had children of their own. George's one son, John Harold Povey, did work at the studio, as did all of David's six children. John's only daughter, Dorothy Povey, may have worked at the studio as well, but her place of employment is not recorded in city directo- ries from the time. John Povey passed away in 1917, and David Povey took control of the business until his own death. David's widow and children were largely responsible for running the business after he died in 1924, continuing the Povey tradition for a few more years. Figure 6. Portrait of George Povey (Oregon Historical Society #0303P062 49 Figure 7. The first Povey studio at the corner of 2nd and Ash in downtown Portland (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). The Poveys Establish Themselves in Portland In June 1888, John and David Povey opened their first studio in a building at the southeast corner of Second and Ash Streets (Figure 7). This building, known as the Phoenix building, was built in 1879 and was owned by Dr. Rodney Glisan. In 1889 or 1890, they were joined by their brother George, as well as their mother, Hannah Neale Povey, and two sisters, Emma and Ida Povey. George William Povey, who came to Portland with his wife, Thirza Page Povey and son, John Harold Povey, became a partner in the business. The two Povey sisters worked in the studio as well. Emma, who was 26 years old when she arrived, worked as a bookkeeper, stenographer and an assistant artist. Ida, age 19, also worked as a bookkeeper. This family enterprise met with immediate so success and went on to become one of the premier stained glass studios in the Pacific Northwest. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), one of the Povey brothers may have come out to Portland in 1887 to make business contacts and possibly recruit con- tracts. Mrs. Thompson found a note in the records of the Westminster Presbyterian Church in Albany, Oregon written by Ruth Trimble, an old family friend who knew the Povey brothers well. This note reported that "the Povey Brothers came to Portland, Oregon to make the windows of the White Temple (the First Baptist Church) and the First Presbyterian Church of Portland" (Thompson ca. 1980s). This idea is supported by a passage in Portland: Her Trade, Commerce & Industries which reads, "Messrs. Povey Bros. were one of twenty-seven competing firms for the stained glass work of the Presby- terian church of this city. The competitors represented almost every firm in the United States, and after a rigid examination of the artistic merit of the work, the contract was awarded to this firm" (Thompson & Co. 1889:73). The Poveys may have also been drawn to Portland because of the presence of Richard Martin, a local architect who was a close friend of David Povey's and later served as best man at his wedding. Martin and his partner McCaw were the architects for the First Presbyterian Church, working with the Poveys who did the stained glass for the church. These architects were noted for their many fine Richardsonian Romanesque designs. Richard Martin, the younger partner, went on to design many buildings in the Renaissance Revival style, including the 1907 Pythian Building (previously the Masonic Temple). An association with Martin no doubt greatly aided the Poveys to establish themselves in Portland. The Poveys brought the goods and supplies they would need to set up their studio with them when they traveled west. They brought glass in many colors and textured 51 Figure 8. The Portland Hotel, which contained Povey windows, was a very prominent landmark in downtown Portland (Bosker and Lencek 1985 :22). finishes, cames and glazing supplies. In addition, they induced some stained glass work- • ers who they knew from eastern studios to join them in relocating to Portland. It was a time in which many people were anxious to make their fortune in the west, and the Poveys must have made a good case for the opportunity presented by the prospect of founding a studio in Portland. Other employees must have been trained on the job. The Poveys were fortunate to be hired for some very important early commis- sions. In addition to the First Presbyterian Church and the First Baptist Church, the Poveys designed the windows for the Portland Hotel, completed in 1890 (Figure 8). All of these buildings were extremely prominent landmarks in downtown Portland and 52 helped to publicize the Poveys' stained glass work. Not only would Portlanders have been aware of their work, but travelers passing through downtown and staying in the Portland Hotel would also have recognized its quality. Apparently, the Poveys quickly expanded their business as they made many windows for Craigdarroch Castle in Victoria, British Columbia, built in 1890. Although the windows may not have been installed in the same year that the mansion was completed, their Victorian style suggests they were most likely installed sometime in the early 1890s, suggesting that the Poveys were mar- keting their wares throughout the Northwest from an early date. Advertising By 1889, the Poveys had begun an advertising campaign to publicize their abili- ties (Figure 9). They purchased ads in The Catholic Sentinel, the weekly newspaper of the Oregon archdiocese, the Polk City Directories, and the Oregon-Washington-Idaho Gazetteer. Their first ad in the Polk Directory offered "Art Leaded Glass , For Churches, Dwellings and Public Buildings, Designs on Application" (Polk City Directory 1889:914). Later ads were longer and more elaborate. An 1891 ad read "Povey Bros., Manufacturers of Art Stained Glass in Leaded and Mosaic Effects for Churches, Dwell- • ings and Public Buildings, Art Glass, Leaded Glass, Church Glass, Ondoyant Glass, Cathedral Glass, Colored Glass, Crystalline Glass, French Looking Glass, Ground Glass, Bevel Plate Glass, Plate Glass, Window Glass" (Polk City Directory 1891 :905). In 1892 they added "Bent and Beveled Glass" to their list of offerings (Polk City Directory 1892: 1069). According to Polly Povey Thompson, the brothers wanted large contracts, and advertising probably helped them to get significant jobs. However, they also did less expensive work like Queen Anne sash and sandblasted designs , maximizing their market share. 53 Interestingly, the brothers seemed to have primarily purchased ads in the early years of their business, at least in the Polk City Directories. After the early 1890s, there are almost no ads until the 1920s, suggesting that the business was securely enough established that advertising was unnecessary. Ads reappear in 1921 reading "'If You Are Building You Need Us. ' Povey Bros. Glass Co., Established 1888, Manufacturers of Art Stained Glass for Churches and Dwellings" (Polk City Directory 1921:1489). The in- crease in advertising during the 1920s may reflect a decrease in demand or perhaps an increase in competition as other studios opened. -. ove Bro, --·· -~ :'.'··; ' ::-) . ' .· ., . / .. . l -- ·1 .J . c E1 • u·J ) =i Q),\ qR~ . , TAINE · ~B55! 2. .SEco1\{[5S ·-- • I Af~C~;;i~~s·Pc.1 RTLAN D Figure 9. An early ad for Povey Bros. featured this angel design (Thompson & Co. 1889:73). 54 Community Ties Another way the brothers publicized their works was through the community ties they quickly developed. David Povey was a member of the Masonic order for many years, eventually achieving the highest rank available (Kermit Thompson, personal communication 1999). He was also a member of the Odd Fellows, the Elks and the Shriners. John Povey was a member of the Volunteer Fire Department, and was known for riding through Portland's streets on his high wheel bicycle. He also was a member of the Knights of Pythias, the Elks and was affiliated with the Woodsmen of the World (The Oregonian 19 February 1917). As mentioned earlier, George Povey was a member of the Oregon National Guard, and was honorably recognized for serving in the Philippine Islands. Involvement in these organizations probably allowed the Poveys to get to know many of the influential people in Portland, making personal connections that could later lead to business opportunities. As stated in John Povey's obituary, "as a business man he possessed a wide circle of firm friends, and was ever foremost in seeking the advance- ment of Portland and the Pacific Coast country" (The Oregonian 19 February 1917). Another personal connection was probably in part responsible for the success of Povey Bros. On October 25, 1892, David Povey married Hannah Maria Hobkirk, daugh- ter of Peter Hobkirk, a Portland contractor and politician. Peter Hobkirk's contracting firm, Hobkirk and McKenzie, built the Portland Hotel, the First Congregational Church, and many other prominent Portland buildings containing Povey glass. Hobkirk, a Scot- tish immigrant, was also a member of the Portland City Council and served in the Oregon House of Representatives from 1898 to 1900. Like David Povey, he was a high ranking Mason and belonged to other community organizations. The Poveys brothers and Peter Hobkirk worked together on many buildings, including the First Congregational Church, and numerous residential designs. 55 Figure 10. The John Povey House in Irvington. The Poveys also must have made connections in the neighborhoods in which they lived. For example, in 1891, John E.G. Povey married Oscara B. Hahne of The Dalles, Oregon and had a home built at 1312 NE Tillamook Street (now 564 NE Tillamook; Figure 10). Peter Hobkirk served as the contractor for this two story Queen Anne/ Eastlake dwelling, one of the first built in Portland's Irvington neighborhood. The house included many beautiful stained glass windows which were no doubt much admired by neighbors. It is now listed as a Portland Historic Conservation Landmark as well as on the National Register of Historic Places for its association with Povey Bros. and for its 56 Figure 11. The David Povey Memorial Window at the Rose City Park Methodist Church. architectural value. Povey windows can still be found in many homes in the Irvington district. Spirituality In addition to being involved in their communjties and nejghborhoods, the Poveys were members of the Rose City Park Methodist Church. They made many windows for this church, located in northeast Portland, including a memorial window for David Povey after his death (Figure 11). It seems logical that spirituality may have played a role in the Poveys ' design work for churches, many of which draw on biblical themes. However, outside of the fact that the Poveys attended the Methodist church, little is known about their personal religious beliefs. All three brothers died at a fairly young age, and only one 57 of the Povey grandchildren can remember her grandfather (Betty Lou Kurtz Stevenson, personal communication 1999). It is clear that they were students of religion, as evi- denced by the many books on religion, Bibles and books of saints they kept in their studio. Company History When it was founded in June, 1888 at the comer of Second and Ash, Povey Bros. Art Glass Works, as it was known at that time, had nine employees, including David and John. Only two of the other seven early employees are known: Cornelius Tonseth who later founded Tonseth Florist and Emil Lucke who eventually established his own glass company. David and John, and later George, shared the responsibilities for meeting with building committees and architects. They traveled a good deal, often by train or boat, to meet with prospective employers and promote their services. Each brother also played a particular role within the company. David, with his background in art and drawing, became head of the design studio. John, who was very knowledgeable in metalworking and other aspects of the stained glass craft, assumed responsibility for the fabrication workshop. George, when he arrived in ca. 1889, managed the accounts and supplies and worked to expand advertising. In ca. 1890, the Povey operation moved to an adjacent building at 44 Second Street (Figure 12). This building was also owned by Dr. Rodney Glisan and was known as the 1889 Building, for the year in which it was erected. By this time they had approxi- mately 14 employees. In 1892, they moved their business once again, this time to the southeast corner of Sixth and Davis and increased their work force to 20 to 25 employees. By 1894, the name of the business was changed to Povey Bros. Glass Co., the name by which it would be known for more than three decades. 58 In 1893, Povey Bros. became incorporated. David Povey served as President, John Povey as Vice-President and George Povey as Secretary-Manager. A man named George P. Gray was listed as treasurer. Gray is listed in 1888 and 1889 directories as a farmer, but in 1890 his occupation changes to real estate. Little else is known about Gray. He may have been primarily an investor. The men kept these positions until 1899. At that time, John Povey became President of the company, David Povey Secretary- Manager, and Hannah Hobkirk Povey, David's wife, the Treasurer. Hannah Povey apparently became involved in the business because George Povey left Portland in May, 1898 to fight in the Spanish American War. This arrangement continued from 1900 to Figure 12. The second Povey studio was located at 44 2nd Street. This circa 1890 photograph shows that the staff was already expanding (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). 59 1917. During these years, Povey Bros. would continue to grow and to prosper, as did the city of Portland and the Northwest region in general. By 1905, the Povey business had expanded to the extent that they needed yet a larger space. They had a new building constructed at the northeast comer of Fifth and Flanders Streets. This building was designed by Portland architect Emil Schacht and was ideally suited to their business; it will be discussed in more detail in Chapter V. At this time, Povey Bros. had at least 25 employees, three of whom were women (Thompson ca. 1980s). John and David Povey took complete control of the business due to George Povey's death. David Povey left Portland for a time during 1908 and 1909 to travel in Europe and study the stained glass there. According to the family, he had originally planned to go to the Holy Lands, but this trip was canceled due to an epidemic of bubonic plague. He went to Europe instead, traveling in England, Scotland, Belgium and France. After David's return his first hand knowledge of the ancient stained glass of Europe became an important selling point with church building committees. More family deaths occurred in the 1910s. Emma Povey, who had remained unmarried and continued working at the studio, died May 3, 1912 and was buried at the Riverview Cemetery in Portland. John Povey became ill around 1913 or 1914, and David assumed most of the responsibilities of the business at this time. John died at his home on February 18, 1917, and his ashes were interred at the Portland Crematorium. David and John had previously bought George Povey's stock from his widow, and in 1917, David became sole owner of the company by buying John's stock from Oscara and Dorothy Povey. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), he mortgaged Povey Bros. and his own home to do so. The onset of World War I in 1914 had several impacts on the business. War in Europe restricted the supply of glass and glazing products which the Poveys had gener- 60 ally imported. When the United States entered the war, additional restrictions on lead and other materials made supplies even more difficult to obtain. In addition, personnel were drawn away from the business. However, the end of the war brought about a demand for memorial windows for the many servicemen killed in action. David Povey designed one window for Walden Hall at Willamette University in memory of hjs son-in-law, Robert Sherwood, an Army doctor who was killed in France (Jacqui Lung, personal communica- tion 1999). David Povey continued to manage the business and do all the designing until ca. 1920. Around that time, he hired Professor Alfred Schroff, an art instructor from the University of Oregon School Architecture and Allied Arts, to do some designs for the studio. The Probate Records listing designs made in the Povey studio include at least 17 drawings by Schroff, including five saints for an unidentified church in Sellwood, three windows for a church in Pendleton and several for the Church of the Assumption in Bellingham, Washington. David Povey's daughter, Dymon Povey Mooers, who had worked in the studio since she was a little girl , assisted with design work, and also did some cartoons for the Church of the Assumption in Bellingham. She is reported to have helped her father complete the windows for the First Christian Church of Portland in 1923. Dymon Mooers had studied art at the University of Oregon under Schroff and may have made the connection between the Poveys and Schroff. She was a successful artist herself, and according to Polly Povey Thompson, David Povey often referred to Dymon as his "right hand man" (ca. 1980s). The Probate Records also refer to several other artists who did some designing for the studio during the 1920s, including William Pearson, and three individuals known as Runquist, Beezy and Hossick. No other mention of Beezy or Hossick can be found, but city directories do list Arthur Runquist as an artist with an advertising agency called Hall & Emory. A young woman named Mabel Johnson 61 Figure 13. The Honor Rose window at the Rose City Park Meth- odist Church was designed by Mabel Johnson, a young woman artist at Povey Bros. also began working at Povey Bros. as an artist and designer around 1923 or 1924 (Figure 13). Like Dymon Povey, she had studied at the University of Oregon School Architecture and Allied Arts . Mabel Johnson is credited with designing the large Honor Rose Window at Rose City Park Methodist Church in Portland (The Honor Rose Window Stained Glass 1925:11-12). She was briefly married to David H. Povey, one of David L. Povey's sons, and worked at the studio for a number of years. The Competition While Povey Bros. was clearly Portland's longest lasting and most successful stained glass studio, a number of other stained glass artists were working in the city during the heyday of American stained glass . Several of these competing studios were founded by men who had once been employed by the Poveys, indicating that the Povey influence extended beyond the body of their own work. 62 When the Poveys first arrived in 1888, a man named Adelbert Matteson was operating a studio called Portland Art Decorative Works. He had started this business around 1887 and advertised "Numbers and Names cut on Transoms, Glass Advertising Signs a Specialty, Doors, Panels, Transoms, Etc., Cut by Sand Blast Process, Grinding, All Kinds of Builder's Glass" (Polk City Directory 1888:24). From this ad, it appears that Matteson was not doing the kind of leaded mosaic stained glass work in which the Poveys were trained, but rather specializing in simpler sand blasted designs. The Port- land Art Decorative Works remained in operation until ca. 1894-95. After Matteson closed his shop, the Poveys were the sole manufacturers of stained glass in Portland for a time. Then, around 1901, Frederick H. Wagner opened his Mirror and Ornamental Glass Works, which remained in operation until 1910. Little is known about his background. He was listed in an 1899 directory as a glazier, but does not appear in earlier listings. In 1903, another studio opened, the Portland Art Glass Works. This company was founded by former Povey Bros. employee, Emil Lucke, and remained in operation for 26 years. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), Lucke's enterprise was encouraged by the brothers who felt there was plenty of room for good artists in the Portland stained glass market. Lucke's listing in the Polk Directories adver- tised "Ornamental Glass of All Descriptions," suggesting that, like the Poveys, he was • able to design and produce a wide variety of windows (1914: 1156). Another studio opened its doors in 1907-1908. This was the Pacific Art Glass Works, operated by Herbert C. Mattison. It is not clear if H.C. Mattison was related to Adelburt Matteson of the earlier Portland Art Decorative Works, but it seems likely despite the slightly different spellings of their names. Mattison's company advertised "Bevel plate, Mirrors and Window Glass, Designing and Making of Art Glass for the Decoration of Public and Private Buildings, Also Church, Society and Memorial Win- 63 dows, Metal Sash, Glass Signs, Screens, Art Domes, Shades, Etc." (Polk City Directory 1909: 1584). The Pacific Art Glass Works remained in operation until 1915. Another company had a similar life span. Edward Bruns Co., operated by Edward Bruns, opened in 1909 and remained in business until 1916. Bruns, who specialized in art glass, appears to have moved to Portland to open his studio, as he is not listed in Portland directories earlier than 1909. Two short lived companies existed in Portland around 1910. The first, with the inventive name of the Venetian Scenic Glass Co., was started by Arthur Duchamp and survived for only one year, 1909. The second, Witt Art Glass Manufacturing Co., was founded by two roommates, Joseph Link and Herman Witt. Link had previously been a glazier at W.P. Fuller & Co., while Witt was a clerk at Ashley & Ramekin. Like the Venetian Scenic Glass Co., the Witt Art Glass Manufacturing Co. managed to stay in business for just one year. Interestingly, John Harold Povey, son of George Povey, opened his own art glass concern in 1915. It appears to have remained open into 1916. J. Harold Povey later went to work for the Heacock Sash and Door Company and may have been involved with their stained glass line. Several more successful stained glass studios appeared in Portland in the 1920s. The Heacock Sash and Door Co., which had been in existence for sometime, began to be listed under Art Glass in 1921. Their ad featured "Windows, Doors, Mill Work, All Kinds Made in Our Own Mill, Builders' Hardware, Paint, Roofing, Wall Board," and it seems likely that art glass was only a small segment of their product line (Polk City Directory 1921: 1575). In 1925, a man named Frank J. Orloff opened his own art glass studio. Directory records show that in 1924, Orloff was employed as a cutter at Povey Bros. Glass Co. In 1923 he is listed as a carpenter, so it is likely that he received all his stained glass training at Povey Bros. Another studio operated by a former Povey em- 64 ployee opened in 1926. William Pearson had been an artist at Povey Bros. before found- ing the Pearson Art Glass Co. His studio was quite successful and remained in business until ca. 1944. One other studio opened in the 1920s, Kraemer's Art Glass Co., run by Anton Kraemer. Kraemer had worked as an independent glazier, a foreman at W.P. Fuller Co. and a glazier at the Portland Art Glass Co. run by Emil Lucke. Because he was probably trained by Lucke, he can be seen as a third generation descendent of the Povey legacy. Other companies existed which probably overlapped services with the Povey Bros. The Oregon Mirror and Beveling Works, founded in 1918, offered "Plain and Beveled Mirrors, Polished Edged Plate Glass, Sand Blasting and Chipping, Mirrors Re- silvered, Plate Glass for Windshields" (Polk City Directory 1918:1502). This business may in fact have been associated with the Poveys, as it moved to 105-107 N. 5th in around 1926, just across the street from the Poveys' factory at 100 N. 5th. While some other companies may have offered mirrors, beveled glass or mail order art glass, the preceding discussion includes all the Portland businesses which specialized in producing art and stained glass. It is clear from this discussion that the Poveys not only possessed the longest lasting concern, 41 years compared to the next closest competitor's (Portland Art Glass Works) 26 years, but they were extremely influential in the overall scheme of Portland's art glass industry. Both the second and third longest lasting studios were founded by former Povey Bros. employees (Emil Lucke and William Pearson), as were other smaller studios. It seems clear that the Povey brothers were the most influential force in Portland stained glass from the 1890s to the 1930s and 40s, when their own business was no longer operating. 65 The Final Years Unfortunately, by the early 1920s, the popularity of stained glass had begun to wane. While stained glass probably remained popular in the western United States a few years longer than it did in the east, due to the lag time in the migration of architectural styles, the rise of modernism and the return to classicism were being felt in the Pacific Northwest by 1920. Although 1920 marked a return to building boom, with 25,000 new homes being built, these homes were much less likely to contain stained glass than those built during earlier boom periods (DeMarco 1990: 116). Business records for the Povey Bros. studio are no longer in existence, but it seems likely that their business began to decline somewhat during this time. However, many people still enjoyed stained glass and it remained popular for churches, and Povey Bros. might have enjoyed several more years of success if it were not for the death of the remaining brother, David L. Povey. David died March 3, 1924 at age 58 and was interred at the Portland Crematorium, the windows of which he had designed just a year before. After David Povey's death, the Portland Probate Courts required an inventory to be made of all his possessions. Three assessors were named to list and value all the assets of the Povey studio. One of these assessors was Emil Lucke, who had previously worked for Povey Bros. and gone on to run his own stained glass studio, so it can be assumed that the inventory was made by people with a good knowledge of the craft. The inventory includes all of the tools, materials and designs owned by Povey Bros. The assessors valued the stained glass studio, David and Hannah Povey's home and his Ford automobile at $66,101.75. Later it was discovered that $19,000 in Povey Bros. accounts receivable had been omitted, bringing the value of the estate to $85,101.75. This inven- tory provides much of the data used for analysis in Chapters IV and V. During the time in which David Povey became ill and after his death, his six 66 children, who were by this time young adults, became increasingly responsible for run- ning the family business (Figure 14). The oldest daughter, Vida, painted and worked in the office. She is listed as a bookkeeper for Povey Bros. in a 1916 directory. She may have continued to work in the office during World War I, as her husband, Robert Sherwood, was serving in France. Vida later became a doctor and cancer researcher. The second daughter, Elizabeth (Bessie) shared her father's artistic talents and did some work in the studio as an artist. She married an engineer, Jack Kurtz, in 1917 and moved away from Portland. The third daughter, Ellice Dymon, as mentioned earlier was a designer and painter for the company. During her father's illness and after his death, Dymon commuted by steamboat from Skamokawa, Washington to assist with the studio. The twins, Darrell and David H., first worked as shipworkers around 1918. By 1921, Darrell, now married, was working at Povey Bros. as a salesman. By 1924, after David Povey's death, Darrell Povey was listed as the manager of Povey Bros. David H. Povey was also listed with the company as a salesman. His wife, Mabel Johnson Povey, was recorded as an artist. Darrell's wife, Hazel Povey, was also listed as an artist in 1926. By 1927, David H. was listed as department manager, while Darrell remained general manager. They stayed with the company until 1928. Both went on to have careers in fields quite different from stained glass. David became an engineer and worked for the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers and in construction. Darrell became a ship captain and later vice president of shipping for Union Oil Co. The youngest daughter, Lillian (Polly) worked in the studio during summers and for a year before she left to study architecture at the University of Oregon. She and her husband, Raymond K. Thompson, practiced architec- ture in Portland for many years. She was greatly interested in the family history and gathered many papers and notes which have been most helpful in formulating this thesis. After David's death, his children and widow faced a difficult task in keeping the studio running. Hannah Povey was named executrix of his estate and together with her 67 Figure 14. David and Hannah Povey with their children: Vida, Bessie, Dymon, the twins, David and Darrell, and baby Polly (courtesy Dr. David Mooers). 68 children she attempted to keep the business going. Long time employees like Dick Kem and William Schlegel stayed with the studio, but some others, like William Pearson, moved on. Some new artists, including Wilhelmina Becksted and Gretchen Carmony, were hired. In April of 1925, an artist named Albert A. Gerlach, was brought from Chicago by Povey Bros. and began working in the studio. He had apprenticed and worked for the Leyendecker studio in Chicago as an artist and studied at the Chicago Art Institute. Gerlach managed the art department until he left Povey Bros. in the spring of 1928. At this time Willard Tobey became the manager and a Mr. Dunham from San Francisco was hired to work as a glass artist. In September 1924, Hannah Povey was forced to borrow $25,000 to pay off two existing mortgages on the Povey Bros. property. The value of the estate at $85,101.75 did not include debts amounting to $74,885.90, including the mortgages and unpaid taxes. In September 1928, the Fidelity Mortgage Company foreclosed a lien for unpaid taxes on the Povey Bros. property at 100 N. 5th, forcing its sale. W.C. Becktell of Port- land agreed to purchase the property through the mortgage company and pay off all the debts and tax liens and pay Hannah Povey $2,000. The Povey's home in the Irving First Addition was also encumbered by two mortgages, and by 1929 it was foreclosed on and lost to the estate. By 1928, the debt of the estate to the federal government and payroll claims totaled $7673.55, far in excess of the $2,000 left in the estate (Multnomah County Courthouse, Portland, Oregon [MCC] 1928: Probate Records [PR]). After the payment of taxes, payroll claims were paid at 50% and other debts at 11 %. By October, 1929, Povey Bros. was completely broke. According to the Probate Records, The Executrix proceeded to carry on the business carried on by decedent in his lifetime at 100 North 5th Street, Portland, Oregon, which was included in the assets of said estate, until a sale thereof, as hereinafter stated, and did manage and conduct said business to the best of her ability. But during that period by reason of business depression, large indebted- 69 ness, limited credit and other circumstances over which the Executrix had no control, the business proved unsuccessful and resulted in very substan- tial loss to the Estate. (MCC 1929:PR) During the final year of business, 1929, the name of the firm was changed to Imperial Glass and Art Works, Inc. Presumably, the property at 100 N. 5th Street was now being rented from its new owner for the purpose of continuing the business. Raymond Mooers, husband of Dymon Povey Mooers, was li sted as the president and treasurer, and John C. Failing of the prominent Failing family was also an officer. Ac- cording to notes made by Polly Povey Thompson in 1929, Imperial sold 100 shares of stock at $100 each. However the name change and sale of stock failed to keep the strug- gling business afloat, and by 1930 the firm, including all the glass, cames and studio equipment, was sold to W.P. Fuller & Co. of Seattle, which enlarged its glass department to design stained glass windows after buying the Povey stock. Albert Gerlach worked as a salesman for W.P. Fuller & Co., and later was head of their stained glass department. He continued to work for Fuller for 23 years, then went into business for himself for some time before his death in 1974. Some other Povey employees, including Mabel Johnson, Richard Kern, Henry Keller, William Schlegel, Henry Beneka and Charles Larsen, also moved to W.P. Fuller's and worked in their studio (Anderson 1991:1). The death of David L. Povey and the sale of Povey Bros. brought about the end of an era. The company had supplied Portland with decorative windows for many of its most prominent buildings and homes for more than 40 years. While other artists, includ- ing some who learned the craft of stained glass at Povey Bros., continued to produce stained glass in Portland, there has never been another firm which lasted for as many years as Povey Bros. nor which has been as well known and successful. 70 CHAPTER IV THE DESIGN PROCESS AT POVEY BROS. GLASS CO. While many texts about stained glass have classified artists and their windows I into schools and styles, few have examined the complete design process. Understanding how particular stained glass artists created designs involves examining their backgrounds, looking at the artistic sources they drew on, studying their design criteria, and outlining the actual process they used to create windows. This chapter will describe the ways in which artists at Povey Bros., in particular David Povey, went about corning up with ideas for window designs and making those ideas a reality. As Lawrence Lee points out, "the word 'design ' has endless interpretations." It can indicate an initial idea, a concrete template or a realized work of art or architecture. But as Lee goes on to say, the type of design most important to understanding stained glass is "that state of prediction, starting in the mind of the artist, which dictates all that will happen, as the commission grows from sketch to cartoon, cut line to glass, glass to fired paint work, and finally to leaded panels set in an opening" (1977:95). Artistic Influences From the founding of Povey Bros. in 1888 until his death in 1924, David L. Povey was the main designer and stained glass artist for the company (Figure 15). In fact, he appears to have designed every window made by the company until the 1920s, when a few other artists were hired to do designs. Understanding the design of Povey windows therefore necessitates an examination of David Povey's background, education and experience. Exploring these artistic influences will provide some clarification of just 71 Figure 15. Portrait of David Povey (Or- egon Historical Society #0210G048). where David Povey was corrung from when he created designs for Povey Bros. Joseph Povey The earliest influence upon David Povey's artistic ideals was certainly hi s father, Joseph Povey. As mentioned earlier, Joseph Povey was a stained glass, and possibly also plate glass, maker who immigrated to the United States from England in 1848. Given his English origin and the time period in which he lived there, Joseph Povey almost certainly would have been involved with the Gothic Revival that swept through England in the early 1800s. As discussed in Chapter II, the Gothic Revival emphasized a return to 72 medieval stained glass techniques, including use of lead cames as part of the design and a reliance on glass colors rather than enamel paints to form figures and designs. The Gothic Revival also included a return to somewhat flat and abstract forms and patterns, contrasting with the realism of earlier more heavily painted windows. While very few of the windows designed by David Povey for Povey Bros. could be described as Gothic in style, his windows do show many of the characteristics that became typical of stained glass during the Gothic Revival and which may have been taught to David Povey by his father. The Poveys typically included such American elements as opalescent glass and glass jewels in their windows and often used a variety of machine and hand made glass to create an overall design. Although these innovations were basically an American invention of the 1870s and 1880s, the mosaic method in which the glass was used to create a picture from colored pieces is clearly descended from the Gothic Revival and carries some of the same abstractions typical of neo-medi- eval designs. David Povey also made careful use of lead lines in his designs. While he used enamel paints to create figures and scenes, lead lines were always a critical part of the design, another tenet of Gothic Revival stained glass. We can never know exactly what kind of instruction Joseph Povey gave his sons. However, it seems sensible to assume that he would have schooled them in the stained glass techniques of his time period and country of origin. His sons in turn adopted the ways of their father as well as the new methods made popular in the United States with the beginning of the opalescent era. They represented the next generation of stained glass, one which benefited from the renewed popularity of stained glass made possible by the Gothic Revival and which shaped the neo-medieval conventions to create new forms and window types . 73 Cooper Union Institute David Povey spent five years studying art and design at the Cooper Union Insti- tute for the Advancement of Science and Art in New York City. Cooper Union was founded in 1859 by Peter Cooper, a rags to riches entrepreneur, who among other achievements, built America's first steam railroad engine and invented Jello. Cooper also operated an iron foundry, glue factory, real estate and insurance businesses and once ran for president. He used the riches generated by his success to found and endow Cooper Union Institute to focus on education in the areas of art, architecture and engineering. It was also the first, and still is the only, private university to provide full academic scholar- ships to all its students. The Cooper Union campus features a Great Hall in which many famous artists and thinkers have spoken over the years. Records from Cooper Union show that David L. Povey received a First Class Certificate in Perspective Drawing in 1884. A D.S. Povey is shown as receiving a First Class Certificate in Drawing from Cast and an Honorable Mention Award in Cast Draw- ing that same year. Almost certainly the D.S. is an error, and this is the same person. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), David Povey also studied the history of art, architecture and drawing. Statistics from Cooper Union show that less than one third of the students admitted to study Perspective Drawing and Cast Drawing received certifi- cates in 1884, so David Povey must have been a dedicated student. Most classes at Cooper Union were taught at night so that students could work during the day. David Povey may have worked as an apprentice at a New York stained glass studio during this time. A breakdown of trades and occupations for students in Perspective Drawing and Cast Drawing shows that they were most commonly employed as teachers, painters, carvers, engravers and lithographers, artists, photographers, jewel- ers, engineers and clerks. David Povey may have been one of ten students listed under 74 "Sundry Occupations" (Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art 1879:35). The Cooper Union had a strong vocational focus. The Annual Report from 1879 expresses this philosophy: The Art Department of the evening schools, embraces instruction in all branches of drawing, Free-hand Drawing, Architectural, Mechanical and Drawing from Cast; also Industrial Drawing and Design, and Modeling in Clay. Lectures and lessons are given in Perspective. The design of all this instruction, as in the school of Art for Women, is practical, and as bearing on some useful employment in which the arts of design and drawing are the principal or accessory occupa- tions. (Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art 1879:8) Like most of his fellow students, David Povey studied drawing to better enable himself to pursue a productive career. His years of study in combination with his natural ability made him a highly competent artist, a fact which is reflected in the hundreds of windows which he designed for Povey Bros. Glass Co. Work Experience Unfortunately, we do not know where David Povey worked during his time in New York, Newark or St. Louis. Further research at archives in those cities might reveal some information. However, it seems safe to assume that in the early to mid 1880s, almost every stained glass studio in the United States would have been producing the opalescent windows introduced and made so wildly popular by Louis Comfort Tiffany and John La Farge. As discussed in Chapter II, opalescent windows greatly expanded the appeal of stained glass, and it began to be used in many secular contexts rather than solely in churches. This transition was fueled by the invention of the landscape window and technical innovations like the discovery of plating and the creation of new types of glass. David Povey would have been exposed to all these new American conventions during his time with various studios before he came to Portland. His work at Povey Bros. 75 clearly displays the influence of Tiffany and other opalescent stained glass designers. Like Tiffany, Povey often incorporated elements of nature in his work, especially flowers and sometimes landscape scenes. He also used opalescent glass in combination with rolled glass, ripple glass and pressed jewels to obtain intricately textured surfaces. In several churches, including the First Christian Church in Eugene and the First Christian Church in Seattle, David Povey employed plating to add depth and color to his design. Povey would have been familiar with all these techniques because of his background with studios in the east and was one of the first to import these technologies to the west coast. Travel in Europe David Povey continued to study work by other stained glass artists even as his own studio became more and more successful. Not only did he peruse the latest books and trade journals, but he also made a trip to Europe to study the stained glass there. In 1908 and 1909 he traveled throughout the old world, visiting England, Scotland, Belgium and France. Unfortunately, we have no record of his detailed itinerary, but it seems reasonable to assume that he visited many of the famous cathedrals and perhaps some glass manufacturing facilities and stained glass studios. He probably saw medieval work, Renaissance windows and Gothic Revival creations. Povey may have also seen some of the more unusual stained glass work of designers found in Europe at that time. In Scot- land, architect Charles Rennie Macintosh incorporated unique and creative stained glass into his designs for buildings and furniture. When he visited Belgium, Povey might have seen the Art Nouveau glass found in the Brussels houses designed by Victor Horta during the mid 1890s. According to his daughter, Polly Povey Thompson, David Povey was most impressed during his voyage with the work of the English Pre-Raphaelites like William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. Their work featured elegantly drawn figures, subtle coloring and attention to detail. 76 Unfortunately, at this point, the work of Povey Bros. has not been catalogued. If such a catalogue can be established it might be possible to ascertain what changes, if any, occurred in David Povey's design work after his trip to Europe. He certainly must have been inspired by the variety of stained glass that he observed and would have returned to Portland with new ideas. • Design Sources In addition to drawing on the knowledge afforded to him by his education and travels, David Povey also used a variety of other sources to aid in his stained glass de- signs. Povey used a number of written sources as well as copies of famous paintings as inspiration for his own work. He also collaborated with clients and architects, incorporat- ing their design suggestions and working from the design of the building in which his stained glass was to be housed. It is important to understand that prior to the advent of "modern" art, most designers freely drew from a wide variety of historical and contempo- rary sources and that this practice in no way reflected upon the creative abilities of the artist. David Povey's designs are still recognized today for their beauty and careful crafting and are excellent examples of late 19th/early 20th century stained glass . Books and Magazines When David Povey passed away in 1924, the probate assessors listed $834.00 work of books and journals as property of Povey Bros. The list includes plates of reli - gious paintings, works on ecclesiology and volumes of artistic ornaments. Table 1 includes all of the works found in the studio. Authors are listed where possible, but many of these works are now are out print or are not readily identifiable by title alone. This list shows that David Povey had access to a wide variety of artistic sources and reference material. Like most other stained glass makers and artists of the time, 77 Povey drew various elements from a range of historical sources. Existing art and orna- ment were often viewed by artists of the time as a type of huge patternbook from which new creations, or even unabashed recreations, could be made. H. Weber Wilson points out that these historicist windows can be divided into two types: "picture" and "pattern" windows (1986:42). Picture windows depict a scene or landscape and might have been drawn from the art plates or scenes from Catholic Saints. Pattern windows are geometric • or abstract and were often drawn from designs originally meant for furniture or architec- tural design. Books like Franz Meyer's Handbook of Ornament contained a great variety of design patterns which could be infinitely combined. This book would have been owned by most stained glass studios at the time, as well as by architects and cabinet makers. Religious and Other Paintings Texts and plates of paintings frequently served as sources for Povey stained glass, as they did for windows made by other contemporaneous studios. Windows based on existing artwork probably cost less to design than original works, and clients might also have had a preference for favored artists or familiar scenes. Painters like Holman Hunt and Maxwell Parish were popular with the general public, and David Povey often recre- ated their paintings on glass or modified them slightly to suit a particular window shape or design. The Probate Records list more than 30 designs based on well known paintings by such artists as Heinrich Hoffman, Bernard Plockhurst, Holman Hunt and Rafael. In many cases, several versions are listed for the same subject. For instance, 11 different cartoons of Plockhurst's "Good Shepherd" are listed. The Poveys appear to have drawn versions of this subject in various sizes and maybe with different borders or to fit different window shapes. Several versions of Holman Hunt's "The Light of the World" are also listed 78 Table 1. Books Found in the Povey Studio (MCC 1924:PR 53-54) # Title Author 6 Plates Haghe Sketches 1 Stained Glass Esass Co. 1 Klein Stained Glass New York 1 Styles of Ornaments Alexander Speltz 1 Atkinson Sign Painter's Manual 1 Sunday Sorap Book (English) 1 The Dore Bible 1 Ornamentik des Mittelalters in Plates (German) Carl Heideloff 1 La Decoration Arabic Paris (French) J. Savoy & Co. 3 Studio Year Book (1910, 1911, 1906) 1 English Furniture Woodwork and Decorator, 18th Cent. T. A. Strange 2 The Architectural Annual of Architectural League of Am. 2 Portland Architecture Club Year Book (1909, 1910) 1 Cleveland Architecture Club Year Book (1900) 4 Cathedral Cities of England, Venice, Cathedral Cities of France, Versailles, and the Trianos 1 French Renaissance Plates Bates Kimball 1 II Lagno, "Gothic," "Italian" (Bought Aug. 25, 1912) 1 Dec-co-ne-o New York Haqll & Garrison 1 London Art Glass and Church Furniture Jones & Webb 2 Alters 1 Tischluarbeitan figurall Plastik Plates-Wien, Verlag, Von Anton Schroll & Co.- Ger. - #2 Fuguaale - Malerie, Same pub. as above - Plates - #1 Urban Rdig Maleriinoa LL "Austria" - Plates Verlag Anton Schroll & Co. Wien Materiaoux et d' Art Deco ratif "French" Plates 1 Imago Picta 1903 "Austria" • 1 Catholic Saint "Goldsmith" 2 Cartons by F. Urban Austria 1 Moderne Kirchen Maleri Anton Schroll & Co. 1 New York Paisance 1 Young's Concord of Bible J. K. Gill 1 Great Painter 6 Modern Decorative Art 1 Masonic Dictionary 2 Ecles. Statuary 1 Holiday Stained Glass 4 Kunstverg Lasuneen 2 Lasuneen 1 Leaded Glass 79 Table 1. (Continued) # Title Author 1 Decorative Art 2 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 3 History of Rome 1 Deiglfaffiche Glasmaterei Robert Bruick 1 Nichliche Kunst Cartons I Fagle 1 Studies in Drapery and Friling 1 Illustrated Symbols and Emblems H.J. Smith 1 Salon Pictures Figure Work 1 Designs for Electrical Fixtures 1 Heraldisahar 1 Heraldry 2 Post Albums 1 Decorative Documents 1 Catholic Saints 50 The International Studio Complete 8 Years of Art Journal 1 Ornamental Plaster 1 Eccles. Art Franz Meyers 1 Hand Book of Ornament Franz Meyers 1 Hand Book of Ornament Gauld (Figures 16 & 17). According to James Sturm (1982:53) , this Pre-Raphaelite painting, c. 185 5, is the most reproduced religious painting ever, and it was recreated in stained glass by many artists and studios. In all likelihood, far more than 30 designs were made after familiar paintings. The probate listing of cartoons is incomplete and often missing information as to artist, date and location. Collaboration with Clients and Architects Before beginning a window design, David Povey studied architect's drawings, noted dimensions and the architectural treatment of the space, and talked with the minis- ter or client. Clients, of course, had a large degree of input into the subject and design of a window. For churches, the minister, rabbi or building committee was often responsible 80 Figure 16. Holman Hunt's Light of the World (Maas 1984:inside cover). Figure 17. David Povey's stained glass interpretation of Hunt's painting at the First Christian Church in Eugene, Oregon. 81 for selecting a stained glass studio to make windows and for overseeing their design. Architects of newly built churches might also be involved, but many churches did not install stained glass until sometime after their building's construction, primarily for budgetary reasons, thereby limiting the influence of the church's original architect. There are certainly cases, however, where David Povey worked hand in hand with architects or builders to create stained glass designs . David Povey must have collabo- rated on projects with his father in law, Peter Hobkirk, and friend, Richard Martin. As a member of the Portland building community, Povey was certainly friendly or at least professionally acquainted with other architects as well. These architects probably in- volved themselves in stained glass design to a varying degree. One architect who appears to have influenced the designs Povey produced for his buildings was William Knighton. Knighton, a contemporary of the Poveys, designed several buildings in which Povey glass appears, including the Deepwood House Museum and the Justice Building in Salem, the Governor Hotel in Portland (provisionally identified as Povey glass) and Johnson Hall on the University of Oregon campus. In several of these buildings, the stained glass seems to mirror or complement elements of the building design. The panels which once formed a skylight in Johnson Hall contain a UO logogram which matches others found in plaster elsewhere in the building's interior, and the skylight's geometric, vaguely classical design complements the building's American Renaissance style. The skylight at the Governor Hotel contains bell shaped elements typical of Knighton's somewhat unusual building style, and stained glass mosaics appear of the outside of the structure (Figures 18 & 19). The Probate Records include one reference to a design actually done by an architectural firm. This was a design for the Williams Residence in Portland by the firm of Doyle and Paterson, two well known area architects. It is very difficult to prove which architects David Povey may have worked with and how they 82 Figure 18. The Governor Hotel was designed in 1911 by Oregon archi- tect William Knighton . • Figure 19. The first floor skylight at the Governor Hotel draws on the architectural elements of the building's exterior. 83 influenced his designs, but it seems safe to say that in some cases there was a dialog between architect and stained glass designer, and in most cases Povey glass is sensitive to the building in which it is housed. Design Criteria Like any other art form, stained glass possesses characteristic of color, line and scale which are used to express the intent of the work. Conventional elements associated with painting such as subject and style are also applicable to stained glass design. Unlike other art forms however, stained glass is a two dimensional object which creates the effect of a "substance suspended in light without contributing any immediate satisfaction of surface" (Lee 1977:62). This unique property of stained glass affects all other design elements and requires the stained glass artist to consider the effects of refracted as well as reflected light upon his work. Many people admire and enjoy the windows that David Povey designed, but few stop to consider what makes these windows so beautiful. With his knowledge of draw- ing, art and stained glass design, Povey had a definite understanding of the elements which when combined together created a meaningful and attractive whole. While we cannot know exactly what was in his mind as he went about combining colored glass with lead lines and painted elements, an examination of his work gives us some under- standing of common qualities and techniques. Scale According to Lawrence Lee, "the first impact of a window, whether the spectator is aware of it or not, is its scale. By scale I mean not only its actual dimensions but also the fundamental impression of size and proportion in all the elements of pattern, figures, 84 imagery and even color, that are presented to the spectator in relation to a particular architectural setting" (1977:44). Scale is a central element in any design and maybe especially so in stained glass which is often meant to be seen from a distance in a large space, and which is also uniquely integrated into its architectural surrounding. David Povey seems to have been very conscious of the relationship between a stained glass window and the building in which it is situated. While many of his cre- ations are grand and impressive, they serve to complement rather than overwhelm a particular space. His designs for houses employ a relatively small scale. While they may use brilliant colors, the windows are usually small in size and are sometimes coupled with a larger clear window, mitigating the effect of the stained glass and allowing for natural light to enter the space. They tend to be abstract, portray natural elements such as dogwood flowers, or have a small central medallion with a painted figure, like the fish transom at the John Povey House in Portland (Figure 20). Povey reserved larger scale designs for grander spaces like churches and public buildings. For example, the First Congregational Church in Portland contains a stretch of five very large panels as well as a rose window over three large Gothic arched windows (Figure 21). The biblical figures in the five panels are monumental and roofed by golden Gothic tracery. While all these windows are quite large, their scale is appropriate to the High Victorian Gothic style of the church, the size of the building and the spiritual atmo- sphere of the interior. Color The quality many people most enjoy about stained glass is its brilliant color. It strikes the eye immediately; the light passing through the window creates illuminated colors quite different from those in a painting or mosaic. As Lawrence Lee says, 85 Of all things, colour in a window is the most critical element, not only with regard to its control by the artist, but in its power to have a life of its own once it has passed out of his hands and has been set immovably in the public place. It is no playground for ephemeral emotions but an activity in light that must be able to hold its drama, story, image, living yet controlled in a single plane-in fact, a stage without depth. (1977:61) The use of color in window design includes the interplay of light, dark and medium tones and the arrangement of color within the linear arrangement of cames and window lines (Lee 1977:60). David Povey did all the "coloring" of the windows himself, meaning that he selected the pieces of glass to be used in each part of a design. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), the juxtaposition of color was very important to her father. She described a sort of formula he used for determining the ratios of color within a window. The formula called for a low keyed, subtle color to make up 85%-90% design, with a contrasting bright color making up the remaining 15%-10%. Windows like the skylights in Johnson Hall at the University of Oregon and the Justice Building in Salem seem to conform to this formula. These skylights, which are very similar, contain a majority of caramel opalescent, with some creamier colored and some more amber tones . These fairly neutral colors are then complemented by a small amount of contrasting purple Figure 20 . The fish transom from the John Povey House (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). 86 Figure 21. The five large biblical windows from the First Congregational Church in Portland. opalescent and green ripple glass. Other windows contain colorful medallions set in geometric panes of creamy or clear glass. These type of medallion windows can be seen in many churches including the First Christian Churches in Corvallis and Seattle. Even more seemingly colorful windows like the abstract Victorian windows seen at the Old Church in Portland contain a majority of subtly colored glass in clear and pinkish brown tones. Some windows are more brightly colored and do not seem to follow the "for- mula." The dogwood flower and bird windows seen at the Deepwood House Museum in Salem contain a good deal of bright blue, yellow, pink and green. The blue seen in these windows, a Kokomo opalescent blue, was reportedly one of David Povey's favorite colors. The First Congregational Church on the Portland Park Blocks also contains Povey windows which make good use of this Kokomo blue. Some of David Povey's more highly painted windows, like the Shakespearean scenes at the Elsinore Theater in Salem seem to stray from the light to dark formula as well. However, the paint used on 87 these windows modulates the light passing through, so that the presence of many dark and bright colors is not overwhelming. The colors David Povey selected also help to emphasize the linear design of his windows. Many windows contain colored borders which accentuate the shape of the window opening and tie the composition into its archjtectural setting. Povey also used shading within the glass as part of the overall design. Opalescent glass often has many color variations within a single square. Povey carefully selected individual segments to give the desired effect within a composition. Line While less flashy and noticeable than the colored glass, lead lines and frames play an extremely important role in the design of a stained glass window. These lines not only provide the structural support necessary to hold the window together, but they also outline the design of the window by imposing a natural scale of interval between voids and solids. The first line in evidence is the exterior frame of the glass. Generally deter- mined by the architect during the design of the building, window fenestration provides the limits and exterior structure for the stained glass. The interior lead lines can then compliment the overall fenestration lines or provide "contradiction" or contrasting lines. Finally, painted lines fill in the shapes established by lead lines and glass colors (Lee 1977:51-57). Like many stained glass artists after the Gothic Revival, David Povey used lead- ing as an important part of the design. The cames not only supported the window, but outlined distinct shapes and figures. Povey often used a variety of different came sizes within an individual design, creating heavier and more delicate areas within the whole. For example, the Johnson Hall skylight, mentioned earlier, contains five different came 88 widths, ranging from five eighths to one eighth of an inch. These particular cames, which are zinc rather than lead, were also electroplated with a bronze paint. This manner of painting the cames makes the leading appear even more a part of the design, comple- menting the overall color scheme rather than merely appearing as dark voids between colors. Although this is a decorative feature not commonly found in Povey windows, it shows the versatile way in which David Povey was able to incorporate cames into his designs. Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s) reported that her father sometimes used a "mended effect" in certain windows. This effect involved designing intentional mends into a window to give it an antique look. Although it is difficult to tell an intentional mend from a later repair of an actual break, the panel of "Consider the Lilies" seen at the Old Church in Portland appears to make use of the mended effect, with a diagonal came line passing through a large blue circle of glass (Figure 22) . • Figure 22. A possible use of the mended effect at the Old Church in Portland. 89 Figure 23. A delicately painted bird at the Deepwood Museum. Povey's skill as an artist can also be seen in the painted line and detail found in much of his work, especially the church windows which tend to contain more painted • elements. His carefully drawn lines can be seen in the tiny birds flying across the Deepwood windows in Salem (Figure 23). The delicately drawn lines emphasize the fragility of the creatures as well as their swift flight. Painted lines also create the features of Christ and the lines of his robe at the First Christian Church in Eugene (Figure 24). The painted lines of his garments create not only the appearance of drapery but also a smoky effect that complements the opalescent glass of the border. 90 Figure 24. A portrait of Christ seen in the First Chrisitian Church in Eugene. Glass Texture Another design characteristic common to Povey glass is the use of various types of glass within the same window. David Povey used opalescent, cathedral, rolled, rippled and beveled glass together to create an overall design. He also frequently used pressed glass jewels of different shapes, colors and sizes. The intermixing of these various types of glass created interesting surface textures, diminishing the flat effect that a single type of glass might have produced. The jewels in particular add a three dimensional effect, especially some of the large chunky jewels used in Victorian windows like the one found in the Old Church. The Mooers family of Seattle (descendants of David Povey) own a window that is believed to have come from the Hoyt Hotel in Portland. This window combines clear beveled glass, light yellow crackle glass, golden ripple glass, blue and green opalescent glass and numerous glass jewels (Figure 25). As with color, David 91 • Figure 25 . This Povey window, believed to have come from the Hoyt Hotel, includes many types of glass. Povey controlled the combination of glass textures to create an interesting and unified whole. Subject and Theme In addition to elements of composition like scale, line and color, the subject and theme of a stained glass window are essential to its success and public appeal. While many themes, particularly for church windows, were determined by the clients, stained glass artists like David Povey sometimes had flexibility in their choices of subject matter, although now it is difficult to say with which windows David Povey was able to exercise the most creative freedom. Probate Records listing the cartoons drawn by David Povey show a variety of religious themes, designed for many different denominations. Common subjects include popular religious tableaux such as portraits of Christ as the "Good Shepherd" and "The Last Supper." Also included are many different depictions of the saints, particularly the disciples, and more secular panels such as "Consider the Lilies." The vast majority of the themes seem to be drawn from the New Testament, with very 92 few Old Testament subjects included. It is unfortunate that the list of Povey cartoons found in the Probate Records is not complete. This list includes over 600 designs. However, there is a break between 685 and 905, suggesting that almost 1,000 cartoons were originally on the list. The list also tends to include mostly church windows or larger projects for groups like the Elks or Masons. Apparently not included are the many smaller cartoons David Povey must have drawn for individual homes, leaving us with an unclear record of the most popular sub- jects for domestic designs. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), her father enjoyed depicting elements from nature, including dogwood blossoms, roses, lilies, acanthus leaves, and birds, all of which would have been popular subjects for turn of the century homes. As put by H. Weber Wilson, "Flowers were the most popular subject to be rendered in glass in the nineteenth century, partially because their multipart forms are so adaptable to mosaic construction. Also, people of that era had a strong awareness and appreciation of nature, and enjoyed seeing that interest reflected in art and decoration" (1986:73). Style No single term can be used to describe the myriad of windows created by Povey Bros. While many of them might be called Victorian, David Povey designed in many different styles. With a career that spanned more than three decades, he naturally created windows that were suitable to changing tastes and architectural styles. His windows ranged from Renaissance to Neo-classical to Arts and Crafts. Particularly in residential designs, Povey employed a variety of styles including Prairie, Art Nouveau and Aes- thetic. Like the architects of this period, Povey drew on a wide variety of historical styles as well as new movements like Art Deco and Mission to create an eclectic range of 93 stained glass that was meant to please the viewer and complement its architectural set- ting. Design Process Actually combining color, line and texture into a complete work followed an established design process in the Povey studio . First, a small scale model of the window, including its actual final colors, was drawn. Next, a full size black and white drawing, or cartoon, was sketched on heavy paper. The cartoon was then used to make two more copies, one of which would be used as a pattern for the window. The appropriate glass for each pattern piece was then selected. Finally, details were painted onto the glass where needed, and it was fired in a kiln . These were the same steps followed in stained glass studios across the country, and are essentially the same techniques used since medieval times. While the steps of the design process are fairly universal, it will aid our understanding of the Povey business to take a detailed look at how these steps occurred in that particular studio. Fortunately, Dymon Povey Mooers, daughter of David Povey and also a designer at Povey Bros., wrote an unpublished manuscript titled "Making a Stained Glass Window - The Process" sometime before her death. Her descriptions of the design process will be incorporated into this section as much as possible to give a first hand account of designing in the Povey studio. Consultation with Clients The first step in making any design would be to meet with clients and/or archi- tects and di scuss the project. At this time, David Povey would have sounded out matters of subject, sty le and color, discussed cost and received measurements for each window opening. Povey Bros. kept a stock of watercolors as well as small sample windows to 94 take with them when they met with clients to show their work and provide the clients with some ideas. While some clients wanted original works, others would have chosen from stock designs already drawn and used in some other church or home. These designs could be rescaled to fit the window opening, and were probably much less expensive than a newly drawn cartoon. Once a general selection had been made, the clients would continue to be involved in the growing design. It was the job of the studio artists to continue to consult with the clients throughout the design process. Watercolor In the first phase the design is drawn to scale and rendered in watercolor- the idea being to give as true and complete an impression as possible of the actual appearance of the window when finished and set in final posi- tion. (Mooers ca. 1970s) Dymon Povey Mooers ' words succinctly and accurately describe the purpose of the first concrete phase of design, the watercolor (Figure 26). Watercolors, while drawn to scale, were small, portable versions of the actual window. Painting these detailed watercolors required considerable artistic skill. David Povey owned three water color boxes and $207.00 worth of water color brushes (MCC 1924:PR 44). Once complete, watercolors would be shown to the clients for their approval and would continue to serve • as a reference for the remainder of the design process. Unfortunately most of the Povey Bros. watercolors have been lost, but the family still owns several made for the Church of the Assumption in Bellingham, Washington. Cartoon The design having been drawn and approved by the client and architect, the cartoon, or full sized drawing is next made. This is drawn to the actual size of the window opening, and the leads, bars and all details of the finished window are carefully planned. (Mooers ca. 1970s) 9S Figure 26. A Povey Bros. watercolor for an unidentified church (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). The creation of the cartoon is a critical step in stained glass design (Figure 27). Often David Povey's assistant artists were responsible for using the watercolor to create a full scale model of the window to be made (Thompson ca. 1980s). The artists used drafting tools such as the two sets of drawing instruments, one large combination com- pass, "T" squares, straight edges and drawing boards listed in the Probate Records to make the cartoon (MCC 1924:PR 44). Sometimes they also used templates made at the job site to aid in the design. The cartoon showed lead lines in their actual width and was very carefully drawn. Any painting to be done on the piece was shown in black and white. 96 • Figure 27. Povey Bros. cartoon for an unidentified church (Polly Povey Thompson Collection). 97 Pattern From this cartoon, lead lines and bars are reproduced in a tracing called the cut-line or working drawing. Next, the cut-line is laid on the pattern paper with a sheet of carbon paper between. Then by going over each line with a hard pencil, an exact duplicate of the cut-line drawing is transferred to the pattern paper. This pattern drawing is then cut up into separate pattern pieces by the aid of double-bladed shears which takes out an allowance for the heart of the lead. (Mooers ca. 1970s) This step provided the patterns to be used in choosing and cutting pieces of glass to fit into the mosaic design. Like the cartoon, the working drawing was a full size, to scale model. The working drawing was saved to use as a template during work, while the pattern copy was cut up to be matched to the glass. The pattern was copied onto heavy detail paper and cut out with one of the six pairs of special cutting shears recorded in the Probate Records (MCC 1924:PR 44). "Coloring" the Window The next step is selecting the glass or as is technically termed coloring the window. With the original drawing as a guide, ruby, blue, green, gold, purple and white or varying tones of intensity and value are selected and cut to the shapes of the patterns. Cutting is done with a steel wheel which must be sharpened frequently and is dipped into Kerosene before cutting. (Mooers ca. 1970s) I As mentioned earlier, David Povey did all the coloring of the windows, and this step was an important element in the overall design of each stained glass piece. He carefully chose the color, texture and grain of each section of glass, using the watercolor to make his selections. Individual sheets of glass, especially opalescent glass, have a great deal of variation within each sheet. Povey chose the portions best suited to his designs. David Povey had a wide variety of glass available from which to choose. Analy- sis of the Probate Records shows that there were more than 30 different types of glass, in 98 many hundreds of colors, stocked in the Povey studio at the time of David Povey's death . Table 2 shows the different varieties of glass in order of their abundance. Unfortunately, while the Probate Records assess the value of most of the glass types by their square footage, some are valued by the pound, making them difficult to compare. Those evalu- ated by weight are listed in a second table. These glasses, mostly American opalescents, were probably some of the most common glasses used and were most likely sold by the • pound, rather than the square foot like some of the more expensive imported or hand made glasses. The records also list more than 35,000 glass jewels, ranging in size from one half inch to two and a half inches. Other glazing supplies are included as well: plate glass, lamp shade panels and hardware, easel plates and a variety of lights glazed in metal. Although it is difficult to compare pounds to square feet, it appears that common opalescents, at almost 30 tons, were the most prevalent type of glass in the studio. Other common types include English Cathedral, Opalescent Cathedral, colored Moss glass and American Cathedrals. Cathedral glass was machine made, usually came in pale tints and was available in a wide variety of textures. It was also usually much less expensive than hand made Antique glasses. Opalescent glasses were also machine made and relatively inexpensive. They were available in a number of textures such as Drapery or Variegated. The common opalescents found in the studio seem to have primarily been made by the King and Dannenhoffer glass factories and included a large number of colors such as Dove, Peltier Yellow, Iridescent and Butterfly. Some of the glass types were imported from Europe. Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s) reported that David Povey preferred English and French glasses because he felt they were made with a type of silica superior to that used in German or American glass manufacture. While opalescents and cathedrals dominate, the inventory clearly contained a wide range of less common glasses 99 Table 2. Povey Bros. Glass Inventory (MCC 1924: PR 1-34) Glass TyQe Sguare Ft. English Cathedral 6688' 8" Opal Cathedral 5292' 8" Moss (colored) 2222' 11" American Cathedral 1418' 10" Ripple 811' 8" German Antique 734' 0" Wiss Opals 689' 0" English Antique (Common) 616' 0" Cathedral Opal 290' 0" Moss (opal) 231' 10" Crackel 229' 4" Bent Glass 153' 3" English Antique (Ruby) 151' 1" Moss (white) 125' 10" White Fluted 114' 2" White Crackel 91' 0" Irish 79' 0" China White 79' 0" Rippled Opal 60' 0" White Opal Sheet 51' 8" Assorted French Opal 50' 0" Ondoyant 48' 10" Flash 40' 0" Variegated Cathedral 36' 6" Sandblasted English Cathedral 28' 8" White Enamel or Clear 22' 10" Variegated Cathedral Opal 11' 9" Florentine 8' 6" Ruby Opal 6' 8" Mexican Onyx 4' 6" Variegated Opal 3' 4" Glass npe Pounds Opals Common 29,707 Drapery Opalescent 150 Gold and Ruby Opal 40 100 that would have been used as accent pieces or to provide additional texture. David Povey could have selected among these glasses as he saw fit, choosing the colors and finishes most appropriate to his designs. Painting Each piece of glass is now placed on the cartoon and the detail of the design (features, drapery folds, patterns, etc.) are traced on the glass with an opaque, vitrifiable pigment. The pigment is composed of oxides of iron and manganese ground up with powdered flint glass (which is soft glass of low melting point) and mixed with Venice turpentine to cause it to adhere. The painted pieces are now assembled on a large plate glass easel beneath which lies the cut line drawing to serve as a guide; to this plate the pieces are fastened with a mixture of melted wax and resin at the corners of each separate piece. The plate glass with the pieces fastened to it is now placed upright on an easel where direct light will shine thru--so that now the artist has a view of the colored mosaic window. Each piece is covered with a thin film or "matt" of opaque pigment--the same kind of vitrifiable pig- ment that was used for tracing the outline of details, but now the adhesive medium is gum arabic and the paint is very thin (thinned out with water) . Once dry the paint is rubbed with the finger or scrubbed with a stiff bristle brush until most of the paint is removed, leaving just enough to give a more effective texture to the glass, mellowing the color and shading where necessary without losing more than necessary of the intrinsic beauty and brilliancy. Oil paint is used then for deepening shadows. The easel is then laid flat and glass removed. They are now put into the kiln and the heat gradually raised until the glass attains a cherry red color--literally red hot. The surface is now in a molten state with the pigment that was painted on becoming a part of the very glass itself. The heat is reduced until the glass is safe to be removed. Once more the pieces are assembled on the easel and waxed up. This is for the purpose of retouching and intensifying color if necessary, deepening shading, etc. Again it is put thru the kiln. Then it is ready for the glazier (the workman who assembles it with lead). (Mooers ca. 1970s) The studio possessed $87 .00 worth of the glass pigments mention by Dymon Povey Mooers when David Povey died. Table 3 includes all the paints listed in the Probate Records in order of the amount on hand, followed by the thinning and mixing ingredients. 101 Table 3. Inventory of Glass Paints and Stains (MCC 1924:PR 35-36) Amt Pigment 3.5 lbs Umber Brown 3 lbs Tracing Brown #1 3 lbs Tracing Black #61 2.25 lbs Ultramarine Blue #1092 2 lbs Coral Red #1321 1.25 lbs Grey for Flesh #1270 .75 lbs Obscuring White #1400 .75 lbs Hair Brown #1120 .5 lbs Best Black #1050 .5 lbs Gold Yellow #1368 .5 lbs Silver Stain #1382 .25 lbs Transparent Yellow Red #4065 10 oz Transparent Flesh #1338A 8 oz Shammy Brown #1132A 3 oz Pompadour Red #1329 2 oz Red for Flesh #1333 2 oz Ruby Purple #1293A 2 oz White Enamel #1418 2 oz Grass Green # 1-# 1221 2 oz Vandyke Brown 2 oz Yellow Orange #1376 2 oz Blue Stain 2 oz Delft Green #1216 2 oz Shammy Brown #1131 1 oz Yellow Brown #1-#1145 1 oz Gold Stain 1 oz Sepia Brown #1130 1 oz Dark Red for Flash #1524 1 oz Transparent Amber #1378 1 oz Gold Yellow #1368 1 oz Red for Flash #1325 1 oz Yellow Stain .5 lb Anese Oil .5 lb Castor Oil .5 lb Ascetic Acid 1 pt Damar Varnish .5 gal White Enamel 102 It is interesting to note that black and brown are by far the most abundant colors, suggesting they were the most commonly used. These colors would have been used for outlining details as well as stippling or matting, techniques which blocked light being refracted through the glass. In her discussion of the manufacture of stained glass win- dows, Dymon Povey Mooers commented that, "it should be born in mind that the pig- ment is employed merely for giving detail and stopping out light where necessary and not to give color" (Mooers ca. 1970s). While the large amounts of black and brown seem to bear out this statement, there are many other colors listed which would have been em- ployed in certain situations. Reds, for example, might have been used to give color to lips or cheeks. In addition to the inventory, the Probate Records also include the Povey Bros. accounts receivable listings for April 1924 through May 1925. While the paints listed by the assessors appear to be commercially purchased products, no entry recognizable as a glass paint manufacturer can be found in the accounts receivable for this time span. There are, however, several listings for art and glass supply shops like Rasmussen & Co. and W.P. Fuller. Povey Bros. probably obtained their paints from these local retail out- lets. Further research might match the color numbers with a paint manufacturer. Such a matching would be valuable in doing restoration work on Povey windows where the paints have deteriorated. According to Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s), the assistant artists were re- sponsible for grinding the glass paints and preparing them to be applied. The Probate Records include one "Paint Grinder" which they would have used in their work (MCC 1924:PR 40). There was typically a hierarchy among stained glass painters within a studio. As pointed out by Bryce Anderson, a Portland stained glass worker who began _ his career in the 1920s, "many studios in the period between 1890 and 1920 had artist 103 specialists; there were designers, cartoon makers, flesh painters, drapery painters, orna- ment painters and other specialists" (1991:3). The flesh painters were generally the most experienced, and this task was probably done primarily by David Povey himself (Figure 28). Assistant artists might have painted borders or other less crucial elements of the window. Figure 28. A self portrait painted on glass by David Povey. 104 Povey Bros. must have had a kiln in which the glass pieces were fired once the paint had been applied. Such a kiln would have been a fixture in most stained glass studios. However, the Probate Records do not include a listing of a kiln. There is a reference to "1 Gas Furnace Complete" valued at $200.00 (MCC 1924:PR 43). This entry probably refers to the kiln. Pieces would have been carefully fired. Overfiring or underfiring could result in discoloration of the paint or its failure to adhere to the surface of the glass. Of course, many windows would have required little or no painting and firing. The type of windows known as "art glass" typically contained a good deal of opalescent glass which was used to provide shading and variation without the use of paint. These windows were very popular around the turn of the century, and the Poveys made many of them. Some windows might have included just a few painted pieces, such as faces or hands with the rest consisting of unpainted opalescent. Others, particularly geometric or landscaped windows, might have no paint at all and would have proceeded directly from coloring and cutting to fabrication. Fabrication Once the pieces had been fired, retouched and fired again, the incomplete window moved to the workshop for fabrication. The process of putting the pieces together into a finished window will be discussed in Chapter V. 105 CHAPTER V THE POVEY WORKSHOP While the artists and designers in the Povey studio were responsible for giving a window its color and shape, the glaziers and shop workers had the difficult task of mak- ing these visions a reality. The medium of stained glass requires a great deal of technical expertise to execute a finished and lasting work. A window must be able to support its own weight as well as withstand the elements because it is usually a functional part of a building. These requirements mean that a stained glass window must be fabricated with skill and intimate knowledge of the properties of glass and metal. John Povey, the youngest Povey brother, was in charge of the Povey Bros. work- shop (Figure 29). He probably had about 15 to 20 men working under him by 1905 when the new factory was built. This team worked 50 hours a week, including a part day on Saturday, and was responsible for putting together the windows designed by the artists as well as making other products like beveled glass and mirrors. This chapter will discuss the facilities in which the glaziers worked, the tools they used and the items they made. The Povey Building Povey Bros. operated in several rented quarters before they constructed their own factory building in 1905. Photographs of these earlier locations show them to have been typical late 19th century commercial buildings with glass storefronts, recessed entries and cast iron decorative elements. At their third location at the corner of 6th and Davis, the growing Povey operation occupied the entire second floor of a large, two bay, wood frame building (Figure 30). However, while these quarters must have served the pur- 106 Figure 29. A portrait of John E.G. Povey (Oregon Historical Society #0303P035) poses of Povey Bros. , it is almost certain that none of the buildings they occupied prior to 1905 were designed to house a stained glass studio. In contrast, the Povey Building was designed specifically for Povey Bros. with all the needs of their business taken into account. Located at the corner of 5th and Flanders near Portland's Chinatown, the Povey Building was constructed as a three story brick factory building, with each floor serving specific purposes for the glass makers. Analysis of this building will help us to under- stand how Povey Bros. was organized and how they used this space to meet their needs. The Povey Building was designed by Portland architect Emil Schacht and built by Hobkirk & McKenzie General Contractors, the company operated by David Povey's father-in-law. Emil Schacht was a German immigrant who arrived in Portland in 1883 107 • Figure 30. The third Povey studio at the corner of 6th and Davis (Polly Povey Thomp- son Collection). and opened his own architecture studio in 1885. He had been trained at the Polytechnic Schools in Copenhagen and Hanover where he would have received a typical Beaux Artes education. Schacht came to New York in 1874 and worked as a draftsman for six years, becoming familiar with American architectural styles like Queen Anne, Shingle and Colonial Revival. Schacht's Portland studio remained in operation for 41 years, and he designed several prominent Portland buildings including the Oriental Exhibits Build- ing at the Lewis and Clark Exposition and the Portland Police Headquarters. He also designed a sizable number of factory buildings, of which the Povey Building is one. According to Patricia Lynn Sackett, who compiled an inventory of Schacht's work, "during the years 1905 to 1915, Schacht designed many commercial, office and industrial buildings in Portland of both load-bearing brick and reinforced concrete construction" (1990:57). These industrial buildings with their simple brick arches and classical refer- ences tended to show the influence of Louis Sullivan and the Chicago School. 108 Figure 31. Historic photograph of the Povey Building (courtesty Dr. David Mooers). Fortunately we can still observe the exterior of the Povey Building as it remains in its original location at the corner of 5th and Flanders. Few alterations have been made to the building 's facade, and it looks much as it did when it was completed in 1905 (Figure 31). The Povey Building is listed in the City of Portland's Historic Resource Inventory. It is constructed of load bearing brick with an interior frame of heavy timber. The strength and structural capacity of the building is expressed on the exterior facades through the use of Doric pilasters and articulated bays. The building has a projecting brick cornice and a belt course separating the basement from the first floor. As Sackett puts it, "this building is an excellent example of Schacht's ability to define massive structural walls with classically derived detailing" (1990:60). 109 At the time it was constructed, the building included room for expansion, a studio with north light, and a basement with a high ceiling and large windows. Each floor was essentially a large open space with no inner walls. A row of supporting 12" by 12" posts ran down the center of the building, resting on brick foundation piers. With the exception of these posts and a small corner bathroom area on floors one through three, few other barriers divided the inner space. This openness would have provided natural light, facilitated communication between workers and allowed adequate space for large projects (Figure 32). According to David Mooers (David Mooers personal communication 1999), son of Dymon Povey Mooers and grandson of David Povey, the building was divided into four distinct areas of operation. The basement served as the beveling shop, the first floor as the office, the second floor as the design and painting studio and the third floor as the fabrication workshop and storage area. Light was provided to the basement by two walls filled with prismatic glass squares. These glass cubes were apparently a newly patented invention made in Chicago, and the Povey Building may have been one of the first in Portland to employ this building material (Figure 33). Polly Povey Thompson (ca. 1980s) believed that these prismatic windows were much admired and copied by architects and factory owners in the Portland area. She also stated that the glass blocks provided the natural light necessary for the difficult work of beveling. The Probate Records include a number of machines associ- ated with glass beveling (MCC 1924:PR 43). These machines operated off a 70" drive shaft powered by a 15 horse power motor and would have occupied quite a bit of floor space. Interestingly, in the inventory, these items are listed under "Shop," suggesting that they may have been located on the third floor rather than in the basement. However, the records are not clear enough to indicate conclusively the location of this equipment. 110 'I ,11 , ,11, I ~~~' ..... ....... , ~~~1111::-_-_-: :.:::-..:..:..::Q::- :: :. :-..:::-.::-.::..::r&:::..-:-: .:: .:::-_-:::,c:..::..:: :-::.~: :ra:.: ::_-::.: :_~ •=:.:: _ _:._ :_-_-_-_:fll::.:::-7•~ • .,,,: ,,, 11 1--- -- : ;; , , , 1.::.: : , ,I ,I "f II t, 1' ,,;, ,,,, I i 11 1, 0.-.SEM!Sr