DREAMS AND
DISSOCIATION
THEORY:
SPECULATIONS ON
BENEFICIAL ASPECTS
OF THEIR
LINKAGE
Stewart Gabel, M.D.
Stewart Gabel, M.D., isAssistant Professor of Psychiatry at the
Cornell University Medical College and practices psychiatry
at the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center, Westchester
Division,White Plains, New York.
For reprints write Stewart Gabel, M.D., the New York Hospi-
tal-Cornell Medical Center, Westchester Division, 21 Bloom-
ingdale Road, White Plains, NY 10605.
ABSTRACT
The linkage between dreams and various dissociative phenomena
has often been noted on an intuitive or clinical basis. Dream theory
during this century, however, has been associated with and helped to
provide the framework for psychoanalytic theory, not dissociation
theory.
In recent years interest in dissociation theory and dissociative
phenomena has grown. This has also been true of the interest in
dreams as understood from vantage points that dispute classical
psychoanalytic views on dreaming and that emphasize a role for
dreaming in learning and adaptive behavior.
This paper reviews some of these issues in greater detail. It
emphasizes the apparent linkage between dream phenomena and
particular dream theories with dissociation theory. Possible benefits
to dream theory and to dissociation theory when dreams are consid-
ered within a broader framework of dissociation are discussed from
several viewpoints.
INTRODUCTION
Freud Interpretation of Dreams (1953) is a landmark,
serving both as a cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory gen-
erally and of the psychoanalytic understanding of the nature
and function of dreams specifically. Freud (1953) consid-
ered this work to be perhaps his most important contribu-
tion.
For several decades after this monumental book was
written, the psychoanalytic view of dreaming changed little
(Blum, 1976), although some modifications were intro-
duced as ego psychology and then object relations theory
occupied increasing psychoanalytic interest (Arlow Bren-
ner, 1964). More recently, self psychology has emerged as a
strong focus of theoretical and clinical interest within the
psychoanalytic community. With the theory of self-psychol-
ogy has come a developing theory of dreams, initiated by
Kohut (1977), but further developed by others, including
Ornstein (1987), Greenberg (1987a) , and Fosshage (1983) .
Freud towering presence within the mental health
fields, especially within dynamic psychiatry, has been praised
for its enormous contributions, but lamented because of its
impediment to the development of other approaches that
seek to understand unconscious processes (Bliss, 1988) . This
lack of innovation has been commented on by Fosshage
(1983) in his discussion of traditional psychoanalytic dream
theory. Freud s influence also seems to have markedly im-
paired the development of other theoretical frameworks,
one of which is dissociation theory (Braun, 1988). The
concept of dissociation, along with its modern day founder,
Pierre Janet (1929) , may have been poised to assume a major
position in dynamic psychiatry until being overshadowed by
Freud development of psychoanalysis and his theoretical
contributions in relation to conflict theory, defensive opera-
tions, unconscious wishes, infantile sexuality and the like
(Ellenberger, 1970).
It has only been more recently, spurred on by several
factors, including Hilgard (1986) experimental work in
hypnosis and his neo-dissociation theory, as well as by a
resurgence of interest in multiple personality disorder, that
dissociation theory and dissociative disorders are widely
discussed and studied (Kluft, 1988).
Perhaps becauseof the lack of interest in dissociation
theory during the decades of psychoanalytic preeminence,
relatively little attention was paid to how or whether the study
of dreams might be placed within the framework of dissocia-
tion theory. This paper argues that dreams may be benefi-
cially studied within the context of dissociative processes and
dissociation theory. It traces some of the modern roots of
what I believe to be the study and interpretation of dreams
within a dissociation framework by reviewing the work on
dreams of Morton Prince (191 Oa, 1910b) , a leading figure in
early dissociation theory. It also reviews the dream theory of
C.G. Jung (1954, 1960, 1964), who left the psychoanalytic
movement to form his own Analytical Psychology. Jung
understanding of the dream, and that of other members of
the Analytical Psychology school (Hall, 1977; Mattoon, 1978)
seem to fall within what will be described more fully below as
dissociation theory. Finally, in the discussion, I describe
more fully how dreams maybe understood within a dissocia-
tion framework and within dissociation theory, and empha-
size theoretical and research benefits to this conceptual
approach.
38
DISSOCIATION, Vol. l11, No. 1: March 1990
GABEL
HISTORICAL. CONSIDERATIONS
Pierre Janet is widely credited with being the father of
modern dissociation theor'. After decades of relative obliv-
ion, the importance of his work is being increasingly appre-
ciated and reviewed (van der Hart and Friedman, 1989; van
der Kolk and van der I Iart, 1989). The major portion of his
vast writings are still unavailable in English translation, and
his possible contributions in a number of areas are only now
beginning to be explored. From recent more general reviews
available (Ellenberger, 1970; van der Hart and Friedman,
1989). as well as some of his specific writings noted below, it
appears that Janet. considered dreams to sometimes reflect
problematic areas his patients experienced and as potentially
useful in his therapeutic work with patients. The present
author is not aware of his having systematically formulated a
specific theory of dreams as such and he does not seem to
have given dreams the central focus in his work that major
contemporaries such as Freud (1953) andjung (1963) did in
their work and in their own lives. Perhaps this was partly
because, unlike Freud and Jung, Janet was not a "good
dreamer" and apparently did not remember his own dreams
(Ellenberger, 1970).
Janet (1929) describes certain hysterical patients' symp-
toms, their somnambulisms, as being "dreams, " and his
description of monoideic somnambulisms as involving "a
blank in the general consciousness, which is represented by
an amnesia, and as exaggerated and independent develop-
ment of the emancipated idea" (Janet, 1929, p. 64), is similar
to a modern description of dream characteristics offered to
Reclrtschaffen (1978), a sleep and dream researcher more
than half a century later, who emphasized the narrow focus
and "single-mindedness" of dreams.
Janet (1925) also discusses the dream as sometimes
reflecting the work of repression, a central psychoanalytic
concept, but writes that the dream is "the behavior of a
sleeping man, and this behavior consists of the low-grade
activations of tendencies that have been aroused by various
internal or external stimuli acting upon the sleeper" (Janet,
1925, page 644) . The arousal of these tendencies occurs "in
a very vague manner..." and depends on the "variations in the
energetic charge of the respective tendencies..." which are
"affected by numerous influences..." (Janet.1925, page 644).
It is difficult to determine how much of the distortion in the
dream " is the outcome of repression of one kind or another. "
(Janet, 1925, page 644) .
A more direct challenge to the psychoanalytic view of the
meaning and interpretation of dreams from the point of view
of a potential dissociation based theory of dreaming was
provided in the early years of the 20th century by Morton
Prince (1910a). Prince was well known for his work with
dissociative phenomena and patients having multiple per-
sonality disorders. He chose to investigate dreams by inten-
sively studying a series of dreams in a small number of
subjects. He focused his study on various states in the same
individual : the normal personality, two different hypnotic
states; and through automatic writing. He first obtained
volitional memories from his subject in each state and he
then attempted to obtain additional memories from the
subject in the applicable states through the method of
"abstraction," which he equated with Freud's method of free
association, and which he felt was appropriate "for the
purpose of resurrecting dissociated memories" (Prince,
1910a, p. 144).
All of the details of this lengthy paper cannot be summa-
rized here, but eventually Prince developed a view of dreams
somewhat similar to Freud's in certain ways, but greatly
different in others. Using the variety of memories he ob-
tained ( that he believed were greater than could be achieved
by free association alone), Prince arrived at several conclu-
sions about the formation and nature of dreams. These
include: The manifest dream relates to the thoughts of the
dreamer's recent life, particularly (as revealed by hypnosis)
those occurring in the immediate pre-sleeping state and
those occurring during the preceding day. The " motive " of
the dream was invariably traced back to "strongly organized
systems of ideas which were deeply rooted in the mind of the
subject, and represented her mental attitude towards her
environment or the problems of' her daily life" (Prince,
1910a, p. 175). These "sets of ideas " were "conser ved " from
the past, as indeed " every experience that is retained as a
potential memcwv leaves a counterpart record in the neu-
rones" (Prince, 1910a, p. 175). This record is commonly
called "the unconscious. " The dream expresses the previous
thoughts and experiences of the dreamer in symbolic form.
Dreams are more than merely a patch work of previous
memories, however. They have "a logical and intelligent
design " (Prince, 191Oa. p. 175). This design is reflected by
the fact that there often appears to be a motive going
through the content of' dreams, similar to that of a storv
constructed in a drama. Dreams seem to sometimes have a
plot "as if an intelligence other than that of the conscious-
ness of the dreamer had planned the development and
foresees the outcome " (Prince, 1910a. p. 196).
Furthermore, Prince argues that dream phenomena are
similar to other dissociative phenomena in which subcon-
scious (or, in psychoanalytic terms, "unconscious") proc-
esses become manifest in conscious experience through
symbolism. Examples include hallucinatory phenomena
accompanying religious conversions and post hypnotic
suggestions. Dreams do not appear to be unique in this
regard. They represent one class of hallucinatory symbolism.
Through his method and stud.) of dreams, using what he
believed to be free association, with additional information
provided by memories retrieved in dissociated states, Prince
was not able to confirm certain basic tenets of psychoanalytic
dream theory. He found no evidence of repression of ideas,
of a censoring mechanism, of compromise formation, or of
the imaginary fulfillment of infantile sexual wishes. He
viewed the amnesia following dreaming to be similar to the
amnesia commonly found for dissociated states in general.
In summary, Prince viewed dreams as dissociative phenom-
ena, similar to other dissociative phenomena. The dream
results from sets of ideas or recent sensory experiences
(especially those occurring in the pre-sleep stage and in the
day preceding the dream). These ideas recur again in the
dream, not as thoughts, but in symbolic representation.
Neurograms (i.e. conser ved memories) reflecting these
39
DISSOCIATION. Vol.111, No. 1: March 199U
thoughts and themes in the (Ircanrer's life stimulate associ-
ated thoughts strongly related to the fundamental dream
thoughts (motive). The subconscious (unconscious) proc-
ess responsible for dream formation weaves together the
original thoughts and associated thoughts into a dream
consciousness whose format is a dramatic scene. This dra-
matic representation symbolically conveys the dreamer's
ideas and consists in part of "sensory hallucinations" and in
part of thoughts.
Why the particular action of the d eam is manifested as
it is remains unknown. Prince does not arrive at an answer
that he feels is satisfactory. If the unconscious process reflects
a thinking consciousness, he argues, then. if the obser ver
knew what this unconscious process was thinking about
during the dream, one would know why the dream was as it
was. If the unconscious process is determined by a "brain
process" only, then one would still need to know the laws of
this brain process 's functioning to answer the question.
Prince does suggest however that dream interpretation
based on these views may have therapeutic value in the
treatment of hysterical patients. He suggests that stigmata of
hysteria may be regarded as the symbolic manifestation of
ideas from which they originate and which continue to exist
subconsciously. These ideas may potentially be manifested
in dreams.
Ernest Jones (1910) subsequently replied to Prince 's
study and conclusions. He was harshly critical and argued
that Prince had not used the psychoanalytic method of free
association properly, and "that far deeper memories can he
recovered by psycho-analysis than by hypnotism.... " (Jones,
1910, p. 332), Prince had not come to Freud 's conclusions
about the meaning of dreams because he had not used the
psychoanalytic method properly.
Prince (1910b) replied in defense of his approach and
accused members of the psychoanalytic school of loose
reasoning in the interpretation of facts and of a lack of broad
experience with psychopathological conditions. He argued
that psychoanalytic efforts were often characterized by
dogmatism rather than by careful exploration.
This type of exchange may have been similar to what
Ellenberger (1970) has termed the "polemics" associated
with the early days of the psychoanalytic movement.
C.G. Jung (1961 ) , who was then a member of the psycho-
analytic movement, was also critical of Prince 's study, argu-
ing that Prince left the reported dreams unanalyzed. Wish
fulfilhnen t and transference phenomena, Jung argued, were
not discussed by Prince although they should have been. He,
too, claimed that Freud 's theory was unharmed by Prince ' s
repudiation.
What Jung would have said about Prince's study at. a later
date is not known. Several years after writing this paper (Jung,
1961), he left the psychoanalytic movement and formed the
school that he termed "Analytical Psychology." While his
own dream theory, to be described briefly below, went. much
further along certain theoretical and clinical dimensions
than Prince's study would allow, his later views on dreaming
do appear to fit, at least partly, within a dissociation frame-
work.
Jung was an early follower of Freud who had also studied
with Janet. Ah'hile the influences on his psychological theory
and on his view of dreams, as expressed irr the theoretical
framework of Analytical Psychology, were varied, his under-
standing of the meaning and function of dreams does seem
to fit, at least partially, within the framework of dissociation
theory. This is not surprising considering Jung's personal
background, interests, and experiences as described by Jung
(1963), himself, and by Ellenberger, 11)70). who chronicles
the history of dynamic psychiatry and the lives of its early
major figures. Jung was the son of a pastor, and was deeply
interested in religious and mystical phenomena. As a young
man he joined a group which was involved in spiritistic
experiments. Jung's own cousin, a 15 year old girl, was the
medium for the group. She was reportedly prone to episodes
of mediumistic somnambulism. 'I. his experience became the
basis for Jung's medical dissertation.
During Jung ' s own period of what Ellenberger (1970)
calls his "creative illness," Jung developed methods of relat-
ing to personified unconscious figures and conversed with
personality aspects who became conscious to him through
his methods of forcing his imagination to extremes and
drawing out his dreams. For Jung, the psyche was composed
of a conscious ego component and of unconscious compo-
nents, personified in dreams. visions, and other phenomena
to which the individual must learn to relate. Ellenberger
(197(1) compares Jung's spli( off contents of the unconscious
to Janet ' s concept of subconscious fixed ideas.
Dream interpretation, according to the Jungian ap-
proach (1954, 1960. 1964). will rink he reviewed briefly and
in certain aspects here. An emphasis will be given to those
parts of the theory that relate to dreams as presumably
reflecting the workings of an unconscious component of the
psyche which has an independent intelligence and aware-
ness. distinct from ego consciousness.
Jung believed that dreams arc prospective and adaptive
in nature. They express, in metaphoric terms, the statement
and message that is conveyed within the structure of the
dream. There is no attempt to disguise unconscious content
or to distort meaning. Indeed, in direct contradiction to
Freud ' s view, the dream, as a reflection of an unconscious,
autonomous source, stands in a compensatory relationship
to consciousness. It is the responsibility of the conscious ego
to try to understand the meaning of the dream and to
develop a relationship to what is related through the dream
in its own metaphoric and symbolic language.
Dreams can and should be understood on the manifest
level. Dream interpretation proceeds through a number of
levels, but almost always involves an acceptance of the manifest
content as making a statement about the dreamer, him or
herself, or his or her situation. Like a story or drama, the
dream proceeds to develop a theme with a conflict and then
a resolution. The elements of the dream can be understood
through amplification and limited association. Information
based on wide readings in religion, mythology, fairy tales and
the like are often helpful in interpretation, since the themes
found in an individual ' s dreams are often the same or similar
to those found in religious or mythological texts.
The dream, as a reflection of an unconscious source,
should be used to help the dreamer in his or her own
40
DISSOCIATION. Vol. 1I1, No. 1; March 1990
individual development. Jungian theory does not accept the
notions of censorship. disguise. or distortion irr dreams.
Extended free association is not used in dream i nfra rpreta-
tion since this approach may reduce the benefits of the
dream for the dreamer (e.g., in prospective and adaptive
dimensions). For Jung, free associating to any of a rrurnber of
images or ideas can lead to unc:cmrscious complexes. Dreams
do not provide a unique or special approach in this regard.
Early' childhood experiences are also not emphasized in the
interpretation of the dream or as antecedents of particular
dream elements unless the dreamer's associations bring
these up.
While space does not permit a full discussion, Jung 's
approach has been influential for a number of modern non
Jungian theorists, such as Ullman (Ullman & Zimmerman,
1979) and Fosshage (1983). Ullman has argued for the
demystification of dream interpretation, dream work in
groups, and the dream as an aid in achieving social connect-
edness. Fosshage (1983) has elaborated on and contributed
to the concept of the self state dream, which bears consider-
able resemblance in certain aspects to Jungian approaches to
the dream.
DEFINITIONS OF DISSOCIATION
Pierre Janet is said to have first used the term "dissocia-
tion" (Ellenberger, 197{1). Janet described hysteria as "a form
of mental depression characterized li the retraction of the field nl
personal consciousness . (rid a trrtrlency to the disrociatinn and
emancipation of the system of ideas and fi.rnrtion.s that constitute
personality" (Janet, 1929, p. 332. Italics in original).
One of the difficulties in studying dissociative phenom-
ena and dissociation theory has been the frequent confusion
about the definition of dissociation and its relationship to
other terms, such as repression, used in mental health theory
(Bernstein & Putnam, 1986).
The current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM III
R, 1987) considers the essential features of dissociative dis-
orders to be "a disturbance or alteration in the normally
integrative functions of identity, memory or consciousness "
(American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 269).
\oung (1988) defines dissociation as "an active inhib-
itory process that normally screens internal and external
stimuli from the field of consciousness" (p. 35) . In pathologi-
cal conditions, dissociation eliminates painful memories
from consciousness. In normal circumstances, dissociation is
nearly always present, screening out irrelevant stimuli, thus
aiding the integrative functioning of the ego.
Braun (1984, 1988) has conceptualized dissociation in
what he terms a "BASK model. " The letters BASK stand for
"Behavior," "Affect," "Sensation" and "Knowledge." These
characteristics or processes are usually considered to he
united over- lime in the normal individual. Dissociation may
be defined as "the separation of an idea or thought process
from the main stream of consciousness" (Braun, 1988, p. 5).
Using the BASK model, Braun notes that dissociation may
occur on one or more of the four levels (behavior, affect,
sensation or knowledge) at a given time, while being congru-
ent with the other components at other times.
Within this BASK framework, fol . the purposes of this
paper, dreams can be seen to fulfill the criteria of dissociative
phenomenon, although they would not be considered ab-
normal. Sleep, whether or not it contains remembered
dreams, serves as an interruption in the usual stream of
consciousness over time. Furtlrertnore, during the dream
state, all of the RAShcomponents, as remembered by waking
consciousness, ntav be distorted and/or separated from
their usual states in the normal stream of waking experience.
Sensation of self, for example, based on the dreamer ' s later
report, may have little continuity with the consciously expe-
rienced sense of self. Changes from ongoing, expectable,
stable, behavioral, affective and knowledge (memory expe-
riences are all common.
DREAMS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF
DISSOCIATION THEORY
The value of considering dreams within the framework
of dissociation theory rests not only on the possible validity
of such a position, but also on whether such an approach aids
in the understanding of other phenomena, dissociative or
not, and whether it ser ves as a stimulus for additional theo-
retical, clinical and research efforts related to dreams and
dreaming. Michels (1983) has argued in another context
that the value of theory building resides in the ability of new
theories to generate additional relevant ideas, approach, etc.
While dreams have long been felt to have dissociative char-
acteristics by some theoreticians (Hilgard, 198(1), there does
not appear to have been a recent effort to place them within
modern dissociation theory, as defined earlier.
Perhaps one reason for this rests with the historical lack
of a clear theoretical or clinical framework for the interpre-
tation of dreams that is widely felt to he consistent with
dissociation theory, although, as I have argued, the Jungian
view has several aspects that may be considered within a
dissociation framework. The classical psychoanalytic inter-
pretation of dreams emphasizes repression, censorship, and
conflict among agencies within a relatively more unified
system of mental processes than seems acceptable to or
compatible with a dissociation based theory of dreaming.
Dreams, however, are now being increasingly under-
stood as beneficially interpretable according to what previ-
ously were totally unacceptable lines in classical psychoana-
lytic thought (Fosshage, 1983; Eisnitz, 1987; Glucksman &
Warner, 1987; Ornstein, 1987). These new conceptualiza-
tions may also facilitate the dream's being understood within
dissociation theory (Gabel, 1989). Current conceptions of
dreaming emphasize the legitimacy of the manifest content
of the dream as a metaphoric, symbolic statement of the
actual state of the individual and/or his or her psychological
condition or problem. Current views of dreaming often also
emphasize that the manifest dream proceeds, in the manner
of a drama or story, to describe the dreamer ' s previous
attempts to deal with a specific and focused conflict, problem
or situation which may be internal, external (or frequently
both) in the dream. At times, potential solutions or adapta-
tions are also depicted symbolically and metaphorically in
41
DISSOCIATION,
the dream; i.e., problem solving may occur.
Despite variations based on theoretical differences, when
dreams are viewed within the broad phenomenological
outlines noted above, they suggest certain theoretical ap-
proaches, questions and problems which I believe can be
placed within and addressed by dissociation theory ..
In the remainder of this paper, I will briefly describe
several areas in which I believe the study of dreams may be
enriched by or contribute to a greater development of
dissociation theory. These dimensions (which often have
considerable overlap) include: dream theory and dream
research, developmental psychology and psychobiolop,
brain-behavior relationships, learning theory, dissociation
theory and dissociative phenomena, psychoanalytic theo-
ries, and other areas of study.
1. Dream theory and research on dreams
The description ofdreatns along the phenomenological
lines noted earlier reduces or eliminates a variety of prob-
lems created by the psychoanalytic model. These include the
difficulty of studying or confirming on an empirical level
such constructs as the censorship function, latent content,
and infantile sexual wishes. While dreams, when accepted on
a manifest level, also present difficulties for research, these
difficulties appear more manageable empirically. Approaches
to dreams aimed at defining thematic content, semantic
structure, imagery, shifts in focus, etc. have all been made
empirically and discussed in an extensive literature.
Yet, the manifest content, phenomenological approach
that is more easily studied empirically, and which is viewed
within a nondistortion framework, and as an accurate por-
trayal of psychological processes or of the state of the self
(Fosshage, 1983; Ornstein, 1987) has a number of theoretical
and empirical difficulties also.
Briefly, the psychological truth, accuracy, or validity of
the dream's description of self has been striking to many
observers. Ullman (Ullman & Zimmerman, 1979) likens the
portrait of the dreamer in the dream to what appears to be
an image of him or herself taken by a camera far away in
space. What are the psychological processes or mechanisms
that enahle such astrikingly "ac.curat e " psychological picture
of the dreamer to the displayed? How is the dreamer known
with such accuracy, given the frequent defensive and distort-
ing operations present in psychological life? Furthermore,
how is it that potentially adaptive solutions and problem
solving may go on in dreams when solutions to problems
were not (or were not yet) apparent in the conscious life of
the dreamer? Since Freud (1953, 1961) deemphasized
problem solving as a function for dreams, traditional psycho-
analytic dream theory did not have to actively address these
types of questions.
Dissociation theory may be able to address these issues,
however. If dreams reflect a dissociated state within the
individual, then interruptions or dissociations from the
usual stream of consciousness in behavior, affect, sensation,
or knowledge (the BASK system [Braun, 1988]) would not
be unexpected. Indeed, feelings of strangeness, unreality,
looking on oneself in the remembered dream from outside
the point of view of usual waking consciousness would not be
surprising. The dreamer, in usual waking consciousness,
viewing himself or herself in the remembered dream, as if
from a point in space or outside the system, might be thought
of as having an experience similar to depersonalization or
splitting in the continuity of the usual st ream of personal
internal sensation of self, as described by Braun (1988)
within the BASK system.
Providing an appraisal of the dreamer (dominant per-
sonality) which is broadly based and apparently psychologi-
cally accurate and valid, can also be understood within
dissociation theory. In this case one might consider as an
analogy the various psychological functions of subpersonali-
ties, including the internal self helper, wl has broad knowl-
edge of the dominant personality and can help it achieve
valuable goals (Allison, 1974).
I do not wish to suggest that only dissociation 'Icon' can
address these issues presented by what is emerging as a
broadly based view of' dreams that emphasizes the manifest
content of the dream, its accurate or valid description of the
dreamer psychologically, and the description of possibilities
available to the dreamer. I have suggested other approaches
to understanding these phenomena elsewhere (Gabel, 1989) .
What I do suggest is that dissociation theory provides pos-
sible approaches to these questions on both theoretical and
clinical levels.
2. Developmental psychology and psychobiology
Dreams are most commonly reported from REM sleep
(Gaillard, 1983), and in acomplete discussion of dreams, the
association of dreams and REM sleep must be noted. As will
be amplified later in the sections on brain-behavior rela-
tionships and learning theory, REM sleep itself comprises a
distinct phase within the sleep cycle, and it is through its
possible association with dreaming in relation to learning,
problem solving, etc., that one aspect of the case for dreams
as possible dissociative phenomena is strengthened.
From a developmental perspective, the characteristics of
REM sleep change over the life cycle, going from about 50
percent of total sleep in the human infant to about 20 to 25
percent of sleep time in the adult individual. There have
been a variety of theories related to the function of REM
sleep that cannot be reviewed here {see Pearlman, 1982).
Jouvet's (1975, 1980) work is of some interest in the context
of REM sleep and possibly dreaming as dissociative phenom-
ena, however. Jouvet has performed experiments with cats,
in which there has been stereotaxic destruction bilaterally of
part of the nucleus locus coeruleus, thus selectively suppress-
ing the motor inhibition of REM sleep. Jouvet argues, based
on his studies in which the still "sleeping" cats display dramatic
and stereotyped behavior at a time when they would be
expected to enter into REM sleep, that REM sleep seems to
organize or program "genetically constituted or instinctive
behavior " (Jouvet, 1975, p. 500). In another context, Jouvet
(1980) has also argued that REM sleep may function to select
particular genetically programmed behaviors, that is, to aid
in the maintenance of variations in behavior.
It does seem; in the experiments described by Jouvet,
that the cats, although maintaining characteristics of sleep,
have been acting in concert with internal visual stimuli, i.e.
42
DISSOCIATION. Vol. III, No. L Mardi 1990
GABEL
perhaps dreaming. Jouvet (1973), in fact, does not distin-
guish between dreaming and paradoxical or REM sleep.
Schenck, Bundlic, Ettinger, and Niahowald (1986) have
described human behavior in concert with dream imagery in
a small group of patients who have neurologic dysfunction
and who no longer exhibit the usual motor inhibition
characteristic of REM sleep. Whether dreams work in asso-
ciation with developmental changes in REM sleep to pro-
gram or re-program behavior for life span changes needs
further study.
3. Brain - behavior relationships
There have been numerous reports (Putnam, 1984;
Coons, 1988) describing biological, psychometric and psy-
chological differences between dissociated personalities in
multiple personality disorder. There has, of course, been
longstanding interest in defining biological correlates or
substrates fur mental processes. There is currently very active
interest in defining biological variations that discriminate
among normal abilities (e.g., verbal and visual abilities) and
between psychopathological states or between psychopa-
thological states and non psychopathological states.
In recent work I have reviewed evidence that bears on
the question of whether there is a relatively increased right
hemispheric activation or efficiency in imagery, hypnosis,
REM sleep and dreaming (Gabel, 1988a). This is a controver-
sial area. While some evidence supports this view in REM
sleep and dreaming (Gabel, 1988a), Antrobus (1987) and
others have cited evidence contradicting this position.
There is also controversy around the notion of a rela-
tively increased activation or efficiency of right hemisphere
involvement in hypnosis and in imagery, but considerable
support for this view exists as well (Gabel, 1988a).
Defining dreams as possibly existing within the .frame-
work of dissociative phenomena and dissociation theory
should facilitate the study of dreams (or REM sleep) in
comparison with various dissociative states since dissociation
theory offers the model of distinct states (e.g., hypnosis) which
have been and continue to be described psychologically and
biologically (Putnam, 1988).
4. Learning theory
Some recent attempts to conceptualize behavioral, emo-
tional and cognitive changes in dissociative disorders and
dissociative states have focused in part on the concept of state
dependent learning, which itself is related to neurophysiol-
ogical changes during different states (Braun, 1984, 1988).
In this view, memories, learning capacities, and informational
systems may vary within the individual, and depend on his or
her current state. In the case of patients with multiple
personality.' disorder, particular personality characteristics
would depend on the learning history of the dominant
personality and particular subpersonalities. This view
deemphasizes the psychological construct of repression and
emphasizes state dependent learning to help explain the
capacity for incorporating, integrating, and acting on given
types of information.
Dream theorists such as Breger (1967) and Greenberg
(1980, 1987a), over the last generation, have cited experi-
mental evidence from studies with dreams and REM sleep to
support the view that dreaming is associated with possible
problem solving or adaptational efforts. There is an exten-
sive literature in both animals and humans describing ex-
perimental evidence that is in general supportive of REM
sleep's role in learning and memoy, especially (in humans)
as related to emotional issues. It should be noted that there
is less experimental evidence supporting a role for dreaming
per se being related to learning and memory. Yet, the clinical
theories of writers such as Jung, Ullman and Fosshage who
have emphasized the manifest dream's description of the
state of self, adaptations of the self, and problem solving
approaches reflected in the dream, do seem to fit well on an
intuitive level with the empirical results of studies on the
function of REM sleep.
Rosenberg (Rotenberg & Arshovsky, 1979; Rotenberg,
1984, 1988) has contributed an interesting theory to the
literature which is illustrative of the potential for viewing
REM sleep (and dreaming) as one state which complements
another state (usual waking consciousness) in problem solving
or learning capacities. On the basis of experimental work of
his own with humans and animals, as well as the work of
others, Rotenberg suggests that REM sleep and usual waking
activity are in a compensatory relationship around the issue
of "search activity." With its usual activities, waking behavior
may become associated with a cessation of searching (for
solutions, adaptation, etc.). REM sleep is, on the other hand,
associated with "search activity." in states such as depression,
conscious waking life has a relative "cessation of search."
REM sleep then increases to compensate for this absence of
search activity.
Dissociation theory's interest in state dependent learn-
ing (e.g. during hypnotic suggestion) and physiological
changes during .states seems to relate well to these ap-
proaches to REM sleep (and possibly dreaming), and may
enhance and broaden our conceptions of the role of dream-
ing in learning and prohletn solving.
5. Dissociation theory and dissociative states
As noted earlier, there has been a dearth of experimen-
tal work supporting essential concepts of traditional psycho-
analytic dream theory. Rating scales that are empirically
based have now been developed that can be used to assess
individuals who are felt to possibly have dissociative disor-
ders and to compare individuals with dissociative disorders
and other conditions (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986). Review-
ing items on such scales from the point of view of dream
experience suggests that dreams may fit within a dissociation
framework using these types of experimental tools, hut this
hypothesis must be tested empirically.
in addition to the theoretical interest now taking place
within the field of dissociation regarding state dependent
learning and physiological changes attendant on states as
possible correlates of dissociative phenomenon, other work
is progressing on the characteristics of the switch process
between states (Putnam, 1988). This is an area that hears on
the problem of shifting behavioral and psychological expe-
riences of individuals with dissociative disorders. It relates to
state dependent learning and possibly to the amnesia for
43
DISSOCIATION, Vol. Ill, No 1: March1990
different states exhibited by individuals with dissociative
disorders. Shifts between stages of sleep, as is often the case
in patients with multiple personality disorder, oc cui quickly.
There are defined biological criteria (e.g. electroencephalo-
graphic, electronnographic) that reflect change of stage
characteristics to REM sleep, NREM sleep and waking conch-
lions. Dreaming, as a fregttent concomitant of REM sleep,
may be thought of as possibly exhibiting state shifts compa-
rable in that regard to what may often be found in dissocia-
tive disorders (and at times in other conditions).
Theorists and clinicians in volved in the studs and treat-
ment of dissociative disorders and dissociative states must of
necessity define connnou characteristics or unifv?ing features
of these conditions. Phenomcnologic and behavioral simi-
larities between dissociative disorders and dreams are ap-
parent (e.g., depersonalization, paralysis of movement, feel-
ings of unreality). Another characteristic of dreams, em-
phasized by Rechtshaffen (1978) has been mentioned ear-
lier as providing some phenomenological similarity between
dreams and dissociative phenomena. Rcclltshaffen empha-
sizes the "single mindedness" of dreams, their characteristic
focus on one main theme. Dissociative states. such as subper-
sonalities in multiple personality disorder or in hypnotic
states, are often desc ribed in a similar manner, as having a
rather narrow, but focused thematic content. A thorough
comparison of dreams with various dissociative phenomena,
both those with known biological changes accompanying
psychological state changes, and those currently defined on
the basis of psychological state changes alone, such as
depersonalization when neurological dysfunctions (e.g., right.
tempo r al abnormalities) have not been identified, is war-
ranted.
Dissociation as a mental process has connnonly been
linked with psychopathology, thereby possibly limiting its
contribution to the development of a broader theory of
mental organization. The origins and growth of psychoa-
nalysis as a theory of mental organization rested not only on
insights gained from psychologically disturbed individuals,
but also from insights gained from and applied to an under-
standing of normal individuals ' behavior. In The letepieta-
tinn of Dreams, Freud (1953) emphasized that he used ex-
amples of dreams from normal individuals (including hint-
self) to avoid the criticism that the principles necessary for an
understanding of dreams that he put forth applied only to
the dreams of individuals with psychopathology. One of his
goals was the development of psychoanalysis as a broadly
applicable theory of mental organization. Dreams, a normal
phenomenon, became a vehicle to understand mental proc-
esses according to psychoanalytic principles that could be
applied to everyone. Indeed, such was the importance Freud
attached to his own work with dreams for psychoanalytic
theory building that he continually returned to the Interpre-
tation of Dreams when he felt uncertain about particular
theoretical questions. Clinical, theoretical and experimental
work with dissociative disorders and dissociative has led
some workers in the field to argue that dissociation theory'
may also have value in the development of a broader theory
of mental organization (Beahrs, 1982; Watkins & Watkins,
1979-1980).
The arguments put forth in this paper that dreams may
be viewed front die perspective of dissociative phenomena
bear on questions of whether dissociation may be conceptu-
alized as both a normal and an abnormal process, and
whether the concept of dissociation has value in the develop-
ment of a theory of mental and personality organization.
These questions are in part questions of definition and of
emphasis. Several definitions of "dissociation" have been
given earlier. There is no uniformity about the definition of
dissociation when applied solely to pathological processes or
when applied to situations in which dissociation also might
be considered a normal phenomenon. The main f . cus of the
arguments presented iii this paper relate to this latter question;
i.e., whether the concept of dissociation may beneficially
include a consideration of normal phenomena. Clearly the
thrust of this paper is to argue in the affirmative. There is
considerable support for this position.
Van der Hart. and Friedman (1989) and Van der Kolk
and van der I lart (1989) emphasize the value of understand-
ing the concept of dissociation from abroad perspective that
includes normal psychological processes, thus potentially
contributing to the study of phenomena such as memory
processing, state dependent learning and adaptive reactions
to psychological stresses and conflicts. Current concepts of
information processing in REM sleep (Pearlman, 1982) and
in dreams (Gabel, 1987) have been noted earlier and also
seem supportive of a "dissociation as normal phenomenon "
concept. A broader neo-dissociation framework for under-
standing certain mental processes in normal individuals has
been proposed by Hilgard (1986) , based in part on his work
with the hidden observer phenomenon. Psychological stud-
ies with post commissurotomv patients have demonstrated
parallel processing of information after surgical sectioning
of the corpus collosum (Sperry, 1968). Studies of this type
with "split brain" patients have led Gazzaniga (1985), a major
researcher in the field, to develop a theory of mental orga-
nization in which one language dominant, organizing, in-
terpretive component of the brain constructs theories to
explain attitudes. reactions, and behavior sometimes origi-
nating in other parts of the brain that would otherwise be
inexplicable to it. For Gazzaniga (1985), the brain ' s normal
organization is into modules that function in parallel in a co-
conscious system with one verbal and other non-verbal
components, a view that seems quite compatible on a psycho-
logical level with a broad definition of dissociation as a
normal process that involves both parallel processing and
"screening" functions (Gabel, 1988a).
Yet, despite the suggestions implied by these various
approaches that dissociation theory mightbenefically include
normal processes and have utility for the further develop-
ment of a theory of mental organization, there is no proof or
evidence in a strict sense that dissociation as a concept
should be broadened. The linkage which is suggested in this
paper between dreams and dissociative phenomena has
been argued on historical, phenomenological, conceptual,
and empirical levels. Through the use of rating scales to
assess dissociative experiences and ongoing research defin-
ing and comparing dissociative and non dissociative condi-
tions, this hypothesis can be further clarified empirically and
44
DISSOCIATION, Vol. III, No. l: March P1%
the presence or absence of relationships established, but in
the end the question may be as much theoretical and con-
ceptual as empirical in nature.
are discussed. 
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a dynamic explanation to account for diraar production.
Indeed, dreams understood withit t the framework of normal
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SUMMARY
Dreams have a long standing history of being considered
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