StewartGabel, M.D., is Assistant Professor ofPsychiatryat the
Cornell University Medical College and practices psychiatry
attheNewYork Hospital-CornellMedical Center,Westchester
Division, White Plains, New York.
For reprints write Stewart Gabel, M.D., the New York Hospi 
tal-Cornell Medical Center, Westchester Division, 21 Bloom 
ingdale Road, White Plains, NY 10605.
ABSTRACT
The linkage between dreams and various dissociative phenomena
has often been noted on an intuitive or clinical basis. Dream theory
during this century, however, has been associated with and helped to
provide the framework for psychoanalytic theory, not dissociation
theory.
In recent years interest in dissociation theory and dissociative
phenomena has grown. This has also been true of the interest in
dreams as understood from vantage points that dispute classical
psychoanalytic views on dreaming and that emphasize a role for
dreaming in learning and adaptive behavior.
This paper reviews some of these issues in greater detail. It
emphasizes the apparent linkage between dream phenomena and
particular dream theories with dissociation theory. Possible benefits
to dream theory and to dissociation theory when dreams are consid 
ered within a broaderframework ofdissociation are discussed from
several viewpoints.
INTRODUCTION
Freud's Interpretation of Dreams (1953) is a landmark,
serving both as a cornerstone ofpsychoanalytic theory gen 
erallyand ofthe psychoanalytic understandingofthe nature
and function of dreams specifically. Freud (1953) consid 
ered this work to be perhaps his most important contribu 
tion.
For several decades after this monumental book was
written, the psychoanalytic view of dreaming changed little
(Blum, 1976), although some modifications were intro 
duced as ego psychology and then object relations theory
occupied increasing psychoanalytic interest (Arlow & Bren 
ner, 1964). More recently, selfpsychology has emerged as a
strong focus of theoretical and clinical interest within the
psychoanalytic community. With the theory of self-psychol 
ogy has come a developing theory of dreams, initiated by
Kohut (1977), but further developed by others, including
Ornstein (1987), Greenberg (1987a), and Fosshage (1983).
38
Freud's towering presence within the mental he<!1th
fields, especiallywithin dynamic psychiatry, hasbeen praised
for its enormous contributions, but lamented because ofits
impediment to the development of other approaches that
seek to understandunconscious processes (Bliss, 1988) .This
lack of innovation has been commented on by Fosshage
(1983) in his discussion oftraditional psychoanalytic dream
theory. Freud's influence also seems to have markedly im 
paired the development of other theoretical frameworks,
one of which is dissociation theory (Braun, 1988). The
concept ofdissociation, along with its modern day founder,
PierreJanet (1929), may have been poised to assume a major
position in dynamic psychiatry until being overshadowed by
Freud's development of psychoanalysis and his theoretical
contributions in relation to conflict theory, defensive opera 
tions, unconscious wishes, infantile sexuality and the like
(Ellenberger, 1970).
It has only been more recently, spurred on by several
factors, including Hilgard's (1986) experimental work in
hypnosis and his neo-dissociation theory, as well as by a
resurgence ofinterest in multiple personality disorder, that
dissociation theory and dissociative disorders are widely
discussed and studied (Kluft, 1988).
Perhaps because. of the lack of interest in dissociation
theory during the decades of psychoanalytic preeminence,
relativelylittle attentionwas paid to howorwhetherthe study
ofdreams mightbe placed within the framework ofdissocia 
tion theory. This paper argues that dreams may be benefi 
cially studiedwithin the contextofdissociative processes and
dissociation theory. It traces some of the modern roots of
what I believe to be the study and interpretation of dreams
within a dissociation framework by reviewing the work on
dreams ofMorton Prince (1910a, 1910b), a leadingfigure in
early dissociation theory. It also reviews the dream theory of
e.G. Jung (1954, 1960, 1964), who left the psychoanalytic
movement to form his own Analytical Psychology. Jung's
understanding of the dream, and that ofother members of
theAnalytical Psychologyschool (Hall, 1977; Mattoon, 1978)
seem to fall within whatwill be described more fully below as
dissociation theory. Finally, in the discussion, I describe
more fully how dreams may be understood within a dissocia 
tion framework and within dissociation theory, and empha 
size theoretical and research benefits to this conceptual
approach.
DISSOCIATION, Vol. III, 1'\'0.1: March 1990
HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS
PierreJanet is widely credited with being the father of
modern dissociation theory. After decades of relative obliv 
ion, the importance of his work is being increasingly appre 
ciated and reviewed (van der Hart and Friedman, 1989; van
der Kolk and van der Hart, 1989). The major portion of his
vast writings are still unavailable in English translation, and
his possible contributions in a number ofareas are only now
beginning to be explored. Fromrecentmore generalreviews
available (Ellenberger, 1970; van der Hart and Friedman,
1989). as well as some ofhis specific wlitings noted below, it
appears thatJanet considered dreams to sometimes reflect
problematicareashis patientsexperiencedand as potentially
useful in his therapeutic work with patients. The present
author is not aware ofhis having systematically formulated a
specific theory of dreams as such and he does not seem to
have given dreams the central focus in his work that major
contemporariessuch as Freud (1953) andJung (1963) did in
their work and in their own lives. Perhaps this was partly
because, unlike Freud and Jung, Janet was not a "good
dreamer" and apparently did not remember his own dreams
(Ellenberger, 1970).
Janet (1929) describes certain hysterical patients' symp 
toms, their somnambulisms, as being "dreams," and his
description of monoideic somnambulisms as involving "a
blank in the general consciousness, which is represented by
an amnesia, and as exaggerated and independent develop 
mentofthe emancipated idea" Ganet, 1929, p. 64), is similar
to a modern description ofdream characteristics offered by
Rechtschaffen (1978), a sleep and dream researcher more
than half a century later, who emphasized the narrow focus
and "single-mindedness" of dreams.
Janet (1925) also discusses the dream as sometimes
reflecting the work of repression, a central psychoanalytic
concept, but writes that the dream is "the behavior of a
sleeping man, and this behavior consists of the low-grade
activations of tendencies that have been aroused by various
internal or external stimuli acting upon the sleeper" Ganet,
1925, page 644). The arousal ofthese tendencies occurs "in
a veryvague manner... "and dependson the "variations in the
energetic charge of the respective tendencies... " which are
"affected bynumerous influences... " Ganet,1925, page 644) .
lt is difficult to determine how much ofthe distortion in the
dream "is the outcome ofrepression ofone kind oranother."
Ganet, 1925, page 644).
Amore directchallenge to the psychoanalyticview ofthe
meaningand interpretation ofdreamsfrom the point ofview
of a potential dissociation based theory of dreaming was
provided in the early years of the 20th century by Morton
Prince (191 Oa). Prince was well known for his work with
dissociative phenomena and patients having multiple per 
sonality disorders. He chose to investigate dreams by inten 
sively studying a series of dreams in a small number of
subjects. He focused his study on various states in the same
individual: the normal personality, two different hypnotic
states; and through automatic writing. He first obtained
volitional memories from his subject in each state and he
then attempted to obtain additional memories from the
GABEL
subject in the applicable states through the method of
"abstraction," which he equated with Freud's method offree
association, and which he felt was appropriate "for the
purpose of resurrecting dissociated memories" (Prince,
1910a, p. 144).
All ofthe details ofthis lengthy paper cannotbe summa 
rized here, buteventually Prince developed a view ofdreams
somewhat similar to Freud's in certain ways, but greatly
different in others. Using the variety of memories he ob 
tained (thathe believedwere greater than could be achieved
by free association alone), Prince arrived at several conclu 
sions about the formation and nature of dreams. These
include: The manifest dream relates to the thoughts of the
dreamer's recent life, particularly (as revealed by hypnosis)
those occurring in the immediate pre-sleeping state and
those occurring during the preceding day. The "motive" of
the dream was invariably traced back to "strongly organized
systems ofideas which were deeply rooted in the mind ofthe
subject, and represented her mental attitude towards her
environment or the problems of her daily life" (Prince,
1910a, p. 175). These "sets ofideas" were "conserved" from
the past, as indeed "every experience that is retained as a
potential memory leaves a counterpart record in the neu 
rones" (Prince, 1910a, p. 175). This record is commonly
called "the unconscious." The dream expresses the previous
thoughts and experiences ofthe dreamer in symbolic form.
Dreams are more than merely a patch work of previous
memories, however. They have "a logical and intelligent
design" (Prince, 1910a, p. 175). This design is reflected by
the fact that there often appears to be a motive going
through the content of dreams, similar to that of a story
constructed in a drama. Dreams seem to sometimes have a
plot "as if an intelligence other than that of the conscious 
ness of the dreamer had planned the development and
foresees the outcome" (Prince, 1910a, p. 196).
Furthermore, Prince argues that dream phenomenaare
similar to other dissociative phenomena in which subcon 
scious (or, in psychoanalytic terms, "unconscious") proc 
esses become manifest in conscious experience through
symbolism. Examples include hallucinatory phenomena
accompanying religious conversions and post hypnotic
suggestions. Dreams do not appear to be unique in this
regard. Theyrepresent one class ofhallucinatorysymbolism.
Through his method and studyofdreams, usingwhathe
believed to be free association, with additional information
provided by memories retrieved in dissociated states, Prince
was notable to confirm certain basic tenets ofpsychoanalytic
dream theory. He found no evidence ofrepression ofideas,
ofa censoring mechanism, ofcompromise formation, or of
the imaginary fulfillment of infantile sexual wishes. He
viewed the amnesia following dreaming to be similar to the
amnesia commonly found for dissociated states in general.
In summary, Prince viewed dreams as dissociative phenom 
ena, similar to other dissociative phenomena. The dream
results from sets of ideas or recent sensory experiences
(especially those occurring in the pre-sleep stage and in the
day preceding the dream). These ideas recur again in the
dream, not as thoughts, but in symbolic representation.
Neurograms (i.e. conserved memories) reflecting these
39
DISSOCIATION, Vol. III, No.1: March 1990
DREAMS AND DISSOCIATION THEORY~
~
thoughts and themes in the dreamer's life stimulate associ 
ated thoughts strongly related to the fundamental dream
thoughts (motive). The subconscious (unconscious) proc 
ess responsible for dream formation weaves together the
original thoughts and associated thoughts into a dream
consciousness whose format is a dramatic scene. This dra 
matic representation symbolically conveys the dreamer's
ideas and consists in part of "sensory hallucinations" and in
part of thoughts.
Why the particular action of the dream is manifested as
it is remains unknown. Prince does not arrive at an answer
thathe feels is satisfactory. Ifthe unconscious processreflects
a thinking consciousness, he argues, then, if the observer
knew what this unconscious process was thinking about
during the dream, one would know why the dream was as it
was. If the unconscious process is determined by a "brain
process" only, then one would still need to know the laws of
this brain process's functioning to answer the question.
Prince does suggest however that dream interpretation
based on these views may have therapeutic value in the
treatmentofhysterical patients. He suggests that stigmata of
hysteria may be regarded as the symbolic manifestation of
ideas from which they originate and which continue to exist
subconsciously. These ideas may potentially be manifested
in dreams.
Ernest Jones (1910) subsequently replied to Prince's
study and conclusions. He was harshly critical and argued
that Prince had not used the psychoanalytic method offree
association properly, and "that far deeper memories can be
recovered by psycho-analysis than by hypnotism.... " Gones,
1910, p. 332), Prince had not come to Freud's conclusions
about the meaning of dreams because he had not used the
psychoanalytic method properly.
Prince (1910b) replied in defense of his approach and
accused members of the psychoanalytic school of loose
reasoning in the interpretation offacts and ofa lack ofbroad
experience with psychopathological conditions. He argued
that psychoanalytic-efforts were often characterized by
dogmatism rather than by careful exploration.
This type of exchange may have been similar to what
Ellenberger (1970) has termed the "polemics" associated
with the early days of the psychoanalytic movement.
e.G.Jung (1961), whowas then a memberofthe psycho- 
analytic movement, was also critical ofPrince's study, argu 
ing that Prince left the reported dreams unanalyzed. Wish
fulfillment and transference phenomena,Jungargued, were
notdiscussed by Prince although they should have been. He,
too, claimed that Freud's theory was unharmed by Prince's
repudiation.
WhatJungwould have said aboutPrince's studyata later
date isnotknown. Severalyears afterwriting this paper Gung,
1961), he left the psychoanalytic movement and formed the
school that he termed "Analytical Psychology." While his
own dream theory, to be described briefly below, went much
further along certain theoretical and clinical dimensions
than Prince's study would allow, his later views on dreaming
do appear to fit, at least partly, within a dissociation frame 
work.
Jungwas an early follower ofFreud who had also studied
withJanet. While the influences on his psychological theory
and on his view of dreams, as expressed in the theoretical
framework ofAnalytical Psychology, were varied, his under 
standing ofthe meaning and function ofdreams does seem
to fit, at least partially, within the framework ofdissociation
theory. This is not surprising considering Jung's personal
background, interests, and expeliences as described byJung
(1963), himself, and by Ellenberger, 1970), who chronicles
the history of dynamic psychiatry and the lives of its early
major figures. Jung was the son of a pastor, and was deeply
interested in religious and mystical phenomena. As a young
man he joined a group which was involved in spiritistic
experiments. Jung's own cousin, a 15 year old girl, was the
medium for the group. She was reportedlyprone to episodes
ofmediumistic somnambulism. This experience became the
basis forJung's medical dissertation.
DuringJung's own period of what Ellenberger (1970)
calls his "creative illness,"Jung developed methods of relat 
ing to personified unconscious figures and conversed with
personality aspects who became conscious to him through
his methods of forcing his imagination to extremes and
drawing out his dreams. ForJung, the psyche was composed
ofa conscious ego component and of unconscious compo 
nents, personified in dreams, visions, and other phenomena
to which the individual must learn to relate. Ellenberger
(1970) comparesJung'ssplit offcontents ofthe unconscious
to janet's concept of subconscious fixed ideas.
Dream interpretation, according to the Jungian ap 
proach (1954,1960,1964). will only be reviewed briefly and
in certain aspects here. An emphasis will be given to those
parts of the theory that relate to dreams as presumably
reflecting the workings ofan unconscious componentofthe
psyche which has an independent intelligence and aware 
ness, distinct from ego consciousness.
Jung believed that dreams are prospective and adaptive
in nature. They express, in metaphoric terms, the statement
and message that is conveyed within the structure of the
dream. There is no attempt to disguise unconscious content
or to distort meaning. Indeed, in direct contradiction to
Freud's view, the dream, as a reflection of an unconscious,
autonomous source, stands in a compensatory relationship
to consciousness. It is the responsibility ofthe conscious ego
to try to understand the meaning of the dream and to
develop a relationship to what is related through tl1e dream
in its own metaphoric and symbolic language.
Dreams can and should be understood on the manifest
level. Dream interpretation proceeds through a number of
levels, butalmostalways involves an acceptanceofthe manifest
content as making a statement about the dreamer, him or
herself, or his or her situation. Like a story or drama, the
dream proceeds to develop a theme with a conflict and then
a resolution. The elements ofthe dream can be understood
through amplification and limited association. Information
based on wide readings in religion, mythology, fairy tales and
the like are often helpful in interpretation, since the themes
found in an individual's dreams are often the same orsimilar
to those found in religious or mythological texts.
The dream, as a reflection of an unconscious source,
should be used to help the dreamer in his or her own
40
individual developmei1t.Jungian theory does not accept the
notions of censorship, disguise, or distortion in dreams,
Extended free association is not used in dream interpreta 
tion since this approach may reduce the benefits of the
dream for the dreamer (e.g., in prospective and adaptive
dimensions) . ForJ ung, free associating to anyofa numberof
images or ideas can lead to unconscious complexes. Dreams
do not provide a unique or special approach in this regard.
Early childhood experiences are also not emphasized in the
interpretation of the dream or as antecedents of particular
dream elements unless the dreamer's associations bring
these up.
While space does not permit a full discussion, Jung's
approach has been influential for a number ofmodern non
Jungian theorists, such as UUman (Ullman & Zimmerman,
1979) and Fosshage (1983). Ullman has argued for the
demystification of dream interpretation, dream work in
groups, and the dream as an aid in achieving social connect 
edness. Fosshage (1983) has elaborated on and contributed
to the concept ofthe selfstate dream, which bears consider 
able resemblance in certain aspects toJungian approaches to
the dream.
DEFINITIONS OF DISSOCIATION
PierreJanet is said to have first used the term "dissocia 
tion" (Ellenberger, 1970) .Janet described hysteria as "aform
oj mental depression characterized try the retraction of the field oj
personal consciousness and a tendency to the dissociation and
emancipation ofthe system ofideas andJunctions that constitute
personality" (Janet, 1929, p. 332. Italics in original).
One of the difficulties in studying dissociative phenom 
enaand dissociation theory has been the frequent confusion
about the definition of dissociation and its relationship to
other terms, such as repression, used in mental health theory
(Bernstein & Putnam, 1986).
The current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental
Disorders ofthe American Psychiatric Association (DSM III 
R, 1987) considers the essential features of dissociative dis 
orders to be "a disturbance or alteration in the normally
integrative functions ofidentity, memory or consciousness"
(American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 269).
Young (1988) defines dissociation as "an active inhib 
itory process that normally screens internal and external
stimuli from the field ofconsciousness" (p. 35). In pathologi 
cal conditions, dissociation eliminates painful memories
from consciousness. In normal circumstances, dissociation is
nearly always present, screening out irrelevant stimuli, thus
aiding the integrative functioning of the ego.
Braun (1984, 1988) has conceptualized dissociation in
what he terms a "BASK model." The letters BAS K stand for
"Behavior," "Affect," "Sensation" and "Knowledge." These
characteristics or processes are usually considered to be
united over time in the normal individual. Dissociation may
be defined as "the separation ofan idea or thought process
from the main stream ofconsciousness" (Braun, 1988, p. 5).
Using the BASK model, Braun notes that dissociation may
occur on one or more of the four levels (behavior, affect,
sensation orknowledge) at a given time, while being congru-
, GABEL
ent with the other components at other times.
Within this BASK framework, for the purposes of this
paper, dreams can be seen to fulfill the criteriaofdissociative
phenomenon, although they would not be considered ab 
normal. Sleep, whether or not it contains remembered
dreams, serves as an interruption in the usual stream of
consciousness over time. Furthermore, during the dream
state, all ofthe BASKcomponents, as remembered bywaking
consciousness, may be distorted and/or separated from
their usual states in the normal stream ofwaking experience.
Sensation ofself, for example, based on the dreamer's later
report, may have little continuity with the consciously expe 
rienced sense of self. Changes from ongoing, expectable,
stable, behavioral, affective and knowledge (memory) expe 
riences are all common.
DREAMS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF
DISSOCIATION THEORY
The value ofconsidering dreams within the framework
of dissociation theory rests not only on the possible validity
ofsuch a position, butalso on whethersuch an approach aids
in the understanding of other phenomena, dissociative or
not, and whether it serves as a stimulus for additional theo 
retical, clinical and research efforts related to dreams and
dreaming. Michels (1983) has argued in another context
that the value oftheory building resides in the ability ofnew
theories to generate additional relevantideas, approach, etc.
While dreams have long been felt to have dissociative char 
acteristics by some theoreticians (Hilgard, 1986), there does
not appear to have been a recent effort to place tl1em within
modern dissociation theory, as defined earlier.
Perhaps one reason for this rests with the historical lack
ofa clear theoretical or clinical framework for the interpre 
tation of dreams that is widely felt to be consistent with
dissociation theory, although, as I have argued, theJungian
view has several aspects that may be considered within a
dissociation framework. The classical psychoanalytic inter 
pretation ofdreams emphasizes repression, censorship, and
conflict among agencies within a relatively more unified
system of mental processes than seems acceptable to or
compatible with a dissociation based theory of dreaming.
Dreams, however, are now being increasingly under 
stood as beneficially interpretable according to what previ 
ously were totally unacceptable lines in classical psychoana 
lytic thought (Fosshage, 1983; Eisnitz, 1987; Glucksman &
Warner, 1987; Ornstein, 1987). These new conceptualiza 
tions mayalso facilitate the dream's beingunderstoodwithin
dissociation theory (Gabel, 1989). Current conceptions of
dreaming emphasize the legitimacy ofthe manifest content
of the dream as a metaphoric, symbolic statement of the
actual state ofthe individual and/or his or her psychological
condition or problem. Current views ofdreaming often also
emphasize that the manifestdream proceeds, in the manner
of a drama or story, to describe the dreamer's previous
attempts to dealwith a specific and focused conflict, problem
or situation which may be internal, external (or frequently
both) in the dream. At times, potential solutions or adapta 
tions are also depicted symbolically and metaphorically in
41
DISSOCIATI01li. Vol. III. 1'\0. 1:~Iarch1990
DREAMS AND DISSOCIATION THEORY
the dream; i.e., problem solving may occur.
Despitevariationsbasedontheoretical differences,when
dreams are viewed within the broad phenomenological
outlines noted above, they suggest certain theoretical ap 
proaches, questions and problems which I believe can be
placed within and addressed by dissociation theory.
In the remainder of this paper, I will briefly describe
several areas in which I believe the study of dreams may be
enriched by or contribute to a greater development of
dissociation theory. These dimensions (which often have
considerable overlap) include: dream theory and dream
research, developmental psychology and psychobiology,
brain-behavior relationships, learning theory, dissociation
theory and dissociative phenomena, psychoanalytic theo 
ries, and other areas of study.
1. Dream theory and research on dreams
The description ofdreams along the phenomenological
lines noted earlier reduces or eliminates a variety of prob 
lems created by the psychoanalytic model. These include the
difficulty of studying or confirming on an empirical level
such constructs as the censorship function, latent content,
anq infantile sexualwishes. While dreams,when acceptedon
a manifest level, also present difficulties for research, these
difficultiesappearmoremanageable empirically. Approaches
to dreams aimed at defining thematic content, semantic
structure, imagery, shifts in focus, etc. have all been made
empirically and discussed in an extensive literature.
Yet, the manifest content, phenomenological approach
that is more easily studied empirically, and which is viewed
within a nondistortion framework, and as an accurate por 
trayal of psychological processes or of the state of the self
(Fosshage, 1983; Ornstein, 1987) hasanumberoftheoretical
and empirical difficulties also.
Briefly, the psychological truth, accuracy, or validity of
the dream's description of self has been striking to many
observers. Ullman (Ullman & Zimmerman, 1979) likens the
portrait ofthe dreamer in the dream to what appears to be
an image of him or herself taken by a camera far away in
space. What are the psychological processes or mechanisms
thatenable such a strikingly "accurate"psychological picture
ofthe dreamer to the displayed? How is the dreamer known
with such accuracy, given the frequent defensive and distort 
ing operations present in psychological life? Furthermore,
how is it that potentially adaptive solutions and problem
solving may go on in dreams when solutions to problems
were not (or were not yet) apparent in the conscious life of
the dreamer? Since Freud (1953, 1961) deemphasized
problem solving as a function for dreams, traditional psycho 
analytic dream theory did not have to actively address these
types of questions.
Dissociation theory may be able to address these issues,
however. If dreams reflect a dissociated state within the
individual, then interruptions or dissociations from the
usual stream ofconsciousness in behavior, affect, sensation,
or knowledge (the BASK system [Braun, 1988]) would not
be unexpected. Indeed, feelings of strangeness, unreality,
looking on oneselfin the remembered dream from outside
the pointofview ofusualwaking consciousnesswould notbe
42
surpnsmg. The dreamer, in usual waking consciousness,
viewing himself or herself in the remembered dream, as if
from a pointin space oroutside the system, mightbe thought
of as having an experience similar to depersonalization or
splitting in the continuity of the usual stream of personal
internal sensation of self, as described by Braun (1988)
within the BASK system.
Providing an appraisal of the dreamer (dominant per 
sonality) which is broadly based and apparently psychologi 
cally accurate and valid, can also be understood within
dissociation theory. In this case one might consider as an
analogy the various psychological functions ofsubpersonali 
ties, including the internal selfhelper, who has broad knowl 
edge of the dominant personality and can help it achieve
valuable goals (Allison, 1974).
I do notwish to suggest that only dissociation theory can
address these issues presented by what is emerging as a
broadly based view ofdreams that emphasizes the manifest
content ofthe dream, its accurate or valid description ofthe
dreamer psychologically, and the description ofpossibilities
available to the dreamer. I have suggested other approaches
to understanding these phenomenaelsewhere (Gabel, 1989) .
What I do suggest is that dissociation theory provides pos 
sible approaches to these questions on both theoretical and
clinical levels.
2. Developmental psychology and psychobiology
Dreams are most commonly reported from REM sleep
(Gaillard, 1983), andin a complete discussion ofdreams, the
association ofdreams and REM sleep must be noted. As will
be amplified later in the sections on brain-behavior rela 
tionships and learning theory, REM sleep itself comprises a
distinct phase within the sleep cycle, and it is through its
possible association with dreaming in relation to learning,
problem solving, etc., that one aspect ofthe case for dreams
as possible dissociative phenomena is strengthened.
Froma developmental perspective, the characteristicsof
REM sleep change over the life cycle, going from about 50
percent oftotal sleep in the human infant to about 20 to 25
percent of sleep time in the adult individual. There have
been a variety of theories related to the function of REM
sleep that cannot be reviewed here (see Pearlman, 1982).
Jouvet's (1975, 1980) work is ofsome interest in the context
ofREM sleep and possibly dreaming as dissociative phenom 
ena, however. Jouvet has performed experiments with cats,
in which there has been stereotaxic destruction bilaterallyof
partofthe nucleus locus coeruleus, thus selectively suppress 
ing the motor inhibition ofREM sleep.Jouvet argues, based
on hisstudiesinwhich the still "sleeping"cats displaydramatic
and stereotyped behavior at a time when they would be
expected to enter into REMsle~p,that REM sleep seems to
organize or program "genetically constituted or instinctive
behavior" Qouvet, 1975, p. 500). In another context,Jouvet
(1980) has also argued thatREM sleep mayfunction to select
particular genetically programmed behaviors, that is, to aid
in the maintenance ofvariations in behavior.
It does seem, in the experiments described byJouvet,
that the cats, although maintaining characteristics of sleep,
have been acting in concert with internal visual stimuli, i.e.
DISSOCIATION, Vol. III, No.1: March 1990
perhaps dreaming. Jouvet (1975), in fact, does not distin 
guish between dreaming and paradoxical or REM sleep.
Schenck, Bundlie, Ettinger, and Mahowald (1986) have
described human behaviorin concertwith dream imageryin
a small group of patients who have neurologic dysfunction
and who no longer exhibit the usual motor inhibition
characteristic of REM sleep. Whether dreams work in asso 
ciation with developmental changes in REM sleep to pro 
gram or re-program behavior for life span changes needs
further study.
3. Brain - behavior relationships
There have been numerous reports (Putnam, 1984;
Coons, 1988) describing biological, psychometric and psy 
chological differences between dissociated personalities in
multiple personality disorder. There has, of course, been
longstanding interest in defining biological correlates or
substratesfor mental processes. There is currently very active
interest in defining biological variations that discriminate
among normal abilities (e.g., verbal and visual abilities) and
between psychopathological states or between psychopa 
thological states and non psychopathological states.
In recent work I have reviewed evidence that bears on
the question ofwhether there is a relatively increased right
hemispheric activation or efficiency in imagery, hypnosis,
REM sleep and dreaming (Gabel, 1988a). This is a controver 
sial area. While some evidence supports this view in REM
sleep and dreaming (Gabel, 1988a), Antrobus (1987) and
others have cited evidence contradicting this position.
There is also controversy around the notion of a rela 
tively increased activation or efficiency ofright hemisphere
involvement in hypnosis and in imagery, but considerable
support for this view exists as well (Gabel, 1988a).
Defining dreams as possibly existing within the .frame 
work of dissociative phenomena and dissociation theory
should facilitate the study of dreams (or REM sleep) in
comparison with various dissociative states since dissociation
theoryoffers the model ofdistinct states (e.g., hypnosis) which
have been and continue to be described psychologically and
biologically (Putnam, 1988).
4. Learning theory
Some recentattempts to conceptualize behavioral, emo 
tional and cognitive changes in dissociative disorders and
dissociative states have focused in parton the conceptofstate
dependent learning, which itselfis related to neurophysiol 
ogical changes during different states (Braun, 1984, 1988).
In thisview, memories, learningcapacities, andinformational
systems mayvary within the individual, and depend on his or
her current state. In the case of patients with multiple
personality disorder, particular personality characteristics
would depend on the learning history of the dominant
personality and particular subpersonalities. This view
deemphasizes the psychological construct ofrepression and
emphasizes state dependent learning to help explain the
capacity for incorporating, integrating, and acting on given
types ofinformation.
Dream theorists such as Breger (1967) and Greenberg
(1980, 1987a), over the last generation, have cited experi-
GABEL
mental evidence from studieswith dreams and REM sleep to
support the view that dreaming is associated with possible
problem solving or adaptational efforts. There is an exten 
sive literature in both animals and humans describing ex 
perimental evidence that is in general supportive of REM
sleep's role in learning and memory, especially (in humans)
as related to emotional issues. It should be noted that there
is less experimental evidence supportinga role for dreaming
perse being related to learningand memory. Yet, the clinical
theories ofwriters such asJung, Ullman and Fosshage who
have emphasized the manifest dream's description of the
state of self, adaptations of the self, and problem solving
approaches reflected in the dream, do seem to fit well on an
intuitive level with the empirical results of studies on the
function ofREM sleep.
Rotenberg (Rotenberg & Arshovsky, 1979; Rotenberg,
1984, 1988) has contributed an interesting theory to the
literature which is illustrative of the potential for viewing
REM sleep (and dreaming) as one state which complements
anotherstate (usualwakingconsciousness) inproblemsolving
or learning capacities. On the basis ofexperimental work of
his own with humans and animals, as well as the work of
others, Rotenberg suggests thatREM sleep and usualwaking
activity are in a compensatory relationship around the issue
of"search activity." With its usual activities, waking behavior
may become associated with a cessation of searching (for
solutions, adaptation, etc.). REM sleep is, on the otherhand,
associated with "search activity." In states such as depression,
conscious waking life has a relative "cessation of search."
REM sleep then increases to compensate for this absence of
search activity.
Dissociation theory's interest in state dependent learn 
ing (e.g. during hypnotic suggestion) and physiological
changes during .states seems to relate well to these ap 
proaches to REM sleep (and possibly dreaming), and may
enhance and broaden our conceptions ofthe role ofdream 
ing in learning and problem solving.
5. Dissociation theory and dissociative states
As noted earlier, there has been a dearth ofexperimen 
tal work supporting essential concepts oftraditional psycho 
analytic dream theory. Rating scales that are empirically
based have now been developed that can be used to assess
individuals who are felt to possibly have dissociative disor 
ders and to compare individuals with dissociative disorders
and other conditions (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986). Review 
ing items on such scales from the point of view of dream
experience suggests that dreams mayfit within a dissociation
framework using these types ofexperimental tools, but this
hypothesis must be tested empirically.
In addition to the theoretical interest now taking place
within the field of dissociation regarding state dependent
learning and physiological changes attendant on states as
possible correlates ofdissociative phenomenon, other work
is progressing on the characteristics of the switch process
between states (Putnam, 1988). This is an area that bears on
the problem ofshifting behavioral and psychological expe 
riences ofindividuals with dissociative disorders. Itrelates to
state dependent learning and possibly to the amnesia for
43
DlSSOCIATIOt\, Vol. Ill, No. I: March 1990
DREAMS AND DISSOCIATION THEORY
different states exhibited by individuals with dissociative
disorders. Shifts between stages ofsleep, as is often the case
in patients with multiple personalitydisorder, occur quickly.
There are defined biological criteria (e.g. electroencephalo 
graphic, electromyographic) that reflect change of stage
characteristics to REM sleep, REM sleep and waking condi 
tions. Dreaming, as a frequent concomitant of REM sleep,
may be thought ofas possibly exhibiting state shifts compa 
rable in that regard to what may often be found in dissocia 
tive disorders (and at times in other conditions).
Theorists and clinicians involved in the study and treat 
ment ofdissociative disorders and dissociative states must of
necessity define common characteristics orunifYing features
of these conditions. Phenomenologic and behavioral simi 
larities between dissociative disorders and dreams are ap 
parent (e.g., depersonalization, paralysis ofmovement, feel 
ings of unreality). Another characteristic of dreams, em 
phasized by Rechtshaffen (1978) has been mentioned ear 
lier as providingsome phenomenological similarity between
dreams and dissociative phenomena. Rechtshaffen empha 
sizes the "single mindedness" ofdreams, their characteIistic
focus on one main theme. Dissociative states, such as subper 
sonalities in multiple personality disorder or in hypnotic
states, are often described in a similar manner, as having a
rather narrow, but focused thematic content. A thorough
comparison ofdreamswith various dissociative phenomena,
both those with known biological changes accompanying
psychological state changes, and those currently defined on
the basis of psychological state changes alone, such as
depersonalizationwhen neurological dysfunctions (e.g., right
temporal abnormalities) have not been identified, is war 
ranted.
Dissociation as a mental process has commonly been
linked with psychopathology, thereby possibly limiting its
contribution to the development of a broader theory of
mental organization. The origins and growth of psychoa 
nalysis as a theory ofmental organization rested not only on
insights gained from psychologically disturbed individuals,
but also from insights gained from and applied to an under 
standing of normal individuals' behavior. In The Interpreta 
tion ofDreams, Freud (1953) emphasized that he used ex 
amples ofdreams from normal individuals (including him 
self) to avoid the criticism that the principles necessaryfor an
understanding of dreams that he put forth applied only to
the dreams ofindividuals with psychopathology. One ofhis
goals was the development of psychoanalysis as a broadly
applicable theory ofmental organization. Dreams, a normal
phenomenon, became a vehicle to understand mental proc 
esses according to psychoanalytic principles that could be
applied to everyone. Indeed, such was the importance Freud
attached to his own work with dreams for psychoanalytic
theory building that he continually returned to the lnterpre 
tation of Dreams when he felt uncertain about particular
theoretical questions. Clinical, theoreticaland experimental
work with dissociative disorders and dissociative has led
some workers in the field to argue that dissociation theory
may also have value in the development ofa broader theory
of mental organization (Beahrs, 1982; Watkins & Watkins,
1979-1980) .
The arguments put forth in this paper that dreams may
be viewed from the perspective of dissociative phenomena
bear on questions ofwhether dissociation may be conceptu 
alized as both a normal and an abnormal process, and
whether the conceptofdissociation hasvalue in the develop 
ment of a theory of mental and personality organization.
These questions are in part questions of definition and of
emphasis. Several definitions of "dissociation" have been
given earlier. There is no uniformity about the definition of
dissociation when applied solely to pathological processesor
when applied to situations in which dissociation also might
be considered a normal phenomenon. The main focus ofthe
arguments presentedin this paperrelate to thislatterquestion;
i.e., whether the concept of dissociation may beneficially
include a consideration ofnormal phenomena. Clearly the
thrust of this paper is to argue in the affirmative. There is
considerable support for this position.
Van del' Hart and Friedman (1989) and Van del' Kolk
and van del' Hart (1989) emphasize the value ofunderstand 
ing the conceptofdissociation from a broad perspective that
includes normal psychological processes, thus potentially
contributing to the study of phenomena such as memory
processing, state dependentlearningand adaptive reactions
to psychological stresses and conflicts. Current concepts of
information processing in REM sleep (Pearlman, 1982) and
in dreams (Gabel, 1987) have been noted earlier and also
seem supportive ofa "dissociation as normal phenomenon"
concept. A broader neo-dissociation framework for under 
standing certain mental processes in normal individuals has
been proposed by Hilgard (1986), based in part on his work
with the hidden observer phenomenon. Psychological stud 
ies with post commissurotomy patients have demonstrated
parallel processing of information after surgical sectioning
of the corpus collosum (Sperry, 1968). Studies of this type
with "splitbrain" patients have led Gazzaniga (1985), a major
researcher in the field, to develop a theory of mental orga 
nization in which one language dominant, organizing, in 
terpretive component of the brain constructs theories to
explain attitudes. reactions, and behavior sometimes origi 
nating in other parts of the brain that would otherwise be
inexplicable to it. For Gazzaniga (1985), the brain's normal
organization is into modules thatfunction in parallel in a co 
conscious system with one verbal and other non-verbal
components, a view thatseemsquite compatible on a psycho 
logical level with a broad definition of dissociation as a
normal process that involves both parallel processing and
"screening" functions (Gabel, 1988a).
Yet, despite the suggestions implied by these various
approaches thatdissociation theorymightbeneficallyinclude
normal processes and have utility for the further develop 
mentofa theory ofmental organization, there is no proofor
evidence in a strict sense that 'dissociation as a concept
should be broadened. The linkage which is suggested in this
paper between dreams and dissociative phenomena has
been argued on historical, phenomenological, conceptual,
and empirical levels. Through the use of rating scales to
assess dissociative experiences and ongoing research defin 
ing and comparing dissociative and non dissociative condi 
tions, this hypothesis can be further clarified empiricallyand
44
the presence or absence ofrelationships established, but in
the end the question may be as much theoretical and con 
ceptual as empirical in nature.
6. Psychoanalytic, and other theoretical and experimental work
In the 1911 edition of The Interpretation ofDrearns Freud
(1953) criticized Prince's (l910a) discussion of the mecha 
nism ofdream formation cited earlier because ofthe lack of
a dynamic explanation to account for dream production.
Indeed, dreams understood within the framework ofnormal
dissociative phenomena suggest that the psyche may have
autonomous or potentially autonomous components which
may not relate to one another on the basis of conflict or
defensive operations. This view challenges certain tradi 
tional psychoanalytic concepts, but does not necessarily
refute psychoanalytic concepts such as defensive operations,
repression, and conflict as theoretical constructs within
states or within the dream's mentation itself. Itdoes suggest,
as pointed out by Braun (1988), in the explanation of his
BASK model of dissociation, that a crucial difference be 
tween the concepts of repression and dissociation may be
time. Lapses in the experience of the passage of time occur
in complete dissociation whereas there is continuity in the
perception of time when repression is operative. Dreams as
normal dissociative phenomena, might also be described as
experienced mental phenomena or states separate from the
stream of usual conscious awareness.
Prince (191Oa), in discussing the mechanism ofdreams,
comments that "crystal gazers," also demonstrating dissocia 
tive phenomena, sometimes picture themselves in the crys 
tals, much as the dreamer remembers himself or herself
pictured in (or verbalizing in) the dream. One aspect of
dreams, as described (if not exactly articulated as such) by
theorists such asJung, Fosshage and Ornstein, seems to be
the ability ofthe psyche to monitoritself. There are ofcourse
possible dissociative and non dissociative theoretical con 
structs to understand this process (Gabel, 1989). The study
ofdreamswithin the contextofdissociative phenomena may
enhance the study of self monitoring and self visualization
phenomena.
SUMMARY
Dreams have a longstandinghistoryofbeingconsidered
dissociative phenomena and likened to other dissociative
phenomena.Traditional psychoanalytic theory has described
dream structure and function within a psychoanalytic model.
There has been a recent increase in interest in dissociative
disorders and the concept of dissociation from experimen 
tal, theoretical and clinical viewpoints. This paper reviews
psychological attempts in the modern era to try and under 
stand dreams from what the author suggests may be consid 
ered a dissociation perspective. It then discusses characteris 
tics ofseveral current dream theories and argues thatdreams,
as now understood in some psychoanalytic and non psycho 
analytic orientations, may also be understood within the
framework of dissociation theory. Various areas whose un 
derstandingand studymaybe contributed to orenhanced by
consideringdreamswi thin the contextofdissociation theory
GABEL
are discussed. ?
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