USING RECAST THEORY TO EXAMINE THE RACIAL STRESS APPRAISAL PROCESS ACROSS HIGH SCHOOLS: DIFFERENCES IN RACIAL THREAT AND SUPPORT APPRAISALS by MAUREEN C. FLEMING A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Counseling Psychology and Human Services and the Division of Graduate Studies of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2024 2 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Maureen C. Fleming Title: Using Recast Theory to Examine the Racial Stress Appraisal Process Across High Schools: Differences In Racial Threat And Support Appraisals This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Counseling Psychology and Human Services by: Benedict McWhirter Chairperson Howard Stevenson Member Dave Degarmo Member Geovanna Rodriguez Institutional Representative and Krista Chronister Vice Provost for Graduate Studies Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree will be awarded in September 2024 3 © 2024 Maureen C. Fleming 4 DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Maureen C. Fleming Doctor of Philosophy Department of Counseling Psychology and Human Services September 2024 Title: Using Recast Theory to Examine the Racial Stress Appraisal Process Across High Schools: Differences in Racial Threat and Support Appraisals The current study utilizes the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST) to examine Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) in youth. This study adds to current understanding of what contributes to the development of RSA and RCSE skills in an effort to support interventions aimed at increasing these capabilities. Data from 301 diverse high school students from three different high schools in the United States was collected through the Racial Empowerment Collaborative research and training center at the University of Pennsylvania. In this study we validated a measure of RSA and RCSE, gleaning factors from each. We then examined if student participants, based on the type of school they attend, varied in their RCSE, RSA, and factor levels. RSA factors included Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Students from the majority White, high socioeconomic status (SES) school reported significantly lower Racial Threat Appraisal and significantly higher Racial Support Appraisal levels than students from the schools with more students of color and greater variability in SES. These results demonstrate how support, racial coping, and stress management skills may help mitigate ongoing interpersonal harm caused by racially stressful experiences among youth. Implications for intervention implementation and future research are discussed. 5 CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: MAUREEN C. FLEMING GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene, OR University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA Lebanon Valley College, Lebanon, PA DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, Counseling Psychology, Expected 2024, University of Oregon Master of Philosophy of Education, Professional Counseling, 2019, University of Pennsylvania Master of Science of Education, Counseling and Mental Health Services, 2018, University of Pennsylvania Bachelor of Science, Psychology, 2017, Lebanon Valley College PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Racial Literacy Trainer, Lion’s Story, Remote, 2020-Present Research Assistant, Lion’s Story, Remote, 2021-Present Instructor, Department of Family and Human Services, Eugene, OR, 2022-Present Intern, Oregon Commission on Black Affairs, Remote, 2022 Practicum Intern, Child and Family Center, Eugene, OR, 2021-2022 Clinical Extern, University of Oregon Counseling Services, Eugene OR, 2021-2022 Co-Instructor, Department of Family and Human Services, Eugene, OR 2020-2022 Psychological Trainee, Counseling Psychology Center, Eugene, OR, 2020-2021 Teaching Assistant, Department of Family and Human Services, Eugene, OR 2020-2021 6 Supervisor, Department of Family and Human Services, Eugene OR, 2019-2020 Counseling Intern, Rosemont College, Bryn Mawr, PA, 2018-2019 Counseling Intern, CAPA High School, Philadelphia, PA, 2017-2018 PUBLICATION: McWhirter, E.H., Cendejas, C., Fleming, M., Martínez, S., Mather, N., Garcia, Y., Romero, L., Ortega, R.I., & Rojas-Araúz, B.O. (2021). College and career ready and critically conscious: Asset-building with Latinx immigrant youth. Journal of Career Assessment, 29(3), 525-542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072720987986 INVITED TALKS: Reparations in Counseling Psychology: A Call-to-Action Webinar, Society for Counseling Psychology, Virtual, 2022 How to Support Colleagues of Color, Friend’s Central School, Virtual, 2022 Developing Healthy White Advocacy: Action, Inaction, and Reaction in Racial Encounters, Lion’s Story, Virtual, 2021 Navigating Quarantine Chaos as a Survivor of Sexual Violence, University of Oregon, Virtual, 2021 AWARDS, AND HONORS: Graduate Teaching Fellowship, Psychology, 2019-present University of Oregon College of Education Doctoral Conference Award, 2022 Christina Maslach-Phillip Zimbardo Research Award in Social Psychology, 2021 University of Oregon College of Education Doctoral Conference Award, 2022 University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education Scholarship, 2017-2019 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my Mom and Gram, thank you for modeling what it looks like to be independent, hard-working women who can persevere through any challenge that life throws at us. My promise to both of you is to live a life starting now that is filled with more ease than any of us have yet to experience. To Noon, who has been my anchor through the many waves of this process, thank you doesn’t come close to covering it. I plan to spend the rest of my life showing you how much I’ve appreciated your support over the last four years. To Brooke, thank you for being the kind of best friend that most only dream of. Your unending support, fierce love, and weekly phone calls were the lifelines that kept me afloat these past four years. I simply don’t know what I would have done without you and could spend the length of this document expressing my gratitude for you. To Claire, meeting you in Eugene was the universe’s way of telling me I’d be okay out here. Thank you for making it feel like home while you were here, showing me there’s happiness on the other side, making me laugh at least three times a week, and loving me so damn hard. To the friends who were able to visit while I’ve been out here (Elaine, VanTash, Sam, and Dom) – I hope you know how much you mean to me, but I doubt you know how much your short time out here made an extremely difficult process much more bearable. Thank you for giving me a piece of home while I was struggling and thank you for your consistent check ins. To my Eugene gang (Lindsey, Eric, YG, Mary, Alex, Yijun, Frank, and Allison – and Kelli, Evan, Ellie, and Saralina in the OG days), thank you for the delicious (homecooked) meals shared and the attempts at normalcy made during a time when nothing ever felt normal. I will never forget the community care we offered one another and the love you showed our crazy little pups. And Lindsey, thank you for being my mentor even when you were trying to figure things 8 out yourself. You are wicked smart, so encouraging, a kickass editor, and were always able to offer a helpful perspective. To Jess, thank you for stepping into the mentor role each and every time I needed you most. You were always there even when you had way too much on your plate and I’ll never forget that. To Meg, my fellow Psych Queen, thanks for keeping the throne warm in PA while I’ve in Oregon but it’s time to share it again soon!! To my dad, thank you for your unwavering support of me moving across the country and for the values you instilled in me throughout my life that helped me complete this program. To all who have been mentioned – I love you so much. Thank you, thank you, thank you. I owe you all some baked goods! 9 This dissertation is dedicated to Dr. Howard C. Stevenson and the Lion’s Story Village, for not only providing the data for this project, but also for being my virtual place of solace during the stressors of a doctoral program. 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. RATIONALE................................................................................................................ 13 Racial Stress ................................................................................................................ 14 Impacts of Racial Stress ...................................................................................... 15 Recast Theory.............................................................................................................. 16 Racial Socialization ............................................................................................. 17 Racial Coping ...................................................................................................... 18 Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) .......................................................................... 19 Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) .................................................................................... 19 Current Study .............................................................................................................. 21 II. METHODS .................................................................................................................. 24 Participants ................................................................................................................. 24 School A .............................................................................................................. 24 School B .............................................................................................................. 25 School C .............................................................................................................. 25 Measures .................................................................................................................... 26 Demographic Data .............................................................................................. 26 Racial Stress Appraisal ....................................................................................... 26 Racial Coping Self-Efficacy ............................................................................... 27 Procedures .................................................................................................................. 27 Analysis Plan .............................................................................................................. 28 III. RESULTS .................................................................................................................. 30 Missing Data .............................................................................................................. 30 Preliminary Analyses ................................................................................................. 30 Exploratory Factor Analyses ...................................................................................... 31 Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity and Kaiser-Meyer Olkin Statistics .......................... 32 11 STRESS-Ys .......................................................................................................... 32 P-REACTs ............................................................................................................ 35 Mean Comparisons ................................................................................................... 45 IV. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 49 Measure Validation ................................................................................................... 50 RSA Factors ......................................................................................................... 50 RCSE Factors ....................................................................................................... 51 Comparing Means ..................................................................................................... 53 Racial Support Appraisal ..................................................................................... 53 Racial Threat Appraisal ....................................................................................... 55 Connecting Racial Support Appraisal and Racial Threat Appraisal .................... 57 Limitations ................................................................................................................. 58 Implications ................................................................................................................ 60 Recommendations ...................................................................................................... 61 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 63 APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 65 REFERENCES CITED .................................................................................................... 68 12 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Frequencies of Demographic Data Organized by School .................................... 31 2. Rotated Factor Matrix for STRESS-Ys Without Small Coefficients Suppressed 34 3. Rotated Factor Matrix for STRESS-Ys with Small Coefficients Suppressed ..... 35 4. Pattern Matrix for P-REACTs with Small Coefficients Suppressed ................... 38 5. Pattern Matrix for P-REACTs Without Small Coefficients Suppressed ............. 41 6. Correlations of Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self-Efficacy and Their Factors for School A ............................................................................................ 42 7. Correlations of Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self-Efficacy and Their Factors for School B ............................................................................................ 43 8. Correlations of Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self-Efficacy and Their Factors for School C ............................................................................................ 44 9. Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self Efficacy, and Their Factors for All Schools ................................................. 46 13 CHAPTER I RATIONALE Racial tension in the United States often leaves many Americans feeling ill equipped to engage in interracial interactions. Whether or not interracial interactions are perceived by any involved party to be racist, stress and threat reactions are common (O’Keefe et al., 2015). Such stress reactions impact individuals’ biological, cognitive, and emotional processes (Trawalter et al., 2012; Trawalter et al., 2008) and, in severe cases, trigger a physiological stress response (i.e., flight, fight, freeze), especially when accompanied by fear of discriminatory or inhumane treatment (Hoffman et al., 2016; Richeson & Trawalter, 2005; Trawalter et al., 2008; Trawalter et al., 2012). Earlier studies have shown that experiencing racial stress can have significant short- term, intermediate, and long-term consequences on youth’s health and wellbeing (Brody et al., 2021; Kaholokula, 2016: O’Keefe et al., 2015). Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC), especially youth, have been found to suffer the consequences of others’ threat reactions. Researchers have revealed that Black and Latinx adolescents are perceived as physically larger and more dangerous than they actually are, and that these perceptions result in increased threat reactions and acts of mistreatment from those around them (Hannon et al., 2013; Milner et al., 2016; Wilson et al., 2017). The long-standing media and political representations of BIPOC youth as being “super predators” lead to exaggerated threat responses from others, resulting in inflated racial stress responses from BIPOC youth themselves Milner (et al., 2016; Wilson et al., 2017). An individual’s appraisal of a situation to be racially stressful and threatening, coupled with a belief that they are ill-equipped to manage the stress that ensues, thwarts the individual’s ability to cope with the stress experienced (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Stevenson, 2014). This 14 not only causes immediate stress reactions but can also place the individual at risk for long-term consequences (Stevenson, 2014). Conversely, if an individual appropriately assesses a racially stressful situation (called Racial Stress Appraisal), and they have confidence in their ability to manage the resulting stress reactions (called Racial Coping Self-Efficacy), they are more likely to successfully cope with the stress when it occurs (Anderson et al., 2019; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Stevenson, 2014). Understanding the mechanisms that contribute to a readiness to engage in and cope with racially stressful situations and reactions are especially helpful to youth faced with racially charged situations in multiple settings. Understanding these mechanisms and enhancing skills to improve Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) are essential foci of study to help improve outcomes for BIPOC White youth alike. Key variables that relate to these dynamics include those that follow. Racial Stress Racial stress can be understood as reactions (e.g., physiological, cognitive, emotional) to racial encounters that are perceived as too threatening or difficult to navigate with one’s current coping abilities (Harrell, 2000; Stevenson, 2014). Racialized youth are more likely to experience adversity and mistreatment than non-racialized youth. Racialized youth groups are also more likely to attribute their treatment to rejection or exclusion related to their ethnoracial identity (Liu et al., 2018). For example, a majority of youth (88%) in one sample consisting largely of BIPOC youth, ages 8-16, reported having at least one experience with racial discrimination, with one- third to one-half of these encounters taking place in school (Pachter et al., 2010). Black youth, in particular, have reported at least five experiences of discrimination daily (English et al., 2020b). These experiences, along with the attribution that negative interactions involve race, lead to a higher likelihood that racialized youth (and Black youth most prominently), suffer cognitive, 15 affective, behavioral, and social consequences as a result of racial stress. Further, racialized youth groups are more likely to name racial discrimination as a prominent social stressor (Cooke et al., 2014; Seaton et al., 2010). Impacts of Racial Stress Unaddressed racial stress has been connected to alterations in physical (i.e., immune, neuroendocrine, and cardiovascular systems; Kaholokula, 2016; Lewis et al., 2017), mental/emotional (e.g., general distress, depressive symptoms, anxious symptoms, hyperarousal; Carter et al., 2013) and social (e.g., interpersonal trust and safety, self-esteem; Stevenson, 2014; Piper et al., 2021) wellbeing for youth of all ethnoracial backgrounds. These alterations, over time, can lead to higher rates of physiological (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, maternal and fetal health; Butler et al., 2002; Everage et al., 2012; Kaholohula, 2016; Mustillo et al., 2004), psychological (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, suicidality; Paradies et al., 2015; Pieterse et al., 2012), and social (e.g., familial, friendships, workplace/school-based; Carter, 2007; Stevenson, 2014) health disorders and difficulties later in life for youth of all ethnoracial backgrounds. Youth experiencing racial stress and discrimination have consistently shown higher rates of depression, suicidality, anxiety, and conduct problems, as well as lower rates of self-esteem and life satisfaction (Assari et al., 2017; Brody et al., 2006; Brody et al., 2021; O’Keefe et al., 2015; Priest et al., 2013; Seaton et al., 2010; Sellers et al., 2006). Negative impacts have been observed at higher rates and intensity when youth are at a loss for how to navigate coping with their reactions (Anderson et al., 2019; Cooke et al., 2014). Sometimes the coping mechanisms children and adolescents rely on to manage racial stress can be related to negative outcomes (Glover et al., 2022). Specifically, youth will often 16 withdraw physically and emotionally in the face of a racially stressful event, which has proven to be ineffective, especially in the school setting where students are expected to engage in order to succeed (Ward et al., 2000). This tendency to withdraw in the face of racial stress could be a contributing factor when examining why racial stress has been associated with decreased academic achievement and higher rates of depression for Black youth (Golden et al., 2018; Choi & Choi, 2002; Piper et al., 2021). Additionally, for older adolescents, racial coping difficulties can lead to the use of substances such as alcohol (Anderson et al., 2020; Metzger et al., 2018; Terrell et al. 2006), which can have both short and long-term physiological and psychological impacts (Lee et al., 2018). Given the high rates of racially stressful encounters that children and adolescents experience in school settings, along with reported lack of preparedness to manage associated feelings, it is imperative that attention is paid to mechanisms that may aid youth in managing racial stress in schools. Understanding racial stress appraisal and coping self-efficacy has the potential to explain the negative impact of racial stress on youth. The implications of identifying specific risk and protective factors for intervention development are crucial for addressing achievement and wellness disparities across varying student demographics. Recast Theory The Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST) developed by Stevenson (2014) conceptualizes interpersonal racial conflict as anxiety ridden and, as such, theorizes that in order to decrease future racial harm from occurring, people need to be better able to cope with the stress they feel during interracial interactions. Recast Theory proposes that the practice and application of racial socialization and racial coping skills can mediate the negative impact of racial stress on racial coping in the Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) process by reinforcing Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE). Recast Theory is an intervention-focused 17 theory based in traditional stress and coping models (i.e., the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping [TMSC]; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The theory asserts that appraising and feeling efficacious enough to manage a racially stressful situation requires both an understanding of racial dynamics, including how these dynamics differentially impact people of different races (racial socialization), and an ability to employ racially specific coping skills (Anderson et al., 2018; Clark et al., 1999; Harrell, 2000; Stevenson, 2014). A foundational component of Recast Theory is that racial socialization and coping, and in turn, RSA and RCSE, can be improved through practice (Stevenson, 2014). If higher levels of RSA and RCSE provide a greater chance that an individual will be able to successfully navigate a racially stressful encounter, an individual can proactively prevent higher levels of racial stress for themselves and others by practicing the necessary coping skills and increasing their certainty in those abilities. As such, this theory has been used to explain why individuals and groups who deal with a higher frequency of racially stressful encounters have more experience assessing and navigating racially stressful situations, leading to higher levels of competence and confidence (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019; Bentley-Edwards et al., 2016; Stevenson, 2014). Racial Socialization Racial socialization can be understood as the verbal and non-verbal transmission and acquisition of skills (e.g., intellectual, emotional, behavioral) over time with the intention to assist with the process of RSA (Lion’s Story Village, 2021). Racial socialization represents the sum of messages one receives about race from their family, community, groups, and society at large. Specifically, this construct reflects rules and regulations for navigating the conflict, stressors, progress, and resolution of race-related issues (Lion’s Story Village, 2021). Racial 18 socialization facilitates the RSA process by providing more context and guidance in how to appraise racially stressful encounters. Preliminary studies have indicated that youth’s experience with racial socialization is related to more adaptive racial coping processes (Anderson et al., 2019) and youth’s (and their parents’) competence in racial socialization can predict future experiences of racism, complex racial identity issues (Jones et al., 2021), and psychosocial outcomes (Anderson et al., 2021; Winchester et al., 2022). This data, paired with Recast Theory, would support the hypothesis that more frequent and substantial experiences of racial socialization would lead to more positive Racial Stress Appraisal and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (Stevenson, 2014). To date, however, there is a lack of empirical data supporting the proposed hypothesis that when an individual feels more adept at evaluating a situation, they tend to feel more confident in their ability to cope, which is strengthened if they also have practice coping with similar situations (Stevenson, 2014). The presence of this data would likely be comforting to parents, educators, and interventionalists when promoting the necessity of racial socialization, knowing that it may lead to improvement in skills that can reduce racial stress. Racial Coping Utilizing coping skills during and after racially stressful encounters not only assists in the RSA process and minimizes the impact of those events, but it also lays the groundwork for (and builds confidence and comfort in) navigating future racially stressful situations. Stevenson (2014) has defined racial coping by adding racial context to Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) definition of coping that was originally included in their TMSC. As such, racial coping is “[racial] cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage [racial] demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 141; Stevenson, 2014, 19 p. 115). Anderson and colleagues (2018) and Stevenson (2014) argue that in order to cope with in-the-moment racial stress, specific racial coping skills are needed. Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) An individual’s belief in their racial coping abilities, known as Racial Coping Self- Efficacy (RCSE), plays an important role in the second part of the Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) process (Stevenson, 2014). As stated, when faced with a situation that has already been appraised as racially stressful, one’s perception of whether they have the tools and skills necessary to handle the situation greatly influences how their body and brain react. While other people’s racist acts and the natural emotional reaction that occurs in response to those acts are not under an individual’s control, their RCSE can be. With continued and intentional practice of appraising and coping with racially stressful encounters, RCSE levels have been shown to increase over time. Further, RCSE has been shown to predict adaptive forms of coping (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019; Stevenson, 2014). This model has been replicated with teachers (both White and BIPOC), in that higher frequency of racially stressful encounters were related to higher levels of racial socialization and racial coping. Higher frequency of racially stressful encounters was also related to lower likelihood to evaluate interracial interactions as racially stressful and greater confidence in their ability to manage racially stressful situations (Bentley-Edwards et al., 2016). In a study assessing cognitive and coping strategies employed by Black youth in the face of racial discrimination, results echoed a similar theme: when Black youth feel competent in their ability to assess and manage the racially stressful situation in front of them, they are more likely to engage in coping strategies that are beneficial to their wellbeing (Scott & House, 2005). Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) 20 Within the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (TMSC; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), stress comes after an individual cognitively appraises a situation through two processes. In the first, a person evaluates their environment for potential relevance and danger (i.e., primary appraisal). If the situation is considered both self-relevant and dangerous, secondary appraisal follows. In this phase, the individual assesses whether they have the coping skills and capacity necessary to handle the demands of the stressor. If not, negative stress ensues, and coping strategies become necessary (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Recast Theory extends the TMSC to include racial stress appraisal (RSA) by paying greater attention to the context in which the stress is taking place – specifically the context of racism. When individuals cope in maladaptive manners (e.g., withdraw, suppress) to racially stressful situations, they have assessed the racial situation before them to be (1) personally relevant and threatening and (2) too overwhelming to be handled with the racial coping skills they presently have access to (Clark et al., 1999; Stevenson, 2014). Recast Theory purports that if the latter process (i.e., #2) is possible, so is a “recasted”, or reappraised, version (Stevenson, 2014). After assessing a situation as racially stressful, an individual who has Racial Coping Self- Efficacy (RCSE), could reassess the encounter as one that they could handle, rather than one that needs to be under- or over-reacted to. Anderson and Stevenson (2019) assert that this would allow an individual to “positively reappraise a discriminatory racial experience as less threatening and make decisions during racial encounters that are choices, not reactions; more problem-focused than emotion-focused; and more likely to be healthy and productive to one’s sense of self and management of the racially stressful encounters” (p. 68). Though it is assumed that the historical context of race in the United States will lead to automatic reactions of stress when interracial interactions occur (Richeson & Trawalter, 2005), 21 Recast Theory purports that racial socialization and coping can act as a buffer that may mitigate the intensity of those stress reactions (Stevenson, 2014). This, in turn, is expected to influence the individual’s RCSE, which will also be emphasized in this study. The positive outcome of Recast Theory is that an individual with high RCSE would be able to positively reappraise a racially stressful situation as one they could cope with after the second step of the RSA process, and then properly cope with it. As such, it is important to understand the mechanisms that allow an individual to arrive there to begin with. Aside from racial socialization and coping skills (Anderson et al., 2019; Anderson et al., 2021; Jones et al., 2021; Winchester et al., 2022), both of which are racially specific and take some time to foster, other protective factors for the first phase of the RSA process are unknown. Current Study The current study uses the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST) to examine Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) in youth from diverse SES and ethnoracial backgrounds. The goal of the study is to add to current understanding of what contributes to the development of RSA and RCSE skills to support interventions aimed at increasing these capabilities (Adames et al., 2022; Anderson & Stevenson, 2019; Anderson et al., 2018). Increasing racial coping and racial stress management skills are integral components of mitigating ongoing interpersonal harm caused by racialized interactions and racist experiences among youth and understanding the factors that contribute to these skills is imperative to the development of interventions and future research. This study includes three steps to examine the following variables among high school students in various socioeconomic and ethnoracial backgrounds: (1) determining the psychometric properties of the School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short 22 (STRESS-Ys; Bentley-Edwards et al., 2020; Stevenson & Aisenbrey, 2022) and the Preparedness-Racial Encounter Assertiveness Coping Test, short (P-REACTs; Stevenson, 2017) – key measures for briefly and efficiently assessing Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) respectively; (2) examining the relationship between school demographics, RSA, and RCSE; and (3) examining whether School Type predicts RCSE, and if that relationship is mediated by RSA. Given the debilitating nature of racially stressful situations for most, and the long-term consequences associated with poor racial coping for all, findings will increase understanding of the student experience and will help to inform racial coping interventions in schools (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019; Anderson et al., 2019; Anderson et al., 2018; Womack & Sloan, 2017). In this study we examine the following research questions and hypotheses: RQ1: Does the School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short (STRESS- Ys) measure distinct aspects of Racial Stress Appraisal? H1: Based on previous literature, it is expected that the items on the STRESS-Ys will load onto more than one factor of Racial Stress Appraisal. RQ2: Does the Preparedness-Racial Encounter Assertiveness Coping Test, short (P- REACTs) measure distinct aspects of Racial Coping Self-Efficacy? H2: It is hypothesized that the items on the P-REACTs will load onto more than one factor of Racial Coping Self-Efficacy. RQ3: Do Racial Stress Appraisal and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy, (and their factors), vary significantly by School Type? 23 H3: School B, with the most racial diversity, will demonstrate the highest Racial Stress Appraisal and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (and factor) rates, followed by School C, with the second most racial diversity, and finally School A, with the least racial diversity. RQ4: Does School Type predict Racial Coping Self-Efficacy levels at Time 1 and does Racial Stress Appraisal at Time 1 mediate that relationship? H4: School B, with the most racial diversity, will demonstrate the highest Racial Coping Self-Efficacy rates, followed by School C, and finally School A. These relationships will be mediated by Racial Stress Appraisal levels. 24 CHAPTER II METHODS Participants A combined sample of high school student participants (N = 412) were pooled from three different high schools in the United States. Each school was chosen because of its unique demographic and SES breakdown and its representation of high schools across the country. Data was collected by researchers at the Racial Empowerment Collaborative research and training center at the University of Pennsylvania, an organization that focuses on collaborating with community members and leaders to study racial stress, coping, and socialization. Data was collected through the Character Lab Research Network (CLRN; 2022). The CLRN connects researchers with students and coordinates research study logistics in an effort to ease the research process, foster collaboration between participants and scientists, and advance scientific knowledge. Researchers are included in the network on an invitation-only basis and must apply for specific school-aged populations for their projects in either the Fall, Winter, or Spring. All data included in this study was collected in the Spring of 2021. School A School A was comprised of students from a suburban high school where a majority of students are White and of high SES. School A represents 21% of all high schools in the U.S. (CLRN, 2022b). This school made up 203 of the students in the initial sample, accounting for 49% of participants. Students in School A (Mage = 15.95 years old, SD = 1.18) ranged in age from 14- to 18-years-old and an almost equal number of males and females were represented in the sample (49.0% and 50.5%, respectively). Students were equally spread out between 9th (n = 50), 10th (n = 51), 11th (n = 51), and 12th (n = 51) grades (M = 10.51, SD = 1.12). The sample was 25 94.1% White, 2.0% Black, 3.0% Asian, and 1.0% multiracial. Additionally, 8.9% of students were categorized as Hispanic. No students were categorized as American Indian/Alaskan Native or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A relatively small percentage (14.8%) of the students qualified for free/reduced price lunch (FRPL). 6.4% of students received special education supports and 2.5% were English language learners. Student marking period GPA averaged 91.33% out of 100% (SD = 9.45) at the time of data collection. School B School B was considered a large and diverse high school with students from both urban and suburban areas and is representative of 13% of high schools in the U.S. (CRLN, 2022b). This school made up 136 of the students in the initial sample, accounting for about 33% of participants. Students in School B (Mage = 16.07 years old, SD = 1.27) ranged in age from 13- to 19-years-old and a relatively equal number of males and females were represented in the sample (50.2% and 48.5%, respectively). A majority (all but two students in 8th grade) of students were somewhat equally spread out between 9th (n = 34), 10th (n = 35), 11th (n = 32), and 12th (n = 32) grades (M = 10.43, SD = 1.15). The sample was 59.0% White, 29.0% Black, 8.7% Asian, and 1.5% multiracial. Additionally, 26.1% of students were categorized as Hispanic. No students were categorized as American Indian/Alaskan Native or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A little less than half (44.4%) of the students qualified for free/reduced price lunch. 21.5% of students received special education supports and 4.4% were English language learners. Student marking period GPA averaged 84.07% out of 100% (SD = 10.98). School C School C was an urban high school with mostly Black students, many of whom receive free/reduced school lunches. This school represents 12% of high schools across the U.S. (CRLN, 26 2022b). This school made up 73 of the students in the initial sample, accounting for 18% of participants. Students in School C (Mage = 16.38 years old, SD = 1.19) ranged in age from 13- to 19-years-old and more females than males were represented in the sample (63.0% and 34.2%, respectively). A majority (all but one student in 7th grade) of students were equally spread out between 9th (n = 17), 10th (n = 18), 11th (n = 18), and 12th (n = 17) grades (M = 10.45, SD = 1.18). The sample was 8.5% White, 90.1% Black, and 1.4% multiracial. Additionally, 9.9% of students were categorized as Hispanic. No students were categorized as Asian, American Indian/Alaskan Native or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A majority (73.2%) of the students qualified for free/reduced price lunch. 15.1% of students received special education supports and 8.5% were English language learners. Student marking period GPA averaged 84.32% out of 100% (SD = 7.20). Measures Demographic Data Demographic data, including age, grade, race, ethnicity, gender, free/reduced priced lunch status, English-language learning status, special education status, and GPA were provided by the school districts, not the participants themselves. Racial Stress Appraisal The School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short (STRESS-Ys; Stevenson & Aisenbrey, 2022a), is an 8-item measure with a five-point Likert-type scale response format ranging from never to always (see Appendix for full scale). The STRESS-Ys measures students’ perceptions of racial encounters in school relationships with peers and teachers as threatening or supportive and is based on the adult version (Bentley-Edwards et al., 2020). The prompt is “In the last year, how frequently have you experienced the following”. 27 Items were revised to include content that focused on student concerns about racial conflicts in student–teacher relationships in school. A sample item is “I see stress from racial conflicts with other students as threatening”. Racial Coping Self-Efficacy The Preparedness-Racial Encounter Assertiveness Coping Test, short (P-REACTs; Stevenson, 2017), is a 16-item measure with a Likert-type response format ranging from not prepared at all to always prepared (see Appendix for full scale). The abridged version (Stevenson & Aisenbrey, 2022a) assesses participant levels of preparedness while negotiating racial interactions within the self and between others. All items have alpha levels above .77 (Collins & Stevenson, 2017; Stevenson, 2017). The prompt is “Answer the following items based on how prepared you are to”. A sample item is “Notice stressful reactions in others during a racial conflict”. Procedures Following the CLRN’s policies along with recommendations from the literature, study activities fit within 25 minutes, so that students could complete study procedures during class time with adequate buffering time (i.e., 15 minutes) to transition into class. Consent was provided in advance. The structure of study activities for students in Schools A and B started with an introduction to the study, followed by pre-test measurements. An intervention was then employed, which was supposed to be followed by post-test measurements. Although adequate time to take post-test measures was in the initial study plan, during the implementation phase, prior activities took longer than expected, and a majority of students did not have enough time to complete the post-tests. Students in School C were introduced to the study and then were asked 28 to take the pre-test measurements. So, given the nature of data collection from all three schools, only pre-test measurement was used in the study and was needed for the planned analyses. Analysis Plan To address the first two research questions regarding the psychometric properties of the P-REACTs and STRESS-Ys scales, I conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on each measure. I hypothesized that items on the STRESS-Ys would load onto more than one factor for two reasons. First, when an EFA was conducted by Bentley-Edwards and colleagues (2020) on the School/Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale (STRESS), which was designed for teachers and was 15 items instead of eight, three factors emerged. Specifically, researchers found Teacher Racial Threat Appraisal (eight items; α = 0.71; M = 1.16, SD = 0.05), Teacher Racial Trauma Appraisal (three items; α = 0.75; M = 2.08, SD = 0.80), and Teacher Racial Support Appraisal (three items; α = 0.82; M = 2.87, SD = 0.88). The three-factor solution accounted for 48.35% of the variance. Additionally, at face value, the scale seems to be tapping into different components of RSA that students may be accessing during a racially stressful encounter (e.g., support, threat). Although published data has not yet supported any version of the P-REACTs scale with multiple factors, unpublished theoretical and analytical data points to at least two factors being present on the scale. Similar to the STRESS-Ys, at face value, a few themes arise as well, such as Racial Encounter Awareness and racial conflict engagement. To address these hypotheses and add clarity to previous exploratory findings, I conducted common factor analyses (Fabrigar & Wegener, 2012; Watkins, 2018). Fabrigar and Wegener (2012) advise using common factor analyses in EFA studies like the present one, that aim to support theory (i.e., Recast Theory) and utilize data to support measures reflecting specific elements of a certain construct, namely RSA and RCSE. I used an iterated principal axis (PA) 29 extraction method (Watkins, 2018). Given the constructs, it was assumed factors would be correlated, and as such, I planned to employ oblimin rotation (Jenrich & Sampson, 1996). The following rules were applied to all items to determine viability of factors and criteria for item-to- factor loadings: (1) item loadings equal to or greater than 0.32, (2) items restricted to a unique factor when loading, (3) demonstrated sufficient internal consistency with other items (Bentley- Edwards et al., 2020; Costello & Osborne, 2005). Following EFAs, I conducted descriptive statistics and simple linear regressions to address the third research question. Mean comparisons explored the relationships of Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA), Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE), their factors, and School Type (i.e., School A, School B, School C). Simple linear regressions were then conducted to confirm the significance of the mean comparisons If mean comparisons showed significant variation in RSA and RCSE between schools, a structural equation path modeling (SEM) with simple mediation analysis was going to be used to address the third research question. Modern mediation recommendations (Hayes & Rockwood, 2017; MacKinnon, 2008) were going be followed. Bias-corrected bootstrapped standard errors and confidence intervals were going to be utilized to estimate indirect effects of RSA, as recommended by MacKinnon (2008). Model fit was going to be evaluated using recommended fit indices (Byrne, 2012; McDonald & Ho, 2002) of a chi-square minimization p value greater than 0.05, a comparative fit index (CFI) greater than 0.95, a chi-square ratio (χ2/df) less than 2.0, and a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) less than 0.08. 30 CHAPTER III RESULTS Missing Data School A included 203 students, School B included 136 students, and School C included 73 students for a total overall original sample of 412 students. Of these 412 original participants, 94 had missing item responses on the STRESS-Ys and/or the P-REACTs that precluded their use in subsequent analyses. The demographic data was provided by each school district, so full demographic data was supplied for each student. As data were determined to be missing completely at random, it was addressed through listwise deletion for the purposes of EFAs and mean comparisons (Buhi et al., 2008). After combining Schools A, B, and C, a total of 301 students were included in the P-REACTs EFA and a total of 318 students were included in the STRESS-Ys EFA. An overall sample of 301 high school students were included in the additional analyses in the study. Preliminary Analyses Preliminary analyses were conducted to check for statistical assumptions and distribution of data including descriptive statistics and frequency distributions. For all study variables, values of skewness were less than |2| and values of kurtosis were less than |7|, indicating that any departure from normality was not severe and no further steps to address these aspects of normality were necessary (West et al., 1995). I also examined bivariate correlations to ensure that study variables were correlated but did not evidence multicollinearity (i.e., r > .80; Field, 2009) and conducted intra-item correlations as well. Results of these analyses were as expected (i.e., majority positive, majority significant) and the magnitude of the associations between study variables ranged primarily from medium/moderate correlations (0.3 < | r | < .5) to large/strong 31 correlations (| r | > .5). Results from the frequency distributions of demographic data parsed out by school can be found in Table 1. Grade point average (GPA) was an additional descriptive finding that was analyzed but could not be categorized similarly to the variables in the table. The GPA means and standard deviations for each school are as follows: School A (M = 91.33; SD = 9.45), School B (M = 84.07; SD = 10.98), School C (M = 84.32; SD = 7.20). Table 1 Percentages of Demographic Data Organized by School Student Demographic Variables School Type School A % School B % School C % White 94.1 59.0 8.5 Black 2.0 29.0 90.1 Asian 3.0 8.7 0.0 Hispanic 8.9 26.1 9.9 American Indian/Alaska Native 0.0 0.0 0.0 Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 0.0 0.0 0.0 Multiracial 1.0 1.5 1.4 FRPL 14.8 44.4 73.2 ELL 2.5 4.4 8.5 SPED 6.4 21.5 15.5 Note. Student Demographic variables are provided by each respective school district and are represented as percentages. FRPL = Free/Reduced Price Lunch Status, ELL = English Language Learning Status, SPED = Special Education Status, and GPA = Grade Point Average. Exploratory Factor Analyses 32 To address the first and second research questions: do the School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short (STRESS-Ys) and the Preparedness-Racial Encounter Assertiveness Coping Test, short (P-REACTs) measure distinct aspects of Racial Stress Appraisal and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy, respectively, the STRESS-Ys and P-REACTs were subjected to EFA procedures. A principal components analysis was conducted to determine the proper rotation needed for each principal axis factor analysis. Varimax, an orthogonal rotation, was chosen for the STRESS-Ys EFA because components were not sufficiently correlated to warrant an oblique rotation (r = -0.17; Jenrich & Sampson, 1996). For the P-REACTs EFA, direct Oblimin, an oblique rotation was chosen as there were at least two components that were sufficiently correlated (i.e., > 0.32; Jenrich & Sampson, 1996). Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity and Kaiser-Meyer Olkin Statistics Factor analyses using the principal axis factoring method of extraction were performed for each scale (Watkins, 2018). Bartlett’s test of sphericity for the STRESS-Ys and P-REACTs demonstrated overall significance (χ2 (28) = 757.110, p < 0.001; χ2 (120) = 1734.731, p < 0.001). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy for the STRESS-Y and P- REACTs indicated the strength of relationships among variables were high for each respective measure (KMO = .743; KMO = 0.875). Given Bartlett’s test of sphericity and KMO results for each measure, it was determined that it was appropriate to proceed with both EFAs. STRESS-Ys As stated, a Varimax (orthogonal) rotation was applied in the Principal Axis Factor Analysis for the STRESS-Ys. Two factors were extracted, and following the rules applied at the outset, only items with loading values equal to or greater than 0.32 were included. All items were able to be included, with 47.74% of the cumulative variance in the data being explained by the 33 two factors. This supported the first hypothesis, stating that the items on the STRESS-Ys would load onto more than one factor of Racial Stress Appraisal. Factor analysis of the STRESS-Ys items used in the present study demonstrated two factors were sufficient in describing Racial Stress Appraisal for high school students. The labels for each factor were determined based on Recast Theory, racial literacy research (Stevenson, 2014), and work from Bentley-Edwards and colleagues (2020). The first factor, consisting of four items was labeled Racial Threat Appraisal. This factor accounted for 29.67% of the overall variance in the data and demonstrated an internal consistency of α = 0.75. These items focused on concerns and implications of the school-based racial stress participants were experiencing. The second factor also had four items and was labeled Racial Support Appraisal. Racial Support Appraisal accounted for 18.10% of the variance and had an internal consistency of α = 0.80. Items in this factor consisted of beliefs that participants could overcome school-based racial stress by accessing and utilizing the supports in their school. Table 2 displays the initial rotated factor matrix for the STRESS-Ys. Table 3 displays the finalized rotated factor matrix for the STRESS-Ys once all factor criteria for item-to-factor loadings had been met (i.e., item loadings equal to or greater than 0.32; items restricted to a unique factor when loading; demonstrated sufficient internal consistency; Bentley-Edwards et al., 2020; Costello & Osborne, 2005). 34 Table 2 Rotated Factor Matrix for STRESS-Ys Without Small Coefficients Suppressed Note. Small coefficients were defined as less than 0.32. Factor 1 represented Racial Threat Appraisal and Factor 2 represented Racial Support Appraisal. *Indicates loading was greater than the absolute value of 0.32. Scale Items Factor 1 2 Stressful events in class related to race affect me negatively 0.79* -0.13 I feel anxious when my teacher and I don't get along because of racial issues 0.76* -0.16 The racial events that happen in my school will affect my future 0.73* -0.06 I see stress from racial conflicts with other students as threatening 0.55* -0.01 I have the supports I need to overcome racial stressors in school -0.05 0.77* I can positively handle racial conflicts with other students in school -0.06 0.69* There is someone I can turn to for help when I experience racial conflicts -0.05 0.64* I have the ability to overcome racial stress in my school -0.12 0.50* 35 Table 3 Rotated Factor Matrix for STRESS-Ys with Small Coefficients Suppressed Note. Small coefficients were defined as less than 0.32. Factor 1 represented Racial Threat Appraisal and Factor 2 represented Racial Support Appraisal. P-REACTs As stated, an Oblimin rotation was applied in the Principal Axis Factor Analysis for the P-REACTs. Originally, four factors with eigenvalues greater than one were extracted, and Scale Items Factor 1 2 Stressful events in class related to race affect me negatively 0.79 I feel anxious when my teacher and I don't get along because of racial issues 0.76 The racial events that happen in my school will affect my future 0.73 I see stress from racial conflicts with other students as threatening 0.56 I have the supports I need to overcome racial stressors in school 0.77 I can positively handle racial conflicts with other students in school 0.68 There is someone I can turn to for help when I experience racial conflicts 0.64 I have the ability to overcome racial stress in my school 0.50 36 following the rules applied at the outset, only items with loading values equal to or greater than 0.32 were included. Two items, and subsequently one factor, were excluded due to appreciable cross-loadings and our rule regarding cross-loadings stated at the outset (Bentley-Edwards et al., 2020). Additionally, two items did not load onto any factor. As such, the 16-item P-REACTs was reduced to nine items. These nine items represented three distinct factors, explaining 44.18% of the total cumulative variance in the data. These results supported the second hypothesis, which predicted the items on the P-REACTs will load onto more than one factor of Racial Coping Self- Efficacy (RCSE). Factor analysis of the P-REACTs items used in the present study demonstrated three factors were sufficient in describing RCSE for high school students. The labels for each factor were determined based on Recast Theory and racial literacy research (Stevenson, 2014). The first factor, consisting of four items was labeled Racial Encounter Engagement, accounted for 34.1% of the total variance and demonstrated an internal consistency of α = 0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). These items focused on speaking up for oneself when being racially mistreated, debating racial topics, sharing information about one’s race/culture, and resolving racially stressful conflicts with peers. The second factor was labeled Racial Encounter Awareness, consisting of three items. This factor accounted for 5.7% of the overall variance and demonstrated an internal consistency of α = 0.68. Racial Encounter Awareness items included prompts about noticing when a microaggression is happening to oneself or someone around them and noticing racially stressful reactions in others. The third factor was labeled Racial Mindfulness Implementation, consisted of two items, and accounted for 4.4% of the variance with an internal consistency of α = 0.67 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The Racial Mindfulness Implementation factor included questions 37 about using mindfulness and calming strategies during a racial conflict. Table 4 displays the initial pattern matrix for the P-REACTs before smaller loadings, items, and factors were removed. Table 5 displays the finalized pattern matrix for the P-REACTs once all factor criteria for item-to-factor loadings had been met (i.e., item loadings equal to or greater than 0.32; items restricted to a unique factor when loading; demonstrated sufficient internal consistency; Bentley- Edwards et al., 2020; Costello & Osborne, 2005). Correlations of RSA, RCSE, and their factors for each school can be found in Tables 6-8. 38 Table 4 Pattern Matrix for P-REACTs Without Small Coefficients Suppressed Scale Items Factor 1 2 3 4 Do you speak up for yourself when you are racially mistreated? 0.60* 0.07 0.01 0.02 Do you debate racial topics with peers who disagree? 0.55* -0.11 0.06 -0.15 Do you share information or feelings about your race/culture? 0.47* -0.15 -0.05 -0.22 Do you ask for help after you have experienced a racial conflict? 0.47* 0.10 -0.36* 0.14 Do you notice where on your body you feel emotions during racial conflict? 0.46* -0.37* -0.10 0.22 Do you resolve racially stressful conflicts with your peers? 0.43* 0.01 -0.32 -0.11 Do you notice stressful reactions in others during a racial conflict? -0.05 -0.72* 0.04 -0.08 Do you notice if a microaggression (race, gender, sexual, etc.) has happened to you? 0.01 -0.60* -0.08 0.00 39 Table 4 (continued) Scale Items Factor 1 2 3 4 Do you notice when a microaggression has happened to someone else? 0.05 -0.54* -0.18 -0.18 Do you share your feelings about your experiences of racial discrimination? 0.37* -0.38* 0.09 0.06 Do you notice your feelings during a racial conflict? 0.26 -0.32 -0.27 0.03 Do use mindfulness to reduce your stress during a racial conflict? -0.00 0.03 -0.88* -0.07 Do you calm yourself so you can listen better during a racial conflict? -0.06 -0.08 -0.68* -0.05 Do you shift your view of an overwhelming racial conflict to see it as manageable? 0.08 -0.24 -0.25 0.16 Do you listen when others share emotional pain from racial mistreatment? 0.01 -0.41* -0.13 -0.50* Do you speak up for others when they are racially mistreated? 0.43* -0.06 -0.17 -0.48* 40 Note. Small coefficients were defined as less than 0.32. Factor 1 represented Racial Encounter Engagement, Factor 2 represented Racial Encounter Awareness, and Factor 3 represented Racial Mindfulness Implementation. *Indicates loading was greater than the absolute value of 0.32. 41 Table 5 Pattern Matrix for P-REACTs with Small Coefficients Suppressed Scale Items Factors 1 2 3 Do you speak up for yourself when you are racially mistreated? 0.60 Do you debate racial topics with peers who disagree? 0.55 Do you share information or feelings about your race/culture? 0.47 Do you resolve racially stressful conflicts with your peers? 0.43 Do you notice stressful reactions in others during a racial conflict? -0.72 Do you notice if a microaggression (race, gender, sexual, etc.) has happened to you? -0.59 Do you notice when a microaggression has happened to someone else? -0.54 Do use mindfulness to reduce your stress during a racial conflict? -0.88 Do you calm yourself so you can listen better during a racial conflict? -0.68 42 Note. Small coefficients were defined as less than 0.32. Factor 1 represented Racial Encounter Engagement, Factor 2 represented Racial Encounter Awareness, and Factor 3 represented Racial Mindfulness Implementation. Table 6 Correlations of Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self-Efficacy and Their Factors for School A Note. RSA = Racial Stress Appraisal and RCSE = Racial Coping Self Efficacy. Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal are both factors of RSA. Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation are all factors of RCSE. Highest possible score on the STRESS-Ys, measuring RSA, was 40, with 8 being the lowest score. Highest possible score on the P-REACTs, measuring RCSE, was 80, with 16 being the lowest score. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. RSA 2. Racial Threat Appraisal .59** 3. Racial Support Appraisal .51** -.39** 4. RCSE .40** .24** .22** 5. Racial Encounter Engagement .32** 0.15 .26** .81** 6. Racial Encounter Awareness .22** .31** -0.06 .73** .38** 7. Racial Mindfulness Implementation .27** -0.04 .36** .63** .40** .30** 43 **Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed), *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Table 7 Correlations of Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self-Efficacy and Their Factors for School B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. RSA 2. Racial Threat Appraisal .79** 3. Racial Support Appraisal .68** 0.08 4. RCSE .70** .57** .50** 5. Racial Encounter Engagement .57** .43** .44** .84** 6. Racial Encounter Awareness .47** .39** .31** .79** .53** 7. Racial Mindfulness Implementation .49** .30** .43** .72** .44** .50** Note. RSA = Racial Stress Appraisal and RCSE = Racial Coping Self Efficacy. Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal are both factors of RSA. Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation are all factors of RCSE. Highest possible score on the STRESS-Ys, measuring RSA, was 40, with eight being the lowest score. Highest possible score on the P-REACTs, measuring RCSE, was 80, with 16 being the lowest score. **Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed), *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 44 Table 8 Correlations of Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self-Efficacy and Their Factors for School C Note. RSA = Racial Stress Appraisal and RCSE = Racial Coping Self Efficacy. Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal are both factors of RSA. Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation are all factors of RCSE. Highest possible score on the STRESS-Ys, measuring RSA, was 40, with 8 being the lowest score. Highest possible score on the P-REACTs, measuring RCSE, was 80, with 16 being the lowest score. **Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed), *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. RSA 2. Racial Threat Appraisal .76** 3. Racial Support Appraisal .76** 0.15 4. RCSE .66** .51** .51** 5. Racial Encounter Engagement .49** .32* .44** .90** 6. Racial Encounter Awareness .47** .34* .44** .81** .60** 7. Racial Mindfulness Implementation 0.24 0.07 .31* .67** .60** .46** 45 Mean Comparisons Mean comparisons were conducted to address the third research question: Do Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA), Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE), and their factors, vary by School Type? Descriptive statistics were run in order to compare RSA, Racial Threat Appraisal, Racial Support Appraisal, RCSE, Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation scores between schools (see Table 9). In order to see if the means from each school were statistically different from one another, simple linear regressions were utilized. Specifically, School Type was regressed on each main variable (i.e., RSA, RCSE) and each factor. 46 Table 9 Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Racial Stress Appraisal, Racial Coping Self Efficacy, and Their Factors for All Schools Note. RSA = Racial Stress Appraisal and RCSE = Racial Coping Self Efficacy. Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal are both factors of RSA. Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation are all factors of RCSE. Highest possible score on the STRESS-Ys, measuring RSA, was 40, with 8 being the lowest Variables N M SD Min Max School A (High SES, Mostly White) RSA 168 23.42 3.80 8 34 Racial Threat Appraisal 172 8.35 3.53 4 19 Racial Support Appraisal 172 15.19 3.34 4 20 RCSE 158 49.89 10.31 21 77 Racial Encounter Engagement 158 49.89 10.31 4 20 Racial Encounter Awareness 175 12.11 3.37 4 20 Racial Mindfulness Implementation 177 9.55 2.80 3 15 School B (Medium SES, Ethnoracially Diverse) RSA 106 23.32 5.27 11 40 Racial Threat Appraisal 112 9.80 3.83 4 20 Racial Support Appraisal 110 13.75 3.28 6 20 RCSE 102 50.72 11.81 23 80 Racial Encounter Engagement 116 12.61 3.57 4 20 Racial Encounter Awareness 117 9.95 2.75 3 15 Racial Mindfulness Implementation 124 6.40 1.84 2 10 School C (Low SES, Mostly Black) RSA 44 23.00 5.39 8 36 Racial Threat Appraisal 48 9.46 3.63 4 18 Racial Support Appraisal 49 13.41 3.51 4 20 RCSE 41 49.27 10.48 16 71 Racial Encounter Engagement 56 12.71 3.56 4 20 Racial Encounter Awareness 57 9.72 2.22 3 15 Racial Mindfulness Implementation 57 6.21 1.79 2 10 47 score. Highest possible score on the P-REACTs, measuring RCSE, was 80, with 16 being the lowest score. Highest possible score on Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal were both 20, with the lowest scores being 4. Highest scores for RCSE’s factors are as follows: Racial Encounter Engagement: 20; Racial Encounter Awareness: 15; Racial Mindfulness Implementation: 10. Lowest scores for RCSE’s factors are as follows: Racial Encounter Engagement: 4; Racial Encounter Awareness: 3; Racial Mindfulness Implementation: 2. Contrary to our third hypothesis, neither the means from the overall STRESS-Ys (i.e., Racial Stress Appraisal) nor the P-REACTs (i.e., Racial Coping Self Efficacy) scales varied statistically significantly by School Type. The RCSE factors also did not vary significantly by School Type. The factors that were extracted from RSA (i.e., Racial Threat Appraisal, Racial Support Appraisal), however, did vary significantly by School Type (p = 0.01; p < 0.01). Specifically, School A (high SES, mostly White) had the lowest mean for Racial Threat Appraisal (M = 8.35; SD = 3.53). Schools B (medium SES, ethnoracially Diverse) and C (low SES, mostly Black) had significantly higher Racial Threat Appraisal scores, with School B (M = 9.80; SD = 3.83) being higher than School C (M = 9.46; SD = 3.63). Regarding Racial Support Appraisal, School A had a significantly higher mean (M = 15.19; SD = 3.34) than Schools B and C. Schools B and C again had similar scores, with School B having slightly higher Racial Support Appraisal scores (M = 13.75; SD = 3.28) than School C (M = 13.41; SD = 3.51). Overall, these findings indicate that while RCSE, its factors, and overall RSA did not differ significantly by School Type in our sample, the factors of RSA did. To be specific, students in School A identified the lowest levels of Racial Threat Appraisal but the highest rates of Racial Support Appraisal. Students in School B identified the highest rates of Racial Threat 48 Appraisal and the second highest rates of Racial Support Appraisal, and students in School C shared the second highest levels of Racial Threat Appraisal, but the lowest rates of Racial Support Appraisal. These findings somewhat supported the third hypothesis as it was predicted that the most racially diverse schools, School B followed by School C, would demonstrate the highest factor rates. While the students in Schools B and C identified the highest rates of Racial Threat Appraisal, in that order, they did not report as much Racial Support Appraisal as the students in School A. However, as predicted, School B did report higher rates than School C, though factor analysis showed Racial Support Appraisal seemed to reflect more positive and encouraged sentiments of students, while Racial Threat Appraisal seemed to reflect more negative, fear- based feelings. The outcome variable of the proposed mediation model for this study (i.e., RCSE) did not vary significantly between the predictor variable (i.e., School Type). As such, it was determined that it was not logical to include a mediation model in this study. 49 CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to understand the experience and levels of Racial Stress Appraisal (RSA) and Racial Coping Self-Efficacy (RCSE) in youth from diverse SES backgrounds, ethnoracial identity, and school settings in order to further inform Recast Theory. The measures used in the study were new, so measure validation efforts were prioritized as well. As Recast Theory can be used to propose that levels of RSA and RCSE should be connected to individuals’ abilities to navigate racially stressful interactions, the hope for this study was to gather data that would be informative for the development, tailoring, and implementation of racial stress interventions (Stevenson, 2014). The hypotheses for the present study were: (1) When conducting EFAs, the items on the STRESS-Ys would load onto more than one factor of RSA; (2) The items on the P-REACTs would load onto more than one factor of Racial Coping Self-Efficacy; (3) RSA and RCSE levels, along with their factors, would vary by School Type, with School B, the most racially diverse, demonstrating the highest variable rates, followed by School C, and finally School A; and (4) School Type would predict RCSE levels at Time 1 and RSA levels at Time 1 would mediate that relationship. The fourth research question was not addressed as initial analyses did not indicate that adequate relationships existed among the variables to proceed to a mediation model. A significant contribution of this study is that it was the first study to validate both the STRESS-Ys and the P-REACTs, two innovative and novel measures for assessing unique aspects of Recast Theory. These measures will be useful for researchers and practitioners working in school-based settings and aiming to assess either RSA and RCSE at large, or the subscales identified through the EFA process. The EFA process of both measures allowed two 50 multidimensional concepts that are just beginning to be explored to be broken down into unidimensional components. The reductions not only allow for better understandings of RCSE and RSA, but also provide specific targets for intervention. As will be discussed, intervention is a necessary next step when discussing the racial stress process, so it is key to know which stages of the process are most beneficial for interventionalists to target. The large, extremely representative sample adds to the robust nature of the measure validation that was conducted, highlighting the usefulness of these scales for high school students, especially. The sample size and its representativeness also draw attention to the mean comparison findings which highlighted that Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal levels, but not RCSE nor RSA overall (nor RSA factors) varied significantly by School Type. It seems probable that students across the country in schools with similar demographics would report comparable Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal levels. Measure Validation Exploratory factor analyses were conducted on each of the measures used in the present study to address research questions 1 and 2. Factor analysis of the STRESS-Ys demonstrated two factors were adequate in describing RSA for high schoolers. The factors that emerged were labeled Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Factor analysis of the P-REACTs demonstrated three factors were satisfactory in describing RCSE for high schoolers. The factors that were extracted labeled Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation. RSA Factors 51 As stated, two factors emerged from the STRESS-Ys which assessed RSA: Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Results align with research conducted by Bentley- Edwards and colleagues (2020), validating the School/Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale (STRESS), which was designed for teachers instead of students and was a full version of the measure, rather than a brief version. Two of the factors that researchers extracted from the STRESS were Teacher Racial Threat Appraisal (8 items; α = 0.71; M = 1.16, SD = 0.05) and Teacher Racial Support Appraisal (three items; α = 0.82; M = 2.87, SD = 0.88). The researchers’ findings and their alignment with those of Bentley-Edwards and colleagues underscore Recast Theory, especially the RSA Process. Specifically, the RSA process, which the STRESS-Ys aimed to capture, has two components (i.e., primary appraisal, secondary appraisal), and factor analysis of the STRESS-Ys extracted two factors that mimic those processes. Racial Threat Appraisal referred to a student’s perception of how strongly the racially stressful situations in their school have a negative impact on them. This maps on to the primary appraisal process in which an individual evaluates their environment for potential racial relevance and danger (Stevenson 2014). Racial Support Appraisal referred to a student’s perception of the resources they have available, including both personally and interpersonally, to handle the racially stressful situations at school. This factor aligns with the secondary appraisal process, which follows the first when an individual deems the situation both racially self-relevant and dangerous. In this phase, the individual assesses whether they have the resources (e.g., capacity, coping skills, support) necessary to handle the demands of the stressor (Stevenson, 2014). As it stands, given the results of the present study, the STRESS-Ys appears to be an accurate measure of RSA in high school populations and can be used for the purpose of assessing the process as a whole as well as breaking down the two steps of the RSA process. Based on the Recast Theory, the data gathered 52 from this measure can be informative of racial coping behaviors, and as such, predictive of racial stress outcomes. RCSE Factors Three factors emerged from the P-REACTs which was assessing RCSE: Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation. The factors extracted in this study align with published literature and unpublished data based on Recast Theory (Lion’s Story Village, 2021; Stevenson, 2014). More precisely, the factors represent students’ feelings of preparedness (i.e., self-efficacy) to engage in unique aspects of racial coping such as Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, and Racial Mindfulness Implementation. Racial Encounter Engagement, a student’s willingness to engage in a racially stressful encounter, was determined to be a clear and robust factor, while Racial Encounter Awareness (i.e., a student’s awareness of their and others’ involvement in racial encounters; their awareness of others’ emotional reactions during those encounters) and Racial Mindfulness Implementation (i.e., a student’s ability to utilize mindfulness strategies during experiences of racial stress), were considered weaker and in need of further examination. Additionally, in the process of the EFA. a fourth factor emerged, but needed to be removed, along with some items that did not load onto any factors due to rules outlined at the outset of the study. Though the P-REACTs did appear to measure RCSE, it seemed to measure students’ levels of self-efficacy most accurately for active and engagement-based coping strategies (e.g., Racial Encounter Engagement factor items; “Do you speak up for yourself when you are racially mistreated?”). When racial coping strategy items were more passive in nature, however, either the factors they loaded on were less robust (i.e., Racial Encounter Awareness, Racial 53 Mindfulness Implementation) or the items did not load onto any factor at all (e.g., “Do you shift your view of an overwhelming racial conflict to see it as manageable?”). According to Recast Theory, each of the factors noted within the P-REACTs are important aspects of racial coping – not just strategies that are more active in nature. As such, it seems necessary that adjustments be made to the P-REACTs so that all components of racial coping identified in this study, (i.e., Racial Encounter Engagement, Racial Encounter Awareness, Racial Mindfulness Implementation) along with others identified in previous research (i.e., Racial Encounter Appraisal, Racial Conflict Negotiation) may be more accurately assessed. For younger participants, it may have been the case that the engagement-based strategies were easier to envision, while the passive strategies were harder for them to picture in their head. A helpful addition to future renditions of the P-REACTs might be examples of what each coping skill could look like in the moment, especially on versions used for youth. Comparing Means Contrary to the third hypothesis, the total RSA and RSCE means did not differ significantly between schools and neither did the factors from RCSE. The factors extracted from RSA, however, did differ statistically significantly between Schools A, B, and C, confirming part of the third hypothesis. Racial Support Appraisal School A, with the majority of students categorized as White reported the highest Racial Support Appraisal levels out of all of the schools included in the study. School B, with a high level of ethnoracial diversity reported a level of Racial Support Appraisal level slightly below School C, and School C with a majority of students categorized as Black reported the lowest Racial Support Appraisal levels. Two studies to date, one with Latino high school students 54 (Sánchez et al., 2017) and another with Black college students (Prelow et al., 2006), found that in schools with higher rates of perceived discrimination, students reported lower levels of perceived social support. Though the present study did not have a measure of racial stress or discrimination frequency, it can be presumed that the schools with higher proportions of BIPOC students (i.e., Schools B and C) would have reported higher levels of perceived discrimination or racial stress than schools with mostly White students (i.e., School A; Losen & Hewitt, 2014; Mallett, 2017; Sánchez et al., 2017; Stevenson, 2014). Both Sánchez and colleagues (2017) as well as Prelow and colleagues (2006) cited Barrera’s (1986) social support deterioration model to explain their findings. The social support deterioration model purports that the more stressful events an individual experiences, the lower their perceptions will be of the effectiveness and/or availability of the social support they have. Additionally, Barrera (1986) proposes that when stressful events are ambiguous, stigmatizing, and potentially less visible, (e.g., racial stress) it may be more likely that social support providers do not recognize the need for support, may not know how to help, or may help inappropriately, leading the impacted individual to perceive that there is no social support available. It seems probable to connect the social support deterioration model to the present study’s Racial Support Appraisal findings indicating that students in a school that was almost entirely Black (i.e., School C) perceived the lowest levels of support, and the school that was almost White (i.e., School A) perceived the highest levels of support. Perception of support in the face of racial stress can be a key mechanism for calming oneself in the moment and feeling efficacious enough to handle the racially stressful situation at hand (Stevenson, 2014). For high schoolers, social support in the face of discrimination has also been tied to many other positive outcomes (Gale, 2020; Sánchez et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018), 55 so findings from this study demonstrating disparities between varying school demographics are insightful. Specifically, though higher rates of in-school discrimination from peers and teachers have been associated with decreased academic persistence and lower grades for high school students (Benner & Graham; Richardson et al., 2014; Smith & Fincham, 2015), higher rates of perceived teacher support has been found to buffer those relationships (Gale, 2020). Social support has also been seen to buffer the impact of discrimination on psychological distress for middle schoolers (Wang et al., 2017). Lastly, and perhaps most relatedly, Sánchez and colleagues (2017) discovered that lower levels of social support were found to predict lower rates of coping efficacy with discrimination for high schoolers. Recast theory places RSA, of which Racial Support Appraisal is a factor of, as a potential mediating factor of RCSE. Though this study was not able to test this particular aspect of Recast Theory, the results from Sánchez and colleagues’ study offers support for that idea. Moreover, it is key to enhance Racial Support Appraisal levels in the hope that RCSE levels will rise simultaneously as well, helping students feel more able to handle racially stressful situations. Racial Threat Appraisal School A, with the lowest ethnoracial diversity (i.e., majority of students categorized as White) reported the lowest Racial Threat Appraisal levels out of all of the schools included in the study. School B, with the most ethnoracial diversity reported the highest Racial Threat Appraisal levels, and School C with an ethnoracial diversity in between Schools A and B (i.e., majority of students categorized as Black, but more variation than School A) reported Racial Threat Appraisal slightly below School B. At face value, it seems logical that the schools with a high proportion of racially diverse students would report more feelings of threat related to racial 56 stress than the school with mostly White students. Though people of all races and ethnicities can experience racial stress, in the United States, BIPOC individuals are at a greater risk for the negative outcomes associated with racial stress (DeAngelis, 2021; Kaholokula, 2016; Mallett, 2017; Paradies, et al., 2015; Piper et al., 2021). Specifically, BIPOC students are significantly more likely than their White counterparts to be suspended, expelled, or referred to law enforcement while in school, which may partly explain responses to threat questions related to racially stressful interactions with teachers and peers (Losen & Hewitt, 2014; Mallett, 2017). Regarding the threat to students’ futures, the same theme may apply, but many other outcomes are associated with racial stress and are more severe for BIPOC individuals. Short-term effects experienced by Black and Brown students may include less engagement within the school community, less academic effort, more developmental difficulty in adolescence, less willingness to develop relationships with staff members, and decreased academic achievement (Carter, 2007; Golden et al., 2018; Harrell, 2000; Piper et al., 2021). Regarding more long-term impacts, experiences of racism and racial discrimination have been tied to mental health symptoms and disorders (e.g., post-traumatic symptoms, major depressive disorder, suicidality, anxiety disorders; Paradies et al., 2015), with BIPOC individuals being at a greater risk for experiencing symptoms and diagnoses (Mouzon et al., 2017). Additionally, experiences of racism have been directly tied to poorer physical health statuses for Black Americans, poorer physical health statuses and more self-reported chronic conditions for Mexican Americans, and more self-reported cardiovascular, respiratory, and pain conditions for Asian Americans (Kaholokula, 2016). 57 Aside from empirically supported ties between racial stress and heightened mental and physical health risks for BIPOC individuals, there are also increased safety risks for BIPOC folks when engaging in racially stressful interactions. If a racially stressful interaction were to escalate to a violent situation or one that needed law enforcement intervention, BIPOC individuals could be more at risk for an adverse outcome than White individuals involved in the same situation (FBI National Press Office, 2021; DeAngelis, 2021). In 2020, 61.8% of hate crimes victims in the U.S. were targeted due to the offender’s race, ethnicity, or ancestry bias (FBI National Press Office, 2021). Moreover, when law enforcement gets involved, Black and Hispanic individuals are much more likely to be harmed, arrested, or killed by police than White individuals, even if they are unarmed and compliant (DeAngelis, 2021). Given the literature presented, it seems logical why schools with a higher proportion of diverse students would be more concerned than a school of mostly White students that the racial events they experience at school will negatively impact them at present and in the future. Connecting Racial Support Appraisal and Racial Threat Appraisal The aforementioned literature explains the Racial Support Appraisal and Racial Threat Appraisal findings separately and connects them both to ethnoracial differences between the schools. Another possible explanation for the findings is to view Racial Support Appraisal and Racial Threat Appraisal together as School Climate variables and include SES differences between schools as well as ethnoracial ones. School climate can be defined as the school social experience (Cohen et al., 2009), and includes a student’s ability to have meaningful, caring, supportive, and respectful relationships with peers and adults at school (Voight et al., 2015). Though the present study did not have any measures that specifically addressed school climate, both Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial 58 Support Appraisal touch on unique aspects of how students might feel within their schools (e.g., safety, care), most specifically as it pertains to racial stress. In a study examining various aspects of school climate that included 58 high schools, researchers found that Black and White high school students perceived lower levels of equity within their school when schools were more racially and ethnically diverse (Bottiani et al., 2016). Similarly in the present study, students in Schools B and C, with more racial and ethnic diversity than School A, reported feeling like they had less access to support when feeling racially stress and were more concerned about the impact to their wellbeing and future when racially stressful events occurred. When schools have a higher proportion of students with lower SES status, comparable effects have been found. Voight and colleagues (2015) conducted an analogous study that consisted of 754 middle schools. Results indicated that for Black, White, and Hispanic students, lower SES schools were associated with reduced safety and connectedness. The results from both studies mimic ours, which showed that students in schools with lower SES (i.e., School C, followed by School B) reported higher feelings of threat and lower feelings of support, as it pertained to racial stress. As students’ race, ethnicity, and SES are not elements in their control, racial school climate and racialized experiences within the school must be addressed at the systemic level. In order for students to have equitable experiences, they need help from teachers, administrators, and district wide policies – they cannot be expected to “just adapt”. Limitations This study has a number of strengths as well as some key weaknesses. Utilizing previously collected data, for instance, has both benefits and limitations. Partnering with the Character Lab Research Network (CLRN) to access participant data meant researchers had to 59 work within specific parameters which led to some limitations. For example, students were asked to take these surveys during the school day, in a time limited manner, in various school settings. It was reported that students arrived to class (i.e., the study) at different times which impacted their ability to complete the surveys resulting in missing data. Given the demographic data indicating various levels of English-language learning status and special education status of the participants in the study, it is possible that internal and external factors may have impacted students’ abilities to complete the surveys in the given time in their settings. Additionally, it was reported that some students were going to school in-person, while other were going to school virtually, as this data was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, though data was not captured on survey delivery modality. As such, close supervision was difficult and full survey completion was not expected, nor achieved. The data utilized was also cross-sectional in nature, rather than longitudinal, which would have allowed for more robust interpretations. There were also some limitations associated with measure validation. First, neither the STRESS-Ys nor the P-REACTs had been previously validated. Additionally, both measures utilized in this study were shortened versions, given the time-limited nature of the data collection process. Future researchers interested in conducting validation studies would benefit from using the full versions of these measures, though the results from this study are important for school- based settings and other time limited data collection settings. Regarding factor structure, there were slight concerns regarding the EFA conducted on the P-REACTs. The first factor, Racial Encounter Engagement, was strong, accounting for 34.1% of the total variance and demonstrating an internal consistency of α = 0.70. The second and third factors, however, were less strong but met initial criteria and had high internal consistency, so it was decided they would remain. Specifically, Racial Encounter Awareness 60 only accounted for 5.7% of the total variance and Racial Mindfulness Implementation only accounted for 4.4% of the variance, which are small proportions compared to the first factor, and in general. Additionally, Racial Mindfulness Implementation only included two items, but as this did not violate a criterion outlined at the beginning of the study, it was viewed as sufficient. More validation of the P-REACTs is recommended before utilizing the measure in future studies or analyses. Moreover, demographic data that defined School Type was only provided at the student level. When discussing school climate, it would have been beneficial to also have at least race, ethnicity, and SES data for the staff at each school to better understand representation within the schools as well as how system level processes may be contributing to internalized messaging of bias. The STRESS-Ys also asked about racial stress in school generally but did not specify whether experiences were happening cross-racially or within one’s race. This information would have been helpful in explaining the variance in Racial Threat Appraisal levels between two schools with high proportions of students of color (i.e., School B, School C). School B had higher rates of Racial Threat Appraisal than School C and it would be interesting to know if that was because students in School B were having higher rates of interracial interactions than School C. Lastly, a limitation of the study is that the measures assess in school and out of school RSA and RCSE factors, but students take the measures in school, so multiple, rather than specific aspects of these factors were assessed, possibly preventing pointed conclusions. Implications Voight and colleagues (2015) found a significant relationship between the racial climate gap and the racial achievement gap in middle schools. Specifically, schools with larger Black- White or Hispanic-White achievement gaps also had larger racial and ethnic gaps in perceived 61 safety and connectedness and adult-student relationships. While that seems like motivation enough to address students’ appraisal of racial threat and support, it begs the question if another racial and ethnic gap exists that has not been yet assessed: a racial stress gap. Are students experiencing differential levels of racial stress? Could the amount of racial stress they are experiencing, and their lack of coping skills be impacting their ability to perceive access to social support? Could those same things be impacting their perception of how threatening racially stressful encounters are? Is racial stress and lack of coping what are ultimately leading to the racial achievement gap? Though none of these questions can be answered at present, the results from this study draw attention to the differential experiences that high schoolers have depending on the demographics (and likely resources) of the school they attend. Future studies interested in these connections would benefit from directly assessing and comparing (1) frequency/severity of racial stress experiences, (2) racial stress appraisal processes, (3) racial coping behaviors, and (4) academic achievement in varying School Types across the country and within ethnoracial groups. If equal educational and social experiences are not possible for students across the country, the next question must be how can interventions be targeted and accessible so that students might have a chance at equity if not equality? Recommendations Results from the current study inform both clinical and future research recommendations. First, implementation of school-based interpersonal (Anderson et al., 2018; Stevenson, 2014) and structural (Saleem et al., 2021) interventions that directly address increasing students’ perceptions of support and decreasing perceptions of threat as they pertain to racial stress are imperative. Stevenson (2014) and the Lion’s Story Village (2021) have developed Lion’s Story Racial Literacy Trainings based on Recast Theory that directly addresses increasing aspects of 62 RSA and RCSE. Intervention components focus solely on interpersonal aspects of racial stress and helping participants gain skills to feel more, and be more, prepared to engage in racially stressful interactions. Facilitators guide participants in the recognition and processing of their racial stories, including but not limited to, the first racial messages they received and racially stressful incidents they have experienced in school. Lion’s Story Racial Literacy Trainings involve the practices of storytelling, journaling, and role-playing through the medium of individual, paired, small, and large group work. Utilizing Lion’s Story Racial Literacy Trainings would hopefully decrease participant’s Racial Threat Appraisal (i.e., help participants feel less threatened by racially stressful events) but increase their overall ability to appraise racially stressful encounters as well as increase their RCSE. Unfortunately, it was not possible to assess the validity of this model in the present study, but future studies utilizing racial literacy interventions and similar measures used in this study would be in a perfect position to do so. To address potential structural factors that prevent students at different types of schools from feeling like they have access to support in the face of racial stress, as well as feeling safe when engaging in racially stressful encounters, a structural intervention is an additional recommended a