ARTICLE
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00429-2 OPEN
Extremely rapid up-and-down motions of island arc
crust during arc-continent collision
Larry Syu-Heng Lai 1✉, Rebecca J. Dorsey1, Chorng-Shern Horng2, Wen-Rong Chi3,4, Kai-Shuan Shea5 &
Jiun-Yee Yen6
Mountain building and the rock cycle often involve large vertical crustal motions, but their
rates and timescales in unmetamorphosed rocks remain poorly understood. We utilize high-
resolution magneto-biostratigraphy and backstripping analysis of marine deposits in an active
arc-continent suture zone of eastern Taiwan to document short cycles of vertical crustal
oscillations. A basal unconformity formed on Miocene volcanic arc crust in an uplifting
forebulge starting ~6Ma, followed by rapid foredeep subsidence at 2.3–3.2 mm yr−1
(~3.4–0.5Ma) in response to oceanward-migrating flexural wave. Since ~0.8–0.5Ma, arc
crust has undergone extremely rapid (~9.0–14.4 mm yr−1) uplift to form the modern Coastal
Range during transpressional strain. The northern sector may have recently entered another
phase of subsidence related to a subduction polarity reversal. These transient vertical crustal
motions are under-detected by thermochronologic methods, but are likely characteristic of
continental growth by arc accretion over geologic timescales.
1 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA. 2 Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan.
3 Department of Earth Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan. 4Department of Earth Sciences, National Central University,
Taoyuan 32001, Taiwan. 5 Central Geological Survey, Ministry of Economic Affairs, New Taipei 235055, Taiwan. 6Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Studies, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien 97401, Taiwan. ✉email: larrysyuhenglai@gmail.com
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Vertical crustal motions are fundamental to the creation of accommodation space for thick basin-filling sediment
6,33. Basin
topography, development of sedimentary basins, and the inversion and uplift must have occurred in the last roughly 1
rock cycle1,2. Rapid vertical-displacement rates (mm year−1) million years based on observation of the tilted youngest marine
are often driven by tectonic processes such as crustal thickening in flysch and creation of modern Coastal Range topography4. Yet,
Tibet3 and Taiwan4–6, strike-slip deformation along the San the timing and rates of these processes remain unclear. Ther-
Andreas fault7,8, lithospheric thinning in Central Anatolia9 and mochronology and petrological methods are not suitable for
D’Entrecasteaux island of Papua New Guinea10, and deflections due solving this problem because of the short duration of burial and
to changes in surface or subsurface mass loads in Hawaii11 and very low paleo-geothermal gradient revealed by clay mineralogy
Antarctica12. Mass redistribution by erosion and sedimentation (~14 °C km−1)36 and no post-depositional resetting of fission-
amplifies vertical crustal motions13 and is important for under- track detrital thermochronometers37. Early studies used calcar-
standing interactions between tectonic and surface processes eous nannoplankton data38,39 and simplified lithostratigraphic
involved in mountain building and continental growth14. Among columns to derive a range of subsidence rates (0.8–5 mm year−1)
these settings, extreme rates (>10mm year−1) of long-term and minimum uplift rate (5.9–7.5 mm year−1) with unknown
(>105–107 years) rock uplift are seldom detected15. Many studies spatial variability4,6. Many of these studies are now outdated and
rely on thermochronology16 and petrology-geochemistry17 to assess pre-date recent advances in paleomagnetism and microfossil
long-term vertical movements of crustal materials, but these studies34,40–43.
methods are limited by the requirement of suitable minerals, geo- To document the timing, magnitude, and rates of vertical
thermal gradient, temperature, and duration needed to thermally crustal motions in the Coastal Range of eastern Taiwan, we
reset thermochronometers. Assumptions of ancient topography and compiled geologic and magneto-biostratigraphic data to date and
thermal structure are often essential for use of thermochronologic accurately reconstruct two composite stratigraphic columns in the
methods to estimate long-term rock uplift18, but it is difficult to northern and southern Coastal Range (Figs. 1, 2). This includes
constrain these quantities in rapidly growing orogens constructed of our published data from the southern Coastal Range34 (Supple-
unmetamorphosed rocks. Thus, the rates, timescales, and structural mentary Fig. 1) and new detailed geologic mapping, paleomag-
controls on vertical motions of shallow crust in active mountain netic measurements, and microfossil identifications of planktonic
belts remain poorly understood. foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton in the northern
Stratigraphic study of inverted syn-orogenic sedimentary Coastal Range (Supplementary Figs. 2–6; Supplementary
basins provides a powerful tool with which to document rapid Data 1–2). The foraminifera data provide improved paleobathy-
subsidence and uplift of unmetamorphosed near-surface rocks in metry estimates (Supplementary Fig. 7, Supplementary Data 3),
zones of mountain building at tectonically active plate margins2. and compiled magneto-biostratigraphy constrains depositional
Integrated paleomagnetic and biostratigraphic analysis can yield age (Fig. 3a). Dense sampling of microfossils and paleomagnetic
extremely high resolution [e.g., ± 5–20 thousand years (kyr)] for sites yields high temporal resolution (~1–15 kyr) and high
dating stratigraphic intervals7, and thus, remarkably high-fidelity accuracy (2–43 kyr) of age controls that surpass other geologic
estimates for rates of vertical crustal motions and tectonic pro- dating methods (Supplementary Data 4). Because the youngest
cesses. We applied this technique to investigate stratigraphic inverted sediment is consolidated and lithified, we have to
records of the Coastal Range in eastern Taiwan, which reveal a account for deposits that accumulated above the top of our
history of extremely rapid vertical crustal oscillations during measured sections and subsequently were removed by erosion.
accretion of volcanic-arc crust to a continent. Porosity-effective stress of sandstone and vitrinite reflectance data
The island of Taiwan has emerged since late Miocene time indicate that ca. 0.45–1.95 km of strata was eroded off the
through active collision between the Luzon island arc on youngest deposits preserved in our measured sections44. Due to
the Philippine Sea plate and the Chinese continental margin of uncertain variability of compaction history and geothermal
the Eurasian plate19 (Fig. 1). Rapid (~82 mm year−1) oblique structure, we used a conservative thickness of 0.5–1.0 km for
convergence20 between the two plates induces rapid exhumation eroded sediments to reconstruct the deepest subsidence prior to
and denudation21, and some studies infer that collision has onset of structural inversion (Fig. 3a).
propagated southward through time22–24. Other studies of the Using high-fidelity constraints on stratigraphy and paleo-
metamorphic core (Central Range) and western foreland basin bathymetry, updated eustatic sea level curve (Supplementary
suggest that collision was geologically simultaneous from north to Fig. 7), and porosity-depth functions for relevant sediment types
south, with pulses of accelerated exhumation from ~0.1 (Supplementary Fig. 8), we conducted a modern 1-D back-
to 2–4 mm year−1 at 2.0–1.5 million years ago (Ma) and then to stripping analysis45 to progressively remove decompacted sedi-
4–8 mm year−1 at ~0.5 Ma25,26. These accelerations correspond ment and correct paleo-water depth along two composite
to tectonic reorganizations of the overriding Philippine Sea sections. This allowed us to reconstruct the history of subsidence
plate27,28 that drive exhumation of high-pressure metamorphosed and uplift of arc basement in the north and south (Fig. 3b, c). See
Miocene arc crust-bearing mélange (Yuli Belt) from >35 km details in the “Methods” section.
crustal depth5,29–32 and rapid Quaternary emergence of the
unmetamorphosed arc crust in the Coastal Range4.
The Coastal Range contains a thick succession of Plio- Results and discussion
Pleistocene orogen-derived marine flysch, conglomerate (Fan- Subsidence-uplift histories of Taiwan's Coastal Range. Our
shuliao and Paliwan formations), and olistostromes (Lichi Mél- results reveal that >5.48–6.51 km of preserved orogen-derived
ange) that rest unconformably on Miocene volcanic arc basement sediment accumulated between ~3.39 and 0.77Ma, with a minor
(Tuluanshan Formation, ca. 15–6Ma) (Fig. 2)33,34. The basal increase in sedimentation rate at ~2.0 Ma (Fig. 3a). Volcanic-arc
unconformity (ca. 6–4Ma) is a broad erosive surface dis- basement subsided to depths of 6.53–7.78 km below modern sea
continuously capped by thin shallow-marine limestone (Kangkou level at rates of 2.26 mm year−1 in the north and 3.24 mm year−1
Limestone, 5.6–3.5 Ma) and limestone-clast-bearing epiclastic in the south, with tectonic forces and sediment loads making
deposits (Biehchi Epiclastic Unit, 5–3.5 Ma) that are directly subequal contributions to the total subsidence (Fig. 3b, c). The
overlain by uncemented deep-water flysch34,35. These relations age of youngest, now-eroded sediment is estimated to be
record slow uplift, erosion, and intermittent sedimentation on arc ~0.61–0.50 Ma, providing a reasonable age estimate for the end of
basement near sea level, followed by rapid subsidence that created subsidence and onset of structural inversion (Fig. 3a). Since the
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Fig. 1 The Coastal Range of eastern Taiwan. a Regional tectonic configuration5,28 (inset), simplified geological map of the Coastal Range34 and analyzed
stratigraphic sections (blue boxes), including Hsiukuluan river (HKL), Wulou river (WL), Fungfu (FF), and Fungpin (FP) sections in the north, and Bieh river
(BC), Madagida river (MDJ), and Sanshian river (SSS) sections in the south. b Millennial rates of marine terrace uplift and river incision, compiled by Lai
et al.99 c Geodetic rates of vertical deformation measured during 2000–200849. Negative values mean subsidence.
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Normal Reversed Mixed
polarity polarity polarity Southern
Andesitic
olistolith GPTS Coastal Range
Slump bed Conglomerate 0 0
Pebbly mudstone Thick-beddedsst & gritstone
Limestone Turbidites
6
Volc. basement Epiclastic deposits ?
Northern
Coastal Range C1n ? ❺
5 5
❺ C1r.1r
1 C1r.1n 1
?
4 C1r.2r
❹
4
C1r.2n
❸
❹ C1r.3r
3 3
❷
C2n
2 ❶C2r.1r 2
2 ❸ C2r.1n 2
C2r.2r
❷
1 1 ?
? C2An.1n
3 3
0 ? C2An.1r 0
C2An.2n
Mud Sand Gravel Mud Sand Gravel
Planktonic foraminifera index fossils: Calcareous nannoplankton index fossils:
❷: Globorotalia truncatulinoides (FAD 2.00 Ma) ❺: Small Gephyrocapsa spp. acme (1.231-1.018 Ma)
❶: Pulleniatina spp. ❹: Large Gephyrocapsa spp. (FAD 1.574 Ma)
         Left coiling event 5 (Onset 2.147 Ma) ❸: Gephyrocapsa oceanica (FAD 1.700 Ma)
Fig. 2 Stratigraphy of the Coastal Range. Locations of studied sections are shown in Fig. 1. GPTS Geomagnetic polarity timescale. FAD First appearance
datums of index microfossils. Tls Tuluanshan Formation; k Kangkou Limestone. See details of stratigraphic correlation in Supplementary Figs. 1, 2.
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FF section FP section HKL+WL sections
Tls. K. Paliwan Formation
(km)
P-mag.
polarity
Age (Ma)
Gauss Matuyama Brunhes
Pliocene Pleistocene Epoch
Age (Ma)
BC section MDJ section SSS section
Tls. Fanshuliao Formation Paliwan Formation
(km)
P-mag.
position of paleomagnetic sample site polarity
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a Northern Coastal Range a ~6.0–0.5 Ma Lichi Retro-foredeep
Age constraints W Taiwan orogenPro-foreland basin Mélange basin E
Base and top of preserved section 0
Reconstructed top of section -10 arc crust
Southern Coastal Range -20 ?
Age constraints Eurasian continental crust
Base and top of preserved section -30 Philippine
Reconstructed top of section -40 Sea plateMantle lithosphere
-50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Geomagnetic
polarity b post-0.5 MaW Central Range Yuli Coastal Rangetimescale Pro-foreland basin Belt E0
Gilbert Gauss Matuyama Brunhes -10 ?
-20
b Eurasian continental crust PhilippineForebulge unconformity PrePserenste-dnat-yd ealye vhaetiigohnt -30Paleobathymetry Sea-40 plate
Mantle lithosphere
-50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Kangkou Limestone c W Yuli Belt Coastal Range(thin, intermittent deposits) E
2.26 2 CRF LVF± Modern Collisional Foredeep 0.28 0 m
Northern Coastal Range m∙yr -2-1
-4
Non-decompacted total subsidence
-6 ? Philippine Sea plateDecompacted total subsidence ? intrusiveTectonic subsidence -8 complex Luzon arc crust
Paleobathymetry * 0 10 20 30 40
Distance (km)
c Fig. 4 Conceptual model for the history of vertical motions (blue arrows)Forebulge unconformity PrePsrenset-ndta-dy aeyle hveaitgiohntPaleobathymetry of the Philippine Sea plate arc crust in the past ~6Ma. a Forebulge uplift
and foredeep subsidence occur on the Luzon arc crust during 6–0.5Ma, in
response to eastward migrating orogenic load33,34. b Post-0.5Ma rapid
Biehchi Epiclastic Unit uplift due to transpressional deformation and isostatic rebound of the
(thin, intermittent deposits) overriding plate4,5,59. c Representative structural cross-section in the
3.24 ± modern Coastal Range
34,57. Blue lines mark major boundary faults. LVF
 0.18 Longitudinal Valley fault; CRF Central Range fault.Southern Coastal Range  mm∙yr -1
Non-decompacted total subsidence of accelerated rock exhumation in the metamorphic Central Range
Decompacted total subsidence to the west26 (Figs. 3a, 4a). Post-0.5Ma uplift rates of ca.
Tectonic subsidence −1
Paleobathymetry 9–14mm year represent the lower bound of long-term average* exhumation rates in the Coastal Range. These rates are intermediate
5 4 3 2 1 0 between spatially variable millennial uplift rates measured in coastal
Age (Ma) marine terraces (2.3–11.8mm year−1)46,47 and fluvial incision rates
(15.1–27.3 mm year−1) measured near the western major oblique
Fig. 3 Sediment-accumulation rates and subsidence-uplift histories of the thrust fault (Longitudinal Valley fault)48 (Fig. 1b). Notably,
Coastal Range. a Stratigraphic age models for the Coastal Range. millennial uplift rates in the northern Coastal Range
b, c Geohistory curves of the northern and southern Coastal Range. (2.3–4.7 mm year−1)46,47 are considerably slower than our calcu-
Symbols and color-fill style follow Fig. 3a. Asterisk in each curve is the lated long-term exhumation rates (~9–14mm year−1), and geodetic
reconstructed depth using youngest sediment eroded from top of section. data49 reveal subsidence at rates locally up to ~23.5mmyear−1 in
Error bars represent one standard error of the mean. See details of data and the north (Fig. 1b, c). This implies that the northern part of inverted
calculation results in Supplementary Data 4. arc crust may have entered a new subsidence stage very recently.
Taken together, the stratigraphic record in the Coastal Range
reveals two short cycles of up-and-down crustal motions (Fig. 3b, c).
folded basal unconformity and underlying volcanic basement Coeval histories of uplift and subsidence in the north and south
rocks are exposed well above sea level, the difference between support an interpretation of simultaneous crustal dynamics along the
present-day heights of antiformal peaks and the reconstructed collisional suture25,26,28, in contrast to southward-propagating
depth of arc basement at the end of deposition (0.82–0.77Ma for growth of the Taiwan orogen inferred in some models22–24. These
the youngest preserved sediment; 0.61–0.50Ma at the top of
findings indicate the need for a revised tectonic interpretation to
eroded sediment) provide a conservative estimate for the amount explain the observed rapid vertical oscillations of arc crust in this
of vertical displacement during basin inversion. To exhume the active arc-continent suture zone.
volcanic-arc basement to present elevations of the Coastal Range
(0–1.33 km in the north, 0–1.68 km in the south) requires
extremely rapid rock uplift rates of at least 8.89–14.39 mm year−1 Drivers of rapid crustal oscillations during oceanic arc accre-
in the north and 10.43–14.24 mm year−1 in the south (Fig. 3b, c; tion. We infer that the first cycle of uplift (~6–3.4 Ma) and
Supplementary Data 4). subsidence (~3.4–0.5 Ma) of volcanic basement was driven by
The minor increase in sedimentation rate at ~2.0Ma and onset early flexure and loading of accreting Luzon arc crust. This
of basin inversion at ~0.8–0.5Ma are coeval with proposed episodes interpretation is supported by recent results showing that Plio-
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Depth, Elevation (km) Depth, Elevation (km) Stratigraphic Height (km)
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 0 2 4 6
10.43 ± 8 1 .. 915 8   ±       1   . m 18m   ∙  y   1 r -   4.24 1 ± ( 
   m
 1.78 m m iv n
m
.) 14 ∙. yr
-1 
m (∙ myr - 31 9 (  ±es  t 2
in.)
im (a et se t) ima
.1
te 1)  mm∙yr -1
Depth, Elevation (km) Depth, Elevation (km) Depth, Elevation (km)
t
cru
s
  
arc
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Pleistocene sediments (Lichi Mélange, Fanshuliao and Paliwan mountainous topography by coupled tectonic and surface
formations) formed on – and were derived from – an east- processes (106–107 years)70. We find that growth of topography
dipping submarine paleoslope at the steep western margin of the to form an eroding steep mountain range directly on the footprint
basin34,50. These sediments onlap the westward-inclined basal of a formerly subsiding marine basin can be accomplished in only
unconformity on top of Miocene arc basement (Tuluanshan ~500–800 kyr. This study shows that the change of direction in
Formation) and display lateral facies changes that record east- vertical motion, and transformation of a subsiding basin to an
ward progradation of coarse deposits into the basin34. These eroding mountainous source, can occur very quickly to drive
observations are best explained by basinward migration of the extremely rapid rock cycling and mixing at this and other
depocenter in response to eastward migration of a thrust- collisional plate boundaries34. Because arc collision and accretion
bounded submarine slope at the retrowedge orogenic front are recognized as a fundamental process in the growth of
(Fig. 4a). Thus, the first stage of vertical crustal oscillation in the continental crust71, our results suggest that extremely rapid
Coastal Range (slow uplift) is interpreted as a signal of forebulge vertical crustal motions may be characteristic of deformation in
uplift. This stage was followed by subsidence in an evolving ret- arc-continent suture zones through geologic time72.
rowedge foredeep basin driven by eastward migration of a flexural Existing methods of thermochronology, petrology, and geo-
wave6,33. These processes took place during development of the chemistry provide a useful record of crustal burial and
prowedge foreland basin in western Taiwan starting exhumation in these settings, but they cannot detect such short
~6.5–5Ma25,51. rapid vertical trajectories in shallow unmetamorphosed crust.
The absence of transgressive deposits at the basal unconformity Integrated magneto-biostratigraphy and basin subsidence analysis
between shallow-marine limestone (5.6–3.5 Ma) and overlying thus offers an important tool for documenting high-resolution
deep-marine flysch (~3.4–3.1 Ma) requires a sudden increase in histories of vertical crustal motions in tectonically active systems.
water depth at ~3.5 Ma (Fig. 3b, c). This abrupt subsidence likely This approach spans a crucial time gap that needs to be bridged
resulted from local extensional faulting52,53 in the upper dilating to better understand dynamic feedbacks among long-term
crust of a migrating flexural forebulge54, and may be in part geologic (tectonic) processes and shorter timescale impacts such
related to an increase in orogenic load on the Philippine Sea plate as climate change and landscape response1,70,73.
due to accelerated topographic growth in the retrowedge at
3.2 ± 0.6 Ma55. Lithospheric bending of the Philippine Sea plate Methods
induced by northward subduction at the Ryukyu trench56 may Geological mapping and lithostratigraphy. Detailed geological mapping for this
have also influenced vertical displacements in the accreting arc study targeted excellent exposures in road cuts and riverbanks of the Coastal Range
crust. However, this hypothesis predicts southward migration (Fig. 1). Marker beds (pebbly mudstone and tuffaceous turbidite) and fault zones
were carefully mapped across the study area (Supplementary Figs. 3–4). We also
(relative to the Coastal Range) of vertical-displacement signals, compiled information from previously published geological maps74–81. Lithos-
but the observed cycles of uplift and subsidence occurred tratigraphic descriptions in type sections of the southern Coastal Range [Bieh river
simultaneously in northern and southern Coastal Range transects (BC), Madagida river (MDJ), and Sanshian river (SSS) sections] are from Lai
(Fig. 3b, c). Therefore, we suggest that northward subduction at et al.34 (Supplementary Fig. 1). New results in the northern Coastal Range
the Ryukyu-trench exerted little or no in uence on vertical crustal [Hsiukuluan river (HKL), Wulou river (WL), Fungfu (FF), and Fungpin (FP)fl sections] are compiled in Supplementary Fig. 2. We produced composite columns
motions during ~6–0.5 Ma basin evolution. for the northern and southern Coastal Range (Fig. 2) through correlations based on
Post-0.5Ma extremely rapid uplift and basin inversion created marker beds and the first appearance datums (FAD) of index fossils (Supple-
the modern topography of the Coastal Range in a small doubly- mentary Figs. 1, 2) and aided by construction of a balanced geological cross-section
vergent structural wedge during an abrupt change to wrench-style (Supplementary Fig. 5). This approach assumes that the thickness (i.e., rock
34,57 volume) of each unit does not change substantially across the local structurestranspressional deformation (Fig. 4b, c). While rapid vertical (faults and folds).
displacements are observed in other oblique-convergent settings7,8,
it is unusual to document large-scale exhumation at rates Magnetostratigraphy. In the southern Coastal Range, we adapted results and
>10mm year−1 driven solely by upper-crustal deformation. interpretations of paleomagnetic chrons from previous published studies34,42,79,80
Isostatic adjustments to changes in lithospheric structure provide (Supplementary Fig. 1). In the northern Coastal Range, we compiled published
a mechanism that can explain this behavior58. A tectonic load on paleomagnetism data
40,41 along with new data from samples collected in coherent
the Philippine Sea plate may have been suddenly released when strata from continuous sections (Paliwan Formation) for Hsiukuluan river (HKL),Wulou river (WL), and Fungpin (FP) sections, avoiding chaotic mass-transport
forearc lithosphere was broken and subducted at the collisional deposits (slump beds, olistoliths) (Supplementary Figs. 2–4). Paleomagnetic sam-
suture zone59–61. Downward extraction of lithospheric fragments ples were collected using a standard (22 mm diameter) drill core from fresh
may have caused rapid exhumation of the overriding plate crust mudstone exposures, and remanent magnetization was measured with a 2G three-
near the suture62,63, which may be partially responsible for the post- axis cryogenic magnetometer. To remove viscous remanent component of over-printing magnetic signals, we applied stepwise thermal demagnetization (THD,
0.5Ma uplift of metamorphosed (Yuli Belt) and unmetamorphosed from room temperature up to 800 °C) or alternating-field demagnetization (AFD,
(Coastal Range) arc crust in eastern Taiwan (Fig. 4b, c)5,34,64. from 0 up to 80 mT) to most samples. We applied a combination of THD and AFD
Isostatic compensation by erosional unloading may also have (e.g., THD to 360 °C followed by AFD procedure) in cases of some specimens that
contributed to the creation of topography65,66, but its role remains became thermally unstable at higher temperatures. Through these procedures, we
obtained reliable measurements of primary remanent component of the paleo-
unclear. It is possible that we have underestimated post-0.5Ma magnetic declination and inclination from Zijderveld-type diagrams at each site
long-term uplift rates in the northern Coastal Range, because (Supplementary Fig. 6). We derived mean paleomagnetic directions by restoring
present-day topography in the north may currently be influenced the perturbations of regional folds (bedding dip) (Supplementary Data 1). The age
by the modern subsidence stage. This youngest and ongoing values and their uncertainty ranges of magnetic reversals follow the most recent
global geomagnetic polarity timescale82,83.
subsidence likely is driven by northward convergence and reversed
subduction polarity of the Philippine Sea plate at the Ryukyu
trench67,68 (Fig. 1). Calcareous nanoplanktons and planktonic foraminifera biostratigraphy. In thesouthern Coastal Range, we adapted results and age interpretations from previously
This study reveals a history of extremely rapid vertical published studies34,42,79,80 (Supplementary Fig. 1). In the northern Coastal Range,
oscillations (up-and-down cycles) of near-surface rocks in only we digitized and manually georeferenced unpublished calcareous nannoplankton
~3Myr during active accretion of island arc crust to a growing fossil charts (Supplementary Data 2) and sample localities (Supplementary Figs. 3,
continental margin (Fig. 3). Our results highlight the short-lived 4) from original notes and field maps of previous works by W.-R. Chi
38,84 (Sup-
69 plementary Fig. 2). For planktonic foraminifera biostratigraphy, we compiledepisodic nature of arc-continent collision and challenge ideas published data of index fossils85–88 and collected five new samples in Fungfu (FF)
about long timescales that are often invoked for the rise and fall of and Fungpin (FP) sections (Supplementary Figs. 2, 4; Supplementary Data 2).
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Samples were collected from fresh intact exposures of mudstone, and we used 63 determined using the two sample sites that define a magnetic polarity reversal or
μm sieve to extract proper size foraminifera for identification. the first appearance of an index fossil. The stratigraphic thickness between two
Interpretation of depositional ages is based primarily on the first appearance bounding paleomagnetic sample sites mostly lies between 8 to 288 m, except a poor
datum (FAD) for index fossils due to the potential of fossil reworking, which is constraint (828 m) at reversal between polarity chrons C2An1.n and C1r.2r (Gauss-
commonly reported in turbidite-dominated deposits of the Coastal Range34,38,89 Matuyama boundary) near the base of Fungfu (FF) section in the northern Coastal
and confirmed by our work. Age values and uncertainties are based on recent Range (Fig. 2; Supplementary Figs. 1, 2). Using the mean sediment-accumulation
compilations for the Indo-Pacific region90,91 (Fig. 2). rates calculated from height-age linear regressions, the uncertainty (accuracy) for
most of our age measurements is estimated to be ± 2–43 kyr (0.1–2%) from
Paleobathymetry. When abundance data of both benthic and planktic for- targeted age values [±~507 kyr (~10%) for the Gauss–Matuyama boundary in the
aminifera are available, one can empirically estimate the paleobathymetry (W) of FF section] (Supplementary Data 4). This demonstrates remarkably high-
the marine sediment through a regression relating planktic percentage (%P ) to resolution and high-fidelity controls on depositional ages and associated verticals
modern water depth92,93. The planktic percentage (%P ) is de subsidence and uplift rates.s fined as:
%P Ps ¼ 100  PþB SO ð1Þ Subsidence analysis: decompaction and backstripping. We used established
45
where P is the number of in situ planktic specimens; B is the number of benthic numerical methods of basin geohistory analysis that correct for loss of pore space
specimens; S is the number of stress-marker benthic specimens that are more during progressive burial and compaction of sediment through time to reconstruct
sensitive to other environmental factors (e.g., oxygen level) rather than water depth of subsidence history of the sedimentary basin. Stratigraphic thickness, corrected
(in the genera Bolivina, Bulimina, Chilostomella, Fursenkoina, Globobulimina, for the effects of compaction and sea level, is therefore used to track the depth of
95
Uvigerina s.s.); O is the number of organically cemented benthic specimens and the basement top through time . This approach assumes that the pore spaces are
reworked fossils. Once (%P ) is calculated, the paleobathymetry (W) can be esti- interconnected (i.e., no overpressure), and the sediment porosity [+ðzÞ] varies ass
mated through this logistic function: an exponential function of depth (z):h 
 i
W ¼ exp αþ 1 ln %Ps  0:1 ð2Þ +ðzÞ ¼ +ð0Þ  ez=C ð5Þβ 100%Ps
where α and β are empirical constants from modern settings. Despite the lack of where C is a decay constant that varies with lithology. We calculated global average
modern offshore constraints near Taiwan, we adapted α = 1.45 ± 0.080 and β = porosity-depth functions from previous publications
95,96 to estimate initial por-
5.23 ± 0.042 (means ± standard errors) regressed from modern analog of 0–4500 m osity [+ð0Þ], decay constant (C), and uncertainties (standard errors) for sandy,
water depth in subtropical Paci c near New Zealand by Hayward et al.92. muddy, and mean marine sediments (Supplementary Fig. 8; Supplementaryfi
We converted qualitative (in ordinal scale) abundance data of from Chang85–87 Data 4). We assumed that basement rocks below the basal unconformity (i.e.,
(V: > 50 specimens; A: 21-50 specimens; C: 11–20 specimens; F: 6-10 specimens; Kangkou Limestone, Tuluanshan Formation) have not compacted. This assump-
R: < 6 specimens; ?: unsurely identi ed; D: reworked fossils) into quantitative tion is supported by the presence of calcite-cemented Miocene volcaniclasticfi
(ratio) scale with ranges of uncertainty (V = 75 ± 25; A = 35 ± 15; C = 15 ± 5; F = sandstones beneath the unconformity that are directly overlain by uncemented33,34
7 ± 3; R = 3 ± 2; ? = 1 ± 1; excluding reworked fossils) to constrain parameters P, B, mudstones and sandstones above the contact , showing that rocks beneath the
and S. Parameter O is assumed to be zero because we have excluded reworked unconformity were cemented prior to deep post-Miocene basin subsidence. Rocks
fossils. We then used Eq. (2) to calculate the paleobathymetry (W) and its beneath the unconformity may be subject to minor, inconsiderable amounts of
uncertainty (standard error) through Gaussian error propagation at each sample compaction that do not affect the results of our subsidence analysis.
site of Chang78–80 along studied sections [Fungfu (FF), Fungpin (FP), Bieh river For N stratigraphic units, the present-day thickness (T0) of each unit was buried
(BC), Madagida river (MDJ), and Sanshian river (SSS) sections] (Supplementary at a depth of D0 when the youngest sediment deposited prior to structural tilting
Data 3). and erosion. There are 14 preserved units (N = 14) in both northern and southern
Fossil abundance data are sometimes absent [e.g., data of Hsiukuluan river (HKL) Coastal Range. Stratigraphic positions of all age boundaries are presented in
and Wulou river (WL) sections from Chang and Chen88] or paleobathymetry cannot Supplementary Data 4. Uncertainties of T0 of preserved units (unit 1–14) are
be calculated using the planktic-percentage method (e.g., %P = 0 or 100). In these limited by the stratal thickness between the two bounding samples that confine thes
cases, we used an alternative method from Hohenegger94, which relies solely on the magnetic reversals or the first appearance datums (FAD) of index fossils
presence/absence of the benthic species and their modern water depth distributions. (Supplementary Figs. 1,2; Supplementary Data 4). The uppermost preserved
The basic function of this method can be written as sediment at the top of unit 1 is consolidated and lithified, which means that there
must have been a considerable thickness of strata (called unit 0 in this study) above
m m
W ¼ ∑ l d 1= ∑ d 1 ð3Þ preserved unit 1 that was subsequently removed by erosion during post-0.5 Ma
¼ n n nn 1 n¼1 uplift. Porosity-effective stress of the sandstone44 and compiled vitrinite
97
where l and d are the location parameter (i.e., mean water depth) and its dispersion reflectance data yield an estimated range of eroded thickness of ca. 2.2–3.7 kmn n
(water depth range) of the nth benthic species, respectively; m is the total amount of above marker bed tuff Tp12 near the top of the Madagida river (MDJ) section
benthic species that are considered. This method is based on the idea that species with (Supplementary Fig. 1). This implies ca. 0.45–1.95 km sediment that was deposited
narrower present-day depth distribution could yield more information about the above unit 1 and has since been removed. For simplicity, we assumed a
paleobathymetry of the sediment than species adapted to live in a wide range of water conservative thickness range of 0.75 ± 0.25 km for the unpreserved unit 0 in both
depth. We collected constraints of the minimum and maximum distributed water the north and south composite sections, and we used it to reconstruct the top of
depths of different benthic species or genera (ω and ω respectively) from section prior to structural inversion (Fig. 3; Supplementary Data 4).min max
publications to date (se
¼ p
e fficffiffiiffitffieffiffidffiffiffiffidffiffiffiaffiffitffiaffiffiffiffiin Supplementary Data 3). We then derived the
To calculate the thickness of each unit at some earlier time (i.e., decompacted
geometric mean (l ω ω ) and range (d ¼ ω  ω ) of water depth thickness, Ti), when the unit was buried only to a depth of Di , we can use the mass-n max min n max min balance equation:
for each species or genus, and calculated the paleobathymetry (W) through Eq. (3).
The uncertainty of paleobathyrmffieffiffitffiffirffiyffiffiffiffi(ffiffiσffiffiwffiffiffi)ffiffifficffiffiaffiffinffiffiffiffibffiffieffiffiffiffieffiffisffitffiffiimated as below:
R D þT   Rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi i i D0þT
 
0
D 1+iðzÞ dz ¼ D 1+iðzÞ dz ð6Þ
m
¼  
i 0
σ ∑  2l W d 
m
1= ∑ d 1w n n n ð4Þ¼ ¼ where the +iðzÞ is the porosity of unit i (i = 0, 1, 2,…, N) at depth z. Thisn 1 n 1
approach assumes the volume of sediment grains within the unit does not change.
Lastly, we projected these sample locations along the composite stratigraphic  The quantity 1+iðzÞ represents the volume of sediment grains (per unitcolumns to determine changes in paleobathymetry through time (Supplementary volume of the strata) at any level within the unit. After integrating Eq. (5), Eq. (6) is
Figs. 1, 2, and 7). rearranged to iteratively solve Ti :
h i
Age models and quality of age measurements. Age constraints (paleomagnetic M¼) kT ¼ ∑ Fk  φ  eTi=Ci þ φ ð7Þ
reversals and first appearance datums of index fossils) and their measured present- i ¼ i 1 2k 1
day stratigraphic heights (before correcting effects of compaction) on the com- ( k
posite sections (Fig. 2) are used to conducted linear regressions between thickness φ1 ¼ Ck +k Di=Cii i ð0Þ  e h i
and age (Supplementary Data 4). We visually determine data trends and group data with ¼  þ þ k  kð Þ  D =Ck  D =Ck  where F
k is the
φ φ T C + 0 e 0 i e 0 i 1 i
to be fitted in different regression lines (Fig. 3a). These linear models are then used 2 1 0 i i
to predict (using extrapolation and interpolation) depositional ages of the section fraction of lithology k (k = 1, 2,…, M) in unit i. There are three types of lithology
boundaries (base of section, top of preserved section, top of reconstructed section) (M = 3) determined in this study. The fraction of sand (k = 1), mud (k = 2), and
and paleobathymetry samples (Supplementary Data 3–4). pebbly mudstone (k = 3) was measured in all sections (Supplementary Figs. 1, 2;
The resolution of our dating with these integrated magneto-biostratigraphy Supplementary Data 4). We assumed that unit 0 contains subequal fractions of
methods is expected to be as good as the precision [~1–15 thousand years (kyr)] of sand and mud (F
1
0 ¼ 0:5; F20 ¼ 0:5; F30 ¼ 0). The initial porosity [+ki (0)] and
each astronomically-calibrated age of paleomagnetic reversal83 and first appearance decay constant (Cki ) for sandy, muddy, and mean marine sediments were applied
datum (FAD) for index fossils90, once they are accurately placed in the respectively (Supplementary Fig. 8). After repeating Eqs. (6) and (7) for each unit
stratigraphic sections. The stratigraphic position of each age-control datum was from top to the base of section, we computed the sum of decompacted unit
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thickness (ϵi) at the time when unit i finished deposition: Code availability
N Analyses and production of figures were conducted using R version 4.0.3. All scripts and
ϵi ¼ ∑ Ti ð8Þ data in required formats are freely available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5823613.
i¼ 0
These procedures [Eqs. (6–8)] account for the effects of removing incrementally
older units from the top and allow the section to expand as underlying units are Received: 14 December 2021; Accepted: 30 March 2022;
unloaded.
To evaluate the amounts of total subsidence (i.e., the true depth of the
basement, σi) at the end of unit i deposition, we need to correct the magnitude of
paleo-water depth by assuming the basin was filled with water to sea level:
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