SUBLIME INTERVENTION
Emma Stone

APPROVAL
project chair   Mark R. Eischeid
committee   Chris Enright
submitted in partial fulfillment of the 
Master of Landscape Architecture
Department of Landscape Architecture
College of Design
University of Oregon
June 14, 2019
iii

ABSTRACT
Despite their remote location and green veneer, landfills, like 
many industrial sites, have become monuments to consumerism. 
Every day in Lane County, Oregon, the equivalent of six pounds 
of waste per resident joins the local wasteshed. Destination: Short 
Mountain Landfill. Landfills generate many kinds of experiences 
and are capable of eliciting qualities of the sublime. The toxic 
sublime is characterized by five tensions: beauty and ugliness, 
magnitude and insignificance, known and unkown, inhabitation 
and desolation, and security and risk. These tensions are identified 
and illustrated by Jennifer Peeples through an analysis of Edward 
Burtynsky’s photographs of toxic landscapes. 
This project translates the toxic sublime from the analysis of 
two-dimensional media into the design of four-dimensional 
landscapes through critical practice. To do so, this project first 
analyzes the origins and changing contexts of the sublime as 
an aesthetic category, then synthesizes the history of waste and 
landfills in America. A case study analysis reveals how the toxic 
sublime is found in existing designed projects. This synthesis 
and analysis informs the next phase, a site-scale design of Short 
Mountain Landfill in Lane County, Oregon. The site-scale design 
demonstrates how Peeples’ five tensions may be expressed in toxic 
landscapes, such as landfills. 
v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments xiii
I. Introduction 1
 Significance 
 Methodology
II. The Sublime 5
 Origins
 Burke’s Sublime
 Kant’s Sublime
 American Sublime
 American Technological Sublime
 Toxic Sublime
 Toxic Sublime in the Landscape
III. Landfills 21
 Waste in America
 Short Mountain Landfill
IV. Design 31
 Design Concept
 Precedent Analysis
 Goals + Strategies
 Landform
 Vegetation
 Sculpture
 Design Narrative + Analysis 
 
V. Closing 63
 Conclusions
References 65
vii

LIST OF FIGURES
1.1  Diagram: Project Scope
1.2 Diagram: Cross-Disciplinary Translation of the Toxic Sublime
1.3 Diagram: Methodological Approach
2.1 Diagram: Connections within the Sublime
2.2 Diagram: Timeline of the Sublime
2.3 Image: Niagara Falls. Frederic Edwin Church. 
2.4 Image: Crowds watching the nuclear bomb tests in Nevada.
2.5 Images:  Rock of Ages #4 | Oil Sands # 14 | Mines #43 Berkeley Pit | Uranium Tailings #12. 
 Edward Burtynsky.
2.6 Images: Quarry Garden, Shanghai, China.
2.7 Image: Mines #22. Edward Burtynsky.
2.8 Images: Freshkills Landfill, New York, USA.
3.1 Diagram: Waste stream
3.2 Diagram: Section of a Landfill Cell
3.3 Chart: Active Oregon Landfills.
3.4 Image: Lane County in Oregon
3.5 Image: Lane County Context Map
3.6 Image: Short Mountain Landfill Context
3.9 Diagram: Site Inventory
3.8 Diagram: Timeline of Cell Phasing
3.9 Diagram: Site Analysis
4.1 Diagram: Comparative Sizes of Short Mountain Landfill and Storm King Art Center
4.2 Image: Schunnemunk Fork
4.3 Diagram: Comparison of the Current Cell Phasing Plan to the Proposed Phasing Plan
4.4 Diagram: Sections of Phased Landform and Vegetation
4.5 Diagram: Sculpture 1
4.6 Diagram: Sculpture 2
4.7 Diagram: Sculpture 3
4.8 Diagram: Sculpture 4
4.9 Diagram: Sculpture 5
4.10 Diagram: Sculpture 6
4.11 Diagram: Sculpture 7
ix
4.12 Diagram: Sculpture 8
4.13 Site Plan: 2050
4.14 Site Plan: 2080
4.15 Site Plan: 2110
4.16 Site Plan: 2140
4.17 Site Plan: 2170
4.18 Dipytch: Sculpture 8
4.19 Diptych: Sculpture 1
4.20 Diptych: Sculpture 2
4.21 Diptych: Sculpture 3
4.22 Diptych: Sculpture 4
4.23 Diptych: Sculpture 5
4.24 Diptych: Sculpture 6
4.25 Diptych: Sculpture 7
x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thank you, Mark. The tension between your enthusiasm and attention to 
detail generated a new definition of the sublime.
Thank you, Chris. Your insights and ability to motivate are unmatched.
Thank you to everyone I’ve had the pleasure of engaging with during these 
past three years. You are sublime.

“Landfills are the city’s largest remaining open spaces, 
not, like classic earthworks, splendid in desert isolation.” 
 — Mierle Laderman Ukeles. 
“A Journey: Earth/City/Flow.”
Art Journal 51, no. 2 (1992): 12.
xiii

I. INTRODUCTION
Scope and Significance
AESTHETICS POST- INDUSTRIAL
As post-industrial and toxic sites, landfills LANDSCAPES
represent an under-examined subject of analysis 
and design intervention that employs the toxic 
sublime. However, several high profile landfill- SUBLIME
to-park projects, like Freshkills Park in Staten 
Island, New York, have garnered international 
attention and growing interest in the treatment TOXIC LANDFILLS
of waste landscapes. This is heightened by the 
fact that there is currently a waste stream crisis 
in the United States due to China’s sudden PROJECT
refusal to accept American recyclables coupled 
with the collapse of recycling infrastructure Figure 1.1. Project Scope
in American municipalities that are unable 
to handle the volume of waste generated 
by Americans. Not only do landfills risk the 
health of local watersheds, they also are a 
major contributor to global climate change. 
The anaerobic conditions of landfills produce LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE
methane, one of the greenhouse gases PHOTOGRAPHY ANALYSIS DESIGN
responsible for global warming. Landfills are 
also increasingly located further and further 
away from the urban centers where most of Figure 1.2. Cross-disciplinary translation of 
the garbage is sourced. This means that trucks      the toxic sublime.
expel more exhaust and toxins as they drive to 
deliver their loads. In addition, the rural and a well-established discourse on the aesthetic 
isolated locations of these sites place an undue category of the sublime from which this 
burden on communities that already suffer from project intends to source its theoretical base. 
political and economic disenfranchisement Of the many subsets of the sublime that have 
in American society. As the stakes rise in this been discussed by scholars, this project has 
ecologically and socially irresponsible form narrowed its focus to the toxic sublime, a term 
of waste management, it is imperative that developed by Jennifer Peeples, a philosophy 
landscape architects address these hidden burial and environmental communications scholar at 
grounds of garbage. Utah State University. The other focus of this 
project involves post-industrial landscapes. 
As illustrated in Figure 1.1, this project These sites do not have as long of a history as 
broadly addresses post-industrial landscapes the philosophy of the sublime but they have 
through the lens of the sublime with a focus received increasing attention as technological 
on subsets of each category. There is already advances have rendered earlier ones obsolete, 
1
leading to the abandonment of those sites. The Literature The Sublime Industrial Landscapes
field of landscape architecture has taken the Review
helm in the healing of these landscapes with the 
sublime as a lens or tool in their designs. This 
is evident in projects like Gas Works Park in Toxic Sublime Landfills
Seattle, Washington, designed by Richard Haag. 
There are different types of post-industrial sites; 
this project will consider landfills as one of the 
categories of post-industrial landscapes.  
Applications in Short Mountain 
The toxic sublime currently remains in the field Landscape Design Landfill
of environmental communications with strong 
ties to the arts through photography. Peeples’ Framing
analysis of landscape photographs by Edward 
Burtynsky provides a framework for studying 
toxic landscapes and subsequently, how this Sculptures Site Inventory 
aesthetic category may be manipulated into as Frames in situ + Analysis
design. Figure 1.2 illustrates how the toxic 
sublime will be translated from an analysis 
of landscape photography, to an analysis of Design Conceptual Design:
landscape, and finally to landscape design. This Sculpture Park
type of analysis and translation has not yet been 
done. Through critical practice, this project will 
test the parameters of the toxic sublime in the Landform Vegetation Sculptures
design of a landfill in Lane County, Oregon. The 
goals of the design include raising awareness 
and educating the public about the negative 
impacts of landfills and waste generation Analysis Fulfillment of the Five Tensionsof the Toxic Sublime
through the experience of the toxic sublime.
 Figure 1.3. Project Methodological Approach.
Methodology
stems from that base to test whether the theory 
Broadly, this project applies a theory toward is applicable in the landscape. This project will 
the design of a site. As mentioned earlier, propose a design of Short Mountain Landfill in 
this project is focused on the sublime, and in Lane County, Oregon. Finally, an analysis of the 
particular, the toxic sublime, and its application design through the lens of the toxic sublime, will 
in the site design of post-industrial landscapes. review and assess the project’s success.
Landfills have been selected as a type of post-
industrial landscape in part because they lack Literature Review
attention from the design community. Figure 
1.3 illustrates the three-part methodological The first methodological approach of this project 
approach employed in the process of this is a literature review. The literature review 
project. The methodological approach is broken covers the topics of the sublime and the history 
into three parts: the literature review, the of landfills in America. This review is necessary 
design, and the analysis. The literature review before beginning the design phase of the project 
establishes the historical and theoretical base because it sets the theoretical stage and provides 
on which this project rests. The design phase the cultural context in which the design rests. 
2
The toxic sublime is the primary focus of this The literature review of the sublime sets a 
project and therefore, it requires an examination theoretical baseline from which the toxic 
of its origins and argument. In order to sublime may be analyzed and applied. The 
understand the toxic sublime, the project delves next stage requires a thorough understanding 
into the history and shifting contexts of the of the site selected for the design intervention. 
sublime. The project first assesses Burke and The selected landfill is representative of an 
Kant because of their significant influence on average landfill in Oregon. This ensures that 
the topic of the sublime and on the development lessons taken from this process may be applied 
of the toxic sublime. The project then examines to other landfills in the region. Short Mountain 
the American sublime and the American Landfill in Lane County, Oregon, rests within 
technological sublime. The American sublime its own cultural context in the United States. 
is important because its characteristics adjust A synthesis of the history of landfills in this 
to the New World. From this, the American country situates Short Mountain Landfill within 
technological sublime emerges, which shifts its historical context. A historical understanding 
the meaning of the sublime once again. The is followed by an analysis of Short Mountain 
American technological sublime serves as a Landfill’s geographic context. This will inform 
foil to the toxic sublime and, in fact, Peeples design decisions that speak to its sense of place 
intended the toxic sublime to be a direct as it exhibits qualities of the toxic sublime. 
response to the American technological sublime. This project then takes an inventory of the site 
The literature review of the sublime situates the itself. This inventory is conducted through GIS, 
toxic sublime within its theoretical and cultural a site visit, publicly-available documents and 
context and provides a thorough understanding printed media. Once the site is analyzed and 
of the topic. inventoried, the design phase begins.
The literature review then synthesizes and Design
analyzes Peeples’ presentation of the toxic 
sublime. By doing so, the project makes explicit A theoretical, historical, geographic and cultural 
connections between the toxic sublime and its context is established by the literature review 
predecessors and tests the strength of Peeples’ which lays the groundwork for the design 
argument. Peeples identifies five paradoxical proposal. This is followed by the development 
characteristics, which she calls tensions, and of a design concept which unifies the site. The 
each tension of the toxic sublime is examined design concept prescribes the installation of a 
through the lens of landscape architecture. series of sculptures that frame the landscape. 
This project analyzes a precedent sculpture 
Following the analysis of the toxic sublime, the park to ensure that the proposed design of this 
project presents two case studies and analyzes project reflects and responds to its historical 
them through the lens of the toxic sublime. context. The precedent, Storm King Art Center, 
The case studies, Quarry Garden in Shanghai has been selected due to its comparative size 
and Freshkills Park in New York, represent to Short Mountain Landfill, as well as their 
post-industrial sites similar to the subject of shared rural and agricultural context. From 
the design proposal. The case study analysis the concept and precedent analysis, design 
provides a means of exploring the toxic sublime goals emerge. The phased site design of Short 
in a post-industrial site before applying it in a Mountain Landfill follows, demonstrating 
design. Key lessons taken from the case study the incorporation of the concept, goals and 
analysis are applied in a site-scale design of a strategies to elicit the toxic sublime. 
landfill. 
3
Analysis the selected site, Short Mountain Landfill.
Following the design phase, the proposal is Chapters IV and V describe the design proposal 
analyzed to determine which qualities of the and then analyze the project to determine 
toxic sublime can be identified. Similar to whether the toxic sublime was successfully 
the case studies conducted in the literature exhibited through the design. Chapter IV 
review, the proposed design will be assessed establishes the design concept, goals and 
by its ability to fulfill the five tensions of the strategies. Chapter V walks through the site 
toxic sublime: beauty and ugliness, magnitude with the reader to illustrate which tensions of 
and insignificance, known and unknown, the toxic sublime are found and where in the 
inhabitation and desolation, and security and site they exist. The end of this chapter addresses 
risk. This examination will inform future design potential for future research.
interventions of post-industrial sites that intend 
to elicit the toxic sublime.
Chapter Preview
Chapters II and II set the theoretical, 
geographical and cultural stage for this project. 
Chapter II presents a synthesis and analysis of 
the sublime from its origins to the narrowed 
topic of this project: the toxic sublime.  Chapter 
III addresses the history of waste management 
in the United States, the composition and 
construction of landfills, and a site analysis of 
4
II. THE SUBLIME
The sublime is an aesthetic category with a and Kant’s defi nitions to suit the terrain of 
degree of nuance, requiring special attention North America. The three precursors set the 
to understand its full meaning. As Malcolm stage for David Nye’s argument presented 
Heath notes, “the pursuit of sublimity is at in his book, The American Technological 
risk from false substitutes” (Heath 12). Its Sublime, published in 1994. Nye’s argument 
various subgenres and the contexts in which is critical in the formation of the toxic sublime 
the sublime is found continue to shroud the as it represents the other side of the same 
meaning in more mystery. The word’s use coin: an awe of technological advances. Nye’s 
spans areas of study from literature, visual 
arts and architecture to chemistry. Though 
the topic of the sublime is broad, this project 
will synthesize and analyze only fi ve subgenres KANT
which include, Edmund Burke’s and Immanuel BURKE
Kant’s treatises, the American sublime, the 
American technological sublime and the toxic 
sublime. The toxic sublime, mentioned in the 
fi rst chapter, is the primary focus of this project. 
The toxic sublime does not exist in a vacuum, 
but rather, it is a response to the other four 
subgenres. Burke and Kant were not the only AMERICAN TOXIC
Enlightenment fi gures to form an opinion on 
tthhee s usbulbimliem beut their contributions have made some of the greatest impacts on the discourse of TECHNOLOGICAL
the topic. They are each cited often by Jennifer 
Peeples in the development of the toxic sublime. 
The American sublime altered some of Burke Figure 2.1. Connections between subsets of the sublime.
1757 1790 early 19th c. 1994 2011
BURKE KANT AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL TOXIC
A Philosophocal Critique of Nye Peeples
Enquiry into the Judgment American Technological Sublime “Toxic Sublime:
Origin of Our Ideas Imaging 
of the Sublime and Contaminated 
Beautiful Landscapes”
Figure 2.2. Timeline of the Sublime.
5
argument is based on the fact that technological might doubt whether any single quality is the 
feats inspire awe and nationalistic pride. shared source of enduring fame for authors 
Peeples, on the other hand, argues for the toxic who seem extremely diverse” (emphasis from 
sublime for which technological feats inspire the original, Heath 12). The third and fourth 
awe but also horror in light of their ecological elements of Longinus’ sublime refer to the 
impacts. This project follows the history of experience itself and how it can be identified. 
the sublime that is most relevant to the toxic Unlike later definitions of the sublime, Longinus 
sublime. does not identify specific objects as inducers of a 
sublime experience and overall, “the Longinian 
Origins sublime is essentially rhetorical and identified 
as the reader’s response to great utterance” 
The first notable use of the word sublime (Arensberg 3). Subsequently, the translation 
was possibly in the third century by a Greek of the sublime from a literary meaning to a 
philosopher, commonly referred to as physical or space-related experience took 
“Longinus.” Longinus’ actual identity and the centuries.
historical period in which he lived are uncertain 
but some of the first analyses of the sublime are Burke’s Sublime
attributed to him. In his treatise on the sublime, 
Longinus is also vague and fails to generate The next iteration of the sublime was defined 
a specific definition for the word. Malcolm by Edmund Burke in his book, A Philosophical 
Heath illustrates that Longinus’ most definitive Enquiry, published in 1757. Here, Burke 
explanation includes that the sublime is has fundamentally changed the meaning of 
Longinus’ sublime; it is no longer equated with 
“‘a  certain pinnacle and excellence the feeling of joy and exaltation but with that 
of discourse.’ Second, it is the one of terror (Burke 36). In doing so, Rodolphe 
thing that secures the preeminence Gasché writes, “the feeling of terror associated 
and enduring fame of all the greatest with the sublime brought to light a dark side, as 
writers of poetry and prose. Third, it were, of the Enlightenment and its rationalist 
it can be recognized by its effect: conception of the world” (Gasché 25). Gasché 
it produces ecstasy; it astounds and David Nye emphasize the importance 
and does not (merely) persuade; of historical and ideological context in the 
it controls or irresistibly compels formation of Burke’s ideas. The mysterious 
the audience. Fourth and finally, dark ages faded as reason and science came 
it is a local rather than a global to the forefront. The alchemical denotation of 
effect: it comes at a single stroke, the sublime remained but interpretations of 
like lightning, and is not achieved classical texts began to inform new ideas. In 
by content or structure on a larger this context, “the reemergence of the sublime 
scale” (Heath 12). was part of a positive revaluation of the natural 
world that by the eighteenth century had 
The first element of the sublime that Longinus become a potential source of inspiration and 
describes refers to the written word, which is education” (Nye 6). Though terror is the “ruling 
why literary scholars, like Mary Arensberg, principle of the sublime” (Burke 53), Burke 
are interested in Longinus’ definition but it is distinguishes that the experiencer cannot be in 
otherwise vague and not particularly helpful direct mortal danger. He writes, “for terror is a 
(Heath 12). The second element, as Heath notes, passion which always produces delight when it 
“directs us to look for examples of sublimity does not press too close” (Burke 42).
in authors of acknowledged greatness, but one 
6
Burke lists the ways in which a sublime sublime. He identifies beauty as “that quality 
experience may be triggered including, or those qualities in bodies by which they cause 
obscurity, magnitude, smells, tastes, power, love, or some passion similar to it” (83). If 
and color among other less powerful means. astonishment and terror are the defining terms 
The first characteristic of Burke’s sublime is of Burke’s sublime, then love and admiration 
obscurity. He states that “when we know the full define beauty. Characteristics of the beautiful 
extent of any danger, when we can accustom stand in contrast to those of the sublime: 
our eyes to it, a great deal of the apprehension beautiful objects are small, smooth, polished, 
vanishes” (54). This is reiterated later when light, and delicate and ultimately, is founded on 
he notes that “darkness is more productive of pleasure, rather than pain (Burke 113). Despite 
sublime ideas than light” (Burke 73). Both of Burke’s insistence that the beautiful and the 
these elicitors of the sublime hint at terror and sublime are separate categories, they are clearly 
the source of potential danger being difficult closely related, as Burke uses one to describe 
to identify. This theme is expanded in the what the other is not. In addition, both the 
section on sounds eliciting a sublime response: beautiful and the sublime are induced by objects 
“a sudden beginning, or a sudden cessation or features of nature. This understanding of the 
of sound . . . has the same power” because “in sublime changes in its next iteration.
everything sudden and unexpected, we are apt 
to start;  that is, we have a perception of danger, Burke’s concept of the sublime was widely 
and our nature rouses us to guard against it” read by other Enlightenment philosophers, 
(Burke 76). Unidentifiable threats induce terror of the period across the European continent. 
and thus, a sublime experience. Rodolphe Gasché writes that “by hardening the 
distinctions and radically setting the sublime 
Another important characteristic of Burke’s over against the beautiful, the Enquiry was 
sublime is a “greatness of dimension” (Burke able to develop a theory of the sublime whose 
66). He describes the following types of extremism caught the immediate attention not 
magnitude: height, depth, length, and the only of his British but also of his French and 
impact of each on one’s perception and ability German contemporaries” (Gasché 25). This, of 
to induce sublimity. He writes, “height is course, has implications for another definition 
less grand than depth; and that we are more of the sublime developed by Immanuel Kant.
struck at looking down from a precipice, than 
at looking up at an object of equal height” Kant’s Sublime
(66). Vastness also feeds into another source 
of Burke’s sublime: infinity. Like obscurity Kant published his own interpretation of the 
and magnitude, Burke believes that infinity sublime in his book, Critique of Judgment, in 
eludes human capacity for understanding 1790. Kant’s version of the sublime is notable 
since reasoning cannot reduce infinity into for many reasons, with the most significant 
understandable parts. Burke describes infinity being that the sublime is no longer object-
as the “truest test of the sublime” (Burke 67). oriented, and that it is composed of two types. 
Burke continues to list smells, tastes, power, Kant’s sublime differs from Burke’s definition 
and color among other causes of the sublime but in a significant way in that the sublime is now 
they are less reliable. subject-oriented. Kant writes, “instead, all we 
are entitled to say is that the object is suitable 
Once he has explored sublimity and reasoned for exhibiting a sublimity that can be found in 
his way to understanding the composition of the the mind” (Kant 99). This suggests that though 
sublime, Burke takes time to emphasize how an object can trigger a sublime response, 
categorically different the beautiful is from the that experience becomes disassociated with 
7
that object and it is now the subject who is the thus, the subject returns to a homeostasis. This 
focus of the sublime experience. Melissa McBay struggle to comprehend is the experience of the 
Merritt explains, “only a state of mind can sublime, according to Kant.
truly be sublime” (emphasis from the original, 
Merritt 37). This is achieved when the subject is Within Kant’s subject-oriented definition, he 
prompted by an object that exhibits an element classifies two different kinds of sublime.  Like 
of the sublime, such as a threat or something Burke, Kant identifies vastness or magnitude as 
with great magnitude. Kant writes, an attribute of what he calls the “mathematical 
 sublime.” However, Kant states that what “we 
“the mind feels elevated in its call sublime . . . is absolutely large” (emphasis 
own judgment of itself when it from the original,  Kant 103). That is, according 
contemplates these without concern to Kant, magnitude is absolute, rather than 
for their form and abandons itself to relative. This is similar to Burke’s theory in 
the imagination and to a reason that which infinity is an important part of the 
has to be connected with it — though 
quite without a determinate purpose, sublime; Kant believes the imagination is unable 
and merely expanding it — and finds to grasp infinity and therefore, a sublime state 
all the might of the imagination still of mind is reached. Of course, as David Nye 
inadequate to reason’s ideas” (Kant illustrates, “since every phenomena in nature is 
113). measurable, and therefore great only in relation 
to other things, the infinity of the sublime 
As the subject shifts from struggling to ultimately is an idea, not a quality of the object 
comprehend to achieving an understanding, the itself” (Nye 7). 
power of reason overcomes the confusion and 
Figure 2.3. Frederic Edwin Church, Niagara Falls. 1857, Oil on canvas, 101.6 x 229.9 cm. National Gallery of Art, 
Washington, DC. From: National Gallery of Art, www.nga.gov (accessed June 10, 2019).
8
The second of Kant’s sublime categories is the post-Revolutionary period, who confronted 
“dynamic sublime.” The dynamic sublime is . . . the problem of creating a national identity 
when “in an aesthetic judgment we consider as the sine qua non of the formation of the state 
nature as a might that has no dominance over itself, for they believed that nations must have a 
us” (Kant 119). This is usually met when the ‘natural history’ else they are simple inventions 
subject “confronts a powerful and terrifying of the human intellect” (Brown 150). One way 
natural force” (Nye 7), such as a volcanic to legitimize the new United States included 
eruption or a tempest at sea. It is important to publishing articles on the country’s many 
note that, like Burke, Kant also believed that natural wonders. Jefferson published Notes 
the subject must not be in any direct mortal on the State of Virginia in 1781 to establish 
danger because “a person who is actually afraid the United States as a nation of exceptional 
. . . is not at all in the frame of mind [needed] character. As Brown explains, “Jefferson’s 
to admire divine greatness” and thus achieve vertiginous epiphany atop the natural bridge, 
sublimity (Kant 122). By experiencing raw where in the thrall of a near-blinding migraine 
natural power but being assured of one’s own he uttered a uniquely American testimony—this 
safety allows the subject to “realize that nature is ‘the most sublime of Nature’s works’—defined, 
can threaten only [their] physical being, leading in a sense, the American nationalist” (160). Nye 
[them] to feel superior to nature by virtue of supports this view, “lacking the usual rallying 
[their] superior reason” (Nye 8). Kant’s work points (a royal family, a national church, a long 
continues to build on that of Burke’s while history memorialized at the sites of important 
contributing more complexity to the term. events), Americans turned to the landscape 
as the source of national character” (Nye 24). 
American Sublime Indeed, Americans of the post-Revolutionary 
period had many prominent natural features to 
Both Kant and Burke redefined what the be proud of and “the marvelous ubiquity of such 
sublime meant since Longinus’ attempt in sublime sights ordained Americans as a special 
the third century. Their treatises laid the people” (Brown 157). Nye emphasizes this last 
groundwork for many of the subgenres that point by stating, “it would be tempting to say 
followed. Ideas of the sublime that crossed that had the theory of the sublime not existed, 
the Atlantic Ocean to North America quickly Americans would have been forced to invent 
evolved from an association with terror to that one” (Nye 1). Nye follows up by including, “in a 
of nationalistic pride. Although the British sense, this is what happened, for by the middle 
colonies were well established in North America of the nineteenth century the American sublime 
by the time Burke and Kant approached the was no longer a copy of European theory” 
subject, most of the settlers had little use for (Nye 1). Though the American sublime began 
their theories.  Though political and social elites with ideas about terror, it was continuously 
were familiar with their work, “the dominant morphing into a more positive outlook, one that 
view of nature was that of farmers and pioneers, was associated with pride. 
who were determined to subdue the land and 
the Native Americans. They regarded both as American Technological Sublime
obstacles to be overcome” (Nye 17). However, 
after the American Revolution, a sense of Much like their celebration of natural features, 
urgency gripped the newborn nation as it citizens of the United States celebrated 
sought to establish itself on the international technological feats and great public works 
stage. Chandos Michael Brown states that “the orchestrated by the new government. David 
stakes were inordinately high, especially for the Nye makes the case for this in The American 
intellectuals and ideologues of the immediate Technological Sublime, published in 1994. Nye 
9
argues that “the American public celebrated American technological sublime “embraced 
the fact that a spectacular sight was the technology” (43). Finally, Kant emphasized the 
biggest waterfall, the longest railway bridge, great sense of personal moral worth that could 
or the grandest canyon, and they did so with be felt when experiencing the sublime, while the 
a touch of pride that Europe boasted no such American technological sublime “transformed 
wonders” (Nye 32). According to Nye, sublime the individual’s experience of immensity and 
technologies included the railroad, skyscrapers, awe into a belief in national greatness” (43). 
electricity, the atomic bomb, landing on the From this approach, it is clear to see how the 
moon and even the development of Las Vegas. sublime has evolved from the natural sublime 
These are all advances made by Americans in an of the Enlightenment era to the technological 
effort to generate pride in the nation as well as sublime of the Las Vegas strip. The two 
to inspire awe in the achievements of mankind. definitions hardly seem comparable despite the 
Nye identifies four key differences between origins of the latter stemming from Burke and 
the American technological sublime and the Kant themselves. 
natural sublime defined by Burke and Kant. 
The natural sublime emphasizes the personal 
experience of a subject faced with the sublime Toxic Sublime
while the American technological sublime was 
“for all” and as in the case of the World’s Fairs, Technological advances and great engineering 
the sublime was “an experience organized for feats made their impact on the American 
crowds of tourists” (43). Burke and, to some psyche, but the impacts on the landscape 
degree, Kant, both determine that the sublime itself began to generate concern. Despite 
can be reached primarily in nature whereas the the continued growth of the U.S. economy 
throughout the latter half of the 20th century, 
anxieties about the environmental impact of 
increased militarization, mass production, and 
suburban sprawl began to rise. Peeples identifies 
a new form of the sublime that arises from the 
American technological sublime, which she 
calls the toxic sublime. To do so, she establishes 
the power of the natural sublime in landscape 
photography illustrated by the works of nature 
photographers like Ansel Adams and Carlton 
Watkins. Their work was used to alter the 
“perception (and eventually the politics) of land 
use and natural resources in the U.S. (Peeples 
378). The next iteration of this kind of work, 
according to Peeples, is that of photographers, 
like Edward Burtynsky, who often photograph 
degraded sites. Edward Burtynsky is a Canadian 
photographer known for his depictions of highly 
polluted and dangerous landscapes. While his 
photographs starkly depict wastelands, his 
titles are minimal and typically only include the 
location of the landscape and, occasionally, the 
Figure 2.4. Technological sublime of nuclear testing. visible industry or pollution. As a result of the 
From: Pe4er Kuran. How to Photograph an Atomic Bomb. 
Santa Clarita, CA: VCE, 2006. ambiguity and lack of judgment, Burtynsky’s 
10
Figure 2.5 (Clockwise from top left).
Edward Burtynsky, Rock of Ages #4. 1991. From: Edward Burtynsky, www.edwardburtynsky.com (accessed June 10, 
2019)
Edward Burtynsky, Oil Sands #14. 1996. From: Edward Burtynsky, www.edwardburtynsky.com (accessed June 10, 
2019)
Edward Burtynsky, Nickel Tailings #30. 2007. From: Edward Burtynsky, www.edwardburtynsky.com (accessed June 
10, 2019)
Edward Burtynsky, Mines #43. 1985. From: Edward Burtynsky, www.edwardburtynsky.com (accessed June 10, 2019)
11
work has been received with acclamation the ecological damage of industry, they must 
from some critics for exposing these polluted be simultaneously attracted and repelled by the 
landscapes as well as with condemnation for, media. 
seemingly, glorifying them. Peeples responds to 
this ambiguity by situating her argument against The next tension, magnitude and insignificance, 
that of David Nye’s: is again, a reference to Burke and Kant. 
Peeples demonstrates that “it is unclear 
“for those who see Burtynsky’s whether the landscape [depicted] is really so 
photographs as ‘heroic tributes’ to vast as to be wholly unrepresentable without 
industry, their sublime response losing recognizability, though the framing 
would fall within that of the of Burtynsky’s images leads the audience to 
technological sublime — pride and question whether the destruction is just too 
wonder in humans’ ability to master 
their environment. For those who massive to fit within the frame of his camera” 
are awed and overwhelmed by the (Peeples 383). Burtynsky achieves a sense of 
images, but made uncomfortable magnitude through framing and cropping of the 
by their reflections of unchecked images and then printing them at a large scale 
environmental degradation, another so that the photograph fills the field of vision of 
response is elicited—the toxic the observer and they cannot help but feel small 
sublime” (Peeples 380). and insignificant. 
Much like the natural, American and The third tension is that between the known and 
technological sublimes, Peeples argues, the unknown and refers to what Burke would call 
toxic sublime is an “important indicator of obscurity. This is often demonstrated through 
the particular cultural [and] environmental Burtynsky’s choice to limit. Rarely, he will 
moment” (Peeples 388). And much like her mention the toxic substance that is depicted. 
predecessors, Peeples seeks to identify the The contrast of the given caption with the 
individual attributes that add up to create omission of more specific information creates 
the toxic sublime. Peeples distinguishes the tension that Peeples identifies. The viewer 
five paradoxical attributes, or tensions, that may be able to determine that a substance is 
define the toxic sublime: beauty and ugliness, toxic but they do not know “what effect it has 
magnitude and insignificance, known and on the environment or the body, how dangerous 
unknown, inhabitation and desolation, and it is, how long it has been there or how long 
security and risk. it will stay, how deep it goes, or how far its 
contaminants have spread” (Peeples 384). 
Peeples justifies the beauty and ugliness 
tension by stating that there is a “taboo against Peeples’ fourth tension is inhabitation and 
revealing the purposefully hidden [which desolation. This tension is illustrated by 
requires] an elixir, something to aid in the the fact that “while individuals are rarely 
digestion of the ugliness of the subject matter. included in Burtynsky’s photographs, people 
Beauty functions as that aid” (Peeples 381- are monstrously present in their absence. 
2). This dichotomous structure  is similar to The physical evidence of their existence is 
Burke’s and Kant’s belief that the subject of the impetus for each image” (Peeples 384). 
the sublime cannot be in true mortal danger The simultaneous absence and presence is 
because the pain of the experience would force paradoxical and creates a feeling of confusion 
the subject to avoid it. Peeples argues that in for the observer. More importantly, much like 
order to compel the observer to engage with the solitude required of the natural sublime, 
Burtynsky’s photographs and bear witness to “excluding people from the image may allow for 
12
a more compelling sublime response” (Peeples Kant and their belief that the subject cannot 
384)  This is because “the viewer does not experience pain without pleasure if they achieve 
compete with a subject for a connection to the sublimity.
sublime object” and the “viewer is left ‘alone’ to 
confront the object and compare it to one’s self” Overall, Peeples’ use of Burtynsky’s photographs 
(Peeples 385). However with the toxic sublime, to illustrate the toxic sublime is helpful and 
the subject does not benefit from a sense of sets some parameters for this project. The 
moral superiority over nature and instead toxic sublime has not yet been formally used 
may feel a sense of obligation to effect positive in the design and analysis of a post-industrial 
change in the environment. landscape but its use of toxic landscape 
photographs provide opportunities to explore 
The final tension of the toxic sublime is security this translation. Peeples’ own concluding 
and risk. As in the example of magnitude and remark that “the tensions of the toxic sublime 
insignificance, Peeples examines Burtynsky’s heighten the complexity and mystery of these 
lens position and the image format. Of course, places, creating the sublime responses of self-
the toxic subject matter “raises a feeling of evaluation, deliberation, and irrationality from 
anxiety through the mystery” which elicits these altered landscapes where these responses 
concern for potential victims (Peeples 385). The would not otherwise exist” (Peeples 387-8) 
true power in Burtynsky’s photographs lies in lends some urgency to the task of applying the 
the position of the camera. In reference to Mines toxic sublime in the design of these landscapes 
#43 Berkeley Pit, she writes, and, for this project in particular, landfills. An 
exploration of potential application will follow 
“he uses an elevated perspective, in the next section. 
one that allows the viewer to look 
down on the subject matter, and at Toxic Sublime in the Landscape
the same time fills the photograph 
with the project he is capturing. Peeples has generated an illustrative exploration 
The high vertical angle should call of the toxic sublime through an analysis of the 
forth a feeling of power and mastery, five tensions. However, her focus has centered 
as the viewer is positioned with on communication through photographs and 
an unrestricted panorama of the she does not explore how the toxic sublime may 
landscape. But Burtynsky denies a be experienced in the landscape. In order to 
stable ground from which to make learn how the toxic sublime may be amplified 
that assessment” (Peeples 386). or manipulated in a design of a post-industrial 
landscape, this project will examine designed 
The perspective of looking down into the pit landscapes through the lens of the toxic sublime, 
also recalls Burke’s description of vastness and using the five tensions as a measure. Two case 
his insistence that depth is more likely than studies will be examined: Quarry Garden in 
height to generate a sublime response. The Shanghai, and Freshkills Park in New York. 
camera’s proximity to the edge of the precipice These two cases have been selected because they 
and the obscurity of the photographer’s own are both post-industrial sites and they possess 
position in the landscape creates anxiety within an ability to foster a sublime experience.
the observer. However, as Peeples notes, “the 
audience is also in a position of relative security Quarry Garden, Shanghai
(potentially looking at the image from the 
comfort of their homes or museums)” (Peeples Quarry Garden, designed by THUPDI and 
386). This is also a reference to Burke and Tsinghua University, is located in the Shanghai 
13
14
Opposite. Figure 2.6. (Clockwise from top) Quarry Garden Site 
Plan highlighting (A) The Deep Pool, (B) Mirror Lake, and (C) 
Platform “secret garden”| Perspective from the southwest side of 
the Deep Pool | Perspective from the northwest side of the Deep 
Pool. 
THUPDI. 2010. From: ASLA, www.asla.org (accessed June 10, 
2019).
Chenshan Mountain Botanical Garden, is able to examine the gabion walls closely on 
Shanghai, China. The site was used as a quarry one side while admiring the view of a newly 
from the 1950s to the end of the 1980s. At constructed waterfall cascade over the opposite 
that point, the site had experienced significant end of the artificial Deep Pool. Here, the tension 
environmental degradation, including a pit between the ugliness of industrial trauma and 
that cuts nearly 100 feet into the surface of the the beauty of designed interventions meet to 
earth. Between the closure of the quarry and create a sublime experience for visitors.
the opening of the garden, the site was closed 
to the public despite its location within the The Deep Pool is the primary source of tension 
botanical garden. The primary goals of this between magnitude and insignificance in the 
design included, “the ecological restoration Quarry Garden. The walls surrounding the 
of [the] abandoned quarry and the recovery artificial lake range in depth from 65 to 98 feet 
of five classic sights of the ‘Chen Mountain from the surface of the water to the top. The 
Eight Sights’ based on the site condition depth of the pool itself is not specified but the 
and traditional context” (THUPDI). Quarry name, Deep Pool, lends a sense of magnitude to 
Garden exhibits four tensions of the toxic the body of water. Visitors first interact with the 
sublime: beauty and ugliness, magnitude and Deep Pool from above. This perspective grants 
insignificance, inhabitation and desolation, and 
security and risk. 
According to Peeples, the tension between 
beauty and ugliness engages the observer 
through simultaneous attraction and repulsion. 
This is illustrated in the Quarry Garden through 
materiality. The industrial character of the 
site represents the ugly half of the tension; 
the area has been stripped of vegetation and 
the pit’s walls bear scars of machinery. Rather 
than masking the abuse, the designers have 
allowed these elements to remain exposed, 
visible to visitors. The effect of this treatment 
is heightened by the use of warm, natural-
colored materials like corten steel, wood and 
stone. The intention is to invite people into a 
visibly uncomfortable space. For example, the 
wooden pathway that descends along the steep 
walls of the pit “offers multiple vantage points Figure 2.7. Edward Burtynsky, Mines #22, Kennecott 
to admire cascading waterfalls and the dramatic Copper Mine, Bingham Valley Utah. 1983. From: Edward Burtynsky, www.edwardburtynsky.com (accessed June 10, 
surrounding cliff face,” (Land8). The observer 2019)
15
the viewer a sublime experience. In the chapter and photographs of the Quarry Garden do not 
on vastness in A Philosophical Enquiry, Burke exhibit people in the space. Entry into the Deep 
specifies that depth is a powerful cause of the Pool is also controlled so that visitors get a sense 
sublime as “we are more struck at looking down of being alone in the site, not only to appreciate 
from a precipice, than at looking up at an object the beauty but also to confront the site’s history.
of equal height” (66). This is similar to Peeples’ 
analysis of Burtynsky’s photograph, Mines In her discussion of the tension between 
#22, Kennecott Copper Mine, Bingham Valley security and risk, Peeples touches on the 
Utah (Figure 2.7). The mine is “shown to be toxicity visible in Burtynsky’s photographs but 
enormous” and the sense of scale “astonishes” her analysis primarily focuses on Burtynsky’s 
viewers who search the photograph for use of composition to illustrate this  tension. 
something recognizable (383). This makes the As Peeples mentions, a viewer of Burtynsky’s 
viewer “feel insignificant in the face of human- photographs is secure in a museum or at home, 
made environmental destruction” (Peeples 383). away from the toxic sites that Burtynsky depicts 
Similarly, the Quarry Garden forces visitors and so Burtynsky must use the lens position 
to reckon with their own actions in relation and image cropping to engender a sublime 
to impacts in the landscape. However, unlike response from the viewer. However, in the field, 
Peeples’ assumption that this kind of estimation one is at risk of being exposed to toxins that 
“may cause bewilderment and inertia at the may be present or one may actually be in a risky 
thought of rectifying a problem as massive as” position, at the edge of a cliff. At the Quarry 
this, the designers have offered a solution. The Garden, visitors are not at risk of exposure 
design not only integrates the site’s industrial to toxins but instead are put in positions of 
history without masking it, it proposes a means apparent instability. THUPDI acknowledges 
of repair. that the Quarry Garden site used to be too 
dangerous for public access and they have 
A third tension found in the Quarry Garden successfully harnessed that feeling through the 
is inhabitation and desolation. As mentioned implementation of a corten steel tunnel and 
earlier, the quarry was in use for approximately trestle bridge that descends into the Deep Pool. 
30 years before it was abandoned. The site’s In order to enter the Deep Pool, visitors must 
history of intense and extractive use followed enter a corten steel tunnel that dramatically 
by abandonment and subsequent disrepair tilts off the edge of the quarry pit and forces 
represents the inhabitation and desolation visitors to peer into the abyss. Visitors know 
tension. Peeples notes that the “physical that the tunnel is securely attached to the wall 
evidence of [human] existence is the impetus” of the quarry but the angle at which visitors 
for each of Burtynsky’s photographs even if must walk to reach the end of the tunnel seems 
they are rarely included. Peeples acknowledges precarious. The tunnel then opens up and the 
Burtynsky’s critics who suggest that Burtynsky floating bridge and staircase hugs the contours 
has erased or cleansed his images of victims of the quarry’s walls as it descends to the water 
(and perpetrators) but she offers another level at the bottom of the pit. At no point in this 
reading: “the audience is denied the certainty experience do visitors’ feet tread on the earth 
of knowing that the victims are someone else, itself. Everything is suspended and visitors are 
someplace else” (385). Therefore, “the viewer not aware of how the tunnel and staircase are 
does not compete with a subject for a connection stabilized or supported. As the designers note, 
to the sublime object . . . instead, the viewer is “now, you can experience a thrill but there will 
left ‘alone’ to confront the object and compare be no danger” (Green) which contributes to the 
it to one’s self, the final stage of the sublime tension between security and risk. 
response” (Peeples 385). Similarly, renderings 
16
Figure 2.8. (Clockwise from top) Freshkills Park Site Plan | Image 
of a methane well head at Freshkills Park | Rendered perspective 
of strip-cropping.
From: Freshkills Park Alliance, www. Freshkills.org (accessed 
June 10, 2019)
17
Freshkills Park of the toxic sublime, Field Operations also 
presents opportunities to manipulate and 
The Quarry Garden in Shanghai presents enhance that experience. At Freshkills Park, the 
a strong case for the toxic sublime in the toxic sublime is expressed through the tensions 
landscape but unlike landfills, its primary between beauty and ugliness, magnitude and 
industry consisted of extraction. In order to insignificance, and inhabitation and desolation. 
assess how the toxic sublime may be found 
in additive post-industrial sites, this project With 15o million tons of waste beneath the 
analyzes Freshkills Park. Freshkills Park is surface, finding beauty at Freshkills seems 
situated on the former Fresh Kills Landfill in unexpected. Most landfills receive a generic 
Staten Island, New York, New York. Before treatment of six inches of soil and a layer of 
1948, the site was comprised of wetlands and a grass seed once they are capped which gives 
freshwater estuary but expanding development the illusion of a pastoral landscape. One of 
in New York City placed pressure on the city the primary goals of “Lifescape” is to establish 
to reclaim the site for building construction. a healthy ecological community. To do so 
In 1948, the 450-acre site was designated as requires working, literally, from the ground 
a short-term landfill. The intention was to up. “Lifescape” intends to do by generating 
fill in the estuary and marsh to provide a dry soil through strip-cropping. Importing soil to 
foundation for development. However, this plan cover the mounds in 18 to 36 inches of soil, 
was quickly abandoned in favor of minimizing or enough growing medium for trees, is not 
the transportation costs of municipal waste. economically feasible for a site of 2,200 acres. 
This not only kept the landfill open but also Strip-cropping, or planting in strips along the 
expanded its operations to 1200 acres. By contours of the mounds, increases the organic 
1991, Fresh Kills Landfill was receiving all content of the poor soils, increases soil depth, 
municipal waste generated in New York City, prevents the spread of invasive plant species, 
which amounted to 29,000 tons per day. The and aerates compacted soil (Field Operations 
site had expanded to 3,000 acres at that point, 32). Through this technique, “fast-growing 
making it the largest landfill in the world. In plants can be repeatedly grown and then 
the mid-1990s, mounting political pressure plowed into the soil to create a green manure, 
and changes in the waste management system adding organic matter and depth to the soil 
made it feasible to set a closure date for 2001. over time” (Field Operations 32). In addition to 
The site was officially closed to municipal solid restoring soil health, “the distinctive visual and 
waste in March, 2001 but it briefly reopened spatial qualities of large-scale strip cropping 
to receive the debris of the September 11, 2001 (particularly in the city) could be beautiful and 
terrorist attack. Despite the unexpected addition experientially distinctive” (Field Operations 
to the site, Freshkills remains a post-industrial 32). Here, Field Operations explicitly employs 
site that “reveals ideas of contemporary beauty as a means to attract visitors and to 
urbanization, growth, and power. It is a generate curiosity. However, a tension is created 
‘skyscraper’ made from the waste of generations when visitors notice the relics of past industry, 
and millions of people that introduces a new, methane well-heads (Figure 2.8 ), which 
uncanny type of topography” (Phillips 177). A “have an intriguing industrial aesthetic that 
competition was held just before the landfill’s reminds visitors to consider the culture that has 
closure and James Corner Field Operations won produced this remarkable terrain” (Bergelin). It 
with the proposal, “Lifescape.” The proposal is evident that the beautiful interventions work 
offers a phased transformation of the landfill in tandem with the pre-existing conditions to 
site into a public park and functional ecosystem. create a sublime experience for visitors, even in 
Though the site inherently possesses qualities the nascent stages of design implementation.
18
the next most populous city, Los Angeles 
Freshkills Park also offers an opportunity to which claimed 4 million residents in the same 
explore the tension between magnitude and year. The importance of Freshkills Park as a 
insignificance. As Peeples states, “toxins may public amenity to New York citizens cannot 
be measured in milligrams, but for the toxic be understated. So how, in a city of almost 9 
sublime, size matters” (382). Corner echoes million people, can one experience isolation, 
the importance of magnitude when he writes solitude, or in Peeples’ terms, desolation? 
that “the aesthetic experience of the place will Freshkills Park is, in some respects, like 
be vast in scale, spatially open and rugged in a cemetery. It is filled with the remains of 
character, affording dramatic vistas, exposure generations of New Yorkers, including, in 
to the elements, and huge open spaces unlike the case of the West Mound, actual human 
any other in the New York metropolitan remains which could not be separated from 
region” ( 15). This experience essentially recalls the debris of the September 11, 2001 terrorist 
the American sublime. However, unlike the attacks. The presence of all of these people 
scenery of the Hudson River Valley, Freshkills must be constantly felt as visitors experience 
Park topography does not share the same the site, even if they find themselves alone. Of 
geologic history. The “Lifescape” proposal course, this cognitive awareness may escape 
will manipulate the experience of visitors by some visitors and so, Field Operations offers 
incorporating larger than human-scale elements some visual cues to care. For example, strip-
that overwhelm the imagination. This tension cropping is relatively low maintenance so park 
will be most felt in the monumental earthwork staff may only be present a couple times per 
that Corner proposes to memorialize the lives year to till and reseed. Despite the lack of a 
lost on September 11th: “the same size and scale human presence, the deliberate formal quality 
of the original twin towers” (Field Operations of the planted strips is “consistent with the goal 
9). The scale of these earthforms alone seems of staging implementation so the parkland is 
unimaginable but that is only a physical inhabited, understood and enjoyed in each stage 
manifestation of magnitude. In addition, of its transformation as a legible landscape-in-
“the slow, simple durational experience of process” (Corner 18). In this way, Freshkills 
ascending the incline, open to the sky and vast Park may not always be occupied by humans 
prairie horizon, will allow people to reflect on but it will not feel like an abandoned industrial 
the magnitude of loss” (Corner 20). Corner wasteland. 
deliberately cites magnitude to elicit a sublime 
experience for visitors to the site in physical Conclusion
scale as well as in an emotional capacity. In this 
case, Field Operations relies on both a physical The cases studied in this section present some 
and cognitive sense of vastness to overwhelm options, designed and inherent, that can be 
visitors, making them feel insignificant in manipulated in the design of an explicitly 
comparison. toxic sublime landscape. These case studies 
 demonstrate that the toxic sublime may be 
Freshkills offers another opportunity to experienced cognitively and spatially. Although 
explore the tension between inhabitation and most of Peeples’ tensions of the toxic sublime 
desolation. At almost three times the size could be identified in these two examples, the 
of Central Park, Freshkills Park will be the tension between known and unknown was 
largest public green space in the city of New unable to be explored. This may be due to the 
York. In 2017, New York City was ranked as fact that these sites, though toxic, do not exhibit 
the most populous city in America at 8.63 many visual cues nor do they directly expose 
million residents. This is more than double visitors to toxins. Because these places are open 
19
to the public, enhanced safety measures have presented earlier. At Quarry Garden, THUPDI 
been implemented to minimize risk. At landfills and Tsinghua University chose not to regrade 
in particular, leachate and methane continue the slopes of the quarry pit; the steep slopes play 
to be the greatest risk to the public and so, an important part in the experience of the site. 
they are carefully monitored. Field Operations As visitors enter the steel tunnel, they become 
addresses concerns by citing federal, state and acutely aware of the dramatic impact of the 
local regulatory standards that must be met quarry industry. Similarly, at Freshkills Park, 
before any part of the site can be opened to the design proposes an ecological and cultural 
the public. The designers of Quarry Garden in restoration of the site that recalls its history and 
Shanghai mention that the site was “dangerous” the story of the landfill’s contents. Incorporating 
before the intervention but otherwise does not these relics of industry are key to expressing 
specify whether the public should be concerned the toxic sublime but the manipulation of 
about contamination or exposure to chemicals. viewsheds and the landform itself may facilitate 
Given that the site was a stone quarry that likely the experience. This is evident at Freshkills 
employed mechanical extraction, there may be Park. While Field Operations is unable to 
minimal toxins at the Quarry Garden that are a reshape the form of the four mounds, the design 
result of that industry. Overall, there may be too proposal builds on the existing topography 
many known and not enough unknown entities with vegetation and sculpture. Peeples speaks 
to elicit the toxic sublime through that particular to the negative effect Burtynsky’s photographs 
tension in these sites. have on the psyche. This is a fair assessment of 
how one may view a photograph of a toxic site. 
Some other conclusions that can be made from However, this may not necessarily describe the 
this analysis include: engaging with existing experience of an individual in a toxic landscape. 
features; manipulating views and topography; Peeples addresses a cognitive and emotional 
and producing cognitive dissonance between reaction to viewing a toxic site but neglects the 
consumption and impact. Peeples’ analysis physical discomfort and how that influences the 
suggests the importance of maintaining experience as a whole. The case studies provide 
the toxic atmosphere of a post-industrial some insight into how a full-body experience 
landscape. This may be achieved through may affect how an individual feels about the 
an incorporation of relics of industry on the subject matter.
site. This is illustrated in the two case studies 
20
III. LANDFILLS
Waste in America conditions in low income neighborhoods 
 of early American cities. In fact, it is these 
Waste in the United States is not new but neighborhoods, according Rogers, that led to the 
the way that garbage is currently handled is change in waste management.
drastically different from the way it had been 
before industrialization.  Before the rise of Waste handling began to change early in the 
industrialization in this country, waste was a 20th century as responsibility shifted from 
common sight in urban and rural contexts. The an individual level to that of municipalities. 
journalist, Heather Rogers, writes in her 2006 The City Beautiful movement also played a 
book, Gone Tomorrow, “even though colonial significant role in this change as garbage in 
farms and cobblestone city alleys were cluttered urban areas started to be collected and disposed 
with debris, the waste of preindustrial and early of on the outskirts of town in a landfill or in 
industrial societies was comparatively minimal local waterways. As Rogers states, “the earliest 
and could for the most part be absorbed back sanitation engineers embarked on what has 
into the earth” (31). This was largely due to become an ongoing aim in the profession: 
the limited availability and thus the expense of disappearing garbage” (61). This new treatment 
manufactured goods. This meant that greater of waste certainly sanitized urban areas but it 
care was taken for these items and if they broke, also led to a disconnect between consumers and 
they were repaired rather than disposed of. the products they used as well as the placement 
Therefore, items of waste tended to be organic of more pressure on ecosystems outside urban 
and were often tossed out the window or back areas to absorb the influx of human waste. As 
door to decompose or to be scavenged on by Kevin Lynch notes, “The filthy cities of history, 
pigs. This was true even in urban areas. Kevin which sat in a clean countryside, are succeeded 
Lynch characterizes cities of the past as filthy by clean cities encircled at some distance by 
in his book, Wasting Away, published in 1990. their wastes” (Lynch 45). The waste, however, 
He states that “they sat in their own wastes, was still primarily made up of the same 
which gradually rose around them” (44). Lynch processes: “most municipal waste took the form 
then idealizes the rural landscape as “relatively of coal ashes . . . and food scraps” (Leonard 192) 
free of human waste, except in the immediate which as noted by Rogers were less toxic and 
vicinity of dwellings” (44). Lynch does not “traditionally, . . . did not stand in opposition to 
explore how the availability of land and lack of nature so much as they were nature temporarily 
infrastructure affected the treatment of waste at out of place” (31). This, of course, changed with 
that time but Rogers addresses this effectively in increasing industrialization and the lowering 
Gone Tomorrow. She writes, “in the nineteenth cost of manufactured goods.
century refuse was sorted, municipal waste was 
composted, and all kinds of materials that left Landfill was not the most common form of 
the home as discards were extensively reused” waste management before the Depression. 
(9). This statement offers a romanticized view of Often, collected garbage was sorted and 
waste management that Rogers works to dispel combed through for resource extraction and 
later in her book as she describes wretched reuse.  These methods became less popular 
21
Generation Households were then not only “sanitary” but cost-efficient.
Businesses
Public Spaces The creation of the “sanitary” landfill and the 
collection of garbage by municipalities left 
one blank spot in the equation of the waste 
Collection stream as it is known today: the waste itself. As 
+ Transfer Curb-Side Self-Haul mentioned previously, waste had traditionally 
Service been made up of organic material: ashes, food 
scraps, and excrement. This changed slowly 
with increased industrialization and then 
dramatically with the invention of plastics and 
Transfer Station the rise of consumerism in post-war America. 
As Rogers notes, “the golden era of consumption 
had arrived, bringing the full materialization 
Deposition Landfill of modern garbage as we know it: soft, toxic, 
ubiquitous” (103). After World War II, the cost 
Figure 3.1. Diagram of a typical waste stream. of living index remained low and the quality of 
life improved. Members of the growing middle 
as the quality of life improved in the United class were purchasing homes in newly developed 
States. Another convenient alternative for suburbs and they filled these homes with 
cities on waterways, like the Great Lakes, rivers cheaply manufactured goods. Manufacturers 
and oceans, involved  dumping trash into the began to incorporate built-in obsolescence and 
water. This eventually fell out of favor as trash disposables as part of their product lines. This 
resurfaced downstream. Another common only increased the levels of waste headed to 
method was incineration but the resulting air the landfill. Rogers’ statement also speaks to 
pollution raised public opposition. To solidify the growing toxicity of municipal garbage as 
the landfill’s dominance in the industry of chemicals and plastics entered the waste stream.
waste management, the Great Depression was 
squeezing local budgets and so, “cities switched Though the “golden era” of consumerism has 
from using expensive and complex treatment yet to reach its peak, the waste management 
systems . . .  to various forms of land dumping, industry hit a snag in the mid 1980s. The 
the cheapest method available” (Rogers 79). Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 
Factors such as these led to the development (RCRA) was signed into law in 1976, but it took 
of the “sanitary” landfill, the first one of almost ten years before the federal government 
which was built in 1934, in Fresno, California began to strictly enforce it. Rogers notes that 
(Rogers 87). The “sanitary” landfill earned this the “national average price for dumping trash 
designation because it differed from previous in landfills remained consistent between the 
open-pit “dumps”. Partly rebranding and partly 1950s and the early 1980s, but between 1984 
engineering innovation, the “sanitary” landfill and 1988 the cost suddenly more than doubled” 
is characterized by compaction and covering (155). A provision of the RCRA called Subtitle D 
thin layers of garbage with a layer of dirt which “required safety standards for land disposal sites 
deterred pests from scavenging and reduced and was the first federal effort to regulate waste 
some of the stench (Rogers 88). In addition facilities” (Rogers 155). Subtitle D regulates 
to the cheapness of land, this new system also “non-hazardous solid waste” and bans “open 
kept labor costs to a minimum as mechanized dumping of waste and set[s] minimum federal 
draglines meant that one person could perform criteria for the operation of municipal landfills 
most of the necessary tasks. Municipal landfills . . . including design criteria, location 
22
restrictions, fi nancial assurance, corrective landfi lls, owners often opted to sell their 
action . . . and closure requirement” (“Resource operations to growing waste management 
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) corporations. Companies such as Waste 
Overview”). Despite this new regulation Management, Inc., Browning-Ferris Industries, 
and enforcement, the law does not apply to and USA Waste, were able to acquire much of 
landfi lls that closed by 1991. This means that the existing waste management infrastructure 
any municipal solid waste landfi ll that could and could make a profi t because they owned all 
not meet the regulations by 1991 were forced segments of the waste stream (Figure 3.1), from 
to close and were also not responsible for the the curb to the landfi ll. 
ecological damage that they caused. As federal 
regulations pressured smaller, locally-owned Due to ongoing economic and social pressures, 
vegetative
layer geocomposite
drainage blanket
growing
medium 40mm HDPE
intermediate 
cover soil
geotextile bonnet
around aggregate +
waste HDPE leachate pipe
geotextile filter
geotextile cushion
protective
cover 60 mm HDPE
aggregate
clay liner
subbase soil
geocomposite
subgrade drainage blanket
60 mm HDPE
Figure 3.2. Section of a typical landfi ll cell and capping layers. 
23
technological and engineering advances, and polyethylene (HDPE), and then another layer of 
increased federal regulations, landfills have bentonite clay and 60-mil HDPE. The bentonite 
developed into what is seen today. Garbage clay is intended to expand and fill the gaps made 
is now encapsulated in “sealed underground by any punctures that could happen. The second 
plastic ‘cells’” which are expected to “hold layer of bentonite clay and HDPE will typically 
their densely compacted trash in perpetuity” also hold the monitors that sense potential leaks 
(Rogers 15). Landfills cost an average of in the bottom liner. These layers are covered 
“$500,000 per acre for research, development, by a half-inch thick synthetic felt fabric that 
and construction” (Rogers 16) which can be cushions the layers below from anything that 
cost-prohibitive for many municipalities and could puncture through the barrier that protects 
is another reason why waste management the soil, water table, and ecosystem downstream 
corporations have gained a significant foothold of the site. All of this is topped off with eighteen 
in the industry. It also explains why these inches of gravel to facilitate drainage of future 
corporations are investing in the development leachate which will be collected into perforated 
of “mega-fills,” super-sized landfills that “range pipes to be drained into a leachate collection 
in size from ten to one hundred acres across and pool. The cell is then ready to be filled with 
up to one hundred feet deep” for an individual garbage. 
cell (Rogers 16). Even Rogers describes 
mega-fills as “awesome, eerie scenes” (16), a The treatment of garbage in the lined cell has 
description that speaks to landfills’ inherently not changed much since the 1930s. Garbage is 
sublime character. Though increasingly popular dumped into the pit, at which point, the dragline 
as garbage depositories, not many exist. Indeed, smooths the garbage out into a shallow layer 
none of the landfills in the Willamette Valley and compacts the garbage before, in the best 
qualify as mega-fills. The mega-fills in this cases, covering it with a thin, compacted layer 
region are located in northeastern Oregon and of dirt to deter pests. Once the cell is filled, it 
southeastern Washington, on both sides of the can be capped. The capping process begins 
Columbia River. Though they are located far with covering the garbage in several feet of soil 
away from many of the dense populations of the which is graded and compacted (Rogers 19) to 
Pacific Northwest, these mega-fills receive waste facilitate drainage off of the landfill as quickly as 
from great distances because they are cheaper possible to prevent any further infiltration and 
to operate than the mid-size landfills found in leachate generation. Once the soil is graded and 
most municipalities. compacted appropriately, “layers of Claymax, 
synthetic mesh, and plastic sheeting are draped 
The cells themselves generally follow the across the top of the cell and joined with the 
same criteria across the United States, as bottom liner to fully encapsulate all those worn 
shown in Figure 3.2. Typically, at the bottom out shoes, dirty diapers, old TVs and discarded 
of the landfill, the ground is prepared by first wrappers” (Rogers 19). In addition, wells are 
excavating a pit where the garbage can rest drilled through all of these layers and methane 
and then compacting several feet of the native pumps are installed to harvest the gas which 
soil. It may be followed by a layer of structural not only powers the operation of the landfill but 
fill, the thickness of which depends on the is sold to the local electrical utility company. 
required elevation of the bottom of the cell. In this way, the landfill continues to provide a 
Then, a half-inch layer of bentonite clay padding profit to the landfill operators even after a cell 
(Claymax) is laid down. This is the first stop- no longer accepts garbage.
gap measure to prevent leachate from entering  
the groundwater table. This is followed by 60-
mil black plastic sheeting called, high-density 
24
Short Mountain Landfill ecoregions of Oregon: the coast and coastal 
range, the Willamette Valley, and the Cascade 
Short Mountain Landfill, in Lane County Mountains. The landfill has a central location 
Oregon, has been selected because it is (Figure 3.5) which allows easier access across 
representative of landfills in the state of Oregon. the county and it is five miles south of the 
Figure 3.3 illustrates Short Mountain’s average county seat and largest regional urban center, 
capacity and waste-in-place in comparison to Eugene (Figure 3.6). 
others in Oregon. This means that the processes 
made and the conclusions drawn from this site Short Mountain Landfill sits in the southern 
design may be applied to other sites in Oregon, Willamette Valley. The Middle and Coast Forks 
or even within the Pacific Northwest. of the Willamette River descend from their 
headwaters in the Cascade Mountains and 
Short Mountain Landfill is located in Lane merge just south of Springfield, Oregon. The 
County illustrated in Figure 3.4, in western landfill is sited on the western bank of the Coast 
Oregon. Lane County is notable because it is the Fork of the Willamette River. Prior to 1880, 
only county in Oregon to traverse these three the land cover of the Willamette Valley was 
 million tons
500
Active Oregon Landfills:
Capacity + Waste in Place
400
Landfill Capacity 
(million tons)
300 Waste in Place 
(million tons)
200
100
50
11 6.3 9 13.81.5 3.6 7.5
0
Columbia Finley Buttes Dry Creek Crook Short Coffin Knott Wasco
Ridge Regional County Mountain Butte
Figure 3.3. Active Oregon Landfills: Capacity + Waste in Place
25
characterized by a matrix of wetland, prairie, 
oak savanna, hardwood riparian forests and 
upland closed forests. Much of the prairie and 
oak savanna gave way to pasture and cropland 
as white settlement densified the valley. The 
Willamette Valley is well known for its rich 
alluvial soils and agriculture remains a key 
industry of the region. The soil on which 
the landfill sits has been classified as prime 
agricultural soil by the USDA and the adjacent 
properties are zoned for agriculture.  
The 575-acre Short Mountain Landfill opened 
in 1976 as a public facility, owned by Lane 
County. As illustrated in Figure 3.7, the landfill 
is situated against the south-western slope of 
Short Mountain, for which it is named. The site’s 
other bounding elements include Interstate 5 to 
the west, the Coast Fork of the Willamette River 
to the east, and Camas Swale on the southern 
edge which flows to the Coast Fork. Elevation 
of the site ranges from 500 feet above sea level 
at its lowest point to 950 feet above sea level 
Figure 3.4. Lane County, Oregon
Eugene Springfield 126
101 126
Short Mountain
Landfill Middle Fork
I-5
st For
k
Coa 58
miles
0 10 20
Figure 3.5. Lane County, Oregon
26
Pacific Ocean
ette R
.
m
Willa
near the top of Short Mountain. Within the site, currently holds 9 million tons. It receives 800 
78 acres are used for the landfi ll operation and tons of waste per day on average from across 
capped cells occupy 38 acres. The projected the county. The composition of waste received 
development of the landfi ll will eventually cover includes municipal solid waste, demolition 
110 acres (Ferguson). The tallest mound, Phase and construction debris, asbestos-containing 
II/III is 160 feet tall. material, petroleum-contaminated soil, medical 
waste, and non-hazardous industrial waste. 
Short Mountain Landfi ll originally opened Most of the cells contain the liner system 
with eleven planned phases, each containing described earlier in this chapter but Phase I only 
one lined cell. This plan has since expanded has a clay liner which means that some leachate 
to include two more cells, extending its life escapes and enters the groundwater. Excavation 
for an additional 150 years but their location and preparation for a new cell begin before the 
has not yet been made public. The landfi lls’ old cell is fi lled, illustrated in Figure 3.8. Once 
capacity is at about 43 million tons of waste and an old cell is fi lled, garbage is deposited into a 
99
illamett McKenzie R.
. Springfield
126 126
Eugene
C oas M
le
Short 
Mountain 58
Landfill
I-5
Creswell miles
0 2 4
Figure 3.6. Geographic context of Short Mountain Landfi ll.
27
Fork
idd
t Fo
rk
e R
W
entry
fee Short Mountain
station
open cell methane
facility
Phase II/III
capped
leachate Phase I
storage capped
Camas Swale Coast
Fork
I-5
feet
0 500 1000 2000
Figure 3.7. Site Inventory
I 1976 1989
II 1989 1998
III 1995 2004
IV 2002 2009
V 2007 2019
Figure 3.8. Cell Phasing Timeline
28
Phase
vehicular
access
IX
VIII
cell phasing VII
VI
V X
IV
XI
II/III
I
upland closed forest
vegetation
riparian forest
prairie
capped landfill
unvegetated
entry water
weigh
I-5 station
Camas active
Swale leachate cell
storage methane Short 
generator Mountain
capped 
cells
Coast Fork
Figure 3.9. Site Analaysis Diagram
29
new cell while the final capping layers are added 
to the old one.
The landfill produces 22 million gallons of 
leachate every year. With the exception of 
Phase I, leachate is collected and stored on the 
southern edge of the site. The first leachate 
lagoon has been decommissioned and remains 
uncovered. The newer lagoon holds 2.1 million 
gallons. The newest structure, a 46-foot-tall 
tank, holds an additional 1.3 million gallons, 
and is covered by an aluminum geodesic dome 
that can be seen from the highway. The leachate 
is composed of 75 percent organic waste and 25 
percent material particles. Most of the leachate 
is generated during the winter, when Oregon 
receives most of its precipitation. This can be 
as much as 200,000 gallons per day. Trucks 
transport the leachate from the landfill, 7,000 
gallons at a time, to a wastewater facility in 
Eugene (Schrock).
The site is accessed by Dillard Road which 
crosses Interstate 5 from the west and curves 
south to enter. A shooting range for emergency 
personnel is located near the entrance and has 
its own service road that stems from Dillard 
Road. A scale house and fee station limits access 
to the public and weighs garbage trucks as they 
enter to deliver loads. Past the fee station, the 
most frequently used road spirals to the top 
of the opened cell. Another road turns south 
towards the leachate storage facility while the 
main access road continues east, following the 
curve of Short Mountain’s base. A methane gas 
conversion facility occupies a terrace north of 
the first three cells. Gravel roads stem off the 
main roads to wind up the capped mounds, 
providing access for maintenance vehicles and 
educational tours. 
30
IV. DESIGN
Design Concept (Dempsey 8). These artistic traditions coupled 
with the “sensibility of experiencing a work 
A key factor in Peeples’ analysis of the toxic of sculpture outdoors carried over into the 
sublime involved the framing and composition sculpture park” (Lehane 9). 
of photographs. This important element of 
the toxic sublime can be translated into the A consistent feature of sculpture parks is 
landscape through the use of sculptures that the relationship between viewer, object, and 
frame the landscape in situ. This project’s design context. Landscape architect, Barbara Swift, 
concept proposes a sculpture park design for identifies two organizational frameworks for 
Short Mountain Landfill that will elicit the toxic sculpture gardens: a three-way relationship, as 
sublime through the use of framing. This design noted previously, between viewer, object and 
concept requires an analysis of a precedent to context, and a four-way relationship between 
understand the history and design of sculpture viewer, object, context, and patron. The former 
parks. Storm King Art Center in upstate New tends to be more loosely structured and 
York has been selected for the precedent personal while the latter provides a structured 
analysis due to its comparative size, shared rural sequence of rooms with a centralized focus 
and agricultural context and industrial past. (Swift 55). Regardless of type, Swift expresses 
that “the challenge is to build on the power 
There is a long tradition of collecting and and inherent nature of the place” (60). Once 
placing sculptures in the landscape. However, an organizing structure has been adopted, the 
the “museumization” of outdoor sculpture designer analyzes the site itself: “the designer 
is a phenomenon of the 20th century. The . . . begins with space, using flora, sky, light, 
first American sculpture garden, Brookgreen and topography to create contrast, movement, 
Gardens in South Carolina, opened in 1931 shape, color, texture” (Lehane 10). Then, 
with the intention to preserve and exhibit important design elements such as, “vistas, view 
sculpture, and native southeastern flora and corridors, landforms, and enclosures” (55) can 
fauna. Storm King Art Center opened in 1960 be incorporated. These elements, “coupled with 
as “the first outdoor museum dedicated solely the kinesthetic experience of moving through 
to the exhibition of sculpture” (Lehane 9). the landscape, structure the experience” (Swift 
The sculpture park and garden then rose in 55). They are enhanced by 
popularity dramatically in the second half of 
the 20th century. The sculpture park’s rise “rich ecosystems and 
coincided, or perhaps correlated, with the phenomenological characteristics 
rise of Modernism in architecture—as “the of a specific landscape [which] 
size of buildings increased, sculptors sought inextricably link the act of seeing 
design balance by working larger” (Lehane with movement, smell, temperature, 
9). A subsequent response to the large-scale weather, seasons, and memory, 
works of Picasso and Calder, was Land Art, resulting in a full-body experience 
which “explored the potential of landscape of a specific time and place in the 
and environment as both material and site” context of cultural references. This is 
31
I-5
or
Coast F
I-87
Short Mountain Landfi ll Storm King Art Center
575 acres 500 acres
I-5
t Fo
r
Coas
eek
 
od
na
Figure 4.1. Comparative sizes + context of Short Mountain Landfi ll + Storm King Art Center.
I-87
eek
 
od
na
Figure 4.2: Richard Serra, Schunnemunk Fork. 1990-1991. Weathering steel, Storm King Art Center, New York. From: Storm King Art 
Center, https://stormking.org (accessed June 10, 2019).
32
Mo
Cr
k
Mo
Cr
k
the beautiful coupling of the sublime (Swift 56). The organizational structure of the 
and the rational, of culture and park follows Swift’s three-way relationship 
biology” (Swift 55). framework. This means that visitors can create 
their own experiences, “without an overtly 
There are many factors to consider in the design controlled landscape structure defi ning the 
of a sculpture park with Swift’s suggestions nature of the experience or determining what 
outlying a minimum level of sensitivity required one should conclude” (Swift 57). That is, the 
to do so. Marc Treib, scholar of landscape experience is personal. Visitors have a range of 
architecture, off ers one more piece of advice: options to choose from: diff erent types of paths 
designers tend to “create support walls and (mown, paved, none), speed of travel (walking 
bases as objects in themselves, in competition or tram), and vegetation type (woodland, farm 
with the sculpture garden,” which “undermines fi eld, meadow, lawn, wetland) among others. 
a clear viewing of the works” (Treib 53-54). These options, “coupled with the scale of the 
Overall, this project intends to follow Swift’s landscape and the extensive collection, gives the 
three-way relationship framework and approach visitor a sense of freedom and generosity” (Swift 
the site with sensitivity to the site’s history 57). By structuring the park in this way, visitors 
and surrounding context while creating a have the full-body experience that links them to 
phenomenological experience that elicits the the objects they see and the ephemeral qualities 
sublime. surrounding them.
Precedent Analysis Design Goals + Strategies
The history and design of sculpture parks is as The goal of this design is to raise awareness of 
long and populous as the list of existing sites but the negative social and ecological impacts of 
for the purpose of this project, just one will be landfi lls through the experience of the sublime. 
analyzed as a precedent: Storm King Art Center. The organizational framework of the design 
Founded in 1960 by Ralph E. Ogden and Peter follows Swift’s three-way relationship structure. 
Stern and designed by William A. Rutherford, As mentioned earlier, this framework follows 
“monumental art, picture-perfect vistas, and a loose structure in which the visitor can 
sculpted, engineered landscapes distinguish customize their experience to their personal 
Storm King. In this giant play land, ideas and preference. 
nature exchange energies” (Castro 68). The 
site consists of 500 acres of agricultural land, From this goal, three design strategies are set: 
located in the Hudson River Valley, a beacon landform, vegetation and sculptures. The fi rst 
of the American sublime. The park plays host strategy alters the pattern of landfi ll landform 
to over 230 works of art by more than 80 to be more dramatic, calling attention to the 
artists. Rutherford transformed the site from a artifi ciality of the mounds in comparison to 
gravel pit, used in the construction of a nearby the backdrop of Short Mountain. The second 
highway, into “one that has grand, natural- strategy is to use vegetation that similarly 
looking vistas and a variety of terrains as emphasizes the landscape’s artifi ciality while 
homes for the sculptures,” and restored it to its building the profi le and health of the soil on 
previous agricultural setting (Dempsey 62). the landfi ll mounds. The third strategy involves 
the use of sculptures which will objectify the 
Storm King’s designed, bucolic landscape landscape and express the tensions of the toxic 
provides the context for the art work at Storm sublime. Each of the strategies are achieved 
King. Within the site, the work is located in through an iterative process that explores 
a “spectrum of intimate and grand spaces” viewsheds, human comfort, materiality, form, 
33
and placement of design elements in the site cases, the landscape is objectified through 
through a phased plan that projects over the framing and decisions are made regarding the 
next 150 years.  composition of the visible landscape to elicit 
the toxic sublime. However, in the case of this 
To decide on a new landfill landform, the project project, users have some flexibility to change the 
assessed the cell phasing and construction plan perspective of the frame. This prevents feelings 
as well as the pre-existing topography. Then of inertia and powerlessness that prevent 
the theoretical background informed the formal action from being taken regarding ecological 
qualities of the new mounds. The strategy degradation.
involves altering the pattern of landform of the 
landfill to be more dramatic, calling attention to These three strategies unite to serve the design 
the artificiality of the mounds in comparison to goals of creating a toxic sublime experience for 
the backdrop of Short Mountain. park visitors which will then motivate them to 
consider the repercussions of their consumption 
The theoretical background and case studies and waste generation. These strategies also 
aided in the decision-making process to achieve represent the chronology of the design process 
the second strategy, vegetation. A phased plan and will be discussed in greater detail going 
for planting includes strip-cropping, a poplar forward.
farm, and gridded willows. The vegetation 
brings attention to the existence of the landfill Landform
while building the profile and health of soil on 
the mounds of the landfill. Landfills have a distinct topography that is 
indicative of its purpose and construction. The 
Finally, the project proposes eight interactive mounds are created through the dumping and 
sculptures that frame views of the site. This is a compaction of garbage in layers. This means 
translation of the toxic sublime from landscape that the top of the mound will always be flat. 
photography into landscape design. In both Additionally, to prevent erosion the slope of 
landform
County Cell Phasing Plan Proposed Cell Phasing Plan
X
IX
XI IX X
VIII
VIII VII
VI
VII VI V V
IV IV
II/III II/III
I I
Figure 4.3. Comparison between the current cell phasing plan and this project’s proposed phasing plan.
34
the landfill can never exceed 3:1. These factors existing topography. For the cell in Phase VI, the 
give landfills a trapezoidal form. Figure 4.3 formal language of the topography responds to 
illustrates the county’s plan for the construction Phase V—it maintains the trapezoidal shape of 
of other cells. Generally, the cells ignore the its neighbor. However, the orientation of Phase 
existing topography in favor of aligning new VI responds to the pre-existing topography. The 
cells parallel to old ones. This project instead, slope of Phase VI is also considerably steeper 
proposes a new alignment that responds to than that of Phase V but does not exceed 3:1. 
both, the old alignment, as well as the pre- This achieves the objective of dramatizing 
2050
A
Short Mountain Poplar Farm Phase VI A’
2080
A
Short Mountain Poplar Farm Phase VII Phase VI
A’
2110
A
Short Mountain Poplar Farm Phase VIII Phase VII Phase VI A’
2140
A
Short Mountain Phase IX Phase VIII Phase VII Phase VI A’
1” = 1000’
2x vertical exaggeration
A
A’
Figure 4.4. Cross-Section of phased development across Phases VI, VII, VIII + IX.
35
the landform while responding to its context. harvested but, instead, will be allowed to reseed. 
Phases VII and VIII follow the positioning of This means that the structure of the strip-
Phase VI but they respond to the rising elevation cropping will dissipate over time. The crops are 
by sloping more gently on the western ends. planted on the south-facing slope only because 
Likewise, Phase IX follows Phase VIII’s form the aspect is suitable for growing crops and 
but its northern edge abuts Short Mountain. because their visibility from the highway will 
Finally, Phase X wraps itself around Phases be greatest. As the soil conditions improve, it is 
I-V and nestles against the southern slope expected that larger shrubs and trees can begin 
of Short Mountain. As demonstrated, each to populate the older mounds. This satisfies the 
mound responds to its neighbors as well as the second strategy of improving the soil conditions 
existing topography while emphasizing its own on the mound while raising awareness of the 
artificiality through the geometry of its form. existence of the landfill. 
Vegetation Another indicator of an agricultural landscape 
is the poplar farm. The poplar farm is a nod to 
Short Mountain is located in the Willamette the Eugene Wastewater Management facility’s 
Valley, which was historically dominated by poplar farm north of Eugene. There, biosolids 
prairie and oak savanna. Much of this historic from the wastewater management plant are 
vegetation has been replaced by agricultural sent to the farm and the poplars, which are 
crops. Agriculture is a leading industry in fast-growing phytoremediators, take up the 
Lane County and the land surrounding Short excess nutrients from the sludge. The poplars 
Mountain Landfill has been zoned for farming. are then harvested and the lumber is sold on 
Additionally, the USDA has classified the soil on the market. The poplar farm at Short Mountain 
the site as prime agricultural soil. Much like its Landfill will be grown in phases, covering the 
precedent, Storm King, this project proposes a ground on which future cells will be constructed. 
restoration of agricultural land to this industrial The poplars will be harvested as excavation for 
site. The standard vegetative cover involves the next cell begins. The height, density and 
6-12 inches of soil which is seeded with grass to order of the poplars also contribute to a sense 
prevent erosion. As illustrated by the case study of enclosure that will be felt once the cells are 
analysis of Freshkills Park, strip-cropping builds filled. The phased planting of the poplars call 
the profile and health of soil on the mounds. attention to the phased construction of landfill 
This project proposes a phased restoration of cells and their growth and subsequent harvest 
agricultural and native landscapes of Short are cues to the rate of consumption that leads to 
Mountain Landfill through the use of strip- waste burial.
cropping, a poplar farm, and a gridded willow 
planting. Once all of the cells have been constructed 
and filled, the poplars and the language of the 
As each mound is capped, the south-facing orchard will be gone. Therefore, this project 
slope will be seeded with clover and ryegrass proposes a gridded willow planting in the last 
in alternating strips. These crops have been phase of the design. The gridded arrangement 
selected because they are low-growing and will not only facilitate in the restoration of the 
commonly grown in the Willamette Valley. riparian corridor but will also be a reference to 
Each species also has an additional role: the the poplars that have since been harvested to 
clover will fix nitrogen and the root system of make room for the newest landfill cells.
the ryegrass will stabilize the slope and prevent 
erosion, even when the plants are dormant Another key area of interest is the Maple 
in the winter. Neither of these crops will be Grove at the southern end of Phase V. This 
36
pocket in the landform was created by a ramp Like Sculpture 1, the view from the sculpture 
that ascends Phase IV. To take advantage is fixed. The viewer is forced to observe a 
of this micro-climate, this project proposes particular view of the landscape without the 
the planting native maples in this pocket. In benefit of seeing its context. In this case, viewers 
addition to providing some much-needed shade see a framed view of the leachate storage 
on the site, the grove calls attention to this facility—only the geodesic roof of the tank and 
remnant of industry. This pocket is mirrored the orange cover of the leachate lagoon are 
in the space between Phases IX and X. In this visible.
case, however, the higher elevation lends itself 
to being populated by the encroaching upland Sculpture 3, illustrated in Figure 4.7, faces 
closed forest of Short Mountain. the Coast Fork of the Willamette River on the 
Sculpture
The final strategy is achieved through the 1 PlPalann
design and placement of eight sculptures. These 
translate the method of framing a photo into 
framing the landscape. Doing so objectifies 
the landscape which is used to elicit the toxic 
sublime. The materiality across the sculptures 
is minimal and consistent: each sculpture will 
be made of weathering steel which has been 
selected because of its strength, long-life and 
warm, naturalistic color.
Sculpture 1, illustrated in Figure 4.5,  rests EleEvleavattiioonn EElleevvataiotnion
between Phases IV and II/III. This short tunnel 
tapers down in height to the end where there is 
an small viewing window. An adult visitor would 
not be able to reach the end without crawling 
on their hands and knees. This claustrophobia-
inducing sculpture forces the viewer to maintain Figure 4.5: Sculpture 1 Diagram
some distance from the end of the tunnel but 
still able to see the landscape through it. Since 
the frame is at a fixed distance from the viewer, 2 PlPalann
the view is also fixed, cropped to the edges of the 
window. The form of the sculpture mimics the 
trapezoidal shape of landfill mounds. 
Sculpture 2, illustrated in Figure 4.6, is situated 
near the top of the largest mound (Phase II/III). SSeceticotni Aon A SSeecttioion nB  B EleElveavattion
It consists of two concentric, open-top cylinders 
with a single opening in each cylinder that 
is wide enough for an adult to walk through. 
Two aligning peepholes have been cut into the 
walls of the sculpture so that a viewer can look 
through to see a framed view of the landscape. Figure 4.6: Sculpture 2 Diagram
37
river-view meadow, northeast of Phase I. This Sculpture 5, illustrated in Figure 4.9, is located 
sculpture is comprised of two walls, parallel but between the decommissioned leachate lagoon 
offset from one another. Unlike Sculptures 1 and the current leachate lagoon. It is comprised 
and 2, this sculpture offers a variety of frames of a single wall that folds outward to create a 
as the viewer can walk around and through it. small pocket. Long, narrow windows have been 
Visitors have the option to look through to the cut into the wall at incremental heights to frame 
surrounding pastoral landscape, or back to the views of the leachate lagoons, gridded willows, 
constructed mounds. and the landfill mounds at a distance.
Sculpture 4, illustrated in Figure 4.8, resembles Sculpture 6, illustrated in Figure 4.10, is the 
Sculpture 3 in form but its context in the largest of the sculptures and is intended to call 
riparian forest changes the experience. This attention to the site from Interstate 5. Drivers’ 
sculpture is made of three walls that tilt laterally views are framed by a monumental, trapezoidal 
and vertically. From elevation, the sculpture structure that mimics the landforms behind.
resembles the trapezoidal form of the landfill. 
Like Sculpture 3, the viewer can choose which Sculpture 7, illustrated in Figure 4.11, stands 
views are framed, including the abutting Phase I at the end of a long view corridor. Sheets 
and the surrounding forest. of weathering steel emerge out of the earth 
3 PlPalann
4 Plan Plan
Elevation
Elevation
SecSteicotionn ElevatioEn levation
Figure 4.7: Sculpture 3 Diagram Figure 4.8: Sculpture 4 Diagram
38
at various angles, suggesting the layers of 5 PlanPlan
compacted deposition used to create the 
landforms. Through the sculpture, viewers get 
an open but fragmented frame of the landforms.
The final piece, Sculpture 8, illustrated in 
Figure 4.12, is situated within the pocket 
between Phases IX and X. A view corridor 
between Sculptures 7 and 8 connects them 
visually. Sculpture 8 consists of a single wall 
of weathering steel with peepholes of varying EElleevvaattiioonn
sizes at different heights. The number of 
peepholes dissipates from west to east, creating 
a disintegrating landscape from either side. 
Figure 4.9: Sculpture 5 Diagram
6 PlaPlnan EElelevvaatitoinon
Figure 4.10: Sculpture 6 Diagram
7 PlanPlan SeScetcitoionn EElelevvaattiioon
Figure 4.11: Sculpture 7 Diagram
39
8 Plan Plan
ElevaEtiloevnation
Figure 4.12: Sculpture 6 Diagram
Design Narrative + Analysis The entrance to the site provides a sense of 
enclosure. Visitors enter the site through a 
Other elements of the design—furniture, paths, wooded are a before the path opens at the base 
amenities—contribute to personal comfort, of Phase VII and IX mounds. Visitors then 
grant flexibility in the experience and support feel themselves sinking into the ground as 
the sculptures by blending into the landscape. the grade of the path remains relatively level 
Overall, the key components of this project’s in comparison to the mounds slowly rising 
design proposal allow the relationship between on either side. The visitor experiences some 
viewer, object and context to become the focus relief from the enclosure at the end of these 
of the experience. mounds: a path stems off and veers south, 
creating a view corridor to Sculpture 7 and to 
The site design follows Barbara Swift’s directive the north, a pocket between Phases IX and X 
to “build on the power and inherent nature invites visitors in with a promise of some respite 
of the place”(55). The following narrative after what feels like a descent. In this pocket, 
describes the experience of an average visitor to visitors interact with Sculpture 8 (Figure 4.18) 
the site once the landfill closes in 2170. Before which aims to slowly dissolve the view before 
this point, the landfill will likely not be open it. Peeking through the perforations in the 
to the general public due for safety reasons. steel, visitors receive a fragmented view of the 
The following site plans (Figures 4.13 to 4.17) landscape beyond: a steep slope of a nearby 
illustrate the phased development of the park in landfill cell, a riparian forest in the distance, the 
30 year increments from 2050 to 2170. Each site sky. The long view hints at human interference 
plan roughly aligns with the anticipated closure but only traces remain, pulling on the tension 
of each cell. between inhabitation and desolation. 
40
Past the landfill pocket between Phases IX east. The path makes a quick climb between 
and X, the path slowly climbs, edging the Phases I and X and then the visitor enters a 
southern slope of Phase X with neat alternating meadow and is rewarded with a view of the 
rows of clover and ryegrass. The low-growing Coast Fork and the surrounding agricultural 
groundcover does not mask the trapezoidal landscape. Standing in the meadow is Sculpture 
character of the mound. Off the path to the 3  (Figure 4.21). At a distance, the sculpture 
south sits Sculpture 1 (Figure 4.19)in the valley divides the landscape in two, like a dividing line 
between Phases IV/V and II/III. A pinhole of between riparian and upland forest. The view 
light draws the visitor closer but the tapering between the two offset steel walls faces the river. 
height of the sculpture prevents the visitor from Looking back, the eastern slope of Phase I noses 
drawing too near to the window at the end of into the frame. The rigid and vertical steel walls 
the sculpture. The frame from this position coupled with views to both the landfill and the 
points to the leachate storage facility, Sculpture surrounding landscape generate the tension 
5 and Camas Swale beyond. The grid of willows between beauty and ugliness. 
provides a series of secondary frames, guiding 
the eye to the horizon. The visitor experiences Turning south and a short descent into the 
some discomfort in this position; their back forest reveals Sculpture 4 (Figure 4.22). At the 
is exposed, the way forward is dark and base of Phase I’s nose, the sculpture already 
constricted. These qualities amplify the tension begins to frame the landscape behind. The 
between security and risk. visitor approaches and notices that the walls 
tilt laterally and vertically. Between two of 
The visitor continues their detour off of the the panels and facing Phase I, the walls form 
main path to ascend the tallest mound, Phase an X, creating four framed views, three of 
II/III. A hot, exposed climb provides views which open to the adjacent landscape. The 
from the top to the rest of the site and the quiet, wooded location lends intimacy to the 
surrounding landscape. From here, the visitor visitor’s experience. Evidence of industry noses 
notices that the closest sculpture sits just on into the frame in the form of Phase I. Visitors 
the other side of the ridge and they approach experience seclusion and but human traces left 
Sculpture 2 (Figure 4.20). The visitor walks past in the landscape highlight the tension between 
a methane wellhead which raises some anxiety. inhabitation and desolation. 
A narrow opening into the sculpture grants 
the visitor some shade as they wind around to The path then exits the riparian forest and 
find an opening to the inner chamber. Inside, hugs the southern slope of Phases I and II/
the visitor’s first framed view is that of the sky. III. A mown path diverts away from the 
They then notice a peephole on the south side. mounds towards the leachate tank. The path 
Looking through, the visitor perceives an almost then transitions into a raised grate made of 
abstract view of the landscape where only the weathering steel that sits above the wet prairie. 
geodesic domed roof of the leachate tank and The steel boardwalk meanders to Sculpture 5 
the leachate lagoon’s orange cover fill the frame. (Figure 4.23). The gridded willow restoration 
The direct view to the leachate facility coupled planting provides a backdrop to the sculpture 
with the sculpture’s form resembling a methane which faces the monolithic mounds to the north. 
wellhead raise awareness of the dangerous and The windows cut into the sculpture provide 
toxic qualities of the site, eliciting the tension views for a variety of heights while fragmenting 
between security and risk. the view so that the site cannot be seen in its 
entirety. In each frame, only a fragment of the 
Exiting Sculpture 2, the visitor finds a trail mounds can be viewed. By cropping the view, 
leading them back to the main path heading the mounds seem to occupy even more space, 
41
eliciting the toxic sublime through the tension Views are framed between each of the panels, 
between magnitude and insignificance. segmenting the landscape into wedges that are 
deposited one on top of the other. Between the 
The visitor then continues west on the steel panels, the visitor has views to Short Mountain, 
grate, crossing over the decommissioned the steep slopes of the newest mounds, and the 
leachate lagoon and enclosed by the rows of gradient of strip-cropping that has faded with 
willows. This experience abruptly changes, time. The contrast between the sharp edges of 
exposing the visitor to the sounds of Interstate the mounds, the soft curve of the mountain and 
5 and the overwhelming size of Sculpture 6 the borrowed agricultural aesthetic of strip-
(Figure 2.24). The sculpture’s large size and cropping pull on the tension between beauty 
trapezoidal form are reminiscent of the mounds and ugliness. 
behind it which leads to a cognitive awareness 
of the repercussions of consumerism in the Past Sculpture 7, the visitor follows the path 
death of objects. This may lead the visitor north. Some respite is offered in the Maple 
to feel powerless in the face of systemic and Grove at the southern end of Phase IV/V. The 
corporatized waste-handling processes. In microclimate provided by this remnant of 
this way, the tension between magnitude and industry facilitates a cool environment for the 
insignificance is expressed. visitor to reflect on the visit. The path then takes 
the visitor to the corridor between Phases IV/V 
The visitor reenters the shelter of the willow and VI through VIII. The visitor is able to turn 
restoration and follows the path to Sculpture onto an another, shadier, path between Phases 
7 (Figure 4.25), the last of this walk. A view VII and VIII that will bring them back to the 
corridor back to Sculpture 8 informs the visitor parking lot. 
that they are near the end. The sculpture is 
made of three tilting panels of weathering steel. 
42
43
entrance
poplar
farm
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7
3 llaI-5 mette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale feet
2050 0 500 1000 2000
Figure 4.13: Site Plan of Short Moutain Landfi ll, 2050.
44
r
Ri
ve
i
k W
t Fo
r
Coas
ng
pp
i
o
p-
cr
i
str
entrance
poplar
farm
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7
3 llaI-5 mette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale feet
2050 0 500 1000 2000
45
ver
Ri
i
W
or
k
t F
Coas
ng
pp
i
o
-cr
tri
p
s
entrance
poplar
st farmrip-cropping
VII
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7 ll
I-5 3 amette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale
feet
2080 0 500 1000 2000
Figure 4.14: Site Plan of Short Moutain Landfi ll, 2080.
46
r
Ri
ve
i
W
rk
st F
o
Coa
entrance
poplar
st farmrip-cropping
VII
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7 ll
I-5 3 amette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale
feet
2080 0 500 1000 2000
47
ive
r
R
i
rk
W
oast
Fo
C
entrance
strip-cropping
poplar
farm
VIII
VII
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7 lla
I-5 3 mette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale feet
2110 0 500 1000 2000
Figure 4.15: Site Plan of Short Moutain Landfi ll, 2110.
48
ver
Ri
i
rk
W
Fo
Coas
t
entrance
strip-cropping
poplar
farm
VIII
VII
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7 lla
I-5 3 mette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale feet
2110 0 500 1000 2000
49
ver
Ri
i
k W
t Fo
r
Coas
entrance
strip-cropping
IX
VIII
VII
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7 lla
I-5 3 mette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale feet
0 250 500 1000
2140
Figure 4.16: Site Plan of Short Moutain Landfi ll, 2140.
50
r
Ri
ve
i
k W
or
Coas
t F
entrance
strip-cropping
IX
VIII
VII
VI IV/V 1
II/III
2
7
3 llaI-5 mette
6 I
4
5
Camas Swale feet
0 250 500 1000
2140
51
ver
Ri
i
rk
W
st F
o
Coa
entrance
IX
VIII
8 X
VII
strip-
VI IV/V 1 cropping
II/III
2
7 lla
I-5 3 mette
6 I
4
5
willow 
restoration
Camas Swale
feet
2170 0 250 500 1000
Figure 4.17: Site Plan of Short Moutain Landfi ll, 2170.
52
ver
Ri
i
W
or
k
F
Coas
t
entrance
IX
VIII
8 X
VII
strip
VI IV/V
-
1 cropping
II/III
2
7
I-5 3
llamette
6 I
4
5
willow 
restoration
Camas Swale
feet
2170 0 250 500 1000
53
ver
Ri
i
rk
W
Fo
Coas
t
Figure 4.18. Sculpture 8 Diptych.
54
Figure 4.19. Sculpture 1 Diptych.
55
Figure 4.20. Sculpture 2 Diptych.
56
~- • ... ~;,r.. 
t .. .: 
"*: .. 
'···· ... 
Figure 4.21. Sculpture 3 Diptych.
57
Figure 4.22. Sculpture 4 Diptych.
58
Figure 4.23. Sculpture 5 Diptych.
59
Figure 4.24. Sculpture 6 Diptych.
60
Figure 4.25. Sculpture 7 Diptych.
61
62
V. CLOSING
Overall, the design represents a first attempt and placement of more sculptures that frame 
at translating Peeples’ five tensions of the toxic particular views of the site.
sublime into the design of a toxic landscape. 
The concept behind the site design is strong as As stated at the beginning of this project, 
it shifts the framed views from the camera lens landfills are an important, and often overlooked, 
to a physical structure in situ. The goals and subject of the study in relationship to the 
strategies supported one another as well as the sublime. This project is intended to represent 
concept. interventions that may be taken at any landfill 
or, any toxic sites to elicit the toxic sublime. The 
A challenge in the translation was determining advantage of a site like Short Mountain Landfill 
the difference between a cognitive dissonance is that it is publicly-owned and, with the spread 
and physical discomfort. Peeples does not of urbanization, may one day provide important 
address this aspect likely because viewing a greenspace and habitat for residents of Lane 
photograph will likely not create discomfort County. In contrast, landfills are increasingly 
experienced through the senses. Like the case getting larger and more remote. This could 
studies analyzed earlier, the tension between provide an interesting area of research in the 
known and unknown remains unexplored. This future and could test the application of the toxic 
is likely because there are too many known sublime as the scale of landfills grows. 
factors and not enough unknown factors in the 
development of the landfill.  
As a sculpture park, this design cannot compare 
to the quantity and variety of sculptures 
available at other sculpture parks. For example, 
Storm King has over 200 sculptures across 500 
acres. Eight sculptures may not be quite enough 
to attract visitors who are interested in sculpture 
alone. The managers of the site may have to 
procure many more pieces before it earns the 
designation of sculpture park. Or perhaps, 
the eight sculptures represent the permanent 
collection while temporary exhibits augment the 
experience for visitors who want to experience 
art in the landscape. Though the intended 
program is a sculpture park, the purpose of 
this project was to elicit the toxic sublime in 
the landscape itself through intentional design 
decisions. Therefore, eight sculptures may be 
enough to fulfill the purpose. Future research 
into this topic may include the development 
63
 
64
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